Russia

3.1. Early History

Human settlement on the territory of modern Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million years ago, representatives of Homo erectus migrated to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia. Flint tools, approximately 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the North Caucasus. Radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest Denisovan specimen lived 195,000-122,700 years ago. Fossils of Denny, an archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan and lived some 90,000 years ago, were also found within this cave. Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.

The first trace of an early modern human in Russia dates back 45,000 years, in Western Siberia. High concentrations of cultural remains of anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, were found at Kostyonki-Borshchyovo and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago-both in western Russia. Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya. Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia, genetically similar to the Mal'ta-Buret' culture and Afontova Gora, were an important genetic contributor to Ancient Native Americans and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.

The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine as the urheimat (original homeland) of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic-Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread Yamnaya ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia. Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic-Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic. Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, and Pazyryk, which bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare. The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.

In classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia. In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia but was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies, was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars. The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century. After them came the Pechenegs, who created a large confederacy which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.

The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, appearing in the northeastern part of Europe approximately 1,500 years ago. The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern Moscow and Saint Petersburg) in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom, and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov. Prior to Slavic migration, this territory was populated by Finno-Ugric peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.

3.2. Kievan Rus'

The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas. According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from the Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars. Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate, and launched several military expeditions to Bulgaria, Byzantium and Persia.

In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980-1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda. The adoption of Orthodox Christianity was a pivotal moment, deeply influencing the cultural, spiritual, and political development of the Russian lands. It connected Rus' to the broader Byzantine world, bringing literacy, art, architecture, and a new legal framework.

The age of feudalism and decentralization followed, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik dynasty who ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west. By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence, and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities. Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base, leading to a shift of political power to the north-east.

Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242. These victories were significant in preserving the independence and Orthodox faith of the northern Rus' lands against Western expansion.

Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated under the strain of internal conflicts and the Mongol invasion of 1237-1240. This invasion resulted in the sacking of Kiev and other major cities, widespread destruction, and the death of a significant portion of the population. The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which established suzerainty over the Russian principalities for the next two centuries. This period, often called the "Tatar Yoke," had profound consequences, isolating Russia from Western Europe and influencing its political and social structures. Only the Novgorod Republic largely escaped direct foreign occupation by agreeing to pay tribute to the Mongols. Galicia-Volhynia was later absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted, eventually forming the basis of the Russian autocratic state centered around Moscow.

3.3. Grand Duchy of Moscow

The destruction of Kievan Rus' paved the way for the rise of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal. While still under the dominion of the Mongol-Tatars and often with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century, gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands." The strategic location of Moscow, its capable rulers, and the support of the Russian Orthodox Church contributed to its ascendancy. When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, the city's prestige and influence increased significantly. Moscow's last major rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade center and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League but was eventually subjugated by Moscow.

Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Although this victory did not immediately end Tatar rule, it was a crucial psychological and military turning point, boosting Moscow's authority and demonstrating the possibility of resisting the Horde. Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as the Tver and Novgorod.

Ivan III ("the Great"), ruling from 1462 to 1505, is considered a key figure in the unification of Russian lands. He effectively threw off the control of the Golden Horde (symbolized by the stand on the Ugra river in 1480) and consolidated the whole of northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion. Ivan III was the first Russian ruler to take the title "Grand Duke of all Rus'." After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow began to claim succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and adopted the Byzantine double-headed eagle as his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms. His son, Vasili III, continued the policy of unification, annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th century, thus laying the groundwork for a centralized Russian state.

3.4. Tsardom of Russia

In development of the Third Rome ideas, the Grand Duke Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned the first Tsar of All Rus' in 1547. This act signified a new level of sovereign power and imperial ambition. As Tsar, Ivan IV promulgated a new code of laws (the Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military (creating the Streltsy), curbed the influence of the clergy to some extent, and reorganized local government.

During his long and tumultuous reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: the Khanate of Kazan and the Khanate of Astrakhan along the Volga, and the Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. This expansion opened up vast new lands for Russian settlement and control, particularly east of the Ural Mountains. However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and ultimately unsuccessful Livonian War (1558-1583) against a coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark-Norway. The war was fought for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade but drained Russian resources. In 1572, an invading army of Crimean Tatars was thoroughly defeated in the crucial Battle of Molodi, securing Moscow from a major southern threat. Ivan's reign was also marked by the Oprichnina, a period of brutal purges and state terror directed against the boyar aristocracy, which, while consolidating tsarist power, caused immense suffering and instability.

The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598. This, combined with the disastrous famine of 1601-1603, led to a period of profound crisis known as the Time of Troubles (1598-1613). This era was characterized by civil war, the rule of pretenders (such as the False Dmitriys), and foreign intervention. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage of Russia's weakness, occupied parts of Russia, including the capital Moscow.

In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat from Moscow by a Russian volunteer corps, famously led by the merchant Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. This event is celebrated as a national holiday in modern Russia. The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, with Michael Romanov as the first Tsar of this new dynasty. The country then began its gradual recovery from the crisis.

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was also the age of the Cossacks. In 1654, the Ukrainian Cossack leader Bohdan Khmelnytsky, seeking protection from Polish rule, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, Alexis. Alexis's acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper, with the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev), coming under Russian rule. In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonization of the vast territories of Siberia continued, driven by the hunt for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.

3.5. Russian Empire

The Russian Empire period, from its proclamation by Peter the Great in 1721 to the Russian Revolution of 1917, marked Russia's transformation into a major global power. This era was characterized by significant modernization efforts, vast territorial expansion across Eurasia and into North America, major societal upheavals including the emancipation of the serfs, the rise of capitalism, and ultimately the immense political and social pressures that culminated in the First World War and the empire's collapse.

3.5.1. Foundation and Early Expansion (Peter I to Alexander I)

Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721 and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter implemented sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Russia along Western European lines. He defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700-1721), securing Russia's access to the Baltic Sea and vital sea trade routes. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as Russia's new capital, a "window to Europe." Throughout his rule, his reforms brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia, transformed the military and administration, and laid the foundations for a modern, centralized state.

Peter was succeeded by Catherine I (1725-1727), followed by Peter II (1727-1730), and Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740). The reign of Peter I's daughter, Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1762), saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). During this conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia and even reached Berlin. However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by her successor, the pro-Prussian Peter III.

Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, presided over the Russian Age of Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth through the Partitions of Poland, annexing most of its territories into Russia and making Russia the most populous country in Europe. In the south, after successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea by dissolving the Crimean Khanate and annexing Crimea. As a result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also conquered the Caucasus. Catherine's successor, her son Paul I, had a short and erratic reign, focusing predominantly on domestic issues. Following his rule, Catherine's expansionist strategy was continued by Alexander I (1801-1825), who wrested Finland from the weakened Kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812. In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to reach and colonize Alaska. In 1803-1806, the first Russian circumnavigation of the globe was made. In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.

3.5.2. Imperial Expansion and Societal Development

During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers and fought against France. The French invasion of Russia in 1812, at the height of Napoleon's power, reached Moscow. However, it ultimately failed due to obstinate Russian resistance, the scorched earth policy, and the bitterly cold Russian winter. This led to a disastrous defeat for the invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris. Alexander I played a significant role at the Congress of Vienna, which redefined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.

The 19th century was a period of significant territorial growth for the Russian Empire, expanding into Central Asia, the Far East, and further solidifying its control over the Caucasus. This expansion brought diverse populations under Russian rule, leading to complex interactions and often resistance from local peoples. The impact on these populations varied, with some experiencing Russification policies and economic exploitation, while others saw some benefits from integration into a larger empire. Russian society itself underwent development in arts, sciences, and literature, producing world-renowned figures. The empire emerged as a major European and global power, but internally, the autocratic system and the persistence of serfdom (until 1861) created deep social divisions and unrest.

The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, contributing to the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825, an attempt to curtail the tsar's powers. The conservative reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855) saw a zenith of Russia's power and influence in Europe, but this was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856), which exposed Russia's military and technological backwardness compared to Western powers.

3.5.4. Constitutional Monarchy and World War I

Under the last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894-1917), Russia experienced significant social and political turmoil. The Revolution of 1905, triggered by the humiliating failure of the Russo-Japanese War and the Bloody Sunday massacre, forced the Tsar to concede major reforms. The October Manifesto promised civil liberties and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma. This marked a shift towards a constitutional monarchy, though the Tsar retained significant powers and often clashed with the Duma. Attempts at further political reform, such as those by Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin, were met with mixed success and ultimately cut short by his assassination.

In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia. Russia fought across multiple fronts as part of the Triple Entente but suffered immense casualties and economic strain. The war exposed the weaknesses of the Tsarist regime, leading to widespread discontent among the population and the military. In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army, but it was a costly victory. The already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917.

3.6. Revolution and Civil War

The accumulated social, economic, and political pressures, exacerbated by the devastation of World War I, culminated in the Russian Revolution of 1917, which unfolded in two major phases. The February Revolution (March 1917 by the Gregorian calendar) began with strikes and demonstrations in Petrograd (Saint Petersburg). The army's refusal to fire on protestors and widespread mutinies led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. The monarchy was replaced by a Provisional Government, a shaky coalition of liberal and moderate socialist political parties.

However, the Provisional Government struggled to address the country's deep-seated problems, including the war, land reform, and food shortages. An alternative socialist establishment, the Petrograd Soviet (council of workers' and soldiers' deputies), wielded considerable power and often challenged the Provisional Government's authority. This period of "dual power" created instability.

The October Revolution (November 1917 by the Gregorian calendar), led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government. The Bolsheviks, advocating "Peace, Land, and Bread" and "All Power to the Soviets," seized control and established the world's first socialist state, the Russian SFSR. On {{OldStyleDateNY|19 January|6 January}}, 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly, which had been elected with a non-Bolshevik majority, declared Russia a democratic federal republic but was dissolved by the Bolsheviks the next day.

The Bolshevik seizure of power was followed by the brutal Russian Civil War (1917-1922) between the Bolshevik Red Army and the anti-communist White movement, which was a loose alliance of monarchists, liberals, and other anti-Bolshevik socialists. The Civil War was marked by extreme violence, widespread atrocities (including the Red Terror and White Terror), and devastating famines that claimed millions of lives. Foreign powers, including the Allied powers, launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of the White forces. The Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, ceding vast western territories to the Central Powers to exit World War I, a move that caused internal dissent but allowed them to focus on the Civil War.

By the end of the Civil War, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged. As many as 10 million people perished during the war, mostly civilians. Millions became White émigrés, fleeing the country. The Bolsheviks emerged victorious, consolidating their power and laying the foundation for the Soviet Union. Nicholas II and his family were executed by the Bolsheviks in Yekaterinburg in July 1918.

3.7. Soviet Union

The Soviet Union (USSR) period fundamentally reshaped Russia and its place in the world. It encompassed the establishment of a socialist state, rapid industrialization, immense social upheaval, victory in World War II, the Cold War rivalry, and eventual dissolution. This era left a complex legacy of achievements and profound human suffering.

3.7.3. World War II and the United Nations

The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of Poland, in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. This pact effectively divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. The Soviet Union subsequently invaded Finland, and occupied and annexed the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), as well as parts of Romania.

On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest and bloodiest theater of World War II. The period of 1941-1945 is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. Despite initial rapid advances by the Wehrmacht, the Soviet Red Army halted the German attack in the Battle of Moscow. Key turning points included the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad (winter 1942-1943) and the Battle of Kursk (summer 1943). The Siege of Leningrad (1941-1944) by German and Finnish forces resulted in over a million civilian deaths from starvation and bombardment, but the city never surrendered. Soviet forces eventually pushed the Germans back, liberating Eastern and Central Europe, and captured Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Japanese-occupied Manchuria, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.

The Soviet Union played a critical role in the Allied victory, but at an immense cost. Soviet civilian and military deaths are estimated at around 26-27 million, accounting for about half of all World War II casualties. German occupation policies, including the "Hunger Plan" and Generalplan Ost, led to the deliberate starvation and murder of millions of Soviet POWs and civilians. The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, leading to the Soviet famine of 1946-1947. Despite the immense sacrifices, the Soviet Union emerged from the war as a global superpower and a founding member of the United Nations, holding a permanent seat on the Security Council.

3.7.4. Cold War and Superpower Rivalry

After World War II, the Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany. Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states, solidifying Soviet influence in the region. The emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's second nuclear power in 1949 intensified the burgeoning Cold War with the United States and its NATO allies. This period was characterized by ideological conflict, an arms race (particularly in nuclear weapons), a space race, proxy wars, and geopolitical competition for global influence. The Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact in 1955 as a military alliance of Eastern Bloc countries to counter NATO. The world was largely divided into two opposing camps, with a constant threat of nuclear annihilation.

3.7.7. Perestroika, Glasnost, and Dissolution

From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, initiated sweeping reforms known as Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost (openness). Perestroika aimed to revitalize the stagnant Soviet economy through decentralization, introduction of market mechanisms, and increased enterprise autonomy. Glasnost sought to increase transparency in government and society, allowing for greater freedom of speech, press, and criticism of the past. Gorbachev also pursued democratization, introducing multi-candidate elections and reducing the Communist Party's monopoly on power.

These reforms, however, unleashed forces that Gorbachev could not control. Glasnost led to the open discussion of historical grievances and current problems, fueling nationalist movements in the various Soviet republics. Economic reforms were often piecemeal and poorly implemented, leading to further economic disruption and shortages. By 1991, the Soviet economy was in a deep crisis. The Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) declared their independence, and other republics followed suit.

A referendum in March 1991 saw a majority vote in favor of preserving the USSR as a "renewed federation," but the momentum for dissolution was strong. In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian SFSR in Russia's first direct presidential election. An attempted coup in August 1991 by hardline Communist Party members against Gorbachev, aimed at halting the reforms and preserving the Union, failed due to popular resistance led by Yeltsin. This event fatally weakened Gorbachev's authority and accelerated the Soviet Union's collapse. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned, and the Soviet Union officially ceased to exist. Along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged as independent nations.

3.8. Russian Federation

The establishment of the independent Russian Federation in December 1991 marked a tumultuous new chapter in Russian history. The country embarked on a difficult transition from a communist, centrally planned system to a market-oriented democracy, facing profound economic, political, and social challenges.

3.8.1. Transition to Market Economy and Political Crises (1990s)

The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union plunged Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. Under President Boris Yeltsin, wide-ranging reforms, including privatization of state-owned enterprises and market and trade liberalization, were undertaken. These reforms, often described as "shock therapy," aimed to rapidly transform the economy but led to severe social hardships. Hyperinflation wiped out savings, industrial production plummeted, and unemployment soared.

The privatization process was often corrupt and poorly managed, leading to the concentration of vast wealth and economic power in the hands of a few well-connected individuals, who became known as the Russian oligarchs. This period saw enormous capital flight as many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets out of the country. The collapse of social services was stark: the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed, and millions were plunged into poverty. Extreme corruption became rampant, and organized crime flourished.

The political landscape was also highly unstable. Tensions between President Yeltsin and the Russian parliament (the Supreme Soviet and later the State Duma) culminated in the 1993 constitutional crisis. This crisis ended violently with the military shelling the parliament building on Yeltsin's orders. Over 100 people were killed. Yeltsin was backed by Western governments during this confrontation.

3.8.4. Invasion of Ukraine

In early 2014, following the pro-Western Euromaidan revolution in neighboring Ukraine which ousted the pro-Russian president Viktor Yanukovych, Russia responded by annexing the Crimean Peninsula. This followed a disputed referendum on the status of Crimea, staged under Russian military occupation. The annexation was widely condemned internationally and was not recognized by most countries.

Subsequently, a conflict erupted in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine, where Russian-backed separatists proclaimed the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic. Russia provided significant military, financial, and political support to these separatists, leading to an undeclared war against Ukraine. Despite fostering anti-government and pro-Russian protests in the region, most residents had opposed secession from Ukraine. The conflict resulted in thousands of deaths and widespread displacement.

On 24 February 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, marking a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War that had been ongoing since 2014. This invasion, the largest conventional war in Europe since World War II, was met with widespread international condemnation. Numerous countries, including the United States, the European Union, and their allies, imposed severe sanctions on Russia, targeting its economy, financial institutions, and key individuals. Russia was expelled from the Council of Europe in March 2022 and suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council in April 2022.

The invasion led to a massive humanitarian crisis, with millions of Ukrainians displaced or becoming refugees. There have been numerous accusations of war crimes committed by Russian forces. In September 2022, following successful Ukrainian counteroffensives, Putin announced a "partial mobilization", Russia's first mobilization since World War II. At the end of September 2022, Putin proclaimed the annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions (Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia), the largest annexation in Europe since World War II. These annexations, based on referendums widely denounced as illegal, are not recognized internationally. The war has resulted in hundreds of thousands of estimated casualties and has further exacerbated Russia's demographic crisis.

In June 2023, the Wagner Group, a Russian private military company heavily involved in the Ukraine war, launched a short-lived rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defence, capturing Rostov-on-Don before halting its march on Moscow after negotiations. The leader of the rebellion, Yevgeny Prigozhin, was later killed in a plane crash in August 2023, the circumstances of which remain controversial. The ongoing war continues to have profound military, political, economic, and social consequences for Russia, Ukraine, and the wider world.

4.1. Topography

Russia's topography is highly diverse. The country is broadly divided into several major regions. The vast East European Plain (also known as the Russian Plain) covers most of European Russia. This plain is predominantly flat or gently rolling, with highlands such as the Valdai Hills (source of the Volga River) and the Central Russian Upland. To the east, the Ural Mountains, a relatively low and ancient mountain range, traditionally form the boundary between Europe and Asia. They run north to south and are rich in mineral resources.

East of the Urals lies the immense West Siberian Plain, one of the largest flatland areas in the world. It is characterized by extensive wetlands and is drained by major river systems like the Ob and Irtysh. Further east is the Central Siberian Plateau, an elevated region of ancient rock.

Southern and eastern Russia are characterized by more mountainous terrain. The Caucasus Mountains stretch along the southwestern border, containing Mount Elbrus (19 K ft ^{(5.64 K m)}), the highest peak in both Russia and Europe. In southern Siberia, the Altai and Sayan Mountains form part of the border with Mongolia and China. The East Siberian Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East are characterized by rugged mountains and active volcanism, including Klyuchevskaya Sopka (16 K ft ^{(4.75 K m)}), the highest active volcano in Eurasia. The lowest point in Russia and Europe is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some 95 ft ^{(29 m)} below sea level.

Russia is home to over 100,000 rivers and has one of the world's largest surface water resources. Its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid fresh water. Lake Baikal, located in southern Siberia, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest, and most voluminous freshwater lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water. Ladoga and Onega in northwestern Russia are two of the largest lakes in Europe. Russia is second only to Brazil in total renewable water resources. The Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is the longest river in Europe and forms the Volga Delta, the largest river delta on the continent. The Siberian rivers of Ob, Yenisey, Lena, and Amur are among the world's longest rivers.

4.2. Climate

The vast size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean and Pacific oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.

Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd), with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha Republic, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with record low temperatures such as -96.16000000000003 °F ^{(-71.2 °C)} in Oymyakon), and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate (Köppen ET).

The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) with mild and wet winters. In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer (Köppen Dwa, Dwb, Dwc, Dwd); while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb). The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk).

Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer, as spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low and extremely high temperatures. The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia. Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent wildfires and thawing the country's large expanse of permafrost.

4.3. Biodiversity

Russia, owing to its immense size and diverse geography, exhibits a wide range of ecosystems and a rich biodiversity. These ecosystems include polar deserts in the high Arctic, vast expanses of tundra across the northern regions, forest tundra (a transition zone between tundra and taiga), the extensive taiga (boreal coniferous forest) which is the largest forest biome on Earth, mixed and broadleaf forests further south in European Russia and parts of the Far East, forest steppe (a transition zone between forest and grassland), steppe (grasslands), semi-desert in some southern areas, and even subtropics along the Black Sea coast.

About half of Russia's territory is forested, and it possesses the world's largest forest area. These forests play a crucial role in global carbon sequestration. Russian biodiversity includes approximately 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200 species of bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000-9,000 species of algae, and 20,000-25,000 species of fungi. The country's fauna is equally diverse, comprising about 320 species of mammals, over 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish (with high endemism), approximately 1,500 species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of cyclostomata, and an estimated 100,000-150,000 invertebrates (also with high endemism). Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.

Russia has made efforts to conserve its natural ecosystems through a network of nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area. These include 45 biosphere reserves, 64 national parks, and 101 strict nature reserves (zapovedniks). Despite these efforts, environmental challenges such as pollution, illegal logging, poaching, and the impacts of climate change (including permafrost thaw and increased wildfires) pose significant threats to Russia's biodiversity. Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking it 10th globally out of 172 countries and first among major nations, indicating large areas of intact forest, mainly in the northern taiga and subarctic tundra of Siberia.

5.1. Political System

The core of Russia's political system is defined by the Constitution of Russia, adopted by national referendum on 12 December 1993.

• Legislative Branch: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia consists of the State Duma (the lower house, 450 members) and the Federation Council (the upper house, currently 178 members representing the federal subjects). The State Duma is the primary legislative body, responsible for adopting federal law, declaring war, approving treaties, holding the power of the purse, and possessing the power of impeachment against the president. Members of the State Duma are elected for five-year terms. The Federation Council approves laws passed by the Duma, declares presidential elections, and approves presidential decrees on martial law or states of emergency.

• Executive Branch: The President is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (following constitutional amendments in 2008; originally four years) and may be elected for no more than two consecutive terms, though constitutional amendments in 2020 reset the term counts for incumbent and previous presidents, potentially allowing Vladimir Putin to remain in office until 2036. The president appoints the Government (Cabinet), including the Prime Minister (subject to Duma approval) and other ministers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies. The president can issue decrees of unlimited scope, as long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.

• Judicial Branch: The judiciary includes the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and lower federal courts. Judges of these courts are appointed by the Federation Council upon the recommendation of the president. The judiciary is tasked with interpreting laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.

United Russia is the dominant political party in Russia and has been described as a "big tent" party and the "party of power." While other parties exist and participate in elections, the political landscape is largely controlled by United Russia and parties loyal to the Kremlin. Under Vladimir Putin's administrations, Russia has seen increased political centralization, restrictions on media freedom and civil society, and elections that have been criticized by international observers for lacking fairness and competitiveness. Policies under Putin are often referred to as Putinism.

5.2. Political Divisions

Russia is a federation composed of 89 federal subjects. This number includes entities on territory internationally recognized as part of Ukraine but annexed by Russia: the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol (annexed in 2014), and four other Ukrainian oblasts whose annexation Russia declared in 2022. These annexations are not recognized by most of the international community. These subjects have equal representation in the Federation Council (two delegates each) but differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy. The types of federal subjects are:

• 48 Oblasts (provinces): The most common type, with a governor (often appointed or heavily influenced by the federal center) and a locally elected legislature.
• 22 Republics: Nominally autonomous, often home to a specific ethnic minority, with their own constitution, official language (alongside Russian), president, and parliament. However, they are represented by the federal government in international affairs, and their autonomy has been significantly curtailed under federal centralization policies.
• 9 Krais (territories): Legally similar to oblasts; the title "krai" (frontier or territory) is historic.
• 4 Autonomous Okrugs (autonomous districts): Typically associated with substantial ethnic minorities, these were originally parts of krais or oblasts but some gained direct federal subject status. Most remain administratively subordinate to a larger federal subject.
• 3 Federal Cities: Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Sevastopol - the latter's status is internationally disputed).
• 1 Autonomous Oblast: The Jewish Autonomous Oblast.

To facilitate central government control, President Putin established federal districts in 2000. There are currently eight federal districts, each headed by a presidential envoy appointed by the President of Russia. These districts are an additional administrative layer and not constituent entities of the Federation.

5.3. Foreign Relations

Russia maintains diplomatic relations with 187 United Nations member states, two partially-recognized states (Abkhazia and South Ossetia), and two United Nations observer states. It has the world's sixth-largest diplomatic network, with 143 embassies. Russia is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (P5), granting it veto power.

Russia is generally considered a great power and a regional power, although its status has been debated, particularly following its performance in the invasion of Ukraine. It is a successor state to the Soviet Union, a former superpower. Russia is a member of the G20, the OSCE, and the APEC. It plays a leading role in post-Soviet organizations such as the CIS, the EAEU, and the CSTO. Russia is also a key member of the SCO and BRICS.

Russia maintains close relations with Belarus as part of the Union State, a supranational confederation. Serbia has been a historically close ally. India is a major customer of Russian military equipment and shares a long-standing strategic relationship. Russia wields significant political influence in the South Caucasus and Central Asia, often considered its traditional sphere of influence or "backyard."

In the 21st century, relations between Russia and China have strengthened significantly, driven by shared political and economic interests, often in opposition to perceived Western dominance. Relations with Turkey are complex, involving strategic cooperation in some areas (like energy) and rivalry in others. Russia maintains cordial relations with Iran, viewing it as a strategic and economic ally. Russia has also sought to expand its influence in the Arctic, Asia-Pacific, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. Many countries in the Global South have remained neutral or maintained ties with Russia despite Western pressure.

However, Russia's relations with neighboring Ukraine and the Western world-especially the United States, the European Union, and NATO countries-have severely deteriorated, particularly since the 2014 annexation of Crimea and the 2022 full-scale invasion of Ukraine. These events led to widespread international condemnation, extensive sanctions against Russia, and Russia's increased international isolation from the West.

Russia's foreign policy in the 21st century has been characterized by assertiveness, aiming to restore its regional dominance and international influence, often to bolster domestic support for the government. This has included military interventions in post-Soviet states (Georgia in 2008, Ukraine since 2014) and involvement in conflicts further afield, such as the Syrian civil war. Russia has also been accused of cyberwarfare, airspace violations, and electoral interference in other countries.

5.4. Military

The Russian Armed Forces are the military forces of the Russian Federation. They are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces. There are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops (responsible for land-based nuclear missiles) and the Airborne Troops. The President of Russia is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

As of 2021, before the full-scale invasion of Ukraine, the Russian military had around one million active-duty personnel, making it the world's fifth-largest. It also has a substantial reserve force, estimated at 2-20 million personnel, though the actual combat-readiness of these reserves varies. Conscription is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18-27 for a term of one year, though there are exemptions and deferrals.

Russia is one of the five recognized nuclear-weapon states under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and possesses the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons. Its nuclear arsenal includes intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and strategic bombers, forming a nuclear triad. Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is one of only three countries (along with the US and China) operating strategic bombers.

Russia maintains the world's third-highest military expenditure, spending an estimated $109 billion in 2023, corresponding to around 5.9% of its GDP. The country has a large and largely indigenous defense industry, producing most of its own military equipment, and was the world's second-largest arms exporter in 2021, though its export share has declined since the 2022 invasion of Ukraine.

Since the early 2000s, Russia has undertaken significant military modernization efforts, aiming to create a more professional, mobile, and technologically advanced force. This has included the development of new weapons systems, such as hypersonic missiles, advanced fighter jets (like the Su-57), and modern tanks (like the T-14 Armata, though its widespread deployment has been slow). However, the performance of the Russian military in the 2022 invasion of Ukraine has exposed significant shortcomings in logistics, command and control, training, and equipment, despite years of modernization. The conflict has led to heavy losses in personnel and materiel for the Russian Armed Forces.

Russia's strategic doctrine emphasizes the importance of its nuclear deterrent, a strong conventional military capable of operating in its near abroad, and an assertive foreign policy to protect its perceived national interests.

5.5. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Russia has been a subject of significant concern and criticism from domestic activists and international organizations for many years, with a notable deterioration observed particularly since Vladimir Putin's return to the presidency in 2012 and a further sharp decline following the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022.

Freedom of speech and press has been severely curtailed. State control over major television networks is almost complete, and independent media outlets face increasing pressure, including restrictive laws, financial burdens, blocking of websites, and harassment of journalists. The "foreign agent" law and the law on "undesirable organizations" have been used to stigmatize and obstruct the work of independent media, NGOs, and human rights defenders. Following the 2022 invasion, new laws criminalizing the dissemination of "fake news" about the military and "discrediting" the armed forces have led to numerous prosecutions and effectively silenced much anti-war dissent.

Freedom of assembly is heavily restricted. Unauthorized protests are routinely dispersed, often with force, and participants face arrest, fines, and imprisonment. The legal framework for holding public gatherings is cumbersome and often used to deny permission for opposition rallies.

Political freedoms have also eroded. Opposition politicians and activists face harassment, politically motivated prosecutions, and exclusion from participating in elections. The assassination of opposition figure Boris Nemtsov in 2015 and the poisoning and imprisonment of Alexei Navalny are prominent examples of the risks faced by those who challenge the Kremlin. Elections are often criticized for lacking genuine competition and fairness.

The rights of minorities face significant challenges. Ethnic minorities, particularly those from the North Caucasus and Central Asian migrants, often experience discrimination and police harassment. While Russia is a multi-religious country, the Russian Orthodox Church enjoys a privileged status. Some minority religious groups, such as Jehovah's Witnesses (banned as an "extremist" organization) and some Protestant denominations, have faced persecution. LGBT+ individuals face widespread discrimination and violence, exacerbated by laws such as the "gay propaganda law" (2013) which prohibits the promotion of "non-traditional sexual relations" to minors, and a 2022 law expanding this ban to all ages. In 2020, constitutional amendments included a clause defining marriage exclusively as a union between a man and a woman. In 2023, Russia banned gender-affirming care and legal gender change.

The justice system is often criticized for lacking independence, with concerns about politically motivated trials and impunity for abuses by law enforcement officials. Torture and ill-treatment in detention facilities and prisons remain serious problems.

Domestic and international human rights organizations like Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and Memorial (which was itself liquidated by Russian courts in 2021-2022) have extensively documented these violations. Freedom House consistently ranks Russia as "Not Free" in its global assessments of political rights and civil liberties. The Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index classifies Russia as an "authoritarian regime." The Russian government generally dismisses these criticisms as politically motivated interference in its internal affairs. The emphasis on social liberal values highlights the stark contrast between these internationally recognized human rights standards and the current situation in Russia.

5.6. Corruption

Corruption is a pervasive and deeply entrenched problem in Russia, affecting various levels of government, business, and society. It has been identified as a significant impediment to economic development, democratic governance, and the rule of law. Russia consistently ranks poorly in international corruption indices, such as Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index, where it was ranked 154th out of 180 countries in 2024, indicating a very high level of perceived public sector corruption.

The nature of corruption in Russia is multifaceted. It includes:

• Bribery: Common in interactions with public officials, law enforcement, and in obtaining licenses or permits.
• Embezzlement of state funds: Diversion of public money by officials for personal gain.
• Extortion: Officials demanding payments from businesses or individuals.
• Nepotism and Cronyism: Favoring relatives and close associates in appointments and contract awards.
• Kleptocracy: Some analysts describe Russia's political system as a kleptocracy, where the ruling elite systematically plunders state assets. This is often linked to the rise of oligarchs and the opaque privatization processes of the 1990s, as well as the consolidation of power and wealth under subsequent administrations.

Corruption impacts various sectors:

• Economy: It distorts market competition, discourages foreign investment, and leads to inefficient allocation of resources. Large-scale infrastructure projects are often plagued by inflated costs and kickbacks.
• Public Administration: It undermines the effectiveness and legitimacy of state institutions. Access to public services can sometimes depend on informal payments.
• Law Enforcement and Judiciary: Corruption within these bodies erodes public trust and can lead to impunity for the powerful and unjust outcomes for ordinary citizens.
• Business: Companies often face demands for bribes to operate, and contracts may be awarded based on connections rather than merit.
• Military and Defense: Corruption in military procurement and spending has been highlighted as a contributing factor to inefficiencies.

The Russian government has officially declared fighting corruption a priority and has implemented various anti-corruption measures, including legislation, anti-corruption plans, and specialized investigative bodies. However, critics argue that these efforts are often selective, targeting political opponents or lower-level officials, while systemic, high-level corruption remains largely unaddressed. The lack of independent media, a weakened civil society, and a judiciary perceived as lacking independence are seen as major obstacles to effectively combating corruption. The social impact includes widespread public cynicism and a sense that corruption is an inescapable part of life.

5.7. Law and Crime

The Russian legal system is based on civil law, with statutory law being the primary source. The Constitution of Russia, adopted in 1993, is the supreme law of the land. Key legislative acts include the Civil Code of Russia, the Criminal Code of Russia, and various federal laws. The judiciary comprises the Constitutional Court (which rules on the constitutionality of laws), the Supreme Court (the highest court for civil, criminal, and administrative cases), and a system of lower federal and regional courts. Judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the President. Trial by jury was reintroduced for serious criminal cases, though its application has faced challenges.

Law enforcement in Russia is primarily handled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD), which includes the police (Politsiya). Other key agencies include the Investigative Committee of Russia (responsible for investigating serious crimes), the Prosecutor General's Office (which oversees the observance of law), and the Federal Security Service (FSB), which, in addition to counter-intelligence and counter-terrorism, has broad law enforcement powers.

Crime remains a significant issue. While official statistics have shown fluctuations, common crimes include theft, robbery, fraud, and drug-related offenses. Organized crime has historically been a serious problem, though its nature may have evolved. Violent crime rates, including homicide, while having declined from their peaks in the 1990s, can still be a concern in certain regions or contexts. Corruption within law enforcement and the judiciary itself is a major challenge that undermines the effectiveness of the justice system.

Specific issues related to crime and justice in Russia include:

• Prison Conditions: Overcrowding, poor sanitation, inadequate medical care, and reports of torture and ill-treatment in prisons and detention centers are ongoing concerns raised by human rights organizations.
• Fair Trial Rights: Concerns persist about the independence of the judiciary, politically motivated prosecutions, and access to adequate legal defense.
• Cybercrime: Russia has been identified as a significant source of cybercrime, including hacking, financial fraud, and ransomware attacks.
• Domestic Violence: Domestic violence is a serious and underreported problem, with legislative changes in recent years that decriminalized some forms of battery within families drawing widespread criticism.
• Human Trafficking: Russia is a source, transit, and destination country for human trafficking.

The Russian government has undertaken various reforms aimed at modernizing the legal system and combating crime, but challenges related to implementation, corruption, and respect for human rights remain.

6.1. Economic History

The economic history of Russia traces a complex path from the feudal agrarian economy of the Tsarist era, through the radical experiment of the Soviet planned economy, to the tumultuous transition to a market-based system in the post-Soviet period.

Tsarist Era (pre-1917): For centuries, Russia's economy was predominantly agrarian, based on serfdom. Peter the Great initiated early industrialization efforts in the 18th century. The 19th century saw gradual industrial growth, particularly after the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, which, along with other "Great Reforms," spurred railway construction and factory development. Foreign investment, notably from France and Belgium, played a significant role. However, industrialization was uneven, and agriculture remained largely inefficient. By the early 20th century, Russia was a major grain exporter but lagged behind Western industrial powers. World War I devastated the economy, contributing to the Russian Revolution.

Soviet Planned Economy (1917-1991): Following the Bolshevik Revolution, War Communism (1918-1921) involved nationalization and grain requisitioning. This was followed by the New Economic Policy (NEP, 1921-1928), which allowed some private enterprise to revive the economy. Under Joseph Stalin, the USSR embarked on rapid industrialization through a series of Five-Year Plans, focusing on heavy industry and defense. This involved forced collectivization of agriculture, which led to devastating famines (e.g., Holodomor, Soviet famine of 1930-33) and the destruction of traditional rural life. The Soviet Union transformed into a major industrial power, crucial for its victory in World War II, but at immense human cost. Post-war reconstruction was followed by continued emphasis on heavy industry and military spending during the Cold War. The economy grew, but by the 1970s, it entered a period of stagnation characterized by low productivity, technological lag, and shortages of consumer goods. Mikhail Gorbachev's Perestroika reforms in the late 1980s attempted to restructure the economy but ultimately contributed to its collapse and the dissolution of the USSR.

Post-Soviet Market Transition (1991-Present): The 1990s saw a painful transition to a market economy. "Shock therapy" reforms, including price liberalization and mass privatization, led to hyperinflation, a sharp decline in GDP, widespread unemployment, and a dramatic rise in social inequality. The privatization process was often controversial, leading to the rise of oligarchs who amassed vast fortunes. The 1998 financial crisis resulted in a ruble devaluation and sovereign default.
From the early 2000s, driven by high global energy prices, the Russian economy experienced a period of strong growth and rising living standards. However, it remained heavily reliant on oil and gas exports. Efforts were made to diversify the economy and reduce corruption, with mixed results. The global financial crisis of 2008-2009 impacted Russia, but high energy prices helped it recover. Since 2014, Western sanctions (imposed after the annexation of Crimea and exacerbated by the 2022 invasion of Ukraine), coupled with volatile energy prices and structural weaknesses, have posed significant challenges to the Russian economy, leading to periods of recession, currency instability, and a renewed focus on import substitution and economic ties with non-Western countries.

6.2. Economic Overview

Russia has a mixed economy. As of the early 2020s, prior to the full-scale invasion of Ukraine, Russia's nominal GDP ranked it among the top dozen global economies, while its GDP based on purchasing power parity (PPP) placed it higher, often around the sixth largest. Key macroeconomic indicators include:

• GDP Growth: Historically volatile, heavily influenced by global energy prices and geopolitical events. Experienced strong growth in the 2000s, followed by periods of stagnation or recession, particularly after 2014 due to sanctions and lower oil prices, and further impacted by the 2022 invasion.
• Inflation: Has been a persistent challenge, with periods of high inflation, especially in the 1990s and following economic shocks. The Central Bank of Russia has pursued inflation targeting policies.
• Unemployment: Generally remained relatively low in the 2010s, but with significant regional disparities and underemployment.
• Trade Balance: Typically runs a trade surplus due to large exports of natural resources (oil, gas, metals, timber). Key export destinations before 2022 included Europe and China. Imports consist of machinery, vehicles, pharmaceuticals, consumer goods, and food products.
• Public Finances: The government has often relied heavily on revenues from oil and gas exports. It established sovereign wealth funds (like the National Wealth Fund) to manage windfall energy revenues and cushion against price volatility. Public debt has generally been low compared to other major economies.
• Currency: The Russian ruble (RUB) has experienced significant volatility, particularly during crises.

The structure of the Russian economy is characterized by:

• Dominance of Natural Resources: The oil and gas sector plays a crucial role in exports, government revenue, and overall economic activity. Russia is a major global producer and exporter of crude oil, natural gas, and other commodities like coal and metals.
• State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs): SOEs play a significant role in strategic sectors, including energy (Gazprom, Rosneft), banking (Sberbank, VTB), defense, and transportation. The state's influence in the economy has increased in recent years.
• Private Sector: While a private sector exists, it often operates in an environment with significant state influence and challenges related to property rights, rule of law, and competition. Oligarchs who emerged in the 1990s continue to control large parts of the economy, though their relationship with the state has evolved.
• Regional Disparities: There are significant economic disparities between Moscow and other major cities, resource-rich regions, and poorer, often rural or peripheral, regions.

Challenges facing the Russian economy include over-reliance on commodities, the need for diversification, modernization of infrastructure, improving the investment climate, combating corruption, demographic pressures, and the impact of international sanctions. The sanctions imposed since 2014, and especially since 2022, have aimed to isolate Russia from global financial markets, restrict access to technology, and reduce its energy revenues, posing long-term structural challenges.

6.3. Major Sectors

The Russian economy is characterized by several major sectors, with a significant reliance on natural resources but also encompassing manufacturing, agriculture, and a growing services sector.

6.3.3. Agriculture and Fishery

Agriculture plays an important role in Russia's economy, ensuring food security and providing rural employment.

• Major Crops: Russia is a leading global producer and exporter of grains, particularly wheat. Other important crops include barley, sunflower seeds (for oil), sugar beets, potatoes, and various vegetables.
• Livestock: Production includes cattle (for beef and dairy), pigs, and poultry.
• Fishery: With its extensive coastlines and inland waters, Russia has a significant fishing industry, being a major producer of various types of fish and seafood, including cod, pollock, herring, and salmon, as well as caviar.

The agricultural sector has seen significant growth in recent decades, with increased investment and productivity. Russia has become self-sufficient in many key food products and a major agricultural exporter. Government policies have focused on supporting domestic production, rural development, and food security, partly in response to Western sanctions on food imports (counter-sanctions).

6.4. Transport and Infrastructure

Given Russia's vast territory, transport and infrastructure are of critical importance.

• Railways: Rail is a dominant mode of transport for both freight and passengers over long distances. The state-owned Russian Railways (RZhD) operates most of the network, which is one of the largest in the world. The Trans-Siberian Railway is the most famous line, connecting Moscow with the Russian Far East. High-speed rail lines, like the Sapsan between Moscow and Saint Petersburg, have also been developed.
• Roads: Russia has an extensive road network, but its density is low compared to its size, and the quality of roads varies significantly, particularly outside major urban areas and federal highways. Road transport is crucial for short to medium-distance freight and passenger travel.
• Pipelines: An extensive network of pipelines transports oil and natural gas from production sites to domestic consumers and export terminals. Companies like Transneft (oil) and Gazprom (gas) operate these networks. Major export pipelines include Druzhba (oil to Europe), Nord Stream (gas to Europe, now largely inoperative), Power of Siberia (gas to China), and ESPO (oil to Asia).
• Ports and Waterways: Russia has major seaports on the Baltic Sea (e.g., Saint Petersburg, Ust-Luga), Black Sea (e.g., Novorossiysk), Arctic Ocean (e.g., Murmansk), and Pacific Ocean (e.g., Vladivostok, Vostochny Port). Inland waterways, including major rivers and canals like the Volga-Don Canal, are important for seasonal transport. Russia also operates a fleet of nuclear-powered icebreakers to maintain navigation along the Northern Sea Route.
• Air Transport: Air travel is essential for connecting remote regions and for international travel. Moscow's airports (Sheremetyevo, Domodedovo, Vnukovo) are major international hubs. Aeroflot is the flag carrier.

Ongoing infrastructure development projects have focused on modernizing transport links, including the construction of new highways, bridges (e.g., Kerch Strait Bridge), and port facilities, as well as upgrading railways. However, the scale of the country and historical underinvestment mean that significant infrastructure challenges remain, particularly in remote and northern regions. Sanctions have also impacted access to certain transport technologies and equipment.

6.5. Tourism

Tourism has historically been a notable sector of the Russian economy, driven by the country's rich cultural heritage, diverse natural landscapes, and historic cities.

• Major Destinations:
  • Moscow: The capital city, known for landmarks like the Kremlin, Red Square, Saint Basil's Cathedral, the Bolshoi Theatre, and numerous museums and art galleries.
  • Saint Petersburg: The former imperial capital, famed for its classical architecture, palaces (Winter Palace housing the Hermitage Museum, Peterhof Palace), canals ("Venice of the North"), and White Nights.
  • Golden Ring: A popular tourist route encompassing ancient towns northeast of Moscow, such as Suzdal, Vladimir, and Sergiyev Posad, known for their historic churches, monasteries, and traditional Russian architecture.
  • Lake Baikal: The world's largest freshwater lake by volume, offering unique natural beauty and eco-tourism opportunities.
  • Sochi: A Black Sea resort city, known for its beaches, mountains, and as the host of the 2014 Winter Olympics.
  • Kazan: Capital of Tatarstan, showcasing a blend of Russian Orthodox and Tatar Muslim cultures, with the Kazan Kremlin as a major attraction.
  • Trans-Siberian Railway: An iconic railway journey offering a unique way to experience Russia's vastness.
  • Types of Tourism:
    • Cultural Tourism: Visits to historical sites, museums, theaters, and participation in cultural events.
    • Nature and Eco-Tourism: Exploring Russia's national parks, nature reserves, mountains (e.g., Altai, Urals, Kamchatka volcanoes), and unique natural phenomena.
    • Adventure Tourism: Activities like hiking, skiing, rafting, and wildlife viewing.
    • River Cruises: Popular along the Volga River and other major waterways.
    • Economic Impact and Trends:

    Before 2014 and the subsequent geopolitical shifts, Russia was a significant tourist destination, attracting millions of international visitors annually. In 2018, Russia was the 16th-most visited country globally, with over 24.6 million visits, and international tourism receipts totaled 11.60 B USD. In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of the country's total GDP.
    However, the tourism industry has faced significant challenges in recent years. The COVID-19 pandemic severely impacted global travel, including to Russia. More significantly, the 2014 annexation of Crimea and especially the 2022 full-scale invasion of Ukraine have led to a drastic reduction in tourists from Western countries due to sanctions, flight restrictions, and political tensions. Russia has since focused on promoting domestic tourism and attracting visitors from non-Western countries.

7.1. Space Exploration

Russia, as the primary successor to the Soviet Union, has a rich and pioneering history in space exploration. Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in space technology and exploration are rooted in the theoretical work of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, considered the father of theoretical astronautics. His ideas inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers such as Sergey Korolev and Valentin Glushko, who were instrumental in the success of the Soviet space program during the early Space Race.

Key milestones and achievements include:

• 1957**: Launch of Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite, marking the beginning of the Space Age.
• 1957**: Launch of Sputnik 2, carrying the first animal to orbit the Earth, the dog Laika.
• 1961**: Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space, completing an orbit of the Earth aboard the Vostok 1 spacecraft on April 12.
• 1963**: Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, flying a solo mission on Vostok 6.
• 1965**: Alexei Leonov performed the first spacewalk (extravehicular activity, EVA) during the Voskhod 2 mission.
• Lunar Program (Luna series)**: Achieved several firsts, including Luna 2 (1959) being the first spacecraft to reach the surface of the Moon, Luna 3 (1959) returning the first images of the far side of the Moon, and Luna 9 (1966) making the first soft landing on the Moon. Lunokhod 1 (1970) was the first robotic rover on another celestial body.
• Planetary Exploration (Venera and Mars series)**: Venera 7 (1970) became the first spacecraft to soft-land on another planet, Venus, and transmit data from its surface. Mars 3 (1971) achieved the first soft landing on Mars, though its lander failed shortly after.
• Space Stations**: The Soviet Union launched the world's first space station, Salyut 1, in 1971. This was followed by a series of Salyut stations and eventually the modular space station Mir (1986-2001), which was continuously inhabited for nearly a decade and set records for human spaceflight duration.
• Soyuz Spacecraft and Rockets**: The Soyuz spacecraft and rocket family have been workhorses of the Russian (and previously Soviet) space program for decades, known for their reliability. Soyuz rockets were the sole means of transporting astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS) between the retirement of the US Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first crewed SpaceX Crew Dragon mission in 2020.
• International Space Station (ISS)**: Russia is a key partner in the ISS program, contributing major modules (such as Zvezda and Nauka) and providing crew and cargo transport.

Russia had 172 active satellites in space as of April 2022, the world's third-highest number. Recent efforts include the Luna-Glob Moon exploration program, with Luna 25 launched in August 2023 (though it crashed during its landing attempt). The Russian space program faces challenges, including funding constraints, an aging workforce, competition from new spacefaring nations and private companies, and the impact of international sanctions on access to technology and collaboration.

8.1. Population

Russia had a population of approximately 144.7 million according to the 2021 census (excluding Crimea and Sevastopol), a slight increase from 142.8 million in the 2010 census. It is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous country in the world. However, with a population density of about 8 /km2, Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries. The vast majority of its people are concentrated in the western part of the country, particularly between Moscow and Saint Petersburg, and in the southern regions. Siberia and the Russian Far East are much less densely populated.

The country is highly urbanized, with about two-thirds of the population living in towns and cities. Sixteen urban areas have more than one million inhabitants. Moscow, the capital, is the largest city and the most populous metropolitan area in Europe. Saint Petersburg is the second-largest city.

Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993 and subsequently experienced a decline for many years due to a death rate exceeding its birth rate, a phenomenon some analysts termed a demographic crisis. Factors contributing to this included economic hardship in the 1990s, high rates of alcoholism, and cardiovascular disease. In 2009, Russia recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced some years of growth due to declining death rates, slightly increased birth rates, and increased immigration. However, these gains have been volatile. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in significant excess deaths, leading to the largest peacetime population decline in its recent history. The 2022 invasion of Ukraine has further deepened the demographic crisis due to military fatalities and renewed emigration.

In 2022, the total fertility rate across Russia was estimated at 1.42 children born per woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1 and among the lowest in the world. Consequently, Russia has one of the world's oldest populations, with a median age of 40.3 years.

8.2. Ethnic Groups

Russia is a multinational state with over 190 recognized ethnic groups nationwide. The Constitution recognizes the multinational character of the state and guarantees the rights of ethnic minorities.

According to the 2010 census, approximately 81% of the population identified as ethnic Russians. The remaining 19% comprised various ethnic minorities. The largest minority groups include Tatars (3.9%), Ukrainians (1.4%), Bashkirs (1.1%), Chuvash (1.0%), and Chechens (1.0%). Other significant groups include Armenians, Avars, Mordvins, Kazakhs, and Azerbaijanis. Over four-fifths of Russia's population is of European descent, of whom the vast majority are Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians). There are also substantial minorities of Finno-Ugric (e.g., Mordvins, Udmurts, Mari) and Germanic peoples (e.g., Russian Germans, though many emigrated).

Many ethnic minorities have their own titular republics or autonomous regions within the Russian Federation, such as Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Chechnya, and Yakutia. Inter-ethnic relations are generally peaceful, but tensions can arise, particularly in regions like the North Caucasus, which has experienced ethnic conflicts and Islamist insurgencies. The Russian government promotes a concept of a unified "Russian nation" (российская нация_{rossiyskaya natsiya}^Russian) encompassing all citizens, while also acknowledging ethnic diversity. Issues related to the preservation of minority languages and cultures, as well as discrimination against certain ethnic groups (particularly migrants from Central Asia and the Caucasus), remain pertinent.

According to the United Nations, Russia's immigrant population is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million; most of whom are from post-Soviet states, mainly from Central Asia.

8.3. Languages

Russian is the sole official language at the federal level and the predominantly spoken language across Russia. It is the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language in Eurasia, and the world's most widely spoken Slavic language. Russian is one of the two official languages aboard the International Space Station and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. The Cyrillic script is the only official script.

Russia is a multilingual nation, with approximately 100-150 minority languages spoken across the country. The Constitution grants the country's individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian. It also guarantees citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development. For example, Tatar is an official language in the Republic of Tatarstan alongside Russian.

According to the 2010 Russian Census, 137.5 million people across the country spoke Russian. The next most spoken languages were Tatar (4.3 million) and Ukrainian (1.1 million, though this figure is likely affected by political factors and self-identification). Other widely spoken minority languages include Bashkir, Chuvash, Chechen, Armenian, Avar, and many others, reflecting the country's ethnic diversity.

Despite constitutional guarantees, the preservation and development of minority languages face challenges. The dominance of Russian in education, media, and public life often leads to a decline in the use of minority languages, particularly among younger generations. Many languages are considered endangered. Efforts to support minority languages include their use in local education and media, but the effectiveness of these measures varies. The linguistic landscape of Russia is thus characterized by the widespread use of Russian alongside a rich but often vulnerable diversity of minority tongues.

8.4. Religion

Russia is constitutionally a secular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion. However, a 1997 law recognizes the "special role" of Orthodox Christianity in Russia's history and also recognizes Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism as "traditional" religions constituting the country's "historical heritage."

The largest religion in Russia is Christianity, predominantly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate). According to various polls, a significant majority of Russians identify as Orthodox Christians, though levels of active religious practice vary. A 2012 Sreda survey found that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians, with 41% specifically Russian Orthodox. A 2017 Pew Research Center survey found 71% identifying as Orthodox Christian. A 2024 Public Opinion Foundation (FOM) survey reported 61.8% identifying as Orthodox Christians. Other Christian denominations include Old Believers (who separated from the Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century), Catholics, and various Protestant groups.

Islam is the second-largest religion, with estimates of adherents ranging from 6.5% (2012 Sreda) to 10% (2017 Pew) or 9.5% (2024 FOM) of the population. Muslims are traditionally concentrated among ethnic groups in the North Caucasus (such as Chechens, Ingush, and Dagestanis) and some Turkic peoples in the Volga-Ural region (such as Tatars and Bashkirs). Moscow Cathedral Mosque is one of the largest mosques in Europe.

Buddhism is traditional in several regions, primarily Kalmykia (the only Buddhist-majority republic in Europe), Buryatia, and Tuva. These regions practice Tibetan Buddhism.

Judaism has a long history in Russia, though the Jewish population has significantly decreased due to emigration since the late Soviet era.

Other religious beliefs and practices include Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism), Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism), various other ethnic Paganisms, inter-Pagan movements like Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism, different forms of Hinduism, Siberian shamanism, and Tengrism. Irreligion, including atheism and agnosticism, is also significant, with the 2012 Sreda survey finding 13% atheist and 25% "spiritual but not religious." The 2024 FOM survey found 21.2% not religious.

While freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed, some religious minorities have faced restrictions and oppression. Notably, Jehovah's Witnesses were banned as an "extremist" organization in 2017 and have faced widespread persecution since. Other groups designated as "undesirable" or "extremist" have also encountered difficulties. The relationship between the state and religious institutions, particularly the Russian Orthodox Church, is complex, with the Church often seen as aligning closely with state policies and national identity.

8.5. Education

Education in Russia is predominantly state-run and is guaranteed as a right to all citizens by the constitution. The country has a high adult literacy rate, close to 100%. Compulsory education generally lasts for 11 years, typically for children aged 7 to 17 or 18.

The system is overseen by the Ministry of Education (responsible for general and vocational education) and the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (responsible for higher education and research). Regional authorities also play a role in regulating education within their jurisdictions.

The structure of the education system includes:

• Preschool Education: Optional, but highly developed, with many children attending day nurseries or kindergartens (детский сад_{detskiy sad}^Russian) from a young age.
• General Secondary Education: This is compulsory and typically lasts 11 years, divided into:
  • Primary General Education (grades 1-4)
  • Basic General Education (grades 5-9), leading to a basic general education certificate.
  • Secondary General Education (grades 10-11), or vocational training. Successful completion leads to a certificate (аттестат_attestat^Russian) and makes students eligible for the Unified State Exam (EGE).
• Vocational Education: Offers training for skilled trades and professions at various levels.
• Higher Education: Admission to universities and institutes is typically based on the results of the EGE and can be highly competitive. Russia has a large number of universities, academies, and institutes.
  • Historically, Russian higher education followed a specialist diploma system (usually 5 years). Since joining the Bologna Process, many institutions have adopted a two-tier system:
    • Bachelor's degree (бакалавр_bakalavr^Russian), typically 4 years.
    • Master's degree (магистр_magistr^Russian), typically 2 years after a bachelor's.
  • Doctoral degrees include the Candidate of Sciences (кандидат наук_{kandidat nauk}^Russian, roughly equivalent to a PhD) and the Doctor of Sciences (доктор наук_{doktor nauk}^Russian, a higher doctorate).

  Russia is among the world's most educated countries, with a high proportion of its population holding tertiary education degrees (62.1% in 2022). In 2018, government expenditure on education was roughly 4.7% of GDP.
  
  The oldest and largest universities include Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University. There are also ten prestigious Federal Universities established across the country to promote regional development and research. Russia has traditionally been a significant destination for international students, hosting roughly 300,000 in 2019, though recent geopolitical events may have impacted these numbers. Educational reforms have been ongoing, aiming to modernize the system and align it with international standards, but challenges related to funding, quality disparities, and academic freedom persist.

8.6. Health

Healthcare in Russia is constitutionally guaranteed as a right to all citizens, primarily through a compulsory state health insurance program. The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the public healthcare system, which employs over two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that manage local administration. Private health insurance and private healthcare facilities also exist and have grown in recent years.

Key aspects of the Russian healthcare system and public health:

• Access and Provision: The system aims for universal coverage, but access and quality can vary significantly between urban and rural areas, and across different regions.
• Financing: Healthcare is funded through a combination of federal and regional budgets, and contributions to the compulsory medical insurance fund. Russia spent approximately 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019, a figure notably lower than many other developed nations.
• Life Expectancy: In 2021, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth was 70.06 years (65.51 years for males and 74.51 years for females). There is a significant gender gap in life expectancy, largely attributed to higher male mortality rates from preventable causes.
• Infant Mortality: Russia has seen improvements in its infant mortality rate, which was around 5 per 1,000 live births in recent years.
• Major Health Challenges:
  • Cardiovascular Diseases: The leading cause of death in Russia.
  • Obesity: A prevalent health issue, with a majority of adults being overweight or obese.
  • Alcohol Consumption: Historically very high, alcohol abuse remains a major public health concern contributing to premature mortality, though there has been a stark decrease in consumption over the last decade.
  • Smoking: Also a significant health issue, with high rates of tobacco use.
  • HIV/AIDS: Russia has one of the largest HIV epidemics in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
  • Tuberculosis: Including drug-resistant strains, remains a concern.
  • Suicide Rate: Historically high, though it has been on the decline, it remains a significant social issue.
• Sex Ratio: Russia has one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios (0.859 males to every female), largely due to high male mortality rates.

The Soviet era established a system of widely accessible, state-run healthcare (the Semashko system), which emphasized public health and primary care. However, it suffered from underfunding and inefficiencies. The post-Soviet transition brought challenges, including declining health indicators. Recent reforms have aimed to modernize the system, improve efficiency, and address public health challenges, but systemic issues persist. The COVID-19 pandemic also placed significant strain on the healthcare system.

9.1. Art and Architecture

Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early 15th century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art. The Russian Academy of Arts, established in 1757, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia. In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, and Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential. The early 19th century saw prominent paintings by Karl Bryullov (e.g., "The Last Day of Pompeii") and Alexander Ivanov, known for Romantic historical canvases. Ivan Aivazovsky is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.

In the 1860s, a group of critical realists known as the Peredvizhniki (Wanderers), led by figures like Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin, and Vasily Perov, broke with the Academy and portrayed various aspects of social life. The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of Symbolism, represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich. The Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930, producing globally influential artists such as El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich (founder of Suprematism), Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky (a pioneer of abstract art), and Marc Chagall.

The history of Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs and the church architecture of Kievan Rus', influenced by Byzantine architecture after the Christianization of Kievan Rus'. Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends. The 16th century saw the development of unique tent-like churches and the iconic onion dome. In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished, leading to the Naryshkin Baroque. Peter the Great's reforms brought Western European styles, including Petrine Baroque. The 18th century saw the Rococo-influenced Elizabethan Baroque of Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov created lasting Neoclassical monuments. Catherine the Great transformed Saint Petersburg into an outdoor museum of Neoclassicism. The Empire style dominated under Alexander I. The latter 19th century featured Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival styles. The early 20th century saw Russian Neoclassical Revival, Art Nouveau, Constructivism (a major avant-garde movement), and later, Socialist Classicism (Stalinist Empire style) in the Soviet era.

9.2. Music

Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances. In the 19th century, Russian classical music came to prominence, defined by the tension between the nationalist composer Mikhail Glinka and his followers in The Mighty Handful (Mily Balakirev, César Cui, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Alexander Borodin), who sought to create a distinct Russian musical identity, and the more Western-oriented Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolai Rubinstein.

The later Romantic tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one ofthe world's most beloved composers, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff. Other world-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov, the modernist Igor Stravinsky (whose ballets like "The Rite of Spring" revolutionized music), Sergei Prokofiev, and Dmitri Shostakovich, whose works often reflected the turbulent political climate of the Soviet era. Later Soviet composers included Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Georgy Sviridov, and Alfred Schnittke.

Russian conservatories have produced generations of world-famous performers. Jazz flourished despite periods of disapproval during the Soviet era. Russian rock music became popular from the 1980s, with influential bands like Aquarium, DDT, and Kino, whose leader Viktor Tsoi became a cultural icon. Pop music has also thrived, with some acts like t.A.T.u. gaining international fame.

9.3. Literature and Philosophy

Russian literature is among the world's most influential and developed, renowned for its psychological depth and social commentary. It can be traced to the Middle Ages, with epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic. The Age of Enlightenment saw works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin.

The early 19th century, known as the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, saw a flourishing of poetic talent, with Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin (considered the founder of modern Russian literature) coming to the fore. Other great poets of this era included Mikhail Lermontov and Fyodor Tyutchev. Prose also thrived, with Nikolai Gogol's satirical works. This period was followed by the age of great Russian novelists: Ivan Turgenev, Fyodor Dostoevsky (known for works like Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov), and Leo Tolstoy (author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina), who are considered giants of world literature. Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.

The early 20th century is known as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry, featuring poets like Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Osip Mandelstam, and Boris Pasternak. Novelists of this period include Nobel laureate Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin (author of the dystopian novel We), and Maxim Gorky (a founder of Socialist realism).

After the 1917 Revolution, Russian literature split into Soviet and émigré branches. Socialist realism became the dominant trend within the USSR. Mikhail Bulgakov (The Master and Margarita), Mikhail Sholokhov (Nobel laureate, And Quiet Flows the Don), and Nikolay Ostrovsky (How the Steel Was Tempered) were prominent Soviet-era writers. Some writers, like Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (Nobel laureate, The Gulag Archipelago), opposed Soviet ideology and wrote about life in the Gulag camps. Émigré writers like Vladimir Nabokov (Lolita) also achieved international fame. Isaac Asimov, a Russian-born American writer, became one of the "Big Three" of science fiction.

Russian philosophy has also been influential. Key figures include Alexander Herzen (a father of agrarian populism), Mikhail Bakunin (father of anarchism), Peter Kropotkin (anarcho-communism theorist), Mikhail Bakhtin (literary theorist), Helena Blavatsky (co-founder of the Theosophical Society), Vladimir Lenin (developer of Leninism), and Leon Trotsky (founder of Trotskyism). More contemporary figures include Alexander Zinoviev and Aleksandr Dugin (known for his Eurasianist and traditionalist views).

9.4. Cuisine

Russian cuisine has been shaped by Russia's climate, cultural and religious traditions, and vast geography, sharing similarities with the cuisines of neighboring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide ingredients for various breads, pancakes, and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread of many varieties is very popular.

Flavorful soups and stews are central to Russian cuisine, including shchi (cabbage soup), borscht (beet soup, also common in Ukraine), ukha (fish soup), solyanka (sour and spicy soup), and okroshka (cold soup). Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki (small baked or fried buns with various fillings), blini (thin pancakes, similar to crêpes), and syrniki (fried quark pancakes) are native types of pancakes/dumplings.

Popular meat dishes include Beef Stroganoff (sautéed pieces of beef served in a sauce with smetana), Chicken Kiev (breaded chicken fillet rolled around cold butter, then fried or baked), pelmeni (dumplings filled with minced meat, similar to Polish pierogi or Chinese jiaozi), and shashlyk (marinated meat skewers, similar to shish kebab). Stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy), usually filled with meat and rice, are also common. Salads include the famous Olivier salad (a mayonnaise-based potato salad), vinegret (a salad of boiled beets, potatoes, carrots, pickles), and dressed herring (or "herring under a fur coat," a layered salad of pickled herring, boiled vegetables, and mayonnaise).

Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass, a fermented beverage typically made from rye bread. The national alcoholic drink is vodka, with its production in Russia dating back to the 14th century. Russia has one of the world's highest rates of vodka consumption, though beer is currently the most popular alcoholic beverage. Wine has become increasingly popular in the 21st century. Tea has been a staple drink in Russia for centuries, often served from a samovar.

9.5. Mass Media and Cinema

The media landscape in Russia includes television, print, radio, and the internet. Television is the most popular medium. Major state-run channels like Channel One and Russia-1 have nationwide reach and generally follow the government line. NTV, once independent, is now controlled by state-linked Gazprom Media. RT (formerly Russia Today) and Sputnik are state-funded international media outlets that present a Russian perspective on global events. There are numerous news agencies, with TASS and RIA Novosti being the largest state-owned ones, and Interfax being a major private one.

Media freedom in Russia has significantly declined, especially under Vladimir Putin. The government exerts considerable influence over major media outlets, and independent journalism faces numerous challenges, including restrictive legislation (such as laws on "fake news" and "discrediting the armed forces"), economic pressure, harassment of journalists, and blocking of websites. Reporters Without Borders consistently ranks Russia low in its Press Freedom Index. Internet censorship has also increased, with the blocking of websites and pressure on social media platforms. Russia has a large video gaming market, the largest in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.

Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, producing world-renowned films. The Battleship Potemkin (1925) by Sergei Eisenstein is considered a masterpiece of early cinema and was named the greatest film of all time at the Brussels World's Fair in 1958. Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky (Andrei Rublev, Solaris, Stalker), became among the world's most innovative and influential directors. Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) in Moscow. Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a large effect on documentary filmmaking. Many Soviet socialist realist films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying (Palme d'Or winner), and Ballad of a Soldier.

The 1960s and 1970s (the "Thaw" and "Stagnation" eras) saw a greater variety of artistic styles. The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov (e.g., The Irony of Fate) and Leonid Gaidai (e.g., The Diamond Arm) were immensely popular, with many catchphrases still in use. Sergei Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace (1961-1968), which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union. Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert (1970) became a cult classic in the Ostern genre. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered, but has seen a revival since the late 2000s.

9.6. Sports

Sports are very popular in Russia. Football (soccer) is the most popular sport. The Soviet Union national team won Euro 1960 and reached the finals of Euro 1988. Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup (now UEFA Europa League) in 2005 and 2008, respectively. The Russian national team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008. Russia hosted the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup and the 2018 FIFA World Cup. However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions due to the invasion of Ukraine.

Ice hockey is also extremely popular. The Soviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally for decades. Bandy (Russian hockey) is considered Russia's national sport, and Russia has historically been the most successful country in this sport. The Russian national basketball team won EuroBasket 2007, and Russian club CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams. The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held at the Sochi Autodrom until its termination following the 2022 invasion of Ukraine.

Historically, Russian athletes (including those from the Soviet Union) have been highly successful in the Olympic Games, consistently ranking among the top nations in medal counts. Russia is a leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics, and Russian synchronised swimming is considered the world's best. Figure skating is another popular sport, with Russian skaters excelling, especially in pair skating and ice dancing. Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players, including Grand Slam champions. Chess is a widely popular pastime, and Russian players have dominated the world chess scene for decades.

Moscow hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics, and Sochi hosted the 2014 Winter Olympics and Paralympics. However, Russian sport has been plagued by widespread doping scandals. Russia has had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to doping violations, the most of any country. State-sponsored doping programs led to sanctions, including limitations on Russian participation in subsequent Olympics under a neutral flag (e.g., as OAR in 2018 and ROC in 2020 and 2022).

9.7. Holidays and Festivals

Russia has eight official public holidays that are non-working days. These include a mix of secular, patriotic, and religious observances.

• New Year's Day** (January 1): This is one of the most popular and widely celebrated holidays in Russia, often involving family gatherings, feasts, and fireworks. It is typically celebrated more extensively than Christmas. The period from January 1 to January 8 (including Orthodox Christmas) is usually a national holiday period.
• Orthodox Christmas** (January 7): Celebrated according to the Julian calendar used by the Russian Orthodox Church.
• Defender of the Fatherland Day** (February 23): Originally commemorating the founding of the Red Army, it has evolved into a day honoring all men, particularly those who have served or are serving in the military.
• International Women's Day** (March 8): A widely celebrated holiday recognizing women and their achievements. It is a day for giving flowers and gifts to women.
• Spring and Labour Day** (May 1): Originally an international workers' solidarity day, it is now a general spring holiday.
• Victory Day** (May 9): Commemorates the Soviet victory over Nazi Germany in World War II (the Great Patriotic War). It is one of Russia's most important and revered holidays, marked by large military parades (most notably the Moscow Victory Day Parade in Red Square), ceremonies, and the Immortal Regiment procession where people carry photos of their relatives who fought in the war.
• Russia Day** (June 12): Commemorates Russia's declaration of state sovereignty from the Soviet Union in 1990.
• Unity Day** (November 4): Commemorates the popular uprising that expelled Polish-Lithuanian occupation forces from Moscow in 1612, marking the end of the Time of Troubles. This holiday was revived in 2005 to replace the former Revolution Day (November 7).

In addition to these official holidays, there are many popular traditional festivals and observances that are not public holidays:

• Old New Year** (January 14): An informal holiday marking New Year's Day according to the Julian calendar.
• Maslenitsa** (Butter Week or Pancake Week): An ancient East Slavic folk holiday celebrated in the last week before Great Lent (usually in late February or early March). It involves pancake-making, feasting, sleigh rides, and burning an effigy of Lady Maslenitsa to bid farewell to winter and welcome spring.
• Orthodox Easter** (Paskha): The most important religious holiday for Orthodox Christians, celebrated on a date that varies each year according to the Orthodox calendar.
• Cosmonautics Day** (April 12): Commemorates the first human space flight by Yuri Gagarin in 1961.
• Trinity Sunday** (Pentecost): A major Orthodox Christian holiday celebrated 50 days after Easter.
• Ivan Kupala Day** (July 7, or June 23-24 by old style): A traditional Slavic summer solstice festival with pagan roots, involving bonfires, wreath-making, and water rituals.

These holidays and festivals reflect Russia's rich history, cultural traditions, and religious heritage.