North Korea

3.1. Early history and Japanese colonial rule

The Korean Peninsula was first inhabited as early as the Lower Paleolithic period. According to Korean mythology, the Gojoseon Kingdom was established by the god-king Dangun in 2333 BCE, although its first verifiable mention in Chinese records dates to the early 7th century BCE. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea (Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla) under Unified Silla in 668 AD, with Balhae controlling the northern regions, Korea was subsequently ruled by the Goryeo dynasty (918-1392) and then the Joseon dynasty (1392-1897). The Joseon dynasty, a long-lasting kingdom, eventually gave way to the Korean Empire (1897-1910) proclaimed by King Gojong.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw increasing Japanese influence on the Korean Peninsula. After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), Japan's dominance grew, culminating in the annexation of Korea in 1910 through the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910, effectively making Korea a Japanese colony.

From 1910 until the end of World War II in 1945, Korea was under Japanese rule. This period had a profound impact on Korean society and economy. Most Koreans were peasants engaged in subsistence farming. Japanese colonial policies focused on exploiting Korea's resources for Japan's benefit. In the 1930s, Japan developed mines, hydro-electric dams, steel mills, and manufacturing plants, particularly in northern Korea and neighboring Manchuria, which was richer in mineral resources. This industrialization led to an expansion of the Korean industrial working class, with many Koreans migrating to work in these new industries, including in Manchuria. As a result, approximately 65% of Korea's heavy industry was located in the north, while its rugged terrain meant it only accounted for 37% of its agriculture.

Japanese colonial rule was characterized by political repression and attempts at cultural assimilation. Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names, speak Japanese, and conform to Japanese cultural norms, leading to widespread resentment and the rise of Korean nationalist movements. These movements sought independence and resisted Japanese domination. A Korean guerrilla movement emerged in the mountainous interior and in Manchuria, harassing the Japanese imperial authorities. One of the prominent guerrilla leaders active in these anti-Japanese struggles was the communist Kim Il Sung, who would later become the founder of North Korea.

Northern Korea, during this period, had relatively little exposure to modern Western ideas, with one partial exception being the penetration of Christianity. Since the arrival of missionaries in the late nineteenth century, the northwest of Korea, and Pyongyang in particular, had become a stronghold of Christianity, leading to Pyongyang being called the "Jerusalem of the East."

3.2. Division of Korea and founding of DPRK

The end of World War II in August 1945, marked by the surrender of Japan, led to the liberation of Korea from Japanese colonial rule. However, it also set the stage for the division of the peninsula. As agreed by the Allied powers, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel north. The northern half was placed under Soviet occupation, and the southern half under United States occupation. This division was initially intended to be temporary, facilitating the disarmament of Japanese forces and the establishment of a unified, independent Korean government.

Negotiations on reunification between the US and the Soviet Union failed due to Cold War tensions and ideological differences. In the north, the Soviet Union supported the establishment of a communist-aligned administration. Soviet General Terenty Shtykov played a key role in this process, recommending the establishment of the Soviet Civil Administration in October 1945. He also supported Kim Il Sung, who had returned to Korea as a prominent anti-Japanese guerrilla leader, to become the chairman of the Provisional People's Committee of North Korea, established in February 1946. Under Soviet guidance, the north began implementing socialist reforms, including land redistribution.

In the south, the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) administered the zone. Political turmoil and popular discontent were features of this period. In September 1946, citizens in the south rose up against the Allied Military Government in the Autumn Uprising. In April 1948, the Jeju Uprising, an islanders' rebellion against the planned separate elections in the south, was violently crushed.

Separate governments were formed in 1948. In May, the South declared its statehood as the Republic of Korea (ROK), and two months later, the ardent anti-communist Syngman Rhee became its first president. In response, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) was established in the North on September 9, 1948, with Kim Il Sung as its premier. General Shtykov served as the first Soviet ambassador to the DPRK. Both the ROK and DPRK claimed sovereignty over the entire Korean Peninsula, setting the stage for future conflict. Soviet forces withdrew from North Korea in 1948, and most American forces withdrew from South Korea in 1949. Ambassador Shtykov, suspecting that Syngman Rhee was planning to invade the North and sympathetic to Kim Il Sung's goal of unifying Korea under socialism, along with Kim, successfully lobbied Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to support a swift war against the South.

3.3. Korean War

The Korean War began on June 25, 1950, when the Korean People's Army (KPA) of North Korea launched a full-scale invasion of South Korea, swiftly overrunning most of the country. The invasion was the culmination of years of rising tensions and border skirmishes following the division of Korea.

In response to the North Korean aggression, the United Nations Security Council passed resolutions condemning the invasion and authorizing the formation of a UN military force to defend South Korea. The motion passed largely because the Soviet Union, a permanent member of the Security Council and a close ally of North Korea, was boycotting the UN at the time over its recognition of the Republic of China (Taiwan) rather than the People's Republic of China. The United Nations Command (UNC), led by the United States and comprising forces from 16 nations, intervened.

The UNC forces, under General Douglas MacArthur, launched a successful amphibious landing at Incheon in September 1950, cutting off KPA supply lines and forcing a rapid retreat of North Korean forces. The UNC forces then advanced deep into North Korea, approaching the Yalu River, which formed the border with China. Concerned by the proximity of UN forces, the People's Republic of China intervened in October 1950, sending the People's Volunteer Army across the border to support North Korea. This massive Chinese intervention shifted the balance of the war again, pushing UNC forces back south of the 38th parallel.

The war then devolved into a brutal stalemate, with fighting largely concentrated around the 38th parallel. Peace negotiations began in July 1951 but dragged on for two years. Fighting finally ended on July 27, 1953, with the signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement. This agreement established a ceasefire and created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a heavily fortified buffer zone that approximately restored the original boundary between North and South Korea. However, no formal peace treaty was ever signed, meaning the two Koreas technically remain at war.

The Korean War was devastating, resulting in an estimated 3 million casualties, including a high proportion of civilians. In both per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the country most devastated by the war, with estimates suggesting that 12-15% of its population perished. Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed due to extensive bombing campaigns, particularly by the United States Air Force. The war solidified the division of Korea, deepened Cold War animosities, and left a lasting legacy of mistrust and tension on the peninsula. Since the war, the United States has maintained a significant military presence in South Korea, which North Korea views as an imperialist occupation force and often cites as a justification for its own military posture.

In October 2024, North Korea claimed that 1.4 million people had joined its military after accusing South Korea of a drone intrusion. In response, South Korea restricted leaflet launches near the border to prevent potential conflict, while both sides engaged in psychological warfare, including broadcasts at the border.

3.4. Post-war reconstruction and the Kim Il Sung era

Following the armistice in 1953, North Korea embarked on a period of post-war reconstruction and the consolidation of Kim Il Sung's power, which profoundly shaped the nation's ideology, economy, and society. The country benefited greatly from economic aid and expertise provided by other Eastern Bloc countries, particularly the Soviet Union and China.

3.4.1. Consolidation of power and Juche ideology

Kim Il Sung systematically consolidated his authority, eliminating political rivals and establishing a highly centralized state. He was highly critical of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev and his de-Stalinization policies, viewing Khrushchev as a revisionist. A key moment in this consolidation was the August Faction Incident in 1956, where Kim Il Sung successfully resisted efforts by the Soviet Union and China to depose him in favor of Soviet Koreans or the pro-Chinese Yan'an faction. The final withdrawal of Chinese troops from North Korea in October 1958 is considered by most scholars as the point when North Korea became effectively independent.

Central to Kim Il Sung's rule was the development and promotion of the Juche ideology. Initially presented as a creative application of Marxism-Leninism, Juche emphasized self-reliance in politics, economics, and defense. It was officially enshrined in the constitution in 1972. Juche's core tenets are economic self-sufficiency, military self-reliance, and an independent foreign policy. The roots of Juche were a complex mixture of factors, including the popular support for Kim Il Sung, the conflict with pro-Soviet and pro-Chinese dissenters, and Korea's long history of struggling for independence. By the 1980s, Juche had effectively replaced Marxism-Leninism as the state's guiding principle, and references to the latter were omitted from the constitution in 1992. A pervasive cult of personality was built around Kim Il Sung, portraying him as the infallible leader and father of the nation.

3.4.2. Economic development and subsequent stagnation

In the immediate post-war years, North Korea experienced significant economic growth, focusing on heavy industry with substantial aid from socialist countries. Industrial production returned to pre-war levels by 1957. The Chollima Movement, a state-sponsored mass mobilization campaign launched in the late 1950s, aimed to accelerate economic development through rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture. For a period, economic growth in North Korea was higher than in South Korea, and its GDP per capita was comparable to its southern neighbor as late as 1976.

An internal CIA study from the period acknowledged certain achievements, such as compassionate care for war orphans, improvements in the status of women, free housing, free healthcare, and health statistics (like life expectancy and infant mortality) comparable to advanced nations until the famine of the 1990s. Life expectancy in the North was 72 before the famine. The country had a relatively developed healthcare system with a network of nearly 45,000 family practitioners, 800 hospitals, and 1,000 clinics before the famine.

However, the centrally planned economy, over time, faced significant challenges. By the 1980s, economic growth began to stagnate due to systemic inefficiencies, a lack of technological innovation, overemphasis on heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods and agriculture, and diminishing aid from the Soviet Union. Pyongyang's international isolation sharply accelerated from the 1980s onwards as the Cold War came to an end. The economy started its long decline in 1987 and almost completely collapsed after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, when all Soviet aid was abruptly halted.

Throughout this period, inter-Korean relations remained tense. The relative peace was interrupted by border skirmishes, abductions, and assassination attempts by the North against South Korean leaders, such as the Blue House raid in 1968, an attempt in 1974, and the Rangoon bombing in 1983. Tunnels were discovered under the DMZ, and tensions flared over the Panmunjom axe murder incident in 1976. Secret, high-level contacts began in 1971, culminating in the 1972 July 4th South-North Joint Statement, which established principles for peaceful reunification. However, these talks ultimately failed, particularly after South Korea declared its preference in 1973 that the two Koreas seek separate memberships in international organizations.

3.5. The Kim Jong Il era and Songun politics

Following the death of Kim Il Sung in 1994, his son, Kim Jong Il, officially assumed leadership after a three-year mourning period. This transition marked the first hereditary succession in a communist state. Kim Jong Il's era was defined by the introduction of the Songun (military-first) policy, a severe economic crisis and famine in the 1990s, and the significant advancement of North Korea's nuclear weapons program.

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had a catastrophic impact on the North Korean economy, as crucial aid and preferential trade relations ended. This, combined with systemic inefficiencies and a series of devastating floods and droughts in the mid-1990s, led to a severe economic collapse.

3.6. The Kim Jong Un era

Kim Jong Il died on December 17, 2011, and his youngest son, Kim Jong Un, was announced as his successor, marking the third generation of Kim family rule. Kim Jong Un moved swiftly to consolidate his power, including the execution of his uncle Jang Song-thaek in 2013, who was a powerful figure in the regime. On January 10, 2021, Kim Jong Un was formally elected as the General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea, a title previously held by Kim Jong Il.

4.1. Topography and natural environment

North Korea occupies the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, situated between latitudes 37° and 43°N, and longitudes 124° and 131°E. It covers an area of 47 K mile^{2 (120.54 K km2)}. The country shares land borders with China and Russia to the north, along the Yalu (Amnok) and Tumen rivers, and with South Korea to the south, demarcated by the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Its western border is formed by the Yellow Sea and Korea Bay, while its eastern border meets the Sea of Japan (East Sea).

Approximately 80 percent of North Korea is composed of mountains and uplands, interspersed with deep and narrow valleys. Early European visitors remarked that Korea resembled "a sea in a heavy gale" due to its numerous successive mountain ranges. All of the Korean Peninsula's mountains with elevations of 6.6 K ft ^{(2.00 K m)} or more are located in North Korea. The highest point is Mount Paektu (Paektu-san), a volcanic mountain on the border with China, reaching an elevation of 9.0 K ft ^{(2.74 K m)}. Mount Paektu is considered a sacred place in Korean culture and features prominently in North Korean folklore and the personality cult surrounding the Kim family; for example, the song "We Will Go To Mount Paektu" praises Kim Jong Un and describes a symbolic trek to the mountain.

Other significant mountain ranges include the Hamgyong Range in the extreme northeast and the Rangrim Mountains in the north-central part of the country. Mount Kumgang (Diamond Mountain), part of the Taebaek Range which extends into South Korea, is renowned for its scenic beauty.

Coastal plains are wider in the west and more discontinuous in the east. The majority of the population lives in these plains and lowland areas. According to a 2003 United Nations Environmental Programme report, forests cover over 70 percent of the country, mostly on steep slopes. North Korea had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.02/10, ranking it 28th globally out of 172 countries.

The longest river is the Yalu (Amnok) River, which flows for 491 mile ^{(790 km)}. The country contains three terrestrial ecoregions: Central Korean deciduous forests, Changbai Mountains mixed forests, and Manchurian mixed forests.

4.2. Climate

North Korea experiences a humid continental climate, often classified as Dwa under the Köppen climate classification system, characterized by four distinct seasons.

Winters are generally long, cold, and clear, with snow storms occurring due to northern and northwestern winds blowing from Siberia. The average daily high and low temperatures for Pyongyang in January are approximately 26.6 °F ^{(-3 °C)} and 8.600000000000001 °F ^{(-13 °C)}, respectively.

Summers are typically short, hot, humid, and rainy, influenced by southern and southeastern monsoon winds that carry moist air from the Pacific Ocean. Approximately 60 percent of all annual precipitation occurs between June and September. The average daily high and low temperatures for Pyongyang in August are around 84.2 °F ^{(29 °C)} and 68 °F ^{(20 °C)}.

Spring and autumn are transitional seasons, marked by milder temperatures and variable winds. These seasons often provide the most pleasant weather.

North Korea is susceptible to natural events such as typhoons, which usually occur in late summer or early autumn, and droughts, which can particularly affect spring planting and summer crops. These climatic factors significantly impact agriculture, which is a crucial sector of the North Korean economy.

4.3. Major cities

North Korea's population is concentrated in its western plains and several key urban centers.

• Pyongyang (평양직할시_{P'yŏngyang Chikhalsi}^Korean) is the capital and largest city of North Korea. It serves as the political, economic, cultural, and transportation hub of the country. With a population estimated to be over 3 million, Pyongyang is a showcase city for the regime, featuring monumental architecture, wide avenues, and numerous landmarks dedicated to the Kim family and the Juche ideology, such as the Juche Tower, Mansu Hill Grand Monument, and the Arch of Triumph. It is also home to major universities, cultural institutions, and industrial facilities.
• Hamhung (함흥시_Hamhŭngsi^Korean) is the second-largest city and a major industrial center, particularly for chemicals and textiles. Located on the eastern coast in South Hamgyong Province, it suffered significant damage during the Korean War but was rebuilt with East German assistance.
• Chongjin (청진시_Ch'ŏngjinsi^Korean) is the third-largest city and an important port and industrial city in North Hamgyong Province, located in the northeast. It is a center for metallurgy and shipbuilding. Due to its proximity to Russia and China, it plays a role in international trade, though this is often limited by sanctions.
• Nampo (남포특별시_{Namp'o T'ŭkpyŏlsi}^Korean) is a major port city on the west coast, serving as Pyongyang's gateway to the Yellow Sea. It is an important center for shipbuilding, steel production, and other industries. The West Sea Barrage, a massive dam project, is located near Nampo.
• Wonsan (원산시_Wŏnsansi^Korean) is a port city on the eastern coast in Kangwon Province. It is known for its beaches and has been developed as a tourist destination, including the Masikryong Ski Resort project under Kim Jong Un. It also has naval facilities and some industry.
• Sinuiju (신의주시_Sinŭijusi^Korean) is located on the border with China, across the Yalu River from the Chinese city of Dandong. It is a vital hub for trade with China and was designated as a Special Administrative Region in 2002, though its development has been limited. It has light industry and is a key transportation point.
• Kaesong (개성특별시_{Kaesŏng T'ŭkpyŏlsi}^Korean) is a historic city located near the DMZ, close to South Korea. It was the ancient capital of the Goryeo Dynasty. More recently, it was the site of the Kaesong Industrial Region, a joint inter-Korean economic project that employed North Korean workers in South Korean-owned factories, though its operations have been suspended multiple times due to political tensions.

These cities, along with others, form the urban backbone of North Korea, each playing specific roles in the country's centrally planned economy and administration, though they all face challenges related to infrastructure, resource scarcity, and the effects of international sanctions.

6.1. Political system and ideology

North Korea's political system is officially described in its constitution as an "independent socialist State representing the interests of all the Korean people." However, it functions as a totalitarian state where power is monopolized by the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), led by the Kim family in a hereditary succession. The constitution, most recently amended, enshrines Kimilsungism-Kimjongilism as the official ideology, which superseded Marxism-Leninism. This ideology, along with the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System, dictates governance and societal behavior, emphasizing absolute loyalty to the Supreme Leader.

The political structure is highly centralized, with the WPK permeating all levels of government and society. While the constitution nominally guarantees democratic elections and separation of powers, in practice, these are subordinate to the WPK's dictates. Elections are held, but they are non-competitive, with pre-determined outcomes, serving as a tool for political legitimization rather than genuine democratic choice. The means of production are state-owned, and most services are state-funded or subsidized, though informal markets (Jangmadang) have become increasingly important for the populace.

6.2. Leadership

The leadership of North Korea is characterized by a dynastic succession within the Kim family, a unique feature for a state that ostensibly adheres to socialist principles. This hereditary rule has profound implications for the country's political dynamics, human rights, and democratic development.

6.2.1. The Kim family and hereditary succession

The leadership of North Korea has been passed down through three generations of the Kim family, often referred to as the "Mount Paektu Bloodline".
1. Kim Il Sung: The founder of North Korea, Kim Il Sung ruled from the country's establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. He established the Juche ideology and a comprehensive cult of personality around himself, being designated the "Eternal President" after his death.
2. Kim Jong Il: Kim Il Sung's son, Kim Jong Il, succeeded him, formally taking power after a mourning period. He ruled until his death in 2011. He further developed the cult of personality and introduced the Songun (military-first) policy. He is known as the "Eternal General Secretary" and "Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission."
3. Kim Jong Un: Kim Jong Il's youngest son, Kim Jong Un, became the Supreme Leader after his father's death. He has continued the family's rule, aggressively pursued nuclear and missile programs, and further consolidated his power.

This hereditary succession is legitimized through the "Mount Paektu Bloodline" narrative, which links the Kim family's revolutionary lineage to Mount Paektu, a sacred mountain in Korean mythology and a supposed site of Kim Il Sung's anti-Japanese guerrilla activities. The Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System explicitly state that the party and revolution must be carried "eternally" by this bloodline. The pervasive cult of personality surrounding each leader, portraying them as infallible and uniquely capable, is crucial for maintaining this system.

6.2.2. Assessment of leadership's impact on democracy and human rights

The Kim family's dynastic and totalitarian rule has had a devastating impact on democratic development and human rights in North Korea.

• Lack of Democracy: North Korea is a one-party state where the Workers' Party of Korea, controlled by the Kim family, holds all political power. There are no free and fair elections, no genuine political opposition, and no independent judiciary or media. Political dissent is not tolerated and is met with severe punishment.
• Human Rights Abuses: The regime is responsible for systematic, widespread, and gross human rights violations, considered among the worst in the world by numerous international organizations and the United Nations. These abuses include:
  • Political Prison Camps (Kwalliso):** A vast network of prison camps holds tens of thousands of political prisoners and their families, subjected to forced labor, torture, starvation, and summary executions.
  • Lack of Fundamental Freedoms:** Severe restrictions are imposed on freedoms of expression, assembly, association, religion, and movement (both internal and external). All media is state-controlled and serves as a propaganda tool.
  • Arbitrary Detention and Lack of Due Process:** Citizens can be arrested and detained without trial or access to legal counsel. The judicial system is subservient to the WPK.
  • Social Control and Surveillance:** The Songbun system, a socio-political classification based on perceived loyalty, dictates access to education, employment, housing, and food. Mass surveillance and a network of informants ensure tight control over the population.
  • Forced Labor:** Beyond prison camps, forced labor is prevalent in various sectors of the economy.
• Social Progress: While the state claims to provide for its citizens, the prioritization of military spending under the Songun policy, economic mismanagement, and international sanctions have led to chronic food shortages, inadequate healthcare outside of Pyongyang, and significant disparities in living standards. The focus on ideological indoctrination in education limits critical thinking and access to diverse knowledge.

In summary, the Kim family's leadership has entrenched a system that denies basic democratic rights and perpetrates severe human rights abuses, hindering any meaningful social progress towards an open and equitable society.

6.3. Workers' Party of Korea

The Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) is the founding and ruling political party of North Korea. It holds a constitutionally guaranteed monopoly on power and is the central institution through which the Kim family exercises control over the state and society. With an estimated 6.5 million members, the WPK is one of the largest political parties in the world relative to national population.

Organization and Structure:
The WPK is organized hierarchically, mirroring the structure of other Leninist parties, but with an extreme emphasis on the singular leadership of the Supreme Leader.

• Congress**: The Party Congress is nominally the highest body, convened infrequently (the 8th Congress was held in 2021). It elects the Central Committee.
• Central Committee**: This body guides party activities between Congresses. It elects the Politburo and its Presidium, the Secretariat, and the Central Military Commission.
• Politburo and Presidium:** The Politburo, and particularly its smaller Presidium, is the top decision-making body, composed of the highest-ranking party officials, including the Supreme Leader.
• Secretariat**: Manages the day-to-day administrative affairs of the party. The General Secretary (currently Kim Jong Un) heads the Secretariat and is the de facto leader of the party.
• Central Military Commission (CMC)**: Chaired by the Supreme Leader, the CMC directs military affairs and ensures party control over the Korean People's Army (KPA).
• Provincial, City, and County Committees:** The party structure extends down to local levels, ensuring WPK control throughout the country. Party cells exist in all workplaces, collective farms, schools, and military units.

Dominant Role and Functions:
The WPK's role is pervasive and absolute:

• Ideological Guidance:** It disseminates and enforces the state ideologies of Kimilsungism-Kimjongilism, Juche, and Songun, shaping all aspects of public life and thought.
• Policy Making:** The WPK sets all major state policies, which are then formally adopted by government bodies.
• Personnel Control (Nomenklatura):** The party controls appointments to all significant positions in the government, military, judiciary, economy, and social organizations through its Organization and Guidance Department.
• Social Mobilization:** The WPK mobilizes the population for economic production, political rallies, ideological study sessions, and other state-directed activities.
• Surveillance and Control:** Through its extensive network and affiliated mass organizations (e.g., Kimilsungist-Kimjongilist Youth League, Socialist Women's Union), the WPK monitors the populace and enforces conformity.
• Legitimization:** The party plays a crucial role in legitimizing the Kim family's hereditary succession and the totalitarian system.

While North Korea has two other minor "satellite" parties, the Korean Social Democratic Party and the Chondoist Chongu Party, these are completely subservient to the WPK and exist primarily to give a superficial appearance of a multi-party system. They operate under the WPK-led Democratic Front for the Reunification of Korea. In reality, all political power resides within the WPK, and specifically within its highest leadership centered around the Supreme Leader.

6.4. State organs

North Korea's government structure, as outlined in its constitution, comprises several key state organs. However, in practice, these bodies operate under the strict guidance and control of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) and the Supreme Leader.

6.4.2. Supreme People's Assembly

The Supreme People's Assembly (SPA) is the unicameral legislature of North Korea. Its 687 members are elected every five years through universal suffrage, though these elections are widely regarded as non-competitive, with single, WPK-approved candidates in each constituency. Nominally, the SPA holds significant legislative power, including the authority to pass laws, approve the state budget, establish domestic and foreign policies, appoint and recall members of the Cabinet and the State Affairs Commission (except the President of the SAC), and amend the constitution.

However, in reality, the SPA serves largely as a rubber-stamp body, convening infrequently (typically once or twice a year for short sessions) to unanimously approve decisions already made by the WPK leadership. Its Standing Committee, headed by a Chairman (currently Choe Ryong-hae, who also serves as First Vice President of the SAC), handles legislative functions when the SPA is not in session and represents the state in some diplomatic capacities.

6.5. Elections

Elections are held regularly for the Supreme People's Assembly (SPA) at the national level and for local People's Assemblies at provincial, city, and county levels. All citizens aged 17 and above are eligible to vote and be elected. Voter turnout is consistently reported by state media to be near 100%.

However, these elections bear no resemblance to democratic elections as understood in pluralistic societies. Key characteristics include:

• Single-Candidate Constituencies:** In almost all cases, only one candidate, pre-selected and approved by the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) and its affiliated organizations under the Democratic Front for the Reunification of Korea, runs in each constituency.
• Lack of Choice:** Voters are typically presented with a ballot paper containing only the name of the approved candidate. They can either approve the candidate by dropping the ballot into a designated box or disapprove by crossing out the name and using a separate, often more conspicuous, ballot box. Disapproval is extremely rare and carries significant personal risk.
• Predetermined Outcomes:** The results are invariably a near-unanimous endorsement of the WPK-approved candidates.
• Political Legitimization and Mobilization:** Elections serve primarily as a political ritual to demonstrate popular support for the regime and the WPK, reinforce social control, and mobilize the population. They also function as a form of government census due to the high turnout.
• Coercive Atmosphere:** While voting is officially voluntary, there is immense social and political pressure to participate and vote in favor of the designated candidate. Non-participation or dissent can be interpreted as disloyalty to the regime.

International observers and human rights organizations widely criticize North Korean elections as being neither free nor fair, lacking genuine competition, and serving merely as a façade of democratic process to legitimize the totalitarian rule of the WPK and the Kim family. They do not provide a mechanism for citizens to choose their representatives or influence government policy.

7.1. Korean People's Army

The Korean People's Army (KPA) is the collective name for North Korea's armed forces. It is estimated to comprise around 1.28 million active personnel and approximately 6.3 million in reserve and paramilitary forces, making it one of the largest military institutions globally. With about 5% of its population in active military service (one in every 25 citizens), North Korea has the fourth-largest active military force. Command of the KPA lies with the Central Military Commission of the Workers' Party of Korea and the State Affairs Commission, which controls the Ministry of Defence. The KPA is deeply embedded in the state's ideology and plays a critical role in maintaining the regime's power. Conscription is universal for men and selective for women, with long service terms.

7.2. Weapons of mass destruction

North Korea's pursuit and development of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), particularly nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles, is a primary concern for international security and has led to multiple rounds of UN sanctions.

7.2.1. Nuclear program

North Korea's nuclear program has a long history, dating back to Soviet assistance in the 1960s. The country operated a graphite-moderated reactor at Yongbyon, capable of producing plutonium for weapons.

• Key Facilities:** The Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center is the main site for its plutonium production program, including a 5MWe reactor, reprocessing facilities, and fuel fabrication plants. There are also suspected uranium enrichment facilities at various locations.
• Nuclear Tests:** North Korea conducted its first nuclear test in 2006, followed by tests in 2009, 2013, twice in 2016, and 2017. Each test has generally shown increasing explosive yield, with the 2017 test claimed to be a hydrogen bomb.
• Current Status:** North Korea is believed to possess a stockpile of nuclear warheads, with estimates varying from a few dozen to over 60. It has also made progress in miniaturizing warheads for missile delivery. In September 2022, North Korea passed a law declaring itself a nuclear weapons state and outlining conditions for their use.
• International Efforts:** Numerous diplomatic efforts, including the Six-Party Talks (which collapsed in 2009) and direct negotiations with the US, have aimed to achieve the denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula, but have so far failed to halt North Korea's program. UN sanctions have been progressively tightened in response to its nuclear and missile activities.

7.3. Defense industry

North Korea possesses a substantial domestic arms manufacturing sector, a key component of its Juche (self-reliance) and Songun (military-first) policies. The Second Economic Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea oversees this sector.

• Scale and Capabilities:** The defense industry operates roughly 1,800 underground plants, many located in Chagang Province for strategic protection. It is capable of producing a wide range of conventional armaments, including small arms, artillery pieces, mortars, multiple rocket launchers, armored vehicles (including tanks like the Chonma-ho and Pokpung-ho), naval vessels (patrol boats, midget submarines), and even some aircraft (trainer jets, and possibly assembly of more complex models). It also manufactures ammunition, explosives, and military electronics.
• Focus:** While much of the equipment is based on older Soviet or Chinese designs, North Korea has shown an ability to reverse-engineer, modify, and indigenously produce weapons systems. The industry is also crucial for its ballistic missile program, producing components and assembling various missile types.
• Exports:** North Korea has a history of exporting arms, including missiles, artillery, and small arms, to various countries and non-state actors, often in violation of international sanctions. This serves as a source of foreign currency for the regime.
• Limitations:** Despite its size, the defense industry faces challenges due to economic constraints, outdated technology in some areas, and the impact of international sanctions restricting access to advanced components and materials. However, it has demonstrated resilience and ingenuity in circumventing sanctions and continuing development, particularly in its missile and nuclear programs.

The prioritization of the defense industry under the Songun policy means it receives a disproportionate share of national resources, often at the expense of the civilian economy and the population's living standards.

7.4. Songun (Military-First) policy's societal impact

The Songun (military-first) policy, heavily emphasized under Kim Jong Il and continued by Kim Jong Un, has had profound and far-reaching impacts on North Korean society and its economy. This policy prioritizes the Korean People's Army (KPA) in all state affairs and resource allocation.

• Resource Allocation:** A significant portion of the national budget and resources (human, material, and financial) is diverted to the military and defense industries. This includes funding for the large standing army, weapons development (including the costly nuclear and missile programs), and the maintenance of military infrastructure. This often comes at the direct expense of civilian sectors such as agriculture, consumer goods production, healthcare, and social welfare, exacerbating economic hardship and food shortages for the general population.
• Prioritization of Military in State Affairs:** The KPA and military officials have held significant influence in political and economic decision-making processes. While Kim Jong Un has sought to reassert the primacy of the Workers' Party of Korea, the military's privileged status remains. Military service is glorified, and a military career path is often seen as a way to gain status and benefits.
• Societal Militarization:** The Songun ideology permeates society, promoting a militaristic culture that emphasizes discipline, sacrifice, and readiness for conflict. Civilians, including students and workers, are often required to participate in military-style drills and paramilitary organizations like the Worker-Peasant Red Guards.
• Economic Impact:** The diversion of resources to the defense sector has hindered the development of a balanced and sustainable civilian economy. While the defense industry itself provides some employment, its focus on military production does little to address the broader needs of the population for food, consumer goods, and services. The emphasis on self-reliance in defense has also contributed to North Korea's isolation and its inability to fully integrate into the global economy.
• Humanitarian Consequences:** The prioritization of military spending over civilian needs has contributed to chronic food insecurity and inadequate healthcare and social services for much of the population. The "Arduous March" famine of the 1990s was exacerbated by policies that favored military preparedness over civilian welfare.
• International Relations:** The Songun policy's direct link to the pursuit of nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles has led to international condemnation, extensive sanctions, and increased geopolitical instability, further isolating North Korea and harming its economy.

While the regime portrays Songun as necessary for national survival against perceived external threats (primarily from the United States and South Korea), its societal impact has been largely negative for the well-being and development of the North Korean people, reinforcing a system of austerity and hardship for many while a small elite and the military enjoy privileged access to resources.

8.1. Overview of foreign policy

North Korea's foreign policy has evolved since its founding but is consistently guided by the Juche ideology, emphasizing independence and self-reliance. Initially, it maintained close ties primarily with other communist countries, especially the Soviet Union and China. During the Cold War, it skillfully navigated the Sino-Soviet split to maintain support from both. In the 1960s and 1970s, North Korea actively pursued relations with newly independent developing countries and joined the Non-Aligned Movement.

The collapse of the Soviet Bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s dealt a severe blow, leading to economic crisis and increased international isolation. This period saw North Korea attempt to build relations with developed free-market countries, though these efforts were often hampered by its political system and later its nuclear ambitions. The country is sometimes referred to as the "hermit kingdom" due to its isolation, although it maintains diplomatic relations with 166 countries and has embassies in 47 of them (as of 2015). However, many foreign embassies accredited to North Korea are located in Beijing rather than Pyongyang.

Key foreign policy objectives include:

• Regime Survival:** The paramount goal is the preservation of the Kim family's rule and the existing political system.
• National Security:** Maintaining a strong defense posture against perceived threats, primarily from the United States and South Korea. This has driven its pursuit of nuclear weapons.
• Economic Development:** Seeking foreign aid, investment, and trade to alleviate economic difficulties, though this is often undermined by sanctions and its own policies.
• International Legitimacy:** Gaining recognition and acceptance on the international stage, though its actions often lead to condemnation.
• Reunification of Korea**: Officially, reunification remains a goal, though its approach has shifted from forceful unification to proposals for a confederation, and more recently, to abandoning peaceful reunification efforts and defining South Korea as a hostile state.

North Korea's foreign policy is often characterized by brinkmanship, using provocations and the threat of its WMD programs to extract concessions or attention from the international community.

8.2. Inter-Korean relations

The relationship between North and South Korea has been fraught with tension, conflict, and sporadic attempts at dialogue since the division of the peninsula in 1945 and the Korean War (1950-1953). Both states officially claim sovereignty over the entire Korean Peninsula.

8.3. Relations with major powers

North Korea's relationships with major global and regional powers are central to its foreign policy and the security dynamics of Northeast Asia. These relationships are often complex, fluctuating between cautious engagement, outright hostility, and strategic dependence.

8.3.1. China

China is North Korea's most important ally, economic partner, and diplomatic supporter. The "lips and teeth" relationship was forged during the Korean War when Chinese forces intervened to save North Korea from defeat.

• Alliance and Support:** The 1961 Sino-North Korean Mutual Aid and Cooperation Friendship Treaty remains in effect, obligating mutual defense. China has historically provided significant economic aid, trade, and investment, which became even more critical after the collapse of the Soviet Union and under international sanctions. China is North Korea's largest trading partner by a wide margin.
• Strains and Strategic Interests:** Despite the alliance, relations have been strained at times, particularly due to North Korea's nuclear tests, which China opposes as destabilizing for the region. Beijing has supported UN sanctions against Pyongyang, though it has also been accused of not fully enforcing them. China's primary strategic interest is maintaining stability on the Korean Peninsula and preventing a regime collapse in North Korea, which could lead to a refugee crisis, a unified Korea allied with the US on its border, and a loss of its buffer state.
• Recent Dynamics:** Under Kim Jong Un and Xi Jinping, there have been periods of both coolness and rapprochement. High-level visits have occurred, but fundamental differences over the nuclear issue persist. China advocates for dialogue and a negotiated solution to the nuclear crisis.

8.3.2. Russia

Russia, as the successor to the Soviet Union, shares a short border with North Korea and has a long history of interaction.

• Soviet-Era Support:** The Soviet Union was a key backer of North Korea's establishment and provided substantial economic and military aid during the Cold War.
• Post-Cold War Decline and Revival:** Relations declined significantly after the Soviet collapse, with aid ceasing. However, under Vladimir Putin, Russia has sought to rebuild ties, driven by geopolitical interests in Northeast Asia and a desire to counter US influence. Economic ties include some trade, labor exports from North Korea to Russia, and projects like linking the Trans-Siberian Railway to the Korean Peninsula. Russia has also written off a significant portion of North Korea's Soviet-era debt.
• Nuclear Issue and Sanctions:** Russia is a member of the Six-Party Talks (though currently defunct) and has generally supported UN sanctions against North Korea's nuclear program, while also emphasizing the need for dialogue and cautioning against measures that could lead to humanitarian crisis or regime collapse.
• Recent Strengthening:** Relations have seen a notable strengthening, particularly following Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. North Korea has vocally supported Russia, and there have been reports and accusations of North Korea supplying Russia with artillery shells and other military equipment in exchange for food, fuel, and potentially advanced military technology. Kim Jong Un visited Russia in September 2023, and Vladimir Putin visited Pyongyang in June 2024, signing a comprehensive strategic partnership treaty that includes a mutual defense clause.

8.3.3. United States

The United States and North Korea have had a deeply adversarial relationship since the Korean War. There are no formal diplomatic relations between the two countries; Sweden acts as the protecting power for US interests in North Korea.

• Primary Concerns:** The US relationship is dominated by concerns over North Korea's nuclear weapons and ballistic missile programs, its poor human rights record, and its history of provocative actions. The US maintains a significant military presence in South Korea as a deterrent.
• Periods of Negotiation and Confrontation:**
  • The 1994 Agreed Framework aimed to freeze North Korea's plutonium program but eventually collapsed.
  • The George W. Bush administration labeled North Korea part of an "axis of evil" and took a harder line.
  • The Obama administration pursued "strategic patience," largely maintaining sanctions and pressure.
  • The Trump administration saw a period of unprecedented direct diplomacy, including summits between President Trump and Kim Jong Un in 2018 (Singapore) and 2019 (Hanoi, DMZ), aimed at denuclearization. However, these efforts ultimately stalled without a comprehensive agreement.
• Sanctions:** The US has been a leading advocate for and implementer of international and unilateral sanctions against North Korea to curb its WMD programs and pressure the regime.
• Human Rights:** The US consistently criticizes North Korea's human rights abuses and has designated it as a state sponsor of terrorism.

8.4. Relations with international organizations

North Korea's engagement with international organizations is selective and often contentious, influenced by its political ideology, isolationist tendencies, and the international community's response to its WMD programs and human rights record.

• United Nations (UN):** North Korea became a UN member state in 1991, simultaneously with South Korea. Its participation in the UN is often focused on asserting its sovereignty, criticizing perceived hostile policies from countries like the US, and responding to resolutions concerning its nuclear program and human rights situation. The UN Security Council has passed numerous resolutions imposing sanctions on North Korea due to its nuclear and missile tests. Various UN agencies (e.g., WHO, WFP, UNICEF) have operated in North Korea, providing humanitarian aid, though their access and activities can be restricted by the regime. The UN Human Rights Council has established a Commission of Inquiry and a Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the DPRK, consistently documenting severe abuses.
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and Group of 77 (G77):** North Korea is a member of both NAM and the G77, using these forums to align itself with developing countries and promote its foreign policy positions, often criticizing imperialism and advocating for a multipolar world order.
• ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF):** North Korea participates in the ARF, a key security dialogue platform in Asia. Its involvement provides a rare venue for direct interaction with officials from various countries, including those with which it has strained relations.
• Other Specialized Agencies:** North Korea is a member of some other UN specialized agencies and international bodies, though its active participation can vary.
• Compliance with International Law:** North Korea's record of compliance with international law and treaties is poor, particularly concerning nuclear non-proliferation (having withdrawn from the NPT) and human rights conventions. Its interactions with international bodies are often characterized by defiance of sanctions and condemnation of what it views as interference in its internal affairs.

Overall, North Korea uses its limited participation in international organizations primarily to advance its own strategic interests, seek aid, and counter international pressure, rather than fully integrating into the global community or adhering to international norms.

9.1. Economic system and policies

North Korea's economic system is fundamentally a command economy, though it has seen the emergence of informal markets and limited official attempts at reform.

9.2. Major industries

North Korea's economy, while struggling, has several key industrial sectors that have been prioritized by the state, often with a focus on self-reliance and military applications.

9.2.1. Agriculture and fisheries

Agriculture is a critical sector due to chronic food shortages.

• Main Products:** Rice, corn, potatoes, soybeans, and vegetables are the primary crops.
• Collective Farming:** Agriculture is largely based on a collective farming system, with state farms and cooperative farms. Attempts to improve productivity have included smaller work teams and some allowance for private plots.
• Challenges:** The sector faces persistent challenges, including a shortage of arable land (much of the country is mountainous), lack of modern machinery and fertilizers, vulnerability to natural disasters (floods and droughts), and systemic inefficiencies. The collapse of the Public Distribution System in the 1990s highlighted these vulnerabilities.
• Fisheries:** Fisheries, both coastal and deep-sea, are an important source of food and potential export revenue, though they are also affected by outdated equipment and fuel shortages. Aquaculture also contributes to the food supply.

9.2.2. Mining and manufacturing

North Korea is rich in mineral resources, which form the basis of its mining industry.

• Mineral Resources:** Significant deposits of coal, iron ore, magnesite, zinc, copper, limestone, gold, and various rare earth minerals.
• Mining Activities:** Mining is a key industry, providing raw materials for domestic manufacturing and for export (though limited by sanctions). Coal is particularly important as a primary energy source and export commodity.
• Manufacturing Sector:**
  • Heavy Industry:** Historically prioritized, including metallurgy (steel production), machine building (tools, industrial equipment, vehicles), and chemicals (fertilizers, basic chemicals). Much of the heavy industrial infrastructure is outdated.
  • Military Production:** A substantial portion of the manufacturing sector is dedicated to the defense industry, producing a wide range of conventional weapons, ammunition, and components for its missile program.
  • Light Industry:** Focuses on consumer goods such as textiles, footwear, and food processing. This sector has often been underdeveloped compared to heavy industry but has seen some attempts at revitalization, including through joint ventures and special economic zones.

9.2.4. Tourism

Tourism is a state-controlled industry that serves as a source of foreign currency.

• Operations:** All tourism is managed by state-owned tourism companies. Foreign visitors are required to be accompanied by official guides at all times and are restricted to pre-approved itineraries and locations.
• Major Destinations:** Tourist sites include Pyongyang (with its monuments and museums), the DMZ, scenic areas like Mount Kumgang (though access has been intermittent due to inter-Korean relations) and Mount Paektu, and the Masikryong Ski Resort.
• Visitor Demographics:** Historically, a significant number of tourists came from China. Visitors from Western countries have been fewer and subject to more restrictions.
• Impact of Sanctions and COVID-19:** International sanctions have impacted the tourism sector by limiting financial transactions and travel options. The COVID-19 pandemic led to a complete closure of North Korea's borders to tourists for an extended period, severely affecting this revenue stream.

Overall, North Korea's major industries reflect its history of central planning, its emphasis on self-reliance and military strength, and the severe constraints imposed by its political system and international isolation.

9.3. Economic challenges and international sanctions

North Korea faces a multitude of persistent and severe economic challenges, which have been significantly exacerbated by comprehensive international sanctions. These challenges have a direct and often devastating impact on the population.

9.4. Transportation and communication

North Korea's transportation and communication infrastructure is generally underdeveloped and faces significant limitations due to economic constraints, lack of investment, and international sanctions.

9.4.1. Transportation infrastructure

• Railways:** Rail transport is the most widespread and important mode of transportation for both passengers (80% of annual traffic) and freight (86%). The network spans approximately 3.2 K mile ^{(5.20 K km)}, mostly standard gauge. However, the system suffers from aging infrastructure, a lack of modern rolling stock, and chronic electricity shortages, which undermine its efficiency and reliability. A high-speed railway project connecting Kaesong, Pyongyang, and Sinuiju (with speeds over 124 mph ^{(200 km/h)}) was approved in 2013, but its progress is unclear. North Korea connects to the Trans-Siberian Railway through Rajin.
• Roads:** The road network is extensive, covering about 16 K mile ^{(25.55 K km)}, but only a small fraction (450 mile ^{(724 km)}) is paved. Most roads are poorly maintained, making road travel slow and difficult, especially outside major cities. Private car ownership is extremely rare, though bicycles are common. Key highways include the Pyongyang-Wonsan Tourist Motorway and the Pyongyang-Kaesong Expressway.
• Ports:** North Korea has several ports on both its east and west coasts, including Nampo (west) and Rajin, Chongjin, and Wonsan (east). These ports are generally ice-free and handle domestic and limited international cargo. The merchant fleet is small and consists of aging vessels. Port facilities often lack modern equipment.
• Air Transport:** Air traffic is negligible. Air Koryo is the state-run airline, operating a small fleet of mostly older Soviet-era aircraft. Pyongyang International Airport (Sunan International Airport) is the main international gateway, with limited international flights, primarily to China and Russia, though these have been heavily impacted by sanctions and the COVID-19 pandemic. There are numerous domestic airfields, but regular domestic air services are minimal.

9.4.2. Telecommunications and internet access

Telecommunications are tightly controlled by the state.

• Fixed-line Telephones:** A nationwide fiber-optic telephone system exists, with around 1.18 million fixed lines. However, most phones are installed for government officials and in state institutions. Access for ordinary citizens is limited, and installation often requires justification.
• Mobile Phone Services:** Mobile phone services were introduced in the early 2000s. Koryolink, a joint venture with Egypt's Orascom Telecom, was the primary provider, offering 3G network coverage, mainly in Pyongyang and other major cities. The number of subscribers grew significantly, reaching several million. However, these services typically do not allow international calls for domestic users. A second domestic mobile network, Kangsong Net, has also emerged. Access to the global internet via mobile data is not available to ordinary citizens. Foreigners could previously access 3G internet, but this has been subject to restrictions.
• Domestic Intranet (Kwangmyong):** Most North Koreans do not have access to the global internet. Instead, the state operates a walled-garden intranet called Kwangmyong. It provides access to a limited range of domestic websites, state media, email services, chat services, and educational materials, all vetted and controlled by the government. The Korea Computer Center plays a key role in maintaining this network.
• Internet Access:** Access to the unfiltered global internet is highly restricted and available only to a tiny elite, select government officials, and some researchers.
• Censorship and Surveillance:** All forms of communication are subject to state surveillance and censorship.

The limitations in transportation and communication infrastructure reflect North Korea's economic isolation and the state's priority of control over open access and development in these sectors.

9.5. Energy sector

North Korea faces a chronic and severe energy crisis, which significantly impacts its economy, industry, and the daily lives of its citizens. The energy infrastructure is largely obsolete, inefficient, and in disrepair.

• Primary Energy Sources:**
  • Coal:** Coal is the dominant primary energy source, accounting for approximately 70% of production. North Korea has significant coal reserves, but the mining industry is often inefficient, and the quality of coal can be low. Coal is used for electricity generation, industrial processes, and heating.
  • Hydropower:** Hydropower is the second-largest source of electricity, contributing around 17%. While North Korea has numerous rivers and has built many hydroelectric dams, their output is often unreliable due to aging facilities, siltation, and seasonal variations in water flow (especially during droughts).
  • Oil:** North Korea has very limited domestic oil production and is heavily reliant on imports, primarily from China and, to a lesser extent, Russia. These imports are often provided at concessional terms or are subject to international sanctions, leading to persistent fuel shortages that affect transportation and industry.
  • Electricity Shortages:** Chronic electricity shortages are a major problem. The poorly maintained and outdated electricity grid results in significant transmission and distribution losses. Even if more power were generated or imported, the grid's capacity to deliver it effectively is limited. This leads to frequent blackouts and an unreliable power supply for households, factories, and public services, particularly outside of Pyongyang. Satellite imagery at night starkly illustrates the lack of electricity across most of the country compared to its neighbors.
  • Renewable Energy Efforts:** Under Kim Jong Un, the government has increased emphasis on developing renewable energy sources to alleviate shortages and promote self-reliance. This includes projects for:
    • Wind Power:** Wind farms have been constructed in some areas.
    • Solar Power:** Solar panels are increasingly used, especially by individual households and institutions, to supplement the unreliable state grid. Solar water heaters are also promoted.
    • Biomass and Geothermal:** Limited efforts are underway to explore these sources.

    In 2014, legal regulations were adopted to stress the development of geothermal, wind, and solar energy, alongside recycling and environmental conservation. A long-term objective was stated to curb fossil fuel usage and reach an output of 5 million kilowatts from renewable sources by 2044.

    • Civilian Nuclear Program:** North Korea has stated its intention to develop a civilian nuclear energy program, citing energy shortages. However, these efforts are deeply intertwined with its nuclear weapons program and face significant international skepticism and opposition due to proliferation and safety concerns. The construction of experimental light-water reactors has been mentioned, but progress is unclear and constrained by sanctions.

    The energy crisis remains a fundamental obstacle to North Korea's economic development and the improvement of living standards for its population.

9.6. Currency and finance

North Korea's currency and financial system are characterized by strict state control, a dual currency system (official and unofficial), high inflation at times, and isolation from the international financial system due to sanctions.

• Official Currency:** The official currency is the **North Korean won (KPW)**, issued by the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The government sets an official exchange rate, but this rate often bears little resemblance to the currency's actual value on the black market or in informal transactions.

• Unofficial Valuation and Foreign Currency Use:** Due to a lack of confidence in the KPW and chronic shortages of goods, foreign currencies - primarily the **Chinese yuan (CNY)** and the **U.S. dollar (USD)**, and to a lesser extent the Euro - are widely used in informal markets (Jangmadang) and for private transactions, especially for imported goods or larger purchases. This de facto dollarization/yuanization means that the KPW's actual purchasing power is often determined by unofficial black market exchange rates, which can fluctuate wildly. Prices in state stores are often in KPW, but goods may be scarce or of poor quality. In markets, prices are typically set in foreign currency or KPW at the prevailing black market rate.

• Currency Revaluations:** The government has undertaken several currency revaluations, most notably in 2009. The 2009 revaluation aimed to curb private market activity and reassert state control over the economy by drastically devaluing the old won and severely limiting the amount individuals could exchange for new notes. This measure largely failed, leading to hyperinflation, wiping out savings, causing public unrest, and further undermining confidence in the official currency.

• State-Controlled Financial System:** The financial system is entirely state-controlled. The Central Bank is responsible for issuing currency and overseeing other state-owned banks, such as the Foreign Trade Bank. These banks primarily serve state enterprises and government functions rather than providing commercial banking services to the general public in the Western sense. Access to formal credit is extremely limited for ordinary citizens and private enterprises. Savings are often held outside the formal banking system, typically in foreign currency.

• Isolation and Sanctions:** International sanctions have severely restricted North Korea's access to the global financial system. Its banks have been targeted for involvement in illicit activities, including money laundering and financing WMD programs. This isolation makes legitimate international trade and financial transactions extremely difficult.

The combination of an unstable official currency, widespread use of foreign currencies in the informal economy, and a tightly controlled and isolated financial system presents significant challenges for economic management and the daily lives of North Koreans.

10.1. Demographics

North Korea's population was estimated to be around 25-26 million people in the early 2020s. In 1961, the population was 10.9 million. Demographic experts in the 20th century had estimated growth to 25.5 million by 2000 and 28 million by 2010, but this was significantly impacted by the North Korean famine of the 1990s.

• Ethnic Composition:** The population is ethnically homogeneous, almost entirely Korean. There is a very small Chinese community and a few ethnic Japanese who remained after World War II or were part of repatriation programs.
• Population Growth:** The population growth rate has been relatively low, around 0.5% annually in recent years. This is attributed to factors such as late marriages (often after lengthy military service for men), limited housing space, long working hours, and economic hardships. The famine of the 1990s had a significant impact, leading to increased mortality and reduced birth rates; the growth rate declined to 0.9% annually in 2002.
• Age and Gender Distribution:** Like many countries, North Korea is experiencing an aging population, though less rapidly than some developed nations. There are generally slightly more women than men.
• Urbanization:** A significant portion of the population lives in urban areas, with Pyongyang being the largest city. Other major cities include Hamhung, Chongjin, and Nampo. Urbanization has occurred, but movement is strictly controlled.
• Birth and Death Rates:** The national birth rate is around 14.5 births per 1,000 population. Life expectancy was around 72.3 years in 2019. Infant mortality rates, while improved from the worst famine years, remain higher than in developed countries.
• Household Structure:** Traditionally, extended families living together were common, often in small housing units. Marriage is virtually universal, and divorce rates are reported to be extremely low, though this may reflect social pressures and legal difficulties rather than marital satisfaction. Two-thirds of households consist of extended families, mostly living in two-room units.

Food aid from international donors, initiated in 1997, helped combat the famine. Malnutrition rates for children declined from 60% in 1998 to 28% in 2013, and domestic food production had almost recovered to recommended annual levels by 2013, though dietary diversity and access to fats and proteins remained a concern. By the mid-2010s, national levels of severe wasting were lower than in other low-income countries.

10.2. Daily life

Daily life in North Korea is heavily regimented by the state and varies significantly based on one's social status (Songbun), location (Pyongyang vs. provinces), and access to resources.

10.3. Social stratification (Songbun)

Songbun (성분_sŏngbun^Korean) is a system of socio-political classification used in North Korea that has a profound impact on nearly every aspect of a citizen's life. It assigns individuals to one of three broad classes based on the perceived political loyalty and historical background of their ancestors, as well as their own behavior.

The three main classes are:
1. **Core Class (핵심계층, haeksim gyecheung):** This group is considered the most loyal to the regime. It includes descendants of those who fought alongside Kim Il Sung against the Japanese, revolutionary martyrs, high-ranking party officials, military officers, and model workers. Members of the core class receive preferential treatment in access to education (especially higher education at elite universities), desirable jobs (particularly in the party, government, and security apparatus), better housing, healthcare, and food rations. They are more likely to live in Pyongyang. Kim Il Sung stated in 1958 that this class constituted about 25% of the population.
2. **Wavering Class (동요계층, dongyo gyecheung):** This is the largest group, comprising ordinary citizens whose loyalty is considered neutral or ambivalent. Their backgrounds might include merchants, intellectuals, or those with relatives who fled to South Korea during the Korean War but who themselves have not shown overt disloyalty. Their opportunities are more limited than the core class, and they are subject to more surveillance. This class was estimated by Kim Il Sung to be about 55% of the population.
3. **Hostile Class (적대계층, choktae gyecheung):** This group is deemed politically unreliable or actively hostile to the regime. Their ranks include descendants of landlords, capitalists, religious figures, former collaborators with the Japanese, individuals with family members who defected or were purged, and those considered "reactionaries." They face severe discrimination and are often relegated to the most arduous jobs, poorest living conditions, and remote areas. They have minimal access to education or advancement and are under constant surveillance. They are also most at risk of being sent to political prison camps. Kim Il Sung estimated this class to be about 20% of the population.

These three main classes are further subdivided into numerous (reportedly around 50) sub-classifications.

• Impact of Songbun:**
  • Opportunities:** Songbun heavily influences access to education, employment, WPK membership (essential for advancement), housing, food distribution, healthcare, and permission to live in certain areas (especially Pyongyang).
  • Social Control:** It is a powerful tool for social control, encouraging loyalty and discouraging dissent, as an individual's Songbun can affect their entire family for generations.
  • Hereditary Nature:** Songbun is largely hereditary, passed down through the paternal line, making it very difficult for individuals to improve their classification.
  • Marriage:** Songbun can also influence marriage choices, as marrying into a family with a lower Songbun can negatively impact one's own status and that of future children.

  While the rise of informal markets (Jangmadang) and the accumulation of wealth by some individuals (donju) may have introduced some fluidity and allowed those with lower Songbun but economic resources to improve their material circumstances, the Songbun system officially remains a fundamental pillar of North Korean social structure. The North Korean government officially denies the existence of discrimination based on family background and claims all citizens are equal, but defector testimonies and reports from human rights organizations consistently highlight the pervasive and discriminatory nature of the Songbun system.

10.4. Education

Education in North Korea is state-controlled, universal, and compulsory for 12 years. The system is highly centralized and heavily infused with Juche ideology and loyalty to the Kim family. The 2008 census listed the entire population as literate.

• Structure of the Education System:**
  • Preschool (1 year):** Compulsory kindergarten (upper level) for children aged 5. There are also nursery schools and lower-level kindergartens.
  • Primary School (5 years):** Formerly 4 years, extended to 5 years as part of reforms.
  • Secondary School (6 years):** Divided into a 3-year lower secondary (middle school) and a 3-year upper secondary (high school).

  The total compulsory education cycle is 1 year of preschool + 5 years of primary school + 6 years of secondary school = 12 years. This system was reportedly implemented starting in 2012-2013, replacing an older 11-year system.

  • Higher Education:** Provided by over 300 universities and colleges. Entry is competitive and heavily influenced by one's Songbun (social classification) and academic performance. Key institutions include Kim Il Sung University, Kim Chaek University of Technology, and Pyongyang University of Foreign Studies. Most graduates from the compulsory program do not attend university but proceed to obligatory military service or work in farms or factories.
  • Curriculum and Focus:**
    • Ideological Content:** A significant portion of the curriculum at all levels is dedicated to ideological indoctrination, including the study of Kim Il Sung's, Kim Jong Il's, and Kim Jong Un's revolutionary activities, Juche ideology, and party policies. Social studies courses can have up to 50% ideological content, and even science subjects incorporate 20%.
    • Emphasis on Science and Technology:** The state places a strong emphasis on science and technology education to promote self-reliance and national development.
    • Foreign Languages:** The study of Russian and English was made compulsory in upper middle schools in 1978. Chinese is also taught.
    • Heuristics and Creativity:** State media claims that heuristic methods are actively applied to develop students' independence and creativity, though this is within the strict confines of the state ideology.
    • Literacy and Access:**

    North Korea boasts a high literacy rate, with virtually the entire population able to read and write Chosŏn'gŭl. Education is officially free, with the state providing tuition, and historically, uniforms and some textbooks, though the actual provision of resources can be inconsistent, especially outside Pyongyang or during economic hardship.

    • Challenges:**

Despite these challenges, the North Korean education system succeeds in achieving high literacy rates and instilling state ideology from a very young age.

10.5. Health and healthcare

Healthcare in North Korea is, in principle, a universal and state-funded system, with services officially provided free of charge to all citizens. However, the actual quality, accessibility, and availability of medical care vary significantly and have been severely impacted by decades of economic hardship, international sanctions, and systemic inefficiencies.

• Healthcare System Structure:**

• Quality and Accessibility:**
  • Disparities:** There is a stark contrast between the healthcare available to the elite in Pyongyang (who have access to better-equipped hospitals like the Pyongyang Maternity Hospital or the Red Cross Hospital) and the care available to the general population, particularly in rural and provincial areas.
  • Shortages:** Since the economic collapse of the 1990s, the healthcare system has suffered from chronic shortages of essential medicines, medical supplies (syringes, bandages, anesthesia), functioning equipment, electricity, and clean water. Patients or their families often have to procure their own medicines from markets or pay informally for services and supplies.
  • Traditional Medicine:** Due to shortages of modern pharmaceuticals, the state has promoted the use of traditional Korean medicine (Koryo medicine), which utilizes herbs and acupuncture.
  • Major Health Challenges:**
    • Malnutrition:** Chronic malnutrition has been a persistent problem, especially following the 1990s famine. This has led to stunting in children and increased vulnerability to diseases. While acute malnutrition rates have reportedly improved since the famine, dietary diversity and access to essential nutrients remain concerns for a significant portion of the population.
    • Communicable Diseases:** Tuberculosis is a major public health issue. Other infectious diseases like hepatitis B are also prevalent. The system's capacity to deal with outbreaks is limited.
    • Non-Communicable Diseases:** As in many countries, non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases (stroke, ischemic heart disease) and cancers are leading causes of death. High rates of smoking among men and alcohol consumption contribute to this.
    • Impact of Sanctions:** International sanctions, while not directly targeting humanitarian aid, have indirectly affected the healthcare sector by restricting the country's ability to import medical equipment, spare parts, and raw materials for pharmaceutical production.
    • Life Expectancy and Mortality:**

• International Aid:**

North Korea has received humanitarian aid, including medical assistance, from international organizations like the WHO, UNICEF, and various NGOs. However, access for these organizations can be restricted, and monitoring the distribution of aid is often challenging.

The official claim of a free and universal healthcare system contrasts sharply with reports from defectors and international observers who describe a system in severe decline, struggling to meet the basic health needs of its population.

10.6. Language

The official and sole language of North Korea is Korean. The dialect spoken in North Korea, particularly in Pyongyang, is the basis for the country's standard Korean, known as **Munhwaŏ** (문화어_Munhwaŏ^Korean, "Cultured Language").

• Key Aspects:**
  • Munhwaŏ vs. P'yojun'ŏ:** Munhwaŏ is promoted as the standard in North Korea, distinct from the standard Korean of South Korea, P'yojun'ŏ (표준어_P'yojun'ŏ^Korean, "Standard Language"), which is based on the Seoul dialect. North Korean linguistic policy has aimed to "purify" the language by removing or replacing words of foreign origin, particularly from Japanese and English, and by emphasizing native Korean vocabulary or coining new terms based on Korean roots. Chinese loanwords (Hanja-eo) are still present but their use is sometimes discouraged in favor of native terms.
  • Script (Chosŏn'gŭl):** North Korea exclusively uses the native Korean alphabet, Chosŏn'gŭl (조선글_Chosŏn'gŭl^Korean, known as Hangul in South Korea). The use of Hanja (Chinese characters) in everyday writing was officially abolished in 1949, and they are rarely seen, except perhaps in academic texts or for specific historical references. This contrasts with South Korea, where Hanja are still sometimes used in media, academic writing, and for clarification.
  • Vocabulary and Pronunciation Differences:** Due to over 70 years of political division and differing linguistic policies, some differences in vocabulary, pronunciation, and intonation have emerged between Munhwaŏ and P'yojun'ŏ. North Korea has actively coined new political and technical terms or assigned different meanings to existing words.
  • Romanization:** North Korea officially uses a version of the McCune-Reischauer system for romanizing Korean, while South Korea adopted the Revised Romanization of Korean in 2000. This leads to different English spellings for the same Korean names and terms (e.g., Pyongyang vs. Pyeongyang, Kim Il Sung vs. Kim Il-seong).
  • Ideological Influence:** Language in North Korea is heavily influenced by state ideology. Political terminology and honorifics related to the Kim family and the Workers' Party of Korea are pervasive.

  Despite these differences, the Korean spoken in North and South Korea is mutually intelligible, especially in everyday conversation. The core grammar and much of the basic vocabulary remain the same.

10.7. Religion

Religion in North Korea is characterized by a constitutional guarantee of religious freedom on one hand, and severe state control and suppression of independent religious activities on the other. The state is officially atheist, and the Juche ideology, with its cult of personality around the Kim family, functions as a quasi-religion.

• Constitutional Guarantee vs. Reality:**

• State-Controlled Religious Organizations:**

The government maintains several officially recognized religious organizations, primarily for external propaganda purposes to project an image of religious tolerance:

• Korean Buddhist Federation**: Buddhism has a long history in Korea, and some historic temples are maintained (and sometimes shown to tourists).
• Korean Christian Federation**: Represents Protestant Christianity. A few state-sanctioned churches exist in Pyongyang, such as Chilgol Church and Bongsu Church. Critics argue these are showpieces for foreigners.
• Korean Catholic Association**: This organization exists, but North Korea has no resident Catholic priests, and its ties with the Vatican are non-existent. Changchung Cathedral in Pyongyang is a state-sanctioned Catholic church.
• Korean Chondoist Association**: Chondoism (Cheondoism, "Religion of the Heavenly Way") is an indigenous Korean syncretic religion that emerged in the 19th century. It has a political party, the Chondoist Chongu Party, which is part of the ruling Democratic Front for the Reunification of Korea, but this party is entirely subservient to the WPK.

• Actual Religious Practice and Suppression:**
  • Underground Religion:** Despite severe risks, underground Christian communities are believed to exist and are reportedly growing. These groups face intense persecution if discovered, including arrest, torture, imprisonment in political prison camps (kwalliso), or execution. Possession of a Bible is a serious crime.
  • Shamanism and Folk Beliefs:** Traditional Korean shamanism and folk beliefs may persist at a local level, though these are also discouraged if they conflict with state ideology.
  • Persecution:** North Korea is consistently ranked as one of the most oppressive countries in the world for religious freedom. Open Doors, a Christian advocacy group, has for many years listed North Korea as the country where Christians face the most severe persecution. The state views independent religious belief as a threat to its monolithic ideological system and the personality cult of its leaders.
  • Dominance of Juche Ideology:**

  The Juche ideology, with its deification of the Kim family leaders, functions as the dominant belief system. Citizens are required to show absolute loyalty and devotion to the Kims, and their portraits are ubiquitous. This state-enforced ideology leaves little room for genuine religious pluralism.
  
  In summary, while the constitution nominally allows religious freedom, the reality in North Korea is one of tight state control over official religious bodies and severe repression of any independent religious practice.

10.8. Human rights

The human rights situation in North Korea is widely considered by international organizations, governments, and UN bodies to be among the worst in the world. The regime is accused of systematic, widespread, and gross human rights violations that constitute crimes against humanity.

11.1. Cultural policy and Juche art

The overarching cultural policy in North Korea is rooted in Juche ideology. This policy dictates that all art, literature, and cultural activities must serve the party, the leader, and the revolution. "Juche art" aims to instill loyalty, patriotism, socialist values, and a revolutionary spirit in the population. Key themes include the glorification of the Kim family leaders, the achievements of the WPK, the revolutionary struggle against Japanese colonialism and American imperialism, the virtues of self-reliance, and the construction of a strong socialist nation. Originality and individual expression are secondary to ideological conformity. Traditional Korean cultural forms are sometimes reinterpreted and utilized if they can serve these ideological ends, but "reactionary" or "bourgeois" elements are rejected.

11.2. Literature and arts

Literary and artistic production in North Korea is characterized by socialist realism and strict adherence to party guidelines. Artists and writers are typically members of state-controlled unions, such as the Artists' Union.

11.2.1. Literature

North Korean literature primarily focuses on themes of revolutionary heroism, loyalty to the leaders, socialist construction, and anti-imperialist struggle. Kim Il Sung's personal works are considered "classical masterpieces," and works created under his instruction are labeled "models of Juche literature," such as The Fate of a Self-Defense Corps Man and the historical novel series Immortal History. Novels, short stories, and poetry often depict idealized characters and events that reinforce state narratives. There is little room for critique or exploration of complex social issues outside the official line. Science fiction is a minor genre, sometimes allowing for more exotic settings but still promoting Juche concepts and technological glorification. Access to foreign literature is extremely limited, though some approved classics or ideologically acceptable works may be available in translation.

11.2.2. Visual arts

Visual arts, including painting, sculpture, and monumental art, predominantly follow the socialist realist style. Portraits and statues of Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il, and Kim Jong Un are ubiquitous and considered "Number One works." These depictions are highly idealized and aim to reinforce the personality cult. The Mansudae Art Studio in Pyongyang is a massive art production center, employing thousands of artists to create paintings, murals, posters, and monuments for both domestic display and export (as a source of foreign currency through its Mansudae Overseas Projects division). Themes often include revolutionary history, industrial and agricultural achievements, and idyllic portrayals of North Korean life. Traditional Korean painting techniques (e.g., ink wash painting) are sometimes incorporated, but subject matter remains ideologically constrained.

11.2.3. Music and dance

Music in North Korea is a powerful tool for propaganda and social mobilization.

• Revolutionary Operas:** The "Five Great Revolutionary Operas" (e.g., Sea of Blood, The Flower Girl), based on traditional Korean ch'angguk (folk opera) but infused with revolutionary themes, are highly promoted. These operas often feature large ensembles and emotional narratives.
• Orchestral and Folk Music:** The State Symphony Orchestra performs both North Korean compositions and some Western classical music (by approved composers). Folk songs and music emphasizing optimistic and patriotic themes are common.
• Pop Music:** State-sanctioned popular music groups like the Pochonbo Electronic Ensemble and, more recently, the Moranbong Band (an all-female group formed under Kim Jong Un) perform songs that praise the leaders and the party, often with modern instrumentation. Themes of comradeship, nostalgia, and national strength are prevalent.
• Dance:** Mass synchronized dances are a hallmark of North Korean cultural performances, particularly during festivals and public celebrations. Traditional Korean dance forms are also preserved and performed, often adapted to fit ideological contexts.

Access to foreign popular music, especially South Korean K-pop, is illegal but occurs through smuggled media.

11.2.4. Film

The North Korean film industry is entirely state-controlled and serves as a key propaganda vehicle. Films typically glorify the leaders, depict revolutionary history, promote socialist values, and portray enemies (especially Americans and Japanese) negatively. Kim Jong Il himself was known to be an avid film enthusiast and wrote a treatise on film theory, On the Art of the Cinema. Notable productions include historical epics, war films, and dramas centered on loyalty and sacrifice. Animation is also produced, often for children, with ideological messages. Shin Sang-ok and Choi Eun-hee, a South Korean film director and actress respectively, were abducted to North Korea in the late 1970s and forced to make films for the regime before their escape.

11.3. Mass media and censorship

All mass media outlets - including newspapers (e.g., Rodong Sinmun, the official organ of the WPK), television (e.g., Korean Central Television), and radio - are strictly state-owned and controlled. They function primarily as mouthpieces for the WPK and the government, disseminating official news, propaganda, and ideological messages.
Censorship is absolute. Access to independent or foreign sources of information is severely restricted. Foreign broadcasts are jammed, and possession or distribution of unauthorized foreign media (e.g., South Korean dramas, K-pop, Western films) is a serious crime punishable by imprisonment or worse. The internet is not accessible to the general public; instead, a tightly controlled domestic intranet called Kwangmyong offers a limited range of state-approved content. The Associated Press was permitted to open a bureau in Pyongyang in 2012, but its operations are also subject to restrictions.

11.4. Sports

Sports are promoted by the state for physical fitness, national prestige, and ideological indoctrination.

• Popular Sports:** Football (soccer), basketball, table tennis, gymnastics, boxing, weightlifting, and martial arts (especially Taekwondo) are popular.
• Training System:** The state operates a system for identifying and training talented athletes from a young age. Successful athletes who win international competitions often receive significant rewards and public recognition.
• International Participation:** North Korea participates in international sporting events like the Olympic Games, Asian Games, and FIFA World Cup. Its national football team, Chollima, famously reached the quarter-finals of the 1966 FIFA World Cup and qualified again in 2010. The country has had particular success in weightlifting, wrestling, and women's football.
• Mass Gymnastics:** Large-scale synchronized gymnastic and artistic performances are a unique feature of North Korean sports culture.

11.4.1. Arirang Mass Games

The Arirang Mass Games (also known as the Grand Mass Gymnastics and Artistic Performance Arirang) are elaborate, large-scale performances held in Pyongyang, typically at the Rungrado 1st of May Stadium, the largest stadium in the world by seating capacity.

• Scale and Spectacle:** These events involve tens of thousands of performers (up to 100,000), including gymnasts, dancers, acrobats, and students who create enormous, highly synchronized mosaic pictures in the background using colored cards (a "human flip-chart").
• Themes:** The performances are highly politicized, depicting episodes from Korean history (often with a strong anti-Japanese and anti-US slant), the revolutionary exploits of the Kim family, the achievements of socialism, and calls for national unity and strength.
• Cultural Significance:** The Arirang Mass Games are a major display of North Korean discipline, organization, and artistic capability, intended to impress both domestic and international audiences. They have been recognized by Guinness World Records as the largest event of their kind. They also serve as a significant tourist attraction and a tool for ideological reinforcement.

11.5. Cuisine

North Korean cuisine shares many similarities with South Korean cuisine but has developed some regional variations and distinct dishes due to geographical differences and historical circumstances.

• Staple Foods:** Rice is the primary staple, though corn, potatoes, and other grains are also important, especially given past food shortages. Noodles are also very popular.
• Signature Dishes:**
  • Naengmyeon (Cold Noodles):** Pyongyang naengmyeon, made with buckwheat noodles in a cold, often beef-based, broth, is perhaps North Korea's most famous dish. Okryu-gwan in Pyongyang is a renowned restaurant specializing in this dish.
  • Bibimbap**: While also popular in the South, North Korean versions exist.
  • Kimchi**: A staple accompaniment to almost every meal, with regional variations.
  • Soups and Stews:** Various soups (guk) and stews (jjigae) are common.
  • Dog Meat (Dangogi)**: Consumed by some, often as a stew (bosintang or dangogiguk), particularly during summer months for its perceived health benefits. Restaurants like Pyongyang Dangogi (Dog Meat) House specialize in it.
• Regional Specialties:** Different regions have their own specialties based on local ingredients. Coastal areas feature more seafood.
• Impact of Food Shortages:** Decades of food shortages have significantly impacted dietary habits. For many, the diet lacks diversity and protein. The Public Distribution System has often failed to provide adequate rations, leading to reliance on informal markets (Jangmadang) and foraging.
• Celebratory Foods:** Special dishes are prepared for holidays and important occasions, often featuring more meat or elaborate preparations when available.
• Drinks:** Soju (a clear distilled spirit) and Taedonggang beer (produced in Pyongyang) are common alcoholic beverages.

Traditional Korean culinary traditions are preserved, but access to a wide variety of ingredients can be limited for the general population.

11.6. Public holidays

Public holidays in North Korea are a mix of traditional Korean observances and politically significant dates related to the Kim family and the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK). Celebrations often involve mass rallies, tributes to the leaders, artistic performances, and special food distributions (when available).

• Major Political Holidays:**
  • Day of the Sun (태양절, Taeyangjeol) - April 15:** Kim Il Sung's birthday. This is the most important public holiday, celebrated with large-scale festivities, mass dances, artistic performances, and pilgrimages to sites associated with him.
  • Day of the Shining Star (광명성절, Gwangmyeongseongjeol) - February 16:** Kim Jong Il's birthday. Also a major holiday with similar celebrations.
  • Party Foundation Day - October 10:** Anniversary of the founding of the Workers' Party of Korea in 1945.
  • Day of the Foundation of the Republic (9.9 Festival) - September 9:** Anniversary of the establishment of the DPRK in 1948.
  • Victory Day (조국해방전쟁 승리 기념일) - July 27:** Commemorates the signing of the Korean War Armistice Agreement in 1953, which North Korea portrays as a victory over the United States.
  • Army Foundation Day - April 25:** Marks the supposed founding of Kim Il Sung's anti-Japanese guerrilla army (now celebrated as the founding of the Korean People's Army).
  • Constitution Day - December 27:** Marks the adoption of the Socialist Constitution.
  • Traditional Holidays:**
    • Lunar New Year's Day (설날, Seollal):** Celebrated according to the lunar calendar, typically a family-oriented holiday.
    • Chuseok (추석, Korean Thanksgiving/Harvest Festival):** Celebrated in autumn according to the lunar calendar, involving ancestral rites and feasting.
    • Dano (수리날, Surinal) - 5th day of the 5th lunar month:** A traditional spring festival.
    • Daeboreum (정월대보름) - 15th day of the 1st lunar month:** First full moon of the lunar new year.
    • Other Holidays:**
      • International Workers' Day (May Day) - May 1.**
      • Liberation Day (조국해방기념일) - August 15:** Marks the end of Japanese colonial rule in 1945.
      • International Women's Day - March 8.**
      • New Year's Day (Solar) - January 1.**

      These holidays are important occasions for ideological indoctrination, reinforcing loyalty to the regime and its history, as well as providing opportunities for collective celebration.

11.7. National treasures and World Heritage sites

North Korea possesses a number of sites and artifacts that are officially designated as National Treasures and Cultural Assets, reflecting its rich historical and cultural heritage. Additionally, two sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

• UNESCO World Heritage Sites:**

1. **Complex of Koguryo Tombs (고구려 고분군):** Inscribed in 2004. This site consists of 30 individual tombs from the later period of the Koguryo (Goguryeo) Kingdom (37 BCE - 668 CE), one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. These tombs, located near Pyongyang and in Nampo, are renowned for their vibrant murals, which provide valuable insights into the daily life, culture, religion (Buddhism, Taoism, shamanism), and burial customs of the Koguryo people. The murals depict portraits, mythological scenes, hunting, feasting, and constellations. The burial customs of Goguryeo influenced civilizations beyond Korea, including Japan.
2. **Historic Monuments and Sites in Kaesong (개성의 역사 기념물과 유적):** Inscribed in 2013. This site encompasses twelve separate components located in the city of Kaesong, which was the capital of the Koryo (Goryeo) Dynasty (918-1392). The sites include palace remains (Manwoldae Palace), tombs (Tomb of King Wang Kon, Tomb of King Kongmin), defensive walls, city gates (Namdaemun), a Confucian academy (Songgyungwan, now the Koryo Museum), steles, and astronomical and meteorological observation sites. These monuments testify to the political, cultural, ideological, and spiritual importance of Kaesong during the Koryo Dynasty, a period when Buddhism was the state religion but Confucianism also played a significant role.

• National Treasures and Cultural Assets:**

Beyond the World Heritage sites, North Korea has designated numerous other historical structures, artifacts, and natural monuments as National Treasures or Cultural Assets. These include:

• Buddhist Temples:** Such as Pohyon Temple in Mount Myohyang and Sǒngbul Temple in Hwanghae Province.
• Pagodas and Steles:** Dating from various historical periods.
• Fortress Walls and Gates:** Remnants of ancient defensive structures.
• Historical Documents and Artifacts:** Preserved in museums and archives.
• Scenic Natural Sites:** Certain mountains, waterfalls, or unique geological formations.

The preservation and promotion of these cultural heritage sites are managed by the state, often with an emphasis on linking them to a narrative of national identity and resilience that aligns with Juche ideology. Access for international researchers and conservation experts can be limited.

12.1. National name, flag, emblem, and anthem

• National Name**: The official name is the **Democratic People's Republic of Korea** (조선민주주의인민공화국_{Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk}^Korean). The short name used domestically is **Chosŏn** (조선_Chosŏn^Korean).
• National Flag**: The flag, officially called 람홍색공화국기_{Ramhongsaek Konghwagukgi}^Korean ("Blue and Red-colored Flag of the Republic"), was adopted on September 8, 1948. It features a central red panel, bordered above and below by a narrow white stripe and a broad blue stripe. The red panel bears a white circle and a red five-pointed star.
  • The red star symbolizes revolutionary traditions and the bright future of socialism/communism.
  • The red panel represents the revolutionary patriotism and fighting spirit of the Korean people.
  • The white circle is often interpreted as representing the taegeuk (yin-yang) symbol, a traditional Korean motif, though simplified, and white symbolizes purity and the homogeneity of the Korean nation.
  • The blue stripes signify the Korean people's desire for peace and their sovereignty.
• National Emblem**: Adopted in September 1948, the emblem features a hydroelectric power plant (specifically the Sup'ung Dam) beneath the sacred Mount Paektu, framed by ears of rice bound with a red ribbon bearing the inscription "조선민주주의인민공화국" (Democratic People's Republic of Korea). At the top is a beaming red five-pointed star. The emblem symbolizes the country's socialist industry and agriculture, its sovereignty, the Juche ideology (with Mount Paektu's revolutionary significance), and the bright prospects of communism.
• National Anthem**: Titled "Aegukka" (애국가_Aegukka^Korean, "Patriotic Song"), the lyrics were written by Pak Se-yong and the music was composed by Kim Won-gyun in 1947. It praises the country's beauty, resources, long history, and the will of its people to build a prosperous and independent nation. It is distinct from the South Korean national anthem, which shares the same title but has different lyrics and music.

12.2. National flower

The national flower of North Korea is the Magnolia sieboldii (목란_Mongnan^Korean). This species of magnolia is native to Korea and other parts of East Asia. It is valued for its beautiful white flowers and fragrance. In North Korea, it is often associated with purity, resilience, and the beauty of the Korean land. It is frequently depicted in art and official imagery. Kim Il Sung reportedly named it "Mongnan" (목란_Mongnan^Korean, meaning "tree orchid" or "beautiful flower on a tree") and praised its qualities, linking it to the spirit of the Korean people. The flower also holds symbolic significance within the narratives surrounding the Kim family's revolutionary activities.