Afghanistan

3.1. Prehistory and antiquity

Human habitation in the region now known as Afghanistan dates back to at least 50,000 years ago, during the Middle Paleolithic era. Archaeological excavations have revealed that farming communities in this area were among the earliest in the world, with evidence of peasant farming villages appearing around 7,000 years ago. Many believe that Afghanistan's archaeological sites rival those of Egypt in historical value. Artifacts from the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages have been discovered across the country.

Urban civilization is thought to have begun as early as 3000 BCE. The ancient city of Mundigak, near Kandahar, was a significant center of the Helmand culture. More recent findings indicate that the Indus Valley Civilization extended its influence into modern-day Afghanistan, with an Indus Valley site found at Shortugai on the Oxus River (Amu Darya) in northern Afghanistan.

After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic peoples from Central Asia, many of whom were Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians, began migrating south into Afghanistan. These tribes later moved further into South Asia, Western Asia, and towards Europe. The region during this period was often referred to as Ariana.

By the mid-6th century BCE, the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, under rulers like Darius the Great, overthrew the Medes and incorporated regions such as Arachosia, Aria, and Bactria into its eastern territories. An inscription on Darius I's tomb lists the Kabul Valley as one of the 29 countries he had conquered. The region of Arachosia, around present-day Kandahar, was a significant center of Zoroastrianism and is considered by some scholars to have played a key role in the transmission of the Avesta (Zoroastrian holy texts) to Persia, sometimes being referred to as the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism."

In 330 BCE, Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan after defeating Darius III of Persia at the Battle of Gaugamela. Alexander's conquest was brief, and following his death, the Seleucid Empire controlled the region. Around 305 BCE, the Seleucids ceded much of this territory to the Maurya Empire of India as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans, under emperors like Ashoka, introduced and promoted Buddhism in the areas south of the Hindu Kush. Their rule lasted until about 185 BCE, when their decline led to a Hellenistic reconquest by the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Much of the region soon broke away to form the Indo-Greek Kingdom. These Hellenistic rulers were eventually defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE.

The Silk Road emerged during the 1st century BCE, and Afghanistan, situated at its heart, flourished with trade. Routes connected China, India, Persia, and cities to the north like Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khiva (in present-day Uzbekistan). This facilitated the exchange of goods such as Chinese silk, Persian silver, and Roman gold, as well as ideas. Afghanistan itself was a source of prized lapis lazuli, mined extensively in the Badakhshan region.

During the 1st century BCE, the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but subsequently lost it to their Indo-Parthian vassals. By the mid-to-late 1st century CE, the vast Kushan Empire, centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, leading to a flourishing of Buddhism throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the Sasanids of Persia in the 3rd century CE, though the Indo-Sasanids continued to rule parts of the region. They were followed by the Kidarites, who in turn were replaced by the Hephthalites (White Huns). In the 7th century, the Turk Shahi dynasty ruled parts of the area. The Buddhist Turk Shahis of Kabul were eventually replaced by a Hindu dynasty, the Hindu Shahis, before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870 CE. Despite these dynastic changes, Buddhist culture remained dominant in much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country.

3.2. Medieval period

In 642 CE, Arab Muslims introduced Islam to Herat and Zaranj in western Afghanistan and began its eastward spread. While some native inhabitants accepted the new faith, others resisted. Before the advent of Islam, the region was a melting pot of various beliefs, including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism (often in its Greco-Buddhist form), ancient Iranian religions, Hinduism, Nestorian Christianity, and Judaism. Syncretism was common, with people often patronizing Buddhism while still worshipping local Iranian deities like Ahura Mazda, Lady Nana, Anahita, or Mihr (Mithra), and sometimes portraying Greek gods as protectors of Buddha.

The Zunbils and Kabul Shahis, who resisted Arab expansion for a considerable time, were eventually conquered in 870 CE by the Saffarid Muslims based in Zaranj. Subsequently, the Samanids, another Persianate dynasty, extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. The Ghaznavids, of Turkic origin, rose to power in the 10th century, with Ghazni as their capital.

By the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni, the most prominent Ghaznavid ruler, had defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively completed the Islamization of the wider region, with the notable exception of Kafiristan (present-day Nuristan), which retained its indigenous beliefs until the late 19th century. Mahmud transformed Ghazni into a major cultural and political center, patronizing intellectuals such as the historian Al-Biruni and the poet Ferdowsi, who composed the epic Shahnameh at his court.

The Ghaznavid dynasty was overthrown by the Ghurids in 1186. The Ghurids, originating from the Ghor region of central Afghanistan, were also patrons of Islamic art and architecture, with the remote Minaret of Jam being one of their most famous achievements. However, Ghurid control over Afghanistan lasted less than a century before they were conquered by the Khwarazmian dynasty in 1215.

3.3. Mongol and Timurid eras

In 1219 CE, Genghis Khan and his Mongol armies overran the region, marking a period of significant devastation. Mongol troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of Herat and Balkh, as well as Bamyan. The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many local populations to revert to an agrarian, rural society, disrupting established urban centers and trade networks.

Mongol rule continued under the Ilkhanate in the northwestern parts of Afghanistan. Meanwhile, the Khalji dynasty, of Turkic origin with Afghan affiliations, administered tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush. This period was relatively short-lived before the rise of Timur (also known as Tamerlane), a Turco-Mongol conqueror who established the Timurid Empire in 1370.

Under Timurid rule, particularly during the reign of Shah Rukh (Timur's son), the city of Herat became a focal point of the Timurid Renaissance. This era witnessed a remarkable cultural and artistic flourishing, with Herat's intellectual and artistic achievements rivaling those of Florence during the Italian Renaissance. The Timurids patronized arts, literature, science, and architecture, leaving a lasting impact on the region's cultural heritage.

In the early 16th century, Babur, a descendant of Timur, arrived from Ferghana (in present-day Uzbekistan) and captured Kabul from the Arghun dynasty. Babur used Kabul as a base to launch his conquest of the Indian subcontinent, eventually defeating the Afghan Lodi dynasty at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and establishing the Mughal Empire in India.

Between the 16th and 18th centuries, parts of Afghan territory were ruled by various external powers. The Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara controlled areas in the north, the Iranian Safavids held sway in the west (including Herat), and the Indian Mughals controlled regions in the east, including Kabul. During this medieval period and up to the 19th century, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was commonly referred to by the regional name Khorasan by its native inhabitants.

3.4. Hotak dynasty and Durrani Empire

In 1709, Mirwais Hotak, a prominent leader of the Ghilzai Pashtun tribe from Kandahar, successfully rebelled against the Safavid Persian rule. He defeated Gurgin Khan, the Georgian governor of Kandahar under the Safavids, and established an independent Pashtun kingdom in the region, known as the Hotak dynasty. Mirwais died in 1715 and was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Aziz. However, Abdul Aziz was soon killed by Mirwais's son, Mahmud, reportedly for planning to make peace with the Safavids.

In 1722, Mahmud Hotak led the Afghan army to the Persian capital of Isfahan. After the decisive Battle of Gulnabad, he captured the city and proclaimed himself King of Persia. This marked a period of Afghan control over Persia. However, the Afghan dynasty was eventually ousted from Persia by Nader Shah, the founder of the Afsharid dynasty, after the Battle of Damghan in 1729.

In 1738, Nader Shah and his Afsharid forces captured Kandahar in the siege of Kandahar, which was the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah Hussain Hotak. Soon after, Nader Shah, accompanied by his young Pashtun commander Ahmad Shah Durrani (then Ahmad Khan Abdali), launched an invasion of India. Nader Shah's forces plundered Delhi. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.

Following Nader Shah's death, Ahmad Shah Durrani returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000 Pashtuns. The Abdali Pashtun tribes unanimously accepted Ahmad Shah as their new leader. In October 1747, a loya jirga (grand assembly) near Kandahar chose Ahmad Shah as king, marking the founding of the Durrani Empire. This event is widely considered the beginning of the modern state of Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah Durrani adopted the title "Durr-i-Durran" (Pearl of Pearls).

Ahmad Shah Durrani launched multiple military campaigns, expanding his empire significantly. He campaigned against the declining Mughal Empire in India, the Maratha Empire, and the weakening Afsharid Empire in Persia. He captured Kabul and Peshawar from the Mughal-appointed governor. Herat was conquered in 1750, and Kashmir was captured in 1752. Ahmad Shah also led two major campaigns into Khorasan (1750-1751 and 1754-1755). His forces besieged Mashhad and Nishapur, eventually securing Afghan sovereignty over parts of Khorasan.

Ahmad Shah invaded India eight times during his reign. His most significant victory was at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, where he decisively defeated the Maratha Confederacy. This battle created a power vacuum in northern India and temporarily halted Maratha expansion.

Ahmad Shah Durrani died in October 1772. His death was followed by a civil war over succession. His designated successor, Timur Shah Durrani, eventually secured the throne after defeating his brother, Suleiman Mirza. Timur Shah moved the capital of the Durrani Empire from Kandahar to Kabul, a more central location. His reign focused on consolidating the empire and quelling rebellions. He also campaigned in Punjab against the Sikhs, achieving some successes, including the recapture of Multan. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, which led to further succession crises and civil wars after his death in May 1793, weakening the Durrani Empire.

Zaman Shah Durrani succeeded his father, Timur Shah, but faced immediate revolts from his brothers, Mahmud Shah Durrani and Humayun Mirza. Zaman Shah defeated Humayun and initially secured Mahmud Shah's loyalty. He launched campaigns into Punjab but was forced to withdraw due to threats of a Qajar Persian invasion. Zaman Shah was eventually overthrown by Mahmud Shah Durrani. Mahmud Shah's first reign was short-lived; he was deposed by his brother Shah Shuja Durrani in 1803. Shah Shuja attempted to consolidate the empire but was himself overthrown by Mahmud Shah at the Battle of Nimla in 1809, marking Mahmud Shah's second reign. These internal conflicts significantly eroded the power and extent of the Durrani Empire.

3.5. Barakzai dynasty and British influence

By the early 19th century, the Durrani Empire was severely weakened by internal strife and external pressures from the Qajar dynasty of Persia to the west and the Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh to the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the powerful Barakzai tribe and vizier to Mahmud Shah Durrani, had installed many of his brothers in positions of power. After Fateh Khan was brutally murdered in 1818 by Mahmud Shah, the Barakzai brothers rebelled, leading to a prolonged civil war. Afghanistan fractured into several smaller states, including the Principality of Qandahar, the Emirate of Herat, the Khanate of Kunduz, and the Maimana Khanate. The most prominent of these was the Emirate of Kabul, ruled by Dost Mohammad Khan, one of Fateh Khan's brothers.

With the collapse of Durrani authority, Punjab and Kashmir were lost to Ranjit Singh. The Sikhs captured Peshawar in March 1823 after the Battle of Nowshera. In 1834, Dost Mohammad Khan defeated an attempt by the former Durrani ruler Shah Shuja Durrani (supported by the British) to reclaim Kabul in the Expedition of Shuja ul-Mulk. In 1837, Dost Mohammad Khan's forces, led by his son Wazir Akbar Khan, fought the Sikhs at the Battle of Jamrud near the Khyber Pass. Although the Afghans failed to capture the Jamrud Fort, they killed the renowned Sikh commander Hari Singh Nalwa, effectively ending the Afghan-Sikh Wars.

By this time, the British Empire, advancing from India, and the Russian Empire, expanding from Central Asia, were vying for influence in the region, a period known as "The Great Game". Afghanistan became a critical buffer state. The British, fearing Russian encroachment towards India, launched the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842). A British expeditionary force invaded, captured Kandahar, and seized Kabul in August 1839, reinstalling Shah Shuja Durrani as a puppet ruler. Dost Mohammad Khan, after initial successes, surrendered but was later allowed to return. An uprising against British occupation led to the assassination of Shah Shuja and the disastrous 1842 retreat from Kabul, where Elphinstone's army was annihilated. A punitive British expedition later sacked Kabul but ultimately withdrew, allowing Dost Mohammad Khan to return as ruler.

Dost Mohammad Khan then focused on reunifying much of Afghanistan, conquering Balkh, Kunduz, and Kandahar. His final campaign was against Herat, which he captured in 1863, shortly before his death. Despite the First Anglo-Afghan War, he maintained relatively friendly relations with the British, signing the Second Anglo-Afghan treaty in 1857 and resisted pressure from Bukhara and internal religious leaders to invade India during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Dost Mohammad's death in 1863 led to another civil war among his sons, primarily Mohammad Afzal Khan, Mohammad Azam Khan, and Sher Ali Khan. Sher Ali Khan emerged victorious in the Afghan Civil War (1863-1869). British concerns about Russian influence resurfaced, leading to the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880). Sher Ali retreated north but died soon after. His son, Mohammad Yaqub Khan, became Amir and signed the Treaty of Gandamak in 1879, which ceded control of Afghanistan's foreign relations to Britain, making it an official British Protected State. An uprising in Kabul restarted the conflict, leading to Yaqub Khan's deposition. Abdur Rahman Khan, a grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan, seized power with British recognition. Ayub Khan, another claimant, defeated British forces at the Battle of Maiwand but was subsequently defeated at the Battle of Kandahar, securing Abdur Rahman's rule and ending the war.

Abdur Rahman Khan, known as the "Iron Amir" for his ruthlessness, consolidated power and centralized the state. In 1893, he signed an agreement with British India establishing the Durand Line as the border between Afghanistan and British India. This line divided Pashtun and Baloch territories, leading to long-standing tensions with Pakistan. He also conquered the Shia-dominated Hazarajat and pagan Kafiristan (renamed Nuristan) between 1891 and 1896, bringing these regions under central Afghan control. He died in 1901 and was succeeded by his son, Habibullah Khan.

Habibullah Khan maintained Afghanistan's neutrality during World War I, despite efforts by the Central Powers (the Niedermayer-Hentig Expedition) to persuade him to join them and attack British India. This neutrality caused some internal discontent. Habibullah was assassinated in February 1919, and his son Amanullah Khan eventually assumed power. Amanullah Khan, a supporter of full independence, invaded British India, initiating the Third Anglo-Afghan War.

3.6. Independence and Kingdom era

Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi on August 19, 1919, Emir Amanullah Khan declared the Emirate of Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state. He moved to end Afghanistan's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with the newly formed Soviet Union and the Weimar Republic of Germany. On June 9, 1926, he proclaimed himself King of Afghanistan, establishing the Kingdom of Afghanistan.

King Amanullah Khan initiated a series of ambitious reforms aimed at modernizing the nation. A key figure behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, his father-in-law and foreign minister, who was an ardent supporter of education, particularly for women. Tarzi championed Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 constitution, which made elementary education compulsory. Slavery was officially abolished in 1923. King Amanullah's wife, Queen Soraya, played a significant role during this period, advocating for women's education and opposing their oppression.

Some of Amanullah's reforms, such as the abolition of the traditional burqa for women and the opening of co-educational schools, alienated many tribal and religious leaders. This opposition, coupled with social and economic grievances, led to the Afghan Civil War (1928-1929). Facing widespread rebellion, King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929. Kabul soon fell to Saqqawist forces led by Habibullah Kalakani, a Tajik leader.

Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, eventually defeated and executed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned many of Amanullah's rapid reforms in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization. However, Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Khaliq, a Hazara student.

Mohammed Zahir Shah, Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned as king from 1933 to 1973. His long rule was marked by relative stability, though challenged by the tribal revolts of 1944-1947, led by figures such as Mazrak Zadran and Mirzali Khan, many of whom were loyal to Amanullah. Afghanistan joined the League of Nations in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a national bank, and increased access to education. Road links in the north contributed to a growing cotton and textile industry. The country built close relationships with the Axis powers, with Nazi Germany playing a significant role in Afghan development at the time.

Until 1946, King Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncles, who held the post of Prime Minister of Afghanistan and continued Nadir Shah's policies. From 1946 to 1953, another uncle, Shah Mahmud Khan, served as prime minister and experimented with greater political freedom. In 1953, he was replaced by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud Khan, a Pashtun nationalist, pursued the creation of a "Pashtunistan" (a state for all Pashtuns), leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan. He also pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union. During his "Decade of Daoud" (1953-1963), Afghanistan received significant Soviet development aid. Following Daoud Khan's dismissal by the King, the 1964 constitution was promulgated, introducing a period of constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, and the first non-royal prime minister was sworn in.

Throughout his reign, Zahir Shah, like his father, aimed to maintain national independence while pursuing gradual modernization and fostering nationalist sentiment. Afghanistan remained neutral during World War II and was not aligned with either power bloc in the Cold War. However, it benefited from the Cold War rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by funding major infrastructure projects like highways and airports.

3.7. Republic and Saur Revolution

In 1973, while King Zahir Shah was in Italy for medical treatment, his cousin and former Prime Minister, Mohammed Daoud Khan, launched a bloodless coup d'état. Daoud Khan abolished the monarchy and declared himself the first President of Afghanistan, establishing the Republic of Afghanistan. He initially enjoyed support from various factions, including some leftist elements. However, Daoud Khan's rule became increasingly autocratic, and he suppressed political opposition, including the nascent communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). His attempts to reduce Soviet influence and improve relations with Western and Islamic countries, alongside internal power struggles and economic difficulties, created an environment of discontent.

On April 27, 1978, the PDPA, with support from elements within the Afghan military, staged a violent coup known as the Saur Revolution. President Daoud Khan and most of his family were killed. The PDPA seized power and declared the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, a socialist state. Nur Muhammad Taraki, General Secretary of the PDPA, became the head of state (Chairman of the Revolutionary Council) and Prime Minister. The PDPA government immediately embarked on a radical program of socio-economic reforms, including land redistribution, secularization of marriage laws, and campaigns against illiteracy. These reforms, often implemented forcefully and without regard for traditional customs or religious sensitivities, provoked widespread opposition, particularly in rural areas. This opposition quickly coalesced into armed resistance by various groups collectively known as the Mujahideen. The PDPA itself was deeply divided between two main factions: the more radical Khalq (People) faction, led by Taraki and Hafizullah Amin, and the more moderate Parcham (Banner) faction, led by Babrak Karmal. Internal power struggles within the PDPA, particularly between Taraki and Amin, further destabilized the regime.

3.8. Soviet-Afghan War

The Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989) was a devastating conflict that followed the Soviet Union's military intervention in Afghanistan to support the struggling communist government of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) against a growing insurgency by the Mujahideen.

The background to the war lay in the aftermath of the 1978 Saur Revolution, which brought the PDPA to power. The PDPA's radical reforms and brutal suppression of dissent led to widespread rebellion. Internal factionalism within the PDPA, particularly between the Khalq and Parcham factions, further weakened the regime. In September 1979, Hafizullah Amin overthrew and killed Nur Muhammad Taraki. Amin's increasingly erratic and brutal rule, coupled with the regime's inability to quell the Mujahideen insurgency, alarmed the Soviet leadership. Fearing the collapse of a friendly socialist state on its southern border and the potential spread of Islamic fundamentalism into Soviet Central Asia, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan on December 24, 1979. Soviet forces quickly occupied Kabul, killed Amin, and installed Babrak Karmal, leader of the Parcham faction, as the new head of state.

The Soviet intervention transformed the internal conflict into a major Cold War proxy war. The Mujahideen, a diverse coalition of Islamist groups, received substantial support from the United States (through Operation Cyclone), Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, China, and other countries. Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) played a crucial role in training and channeling aid to the Mujahideen. The resistance fighters waged a protracted guerrilla war against the technologically superior Soviet and Afghan government forces. Key Mujahideen commanders included Ahmad Shah Massoud, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, and Ismail Khan.

The war had a profound humanitarian impact. Estimates of Afghan deaths range from 562,000 to over 2 million civilians and combatants. Around 6 million Afghans became refugees, fleeing primarily to Pakistan and Iran, creating one of the largest refugee crises of the 20th century. Millions more were internally displaced. The conflict devastated Afghanistan's infrastructure, economy, and social fabric. Heavy Soviet air bombardment destroyed numerous villages, and millions of landmines were planted, causing long-term civilian casualties. Cities like Herat and Kandahar also suffered significant damage.

The Soviet military, despite its superior firepower, struggled to defeat the Mujahideen in the rugged Afghan terrain. The war became a costly quagmire for the Soviet Union, often referred to as its "Vietnam." Growing domestic opposition to the war, mounting casualties, and the economic burden led Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to seek a withdrawal. The Geneva Accords were signed in April 1988, and the Soviet withdrawal was completed on February 15, 1989.

The Soviet-Afghan War left a legacy of destruction and instability. It fueled the rise of radical Islamist groups, contributed to the militarization of Afghan society, and exacerbated ethnic and tribal divisions. The war's geopolitical consequences were also significant, contributing to the weakening of the Soviet Union and altering regional power dynamics. The departure of Soviet troops did not bring peace, as the PDPA government, now led by Mohammad Najibullah, continued to fight the Mujahideen in the ensuing civil war.

3.9. Civil war and First Taliban regime

Following the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, the communist government of President Mohammad Najibullah continued to fight the Mujahideen in the Afghan Civil War (1989-1992). However, with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the cessation of Soviet aid, Najibullah's regime weakened significantly and fell in April 1992.

The Mujahideen factions, despite their common enemy, were deeply divided along ethnic, tribal, and ideological lines. The Peshawar Accords led to the formation of the Islamic State of Afghanistan, a coalition government. However, infighting quickly broke out among the various factions, most notably between forces loyal to President Burhanuddin Rabbani and Ahmad Shah Massoud (predominantly Tajik Jamiat-e Islami) and those of Prime Minister Gulbuddin Hekmatyar (Pashtun Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin). Other factions, such as Abdul Rashid Dostum's Uzbek Junbish-i Milli and various Hazara Shia groups, also played significant roles, often shifting alliances. The ensuing civil war (1992-1996) devastated Kabul and other parts of the country, leading to widespread civilian casualties, displacement, and human rights abuses.

Amidst this chaos, the Taliban emerged in southern Afghanistan in 1994. Composed largely of Pashtun religious students (talib) from madrassas in Pakistan and Afghanistan, and led by Mohammed Omar, the Taliban promised to restore order and implement a strict interpretation of Islamic law (Sharia). They received significant support from Pakistan and, to some extent, Saudi Arabia.

The Taliban quickly gained territory, capturing Kandahar in late 1994 and Herat in 1995. In September 1996, they captured Kabul, ousting the Rabbani government, which retreated to northern Afghanistan. The Taliban declared the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Their rule (1996-2001) was characterized by the severe enforcement of their interpretation of Sharia law. This included public executions and amputations, a ban on music, television, and most forms of recreation, and strict dress codes.

The Taliban's policies had a particularly devastating impact on women's rights. Women were largely barred from education and employment, required to wear the burqa in public, and severely restricted in their freedom of movement. Violations were met with harsh punishments by the Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice. Ethnic minorities, particularly the Hazaras, also faced persecution and massacres. The Taliban regime was internationally isolated, recognized only by Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. They provided sanctuary to Osama bin Laden and his al-Qaeda network, which established training camps in Afghanistan.

The remaining anti-Taliban forces, primarily composed of Massoud's Jamiat-e Islami, Dostum's Junbish-i Milli, and Hazara factions, formed the Northern Alliance (officially the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan). They continued to resist Taliban rule, controlling a small portion of northeastern Afghanistan. On September 9, 2001, just two days before the September 11 attacks, Ahmad Shah Massoud was assassinated by al-Qaeda operatives posing as journalists.

3.10. US-led intervention and Islamic Republic

Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the United States identified Osama bin Laden and his al-Qaeda network, hosted by the Taliban in Afghanistan, as responsible. The US demanded that the Taliban hand over bin Laden. When the Taliban refused, the US, with support from allies including the United Kingdom, launched Operation Enduring Freedom on October 7, 2001, initiating the US-led invasion of Afghanistan. The invasion involved airstrikes against Taliban and al-Qaeda targets, coupled with support for the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance. By December 2001, the Taliban regime had collapsed, and many of its leaders, along with al-Qaeda members, fled to Pakistan or remote areas of Afghanistan.

In December 2001, the Bonn Agreement established the Afghan Interim Administration headed by Hamid Karzai. The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was created by the UN Security Council to provide security and assist the new Afghan government. The country faced immense challenges: a shattered infrastructure, a devastated economy, widespread poverty, high infant and child mortality rates, and millions of refugees and internally displaced persons. International donors pledged significant aid for reconstruction.

A loya jirga in 2002 appointed Karzai as President of the Afghan Transitional Administration. A new constitution was adopted in January 2004, establishing the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Presidential elections were held in October 2004, which Karzai won. Parliamentary elections followed in 2005.

Despite these efforts, the Taliban regrouped and launched an insurgency against the new Afghan government and ISAF forces. The conflict escalated over the years, with the Taliban employing guerrilla tactics, suicide bombings, and improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Pakistan was repeatedly accused of providing sanctuary and support to the Taliban, a charge it denied. The war caused significant civilian casualties and hampered reconstruction efforts.

The international military presence peaked at around 140,000 troops in 2011, with the US contributing the largest contingent. Efforts were made to train and equip the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) to eventually take over security responsibilities. However, challenges such as corruption, weak governance, and the persistent insurgency undermined progress.

Hamid Karzai served two terms as president. The 2014 presidential election was marked by allegations of fraud and resulted in a power-sharing agreement, with Ashraf Ghani becoming president and Abdullah Abdullah becoming Chief Executive.

In December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations, transitioning to a new, smaller mission called Operation Resolute Support, focused on training, advising, and assisting Afghan security forces. However, the security situation remained fragile, with the Taliban and other insurgent groups, including a branch of the Islamic State (ISIL-KP), continuing their attacks.

The war in Afghanistan (2001-2021) had a devastating human cost. Estimates suggest that over 176,000 people were killed in the conflict, including tens of thousands of civilians. Peace talks between the US and the Taliban gained momentum in the late 2010s, leading to the Doha Agreement in February 2020. This agreement stipulated the withdrawal of US and NATO forces in exchange for Taliban counter-terrorism guarantees and a commitment to intra-Afghan peace negotiations.

3.11. Second Taliban regime

The withdrawal of US and NATO troops from Afghanistan, initiated under the Doha Agreement of February 2020 and accelerated by the Biden administration in 2021, set the stage for the Taliban's rapid return to power. As international forces departed, the Taliban launched a major offensive across the country starting in May 2021. The Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF), despite years of international training and billions of dollars in support, proved unable to withstand the Taliban advance, collapsing quickly in many areas. Contributing factors to the ANSF's collapse included a lack of US air support following the Doha deal, corruption, poor leadership, logistical failures, and low morale.

By early August 2021, the Taliban had captured numerous provincial capitals. On August 15, 2021, Taliban forces entered Kabul, and President Ashraf Ghani fled the country, leading to the collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. The Taliban declared victory and the re-establishment of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The rapid takeover led to chaotic scenes at Kabul's Hamid Karzai International Airport as thousands of Afghans and foreign nationals attempted to evacuate. The US and its allies conducted a massive airlift operation, which ended with the departure of the last US troops on August 30, 2021, formally concluding the 20-year war.

On September 7, 2021, the Taliban announced an interim government, led by Hasan Akhund as Acting Prime Minister and with Hibatullah Akhundzada as the Supreme Leader. The cabinet was composed almost entirely of Taliban loyalists, predominantly Pashtuns, with no women included, drawing international criticism for its lack of inclusivity.

The Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized by any country As of November 2024. The international community has expressed grave concerns over the human rights situation, particularly the severe restrictions imposed on women and girls, including bans on secondary and higher education for girls, exclusion from most forms of employment, and strict dress codes. Freedom of speech, assembly, and the media have also been significantly curtailed. Ethnic and religious minorities, such as the Hazaras, have reported increased persecution.

Afghanistan plunged into a severe humanitarian crisis following the Taliban takeover. The freezing of Afghan central bank assets held abroad (primarily by the US) and the suspension of most international aid led to an economic collapse, widespread poverty, and food insecurity. While the Taliban have claimed some success in tackling corruption and improving security in some areas, armed conflict persists, primarily from the Islamic State - Khorasan Province (ISIL-KP) and an anti-Taliban republican insurgency, notably the National Resistance Front (NRF) based in the Panjshir Valley, although Taliban forces largely suppressed organized resistance there by mid-September 2021.

In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered the expulsion of undocumented Afghans, leading to a further humanitarian challenge for the Taliban authorities. Iran also deported Afghan nationals. The Taliban condemned these deportations. The country continues to face immense challenges related to governance, economic recovery, human rights, and international relations. In a notable development, Taliban representatives attended the 2024 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP29) in November 2024, marking their first participation in such a UN summit since returning to power, emphasizing climate change as a humanitarian rather than political issue.

4.1. Topography

Afghanistan's topography is largely characterized by rugged mountains and high plateaus, with the Hindu Kush range being its most dominant feature. This vast mountain system runs from the northeast, where it connects with the Pamir and Karakoram ranges, southwestwards across much of the country, effectively dividing it. Many of the highest peaks, including Noshaq (25 K ft ^{(7.49 K m)}), are located in the eastern Hindu Kush and the Wakhan Corridor. These mountainous regions contain fertile valleys that have historically supported agriculture and settlement.

North of the central Hindu Kush highlands lies the Turkestan Plains (or Northern Plains), an area of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts that gradually slope towards the Amu Darya (Oxus River), which forms part of Afghanistan's northern border with Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. This region is agriculturally important, particularly along river valleys.

To the southwest of the Hindu Kush, the terrain transitions into arid plateaus and desert basins. The Sistan Basin, located in the southwest bordering Iran, is an endorheic basin and one of the driest regions in the world. It is fed by several rivers, most notably the Helmand River, Afghanistan's longest river, which originates in the Hindu Kush and flows southwestward into the Hamun wetlands in the Sistan Basin. Other significant rivers include the Kabul River, which flows east to join the Indus River in Pakistan, and the Hari Rud (Harirud River), which flows west from the central highlands towards Herat and then north along the Iranian border before dissipating in Turkmenistan.

The country also features distinct geographical areas like the Hazarajat in the central highlands, primarily inhabited by the Hazara people, and regions like Nuristan in the east, known for its forests and rugged valleys.

4.2. Climate

Afghanistan predominantly features a continental climate characterized by significant temperature variations between seasons and even between day and night. Winters are generally harsh, especially in the central highlands (Hazarajat), the glaciated northeast (around Nuristan and the Wakhan Corridor), where average January temperatures can fall below 5 °F ^{(-15 °C)} and reach as low as -14.799999999999997 °F ^{(-26 °C)}. Summers, in contrast, are hot and dry, particularly in the low-lying areas such as the Sistan Basin in the southwest, the Jalalabad basin in the east, and the Turkestan plains along the Amu River in the north, where average July temperatures exceed 95 °F ^{(35 °C)} and can surpass 109.4 °F ^{(43 °C)}.

Precipitation is generally low across most of the country and primarily occurs during the winter and spring months (December to April), often as snowfall in the mountains. The lower-lying areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest. The eastern parts of the country, particularly the Nuristan region, can receive some summer monsoon rains due to their proximity to the Indian subcontinent, although most of Afghanistan lies outside the main monsoon zone.

Climate change is a significant and growing concern for Afghanistan. Despite contributing minimally to global greenhouse gas emissions, it is one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change impacts. These impacts include more frequent and severe droughts, leading to desertification, reduced water availability, and threats to food security. Rising temperatures are also causing glacier melt in the Hindu Kush, which can initially increase water flow but poses long-term risks of water scarcity and glacial lake outburst floods. Extreme rainfall events, when they occur, can lead to flash floods and landslides, particularly in mountainous regions. These climatic changes exacerbate existing vulnerabilities and pose serious challenges to agriculture, livelihoods, and human well-being, potentially leading to increased internal displacement. On November 10, 2024, Afghanistan's Foreign Ministry confirmed that Taliban representatives would attend the 2024 United Nations Climate Change Conference, marking the first time the country participated since the Taliban's return to power in 2021, with officials stressing climate change as a humanitarian, not political, issue.

4.3. Biodiversity

Afghanistan's diverse geography supports a varied range of flora and fauna, although decades of conflict and environmental degradation have posed significant threats to its biodiversity. The country is home to several distinct ecoregions, from alpine tundra to desert plains.

Fauna: Notable mammal species include the elusive snow leopard (Panthera uncia), which inhabits the high-altitude alpine regions of the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains and is considered the national animal. The Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii), known for its long, spiraling horns, is found exclusively in the Wakhan Corridor. Other mountain dwellers include the ibex and marmots. Forested areas in the east, such as Nuristan, provide habitat for species like brown bears, wolves, lynx, and various deer. The semi-desert northern plains are home to hedgehogs, gophers, jackals, and hyenas. Gazelles and wild boars can be found in the steppe plains of the south and west, while mongooses and cheetahs (though extremely rare) have been reported in the southern semi-deserts. The native Afghan hound is a distinctive dog breed known for its speed and long hair.

Endemic fauna includes the Afghan flying squirrel, Afghan snowfinch, the Paghman mountain salamander (Paradactylodon), the Afghan leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius afghanicus), and several insect species like Stigmella kasyi and Vulcaniella kabulensis. Afghanistan has a rich avifauna, with an estimated 460 bird species, of which around 235 breed within the country.

Flora: The forest regions of Afghanistan, primarily in the east and some central areas, feature vegetation such as pine trees, spruce trees, fir trees, and larches. The East Afghan montane conifer forests ecoregion is particularly noteworthy. Steppe and grassland regions are characterized by broadleaf trees (often in riverine areas), short grasses, perennial plants, and shrublands. The colder, high-elevation areas are dominated by hardy grasses and small flowering plants. Pistachio woodlands are also a significant feature in some areas. Endemic flora includes species like Iris afghanica. Forest cover is limited, estimated at around 2% of the total land area.

Conservation: Afghanistan has several protected areas, including three national parks: Band-e Amir National Park, renowned for its series of brilliant blue travertine lakes; Wakhan National Park in the remote northeast, home to snow leopards and Marco Polo sheep; and Nuristan National Park, encompassing rugged forested mountains. Conservation efforts face numerous challenges, including ongoing insecurity, poverty (leading to unsustainable resource use like deforestation and overgrazing), illegal wildlife trade, and the impacts of climate change. The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries, indicating relatively intact forest landscapes in some areas, though overall forest cover is low.

5.1. Governance under the Taliban

Since regaining power in August 2021, the Taliban have established a de facto government known as the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The supreme authority rests with the Supreme Leader (Amir al-Mu'minin), currently Hibatullah Akhundzada, who holds ultimate decision-making power on all major state affairs, typically based in Kandahar.

A caretaker cabinet, announced in September 2021, manages the day-to-day administration of the country. This cabinet is led by an Acting Prime Minister, currently Hasan Akhund, and includes various ministers overseeing different government departments. Key positions are predominantly held by Taliban figures, many of whom were part of the previous Taliban regime (1996-2001) or are influential in the current movement, including members of the Haqqani network. The cabinet notably lacks representation from women and most ethnic minority groups, drawing significant international criticism for its lack of inclusivity.

The legal framework under the Taliban is based on their interpretation of Islamic Sharia law. The 2004 constitution of the Islamic Republic has been suspended or largely disregarded. While the Taliban have stated they would govern according to Sharia, specifics of the legal system, including the roles of formal courts and judicial processes, remain opaque and have been subject to ad hoc decrees. Traditional consultative mechanisms like the loya jirga (grand assembly), historically used for major national decisions, have not been formally convened by the Taliban in a manner consistent with past inclusive practices, though some large gatherings of clerics and tribal elders have been held.

The governance structure is highly centralized, with key decisions emanating from the Supreme Leader and the Taliban leadership council (Rahbari Shura). There is a Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice, which enforces the Taliban's social and religious edicts. As of June 2024, no country has formally recognized the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as the de jure government of Afghanistan, reflecting widespread international concerns about human rights, inclusivity, and governance.

5.2. Administrative divisions

Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayat). Each province is headed by a governor, who is appointed by the central government. Provincial governors are responsible for local administration, security coordination, and implementation of national policies at the provincial level.

The provinces are further subdivided into numerous districts (wuleswali). There are nearly 400 districts in total. Each district is typically headed by a district governor, also appointed by the central or provincial authorities. Districts usually encompass a city or a collection of villages and represent a key level of local governance and service delivery, although capacity and resources at this level have historically been limited and vary significantly across the country.

Major cities like Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, and Mazar-i-Sharif serve as provincial capitals and are important economic, political, and cultural centers. Municipal governance in these cities involves mayors, who under previous systems were sometimes elected but are currently appointed by the Taliban administration.

The system of administrative divisions has remained largely consistent through various political changes in Afghanistan, though the control and influence of the central government over provinces and districts have fluctuated depending on the prevailing security and political situation. Under the current Taliban administration, appointments to provincial and district leadership positions are made by the Taliban leadership.

The 34 provinces, in alphabetical order, are:

• Badakhshan
• Badghis
• Baghlan
• Balkh
• Bamyan
• Daykundi
• Farah
• Faryab
• Ghazni
• Ghor
• Helmand
• Herat
• Jowzjan
• Kabul
• Kandahar
• Kapisa
• Khost
• Kunar
• Kunduz
• Laghman
• Logar
• Nangarhar
• Nimruz
• Nuristan
• Oruzgan
• Paktia
• Paktika
• Panjshir
• Parwan
• Samangan
• Sar-e Pol
• Takhar
• Wardak
• Zabul

5.3. Foreign relations

Afghanistan's foreign relations under the de facto Taliban administration are complex and largely defined by its lack of formal international recognition. Since the Taliban's return to power in August 2021, no country has officially recognized their government. Most Western nations and international organizations suspended diplomatic relations and development aid, citing concerns over human rights, particularly women's rights, the lack of an inclusive government, and counter-terrorism assurances. Afghanistan's seat at the United Nations continues to be held by representatives of the former Islamic Republic.

Historically, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality during the Cold War, though it received aid from both blocs. It has been a member of the United Nations since 1946. Under the Islamic Republic (2004-2021), Afghanistan developed close ties with NATO countries, particularly the United States, which designated it a major non-NATO ally (a status later rescinded in 2022). It also maintained relations with regional powers like India and Turkey.

Currently, the Taliban regime engages with regional countries primarily on issues of trade, security, and humanitarian aid. Countries like China, Pakistan, Russia, Iran, and some Central Asian states have maintained diplomatic missions in Kabul or engaged with Taliban officials, though stopping short of formal recognition. Qatar has played a significant role as an intermediary, hosting a Taliban political office.

Foreign policy challenges for the Taliban include gaining international legitimacy, accessing frozen Afghan central bank assets, addressing international sanctions, ensuring continued humanitarian assistance to prevent a worsening crisis, and managing border issues and security concerns with neighboring countries. The international community largely conditions any future normalization of relations on the Taliban's adherence to international human rights norms, inclusive governance, and verifiable counter-terrorism measures.

5.4. Military

Following the Taliban's takeover in August 2021 and the collapse of the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, the de facto armed forces of the country are those controlled by the Taliban, often referred to as the Islamic Emirate Army or the Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.

The Taliban's forces largely consist of fighters who were part of their insurgency. Upon taking power, they captured a vast arsenal of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, and equipment previously supplied to the ANSF by the United States and other NATO allies. This captured equipment significantly bolstered their military capabilities. Estimates of the total value of this equipment run into many billions of US dollars.

The structure of the Taliban's military is evolving. It includes former insurgent units, and there have been efforts to create a more conventional army structure, incorporating some former ANSF personnel, though this has been limited. Key Taliban military leaders now occupy positions such as the Minister of Defense. The Taliban have announced plans to build a regular army, including potentially reactivating some of the captured aircraft and heavy weaponry.

The primary focus of the Taliban's military is currently on internal security, consolidating control over the country, countering remaining pockets of resistance (such as the National Resistance Front and the Islamic State - Khorasan Province (ISKP)), and border security. Their policies regarding recruitment, training, and military doctrine are largely based on their ideological interpretations and past insurgent experiences. The long-term capabilities, professionalism, and adherence to international norms of the Taliban's armed forces remain key concerns for the international community.

5.5. Human rights

The human rights situation in Afghanistan has deteriorated significantly since the Taliban's return to power in August 2021, drawing widespread international condemnation and raising grave concerns for the well-being and fundamental freedoms of the Afghan population. This section focuses on the impact of the Taliban regime on citizens' rights, reflecting a perspective centered on social justice and universal human rights principles.

Key areas of concern include:

• Freedom of Speech and Assembly: Freedoms of expression and assembly have been severely curtailed. Media outlets face restrictions, journalists have been detained and intimidated, and critical reporting is suppressed. Peaceful protests, particularly those led by women, have often been met with force.
• Freedom of Religion: While the Taliban adhere to a strict interpretation of Sunni Islam, the rights of religious minorities, including Shia Muslims (particularly Hazaras), Sikhs, and Hindus, are under threat. There have been reports of discrimination, attacks on places of worship, and pressure to conform to Taliban's religious edicts. The small Christian community practices in secret due to fear of persecution.
• Justice System and Due Process: The formal justice system of the previous republic has been largely dismantled or sidelined. Taliban courts, often applying their interpretation of Sharia law, have been established. Concerns exist regarding the lack of due process, fair trial standards, the independence of the judiciary, and the imposition of harsh punishments, including public floggings and executions. Extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances have also been reported.
• Restrictions on Civil Society: Independent civil society organizations, including human rights groups, face immense pressure and restrictions on their activities, severely limiting their ability to monitor and report on human rights violations.
• Torture and Ill-Treatment: Reports persist of torture and ill-treatment of detainees by Taliban forces, particularly those accused of affiliation with the former government or resistance groups.
• Targeting of Former Officials and Security Forces: Despite a declared general amnesty, there have been numerous credible reports of reprisal killings, detentions, and disappearances of individuals associated with the former Afghan government and its security forces.

The Taliban's governance has led to a systematic erosion of human rights protections that had been established over the previous two decades. The international community has consistently called on the Taliban to respect their international human rights obligations, ensure accountability for violations, and establish an inclusive government that protects the rights of all Afghans. The human rights situation remains a major obstacle to international recognition and engagement with the Taliban regime. In January 2025, the International Criminal Court issued two warrants against the Supreme Leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and Chief Justice Abdul Hakim Haqqani for crimes against humanity related to the oppression of Afghan women and girls.

6.1. Agriculture

Agriculture is a cornerstone of the Afghan economy, traditionally employing a large portion of the workforce (around 40% as of 2018) and contributing significantly to the GDP. The country is known for producing a variety of fruits and nuts, including pomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, and almonds, which are important exports. Staple crops include wheat, maize, and barley. Irrigation is crucial for agriculture due to the arid and semi-arid climate, with systems ranging from traditional canals (karez) to modern water pumps.

A significant and problematic aspect of Afghan agriculture has been the cultivation of opium poppies. Afghanistan has historically been the world's largest producer of opium, the raw material for heroin. This illicit trade provided livelihoods for many rural families but also fueled corruption, conflict, and addiction. Since their return to power in 2021, the Taliban have issued decrees banning poppy cultivation and trade. Reports in 2023 indicated a significant reduction in poppy cultivation, particularly in southern provinces like Helmand, though the long-term sustainability of this ban and its economic impact on farmers remain critical concerns. Efforts to promote alternative livelihoods, such as the cultivation of high-value crops like saffron, have been ongoing but face challenges in scale and market access.

Saffron has emerged as a promising alternative crop, particularly in provinces like Herat. Afghan saffron has gained international recognition for its quality. Other agricultural products include cotton and various vegetables.

Challenges facing the agricultural sector include drought (exacerbated by climate change), lack of access to modern farming techniques and inputs, poor infrastructure for storage and transportation, limited access to credit, and insecurity. The disruption of international aid and banking restrictions since August 2021 have further strained the sector, impacting food security for millions of Afghans.

6.2. Mining

Afghanistan possesses vast and diverse untapped mineral resources, estimated to be worth at least 1.00 T USD, and potentially up to 3.00 T USD. These resources include significant deposits of copper, iron ore, lithium, rare earth elements, gold, chromite, coal, natural gas, petroleum, talc, barite, sulfur, lead, zinc, and precious and semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, emeralds, and rubies.

Notable deposits include:

• Copper:** The Mes Aynak copper deposit in Logar province is one of the largest undeveloped copper deposits in the world. A 30-year lease was granted to a Chinese consortium in 2007, but development has been slow due to security issues and archaeological concerns (an ancient Buddhist city is located at the site).
• Iron Ore:** The Hajigak deposit in Bamyan province is one of Asia's largest and highest-quality iron ore deposits. An Indian consortium won rights to develop parts of it, but progress has also been limited.
• Lithium and Rare Earth Elements (REEs):** Afghanistan is believed to have significant lithium deposits, particularly in provinces like Ghazni and Herat, crucial for battery production. The Khanashin carbonatite in Helmand Province is reported to contain substantial REEs.
• Lapis Lazuli:** Historically mined for thousands of years, primarily from the Sar-i Sang mines in Badakhshan province, lapis lazuli remains a valuable export.
• Gold:** Gold deposits are found in several regions, including Badakhshan and Zabul.
• Hydrocarbons:** Northern Afghanistan holds reserves of natural gas and oil, with some exploration and minor production having occurred, including a contract with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) for fields along the Amu Darya.

The development of these resources has been hindered by decades of conflict, political instability, lack of infrastructure (roads, railways, power), corruption, and challenging regulatory environments. While the Taliban administration has expressed interest in attracting foreign investment to the mining sector, signing several contracts in 2023 for gold, iron, lead, and zinc extraction, concerns about security, transparency, environmental standards, and international sanctions remain significant obstacles. The economic potential of Afghanistan's mineral wealth is immense, but realizing it requires stability, substantial investment, and responsible governance.

6.3. Energy

Afghanistan faces significant challenges in its energy sector, characterized by low domestic generation capacity, heavy reliance on electricity imports, and limited access to reliable power for much of its population. As of 2018, an estimated 98% of the rural population and 98.7% of the total population had access to electricity, a significant improvement from previous years, but reliability remains an issue.

• Electricity Generation and Supply:**

Domestic electricity generation is primarily from hydropower, utilizing the country's numerous rivers flowing from the Hindu Kush mountains. Major hydropower plants include the Naghlu Dam, Kajaki Dam, and Mahipar Dam. However, hydropower output is seasonal and vulnerable to droughts. Thermal power plants (using fossil fuels) and a growing number of renewable energy sources like solar power and wind power also contribute, but on a smaller scale.

Despite these domestic sources, Afghanistan imports a majority of its electricity from neighboring countries, including Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Iran, via transmission lines. This import dependency makes the country vulnerable to supply disruptions and price fluctuations.

• Infrastructure and Projects:**

Ongoing and planned projects aim to improve energy security. The CASA-1000 project intends to transmit surplus hydropower from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) Pipeline is a major natural gas pipeline project designed to transport Turkmen gas through Afghanistan to Pakistan and India, which could provide transit revenue and gas for domestic consumption, though its progress has been slow due to security and geopolitical factors.

• Challenges:**

The energy sector suffers from aging infrastructure, technical losses, and difficulties in revenue collection. Security concerns have hampered the development and maintenance of energy infrastructure. The Taliban administration faces the challenge of managing existing resources, attracting investment for new projects, and ensuring affordable and reliable energy supply, which is crucial for economic development and public well-being. Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat (DABS) is the national electricity utility responsible for power generation, transmission, and distribution.

6.4. Tourism

Tourism in Afghanistan is a nascent industry with significant potential, owing to the country's rich history, diverse cultures, and stunning natural landscapes. However, it has been severely hampered by decades of conflict, ongoing security concerns, and political instability.

• Historical and Natural Attractions:**

Afghanistan boasts numerous sites of historical and archaeological importance. These include:

• The Bamyan Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage site, formerly home to the giant Buddha statues and containing numerous caves with ancient murals. Its scenic beauty and historical significance make it a key attraction.
• The city of Herat, with its ancient citadel (Qala Iktyaruddin), the Great Mosque (Masjid-i Jami), and the Gawhar Shad Mausoleum.
• The Minaret of Jam, another UNESCO World Heritage site, a remote and magnificent 12th-century minaret in Ghor province.
• Mazar-i-Sharif, home to the ornate Shrine of Ali.
• Balkh, an ancient city with historical ruins.
• Ghazni, a historic city that served as the capital of the Ghaznavid Empire.

Natural attractions include the lakes of Band-e Amir National Park, the mountainous terrain of the Wakhan Corridor offering trekking opportunities, and various scenic valleys.

• State of Tourism:**

Before the conflicts that began in the late 1970s, Afghanistan was a popular destination on the "hippie trail". In recent years, particularly before the Taliban's return in 2021, there were efforts to revive tourism, attracting a small number of adventurous international tourists and domestic visitors to relatively safer areas like Bamyan. As of 2016, around 20,000 foreign tourists were visiting annually.

Under the current Taliban administration, there have been reports of efforts to encourage tourism, with a notable increase in tourist numbers from a few hundred in 2021 to several thousand by 2023. However, the industry faces immense challenges:

• Security:** The primary concern remains the security situation, with risks from unexploded ordnance, banditry, and the activities of groups like ISIL-KP, as highlighted by the attack on tourists in Bamyan in May 2024.
• Infrastructure:** Limited tourist infrastructure (hotels, transport, services) and international flight connectivity.
• International Image and Recognition:** The lack of international recognition of the Taliban government, sanctions, and negative travel advisories from most countries deter visitors.
• Cultural Restrictions:** Strict social codes imposed by the Taliban may also impact the tourist experience.

Despite these obstacles, the Taliban authorities have expressed intentions to develop the tourism sector as a source of revenue and to project a different image of the country.

6.5. Transport

Afghanistan's transportation infrastructure has been significantly impacted by decades of conflict and challenging geography but has seen some development in recent years.

Road Network: Roads are the primary mode of transport. The most important route is Highway 1, often called the "Ring Road." It extends for approximately 1.4 K mile ^{(2.21 K km)}, connecting major cities like Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat, and Mazar-i-Sharif, as well as linking to various border crossings. Key sections include the Kabul-Kandahar Highway and the Kabul-Jalalabad Road. The Salang Tunnel, built in 1964, is a critical chokepoint on the Ring Road, facilitating travel through the Hindu Kush mountains and connecting northern and southern Afghanistan. While many parts of the Ring Road and other key highways have been reconstructed, maintenance remains a challenge, and road conditions can vary. Serious traffic accidents are common, and security on some routes is a concern due to militant activities.

Air Transport: Air transport is crucial for international connectivity and for reaching remote domestic locations. Afghanistan has four main international airports: Kabul International Airport (formerly Hamid Karzai International Airport), Kandahar International Airport, Herat International Airport, and Mazar-e Sharif International Airport. There are also numerous smaller domestic airports. The national carrier is Ariana Afghan Airlines. Private airlines like Kam Air also operate. Several international airlines provided services before August 2021, though current international flight operations are limited. Bagram Airfield was a major military airbase.

Rail Transport: Afghanistan's railway system is very limited. Existing lines are primarily for freight and include:

• A 47 mile ^{(75 km)} line from Mazar-i-Sharif to the Uzbekistan border at Hairatan.
• A 6.2 mile ^{(10 km)} line from Toraghundi to the Turkmenistan border.
• A short link from Aqina across the Turkmen border to Kerki, with plans for extension.

A railway line connecting Khaf in Iran to Herat in western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, has been partially completed and inaugurated in phases. There are long-term plans for further railway development to enhance regional connectivity, but these face significant financial and security challenges.

Other Transport: Private vehicle ownership has increased since the early 2000s. Taxis (cars and auto-rickshaws) are common in urban areas. In rural areas, donkeys, mules, and horses are often used for transporting goods. Camels are primarily used by Kochi nomads. Bicycles are also a popular mode of transport.

6.6. Communication

Afghanistan's telecommunications sector has seen significant development since 2001, transforming from a virtually non-existent sector to a multi-billion dollar industry.

• Mobile Phones and Internet:** Mobile phone penetration has grown rapidly. Several private mobile network operators, including Afghan Wireless, Roshan, Etisalat, and MTN Afghanistan, along with the state-owned Afghan Telecom, provide services. By 2016, there were an estimated 22 million mobile phone subscribers. Internet usage has also increased, with around 5 million users by 2016, primarily through mobile data and internet cafes, though penetration remains relatively low compared to global standards. 3G services are available, and there have been efforts to expand 4G coverage.

• Fixed Lines:** The fixed-line telephone infrastructure is less developed, with a limited number of landline connections, primarily in urban areas.

• Satellite Communication:** Afghanistan utilizes its own space satellite, Afghansat 1, launched in 2014 (by leasing capacity on a Eutelsat satellite). This satellite provides services for television broadcasting, internet, and mobile phone connectivity across the country.

• Infrastructure Development:** Efforts have been made to develop fiber optic networks to improve connectivity domestically and with neighboring countries. A national fiber optic backbone project has been underway to link major cities and enhance internet bandwidth.

• Challenges:** Despite progress, the telecommunications sector faces challenges, including security threats to infrastructure, limited electricity supply in some areas, rugged terrain making infrastructure deployment difficult, and affordability for parts of the population. The Taliban administration's policies regarding internet access and content control are also an evolving factor. The sector has been a significant source of employment and government revenue.

7.1. Population

As of 2024, Afghanistan's population is estimated to be between 35.7 million by the National Statistics and Information Authority (NSIA) of Afghanistan and over 42.0 million by the United Nations. The last official census was conducted in 1979, when the population was reported to be about 15.5 million. Since then, population figures have been estimates due to ongoing conflict and displacement.

Approximately 25.3% of the population is urban, 70.4% lives in rural areas, and the remaining 4.3% are nomadic (Kuchi). Additionally, millions of Afghans reside temporarily in neighboring Pakistan and Iran, many of whom were born and raised in those countries. For many years, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world.

The population growth rate is high, estimated at 2.37%, one of the highest outside of Africa. If current trends continue, the population could reach 82 million by 2050. The population increased steadily until the 1980s, when the Soviet-Afghan War and subsequent civil wars caused millions to flee. While many have returned since 2001, conflict and instability continue to affect demographic dynamics.

Afghanistan has historically had one of the highest total fertility rates in the world, though it has been declining. In 2024, the TFR was estimated at 4.4 children per woman. Healthcare improvements since the early 2000s led to a decrease in infant mortality and an increase in life expectancy, though life expectancy remains among the lowest globally outside of Africa. The Gini coefficient, a measure of income inequality, was 27.8 in 2008.

7.2. Urbanization

Urbanization in Afghanistan has increased rapidly since 2001, although the country remains predominantly rural. As of 2020, an estimated 26% of the population lived in urban areas. This is one of the lowest urbanization rates globally and in Asia.

The growth in urban populations has been driven by several factors:

• The return of millions of refugees from Pakistan and Iran, many of whom settled in cities.
• Internal displacement due to conflict, forcing rural populations to seek safety and livelihoods in urban centers.
• Rural-to-urban migration in search of economic opportunities and better access to services.

Unlike typical urbanization patterns that involve growth across many urban centers, urbanization in Afghanistan has been heavily concentrated in a few major cities.
Kabul, the capital, is by far the largest city, with an estimated population of over 5 million. It has experienced massive growth and faces challenges related to infrastructure, housing, and services. Other major urban centers include Kandahar in the south, Herat in the west, Mazar-i-Sharif and Kunduz in the north, and Jalalabad in the east.

These cities serve as administrative, economic, and cultural hubs for their respective regions. The rapid and often unplanned growth of these urban areas has led to issues such as informal settlements, strain on public services (water, sanitation, electricity), traffic congestion, and environmental pollution.

The following table lists the largest cities in Afghanistan based on 2019 estimates:

City	Province	Population (2019 est.)	Image
Kabul	Kabul Province	4,273,200
Kandahar	Kandahar Province	614,300
Herat	Herat Province	556,200
Mazar-i-Sharif	Balkh Province	469,200
Jalalabad	Nangarhar Province	356,500
Kunduz	Kunduz Province	263,200
Taloqan	Takhar Province	253,700
Puli Khumri	Baghlan Province	237,900
Ghazni	Ghazni Province	183,000
Khost	Khost Province	153,300

7.3. Ethnic groups

Afghanistan is a multi-ethnic country, and its population comprises various ethnolinguistic groups. Due to the lack of a comprehensive and recent census, precise figures for each group are subject to variation and estimation. The major ethnic groups include:

• Pashtuns: They are the largest ethnic group, traditionally estimated to form about 42% of the population. They predominantly inhabit the south and east of the country but are also found in other regions. Pashtuns are primarily Sunni Muslims and their social structure is often organized around tribes and the code of Pashtunwali. They have historically played a dominant role in Afghan politics.
• Tajiks: The second-largest ethnic group, estimated at around 27% of the population. Tajiks are primarily Persian-speaking (Dari) and are mainly found in the north, west, and in urban centers like Kabul, Herat, and Mazar-i-Sharif. Most Tajiks are Sunni Muslims, though some are Shia. They have a strong presence in bureaucracy, commerce, and culture.
• Hazaras: Estimated to constitute about 9-10% of the population, Hazaras predominantly inhabit the central Hazarajat region. They are primarily Shia Muslims (mostly Twelver Shia, with some Ismaili) and speak a dialect of Persian called Hazaragi. Hazaras have historically faced discrimination and persecution.
• Uzbeks: Comprising around 9% of the population, Uzbeks are a Turkic people mainly concentrated in the northern provinces. They are predominantly Sunni Muslims and speak Uzbek, a Turkic language.
• Aimaqs: Estimated at about 4%, Aimaqs are a semi-nomadic Persian-speaking group, primarily Sunni Muslims, living mostly in the western and northwestern parts of the country. Their origins are mixed, possibly including Iranian and Turkic-Mongolic elements.
• Turkmens: Another Turkic group, Turkmens make up about 3% of the population and are mainly found along the northern border with Turkmenistan. They are predominantly Sunni Muslims and speak Turkmen.
• Balochis: Constituting around 2% of the population, Balochis are an Iranian people who primarily live in the south and southwest, near the borders with Pakistan and Iran. They are mostly Sunni Muslims and speak Balochi.

Other smaller ethnic groups include Nuristanis, Pashayis, Arabs, Brahuis, Pamiris, and Kyrgyz. Inter-ethnic relations have varied throughout Afghanistan's history, sometimes marked by cooperation and intermarriage, and at other times by tension and conflict, often exacerbated by political instability and competition for resources. The Taliban's current government is predominantly Pashtun, raising concerns about inclusivity and the representation of other ethnic groups.

7.4. Languages

Afghanistan is a multilingual country, with two official languages: Dari (Afghan Persian) and Pashto. Both are Indo-Iranian languages.

• Dari: Dari is a variety of the Persian language and serves as the primary lingua franca in Afghanistan, especially in urban centers like Kabul, and in the northern and western parts of the country. It is spoken as a first language by a significant portion of the population, including most Tajiks, Hazaras (who speak a dialect called Hazaragi), and Aimaqs. Estimates from the CIA World Factbook (2021) suggest Dari Persian is spoken by 78% of the population (as L1 or L2). Historically, Dari has been the language of government, administration, and high culture. Native speakers of Dari, regardless of ethnicity, are sometimes referred to as Farsiwans.
• Pashto: Pashto is the native language of the Pashtuns, the country's largest ethnic group. It is predominantly spoken in the south, east, and some northern areas. The CIA World Factbook (2021 est.) indicates Pashto is spoken by 50% of the population (L1 or L2). While Pashtuns have often held political dominance, Dari has often remained the preferred language for bureaucracy. Many Pashtuns are bilingual in Dari.

Other significant languages spoken in Afghanistan include:

• Uzbek: Spoken by about 10% of the population, primarily by the Uzbek ethnic group in the north. It is a Turkic language.
• Turkmen: Spoken by about 2% of the population, mainly by the Turkmen ethnic group along the northern border. It is also a Turkic language.
• Balochi: Spoken by about 1% of the population, primarily by the Baloch people in the south and southwest. It is an Iranian language.
• Pashayi: Spoken by about 1% of the population, these are a group of Indo-Aryan languages spoken in parts of eastern Afghanistan.
• Nuristani: Spoken by about 1% of the population, these are a distinct group of Indo-Iranian languages spoken in the Nuristan province.
• Arabic: Spoken by a small percentage, mainly by Afghan Arabs and in some religious contexts.
• Minor regional languages include Pamiri languages (spoken in the Wakhan Corridor and Badakhshan) and Brahui (a Dravidian language spoken by a small community).

Bilingualism and multilingualism are common in Afghanistan, with many individuals speaking Dari and Pashto, as well as their own ethnic language if different. English is understood by some, particularly among the educated urban population and those who worked with international organizations, and its popularity grew in the 2000s. Some Afghans also retain some ability in Russian from the Soviet era. Hindustani (Urdu-Hindi) is also understood by many, partly due to exposure to Bollywood films and the return of refugees from Pakistan.

7.5. Religion

Islam is the state religion of Afghanistan, and the vast majority of the population is Muslim. Estimates suggest that over 99% of Afghans adhere to Islam.

• Sunni Islam: The predominant branch of Islam in Afghanistan is Sunni Islam, specifically the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. Estimates indicate that 80-90% of Afghan Muslims are Sunnis. Most Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Turkmens, and Balochis are Sunni Muslims.
• Shia Islam: Shia Muslims constitute a significant minority, estimated to be between 7% and 19% of the population. The majority of Shia Muslims in Afghanistan are Twelver Shias, primarily from the Hazara ethnic group. There are also smaller communities of Ismaili Shias, particularly among some Pamiri groups and a segment of the Hazara population. Shia Muslims have historically faced discrimination and, at times, severe persecution, particularly under Taliban rule.

Religious Minorities:

• Sikhs and Hindus: Small communities of Sikhs and Hindus have lived in Afghanistan for centuries, mainly in cities like Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, and Kandahar. Their numbers have significantly dwindled due to decades of conflict and persecution. As of September 2021, estimates suggested only around 250 remained, with many having emigrated to India and other countries. They face challenges in practicing their faith and maintaining their gurdwaras (Sikh temples) and mandirs (Hindu temples).
• Christians: A very small and largely hidden community of Afghan Christians exists, estimated to be between 500 and 8,000 individuals. They practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition and the risk of severe persecution, as conversion from Islam is considered apostasy and can be punishable by death under interpretations of Sharia law. There are no public churches.
• Jews: Afghanistan once had a small Jewish community, primarily in Herat and Kabul. By the end of the 20th century, nearly the entire community had emigrated, mainly to Israel and the United States. For many years, Zablon Simintov was known as the last remaining Jew in Afghanistan; he left the country after the Taliban's return to power in 2021.
• Baha'is: A small Baha'i community exists but faces severe restrictions and is not officially recognized.
• Zoroastrianism: Historically, Zoroastrianism was prevalent in the region, but it is not practiced openly by any significant community today.

Until the late 19th century, the region of Nuristan (formerly Kafiristan, meaning "land of the infidels") was inhabited by people who practiced indigenous polytheistic religions before their forced conversion to Islam. Under the Taliban, a strict interpretation of Sunni Islam is enforced, and religious freedom for non-Muslims and even dissenting Muslim interpretations is severely curtailed.

7.6. Education

Education in Afghanistan has faced immense challenges due to decades of conflict, political instability, poverty, and cultural barriers, particularly affecting female education. The system is overseen by the Ministry of Education for K-12 schooling and the Ministry of Higher Education for tertiary institutions.

• Historical Context and Progress (Pre-2021):**

Significant progress was made in expanding access to education between 2001 and 2021. Millions of children, including girls, enrolled in schools. Numerous schools were built or rehabilitated, and efforts were made to train teachers. However, challenges remained, including a shortage of qualified teachers (especially female teachers in rural areas), inadequate school infrastructure, security threats to schools, and low enrollment and completion rates, particularly for girls and in remote areas. The literacy rate, while improving, remained low. As of 2018, the literacy rate for the population aged 15 and older was 43.02% (55.48% for males and 29.81% for females).

Higher education institutions include Kabul University, the American University of Afghanistan (AUAF), and various other public and private universities across the country.

• Current Situation under the Taliban (Post-August 2021):**

Since the Taliban's return to power in August 2021, the education sector has faced drastic changes and severe setbacks, especially for girls and women.

• Female Education:** The Taliban have banned girls from attending secondary school (beyond grade six) across most of the country. In December 2022, they extended this ban to higher education, barring women from attending universities. This has effectively denied an entire generation of Afghan girls and young women their right to education beyond primary school, drawing widespread international condemnation and severely impacting their future prospects. While primary schools for girls (grades 1-6) generally remain open, the curriculum and environment are subject to Taliban directives. There are reports of informal or secret schools attempting to operate for older girls, but they face significant risks. Some provinces initially defied the secondary school ban for girls, but adherence has become stricter. In December 2023, the UN investigated claims that Afghan girls of all ages were allowed to study at religious schools (madrassas). As of November 2024, some parts of the country reportedly allow women to attend religious schools for certain subjects like dentistry and nursing.
• Curriculum Changes:** The Taliban have indicated intentions to revise the national curriculum to align with their interpretation of Islamic principles, raising concerns about the quality and scope of education, particularly in subjects like civic education, arts, and sciences.
• Teacher Shortages and Brain Drain:** Many qualified teachers, especially women and those associated with the previous education system, have fled the country or are unable to work, exacerbating existing teacher shortages.
• Funding Crisis:** The suspension of international aid has severely impacted the education budget, affecting teacher salaries, school operations, and development projects.

The restrictions on female education are a major human rights concern and a significant obstacle to Afghanistan's social and economic development. The international community has made the restoration of education rights for girls and women a key condition for any engagement with the Taliban regime.

7.7. Health

Afghanistan's health sector faces severe challenges, ranking among the least developed in the world according to the Human Development Index (15th least developed). Decades of conflict, poverty, political instability, and difficult terrain have significantly impacted health outcomes and access to services.

• Key Health Indicators (Pre-2021 data generally):**
  • Life Expectancy:** Average life expectancy is around 60-65 years, among the lowest globally.
  • Maternal Mortality:** The maternal mortality rate has historically been very high, though some progress was made prior to 2021. Figures vary, but estimates like 396 deaths per 100,000 live births (around 2015) indicate a severe problem.
  • Infant and Child Mortality:** Infant mortality rates are also very high, with estimates like 66 to 112.8 deaths per 1,000 live births. Malnutrition is a major contributing factor.
  • Disease Burden:** Communicable diseases, malnutrition, and high rates of maternal and child illness are major public health issues. Access to clean water and sanitation is limited for a large portion of the population.
  • Healthcare System and Access:**

  The Ministry of Public Health is responsible for overseeing the healthcare system. Prior to August 2021, there were over 100 hospitals and numerous clinics, with significant international aid supporting their operation and expansion. Leading hospitals include the French Medical Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital in Kabul. Despite these facilities, many Afghans, particularly those with complex conditions or financial means, often sought advanced treatment in neighboring countries like Pakistan and India.
  
  Access to healthcare remains a major challenge, especially in rural and remote areas. In 2006, it was reported that nearly 60% of the population lived within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility, an improvement from previous years, but still indicative of significant access barriers. There is a shortage of qualified healthcare professionals, particularly female doctors and nurses, which further restricts women's access to care.

  • Challenges Post-August 2021:**

  The Taliban's return to power and the subsequent suspension of most international aid have plunged the healthcare system into a severe crisis.

  • Funding Cuts:** The loss of international funding has led to shortages of medicines, medical supplies, and difficulties in paying healthcare worker salaries, forcing many facilities to close or drastically reduce services.
  • Brain Drain:** Many healthcare professionals have fled the country.
  • Restrictions on Female Healthcare Workers and Patients:** Restrictions on women's movement and employment affect female healthcare workers' ability to work and women's ability to access care, particularly if they require a mahram (male guardian).
  • Humanitarian Crisis:** Widespread poverty and food insecurity have exacerbated health problems, particularly malnutrition among children.

  The country has a high rate of disability, largely due to conflict-related injuries, including those from landmines and unexploded ordnance. Mental health is also a significant and often unaddressed issue. Non-governmental organizations have played a crucial role in providing healthcare services, but their operations are also constrained by the current political and economic environment.

8.1. Traditions and customs

Afghan society is deeply rooted in tradition and custom, with family being the cornerstone. Families are typically patriarchal and extended, often living together or in close proximity. Loyalty to one's family and tribe is paramount.

• Pashtunwali**: Among Pashtuns, the largest ethnic group, the unwritten ethical code of Pashtunwali holds significant influence. Key tenets include Melmastia (hospitality and asylum to all guests), Nanawatai (providing sanctuary to those seeking refuge, even enemies), Badal (justice or revenge), and Turah (bravery). These principles, while specific to Pashtuns, have influenced broader Afghan societal norms regarding honor, respect, and dispute resolution.

• Hospitality**: Generosity and hospitality towards guests are highly valued across all ethnic groups in Afghanistan. Visitors are typically welcomed warmly and offered the best a household can provide, often starting with tea.

• Social Etiquette**: Respect for elders is a fundamental aspect of social interaction. Greetings are often elaborate and involve inquiries about health and family. Directness in conversation can sometimes be perceived as impolite; nuances and indirect communication are common. Public displays of affection between men and women are generally not acceptable.

• Tribal Solidarity and Personal Honor**: Tribal identity and solidarity remain strong, particularly in rural areas. Personal and family honor (nang and namus) are extremely important concepts, and actions are often judged by their impact on one's honor. Disputes, if not resolved through traditional community mechanisms (like jirgas or shuras), can sometimes lead to feuds.

• Religious Influence**: Islam permeates daily life, influencing customs related to prayer, fasting (during Ramadan), dietary laws (halal), and social interactions. Mosques serve not only as places of worship but also as community centers.

• Nomadic Traditions**: A significant portion of the population, known as Kuchis, are nomads or semi-nomads. Their lifestyle, centered around pastoralism and seasonal migration with livestock, has its own unique customs and traditions that have contributed to Afghanistan's cultural diversity.

These traditions and customs, while evolving, continue to shape the social fabric of Afghanistan, reflecting a complex interplay of historical, religious, and tribal influences.

8.2. Literature

Afghan literature boasts a rich heritage, primarily in its two official languages, Dari (Afghan Persian) and Pashto. Poetry holds a particularly cherished place in Afghan culture and has historically been a major pillar of education and social expression.

• Classical Persian (Dari) Literature:**

Afghanistan, as part of the broader Persianate world, shares a common literary heritage with Iran and Tajikistan. Many celebrated figures of classical Persian literature were born or flourished in regions that are now part of Afghanistan.

• Rumi (Mawlana Jalaluddin Balkhi): Born in Balkh in the 13th century, Rumi is one of the most influential Sufi mystics and poets in the world. His works, particularly the Masnavi, are revered for their spiritual depth and poetic beauty.
• Khwaja Abdullah Ansari of Herat (11th century): A renowned Sufi saint and poet, known for his mystical writings and prayers.
• Sanai of Ghazni (12th century): A pioneering mystical poet whose works influenced Rumi.
• Jami of Herat (15th century): A prolific scholar and one of the last great classical Persian poets.
• Other notable classical poets with ties to the region include Farrukhi Sistani, Unsuri, and Rabia Balkhi (one of the earliest female Persian poets).

• Pashto Literature:**

Pashto literature has its own distinct tradition, with a strong emphasis on poetry, folklore, and epic tales.

• Khushal Khan Khattak (17th century): Considered the national poet of the Pashtuns, Khushal Khan Khattak was a warrior-poet whose works celebrate Pashtun identity, valor, and culture, and often reflect on political and social issues.
• Rahman Baba (17th century): A revered Pashtun Sufi poet known for his devotional and mystical poetry.

His works are widely popular and recited.

• Pashto folklore includes heroic epics, love stories, and proverbs that reflect Pashtun values and traditions. The landay, a short, two-line folk poem often composed by women, is a unique and powerful form of Pashto poetic expression.

• Modern Literature:**

In the 20th and 21st centuries, Afghan literature has continued to evolve, reflecting the country's tumultuous history, social changes, and experiences of war and displacement.

• Khalilullah Khalili (20th century): A prominent Dari poet and scholar who served as a cultural ambassador.
• Contemporary writers in both Dari and Pashto have explored themes of identity, conflict, exile, and hope. The Afghan diaspora has also contributed significantly to modern Afghan literature.
• Novelists like Khaled Hosseini (writing in English but drawing on Afghan themes) have brought Afghan stories to a global audience.

Poetry remains deeply ingrained in Afghan daily life. Thursday nights are traditionally "poetry nights" in cities like Herat, where people gather to recite and listen to poems. Even with challenges in literacy, oral traditions have kept literature alive and accessible.

8.3. Music and dance

Afghan music encompasses a rich variety of styles, reflecting the country's diverse ethnic makeup and historical influences from Persian, Indian, and Central Asian traditions.

• Traditional and Classical Music:**

Afghan classical music, known as klasik, shares historical links with Hindustani classical music. It often employs similar concepts like raga (melodic modes) and tala (rhythmic cycles).

• Instruments commonly used include the Indian tabla (drums), sitar, and harmonium.
• Indigenous instruments are central to Afghan music:
  • The rubab is a short-necked double-chambered lute, considered the national instrument of Afghanistan. It is a precursor to the Indian sarod.
  • Other instruments include the dambura (a long-necked lute popular among Hazaras and Uzbeks), ghichak (a bowed fiddle), zerbaghali (a goblet drum), dayereh (frame drum), and tanbur (long-necked lute).
• Popular genres include the ghazal (poetic love songs) and various regional folk music styles.
• Notable classical artists include Ustad Sarahang, Ustad Mohammad Omar (rubab virtuoso), and Sarban.

• Popular Music:**

Modern popular music developed in the 20th century, particularly through Radio Kabul starting in the 1950s.

• Ahmad Zahir is arguably the most iconic Afghan pop singer, often referred to as the "Afghan Elvis." He synthesized Afghan melodies with Western pop and rock influences in the 1960s and 70s and remains immensely popular.
• Other influential popular singers include Nashenas, Ubaidullah Jan, Mahwash (one of the first prominent female singers), Farhad Darya, and Naghma.
• Female artists began to gain prominence in the mid-20th century, though their participation has faced severe restrictions at various times, notably under Taliban rule.

• Folk Music and Dance:**

Each ethnic group in Afghanistan has its own distinct folk music and dance traditions.

• The Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan, a lively group dance performed by people of all backgrounds, especially Pashtuns. It is often performed at weddings, festivals, and other celebrations, and is considered a symbol of Afghan unity and identity.
• Other folk dances vary by region and ethnicity.

The Taliban's rule has historically involved severe restrictions on music, viewing most forms as un-Islamic. This has led to periods where musicians faced persecution and public performances were banned, significantly impacting the country's musical life.

8.4. Art and architecture

Afghanistan's art and architecture bear witness to its long and diverse history, reflecting influences from various cultures and civilizations that have passed through or settled in the region.

• Art:**
  • Gandhara Art**: Flourishing from the 1st to 7th centuries CE in the region encompassing present-day Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan, Gandhara art is a unique fusion of Greco-Roman artistic styles and Buddhist themes. It produced iconic sculptures of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
  • Ancient Painting**: The world's earliest known use of oil painting has been found in cave murals in Bamyan, dating back to the 7th century CE.
  • Miniature Painting**: During the Timurid era, particularly in Herat, the art of Persian miniature painting reached great heights. Artists like Kamaleddin Behzad were renowned masters of this intricate style.
  • Carpet Weaving**: Afghan rugs are famous worldwide for their intricate designs, rich colors, and high-quality craftsmanship. Different regions and ethnic groups have their own distinctive carpet weaving traditions, often passed down through generations. "War rugs", depicting imagery from conflict, emerged as a unique genre in recent decades.
  • Pottery**: Pottery has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of Istalif, north of Kabul, is particularly famous for its distinctive turquoise and green glazed pottery.
  • Embroidery and Textiles**: Traditional Afghan clothing often features elaborate embroidery, with distinct patterns and techniques varying by region and ethnic group.
  • Calligraphy**: Islamic calligraphy is a highly respected art form.
  • Jewelry**: Afghan jewelry often incorporates traditional designs and semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli and carnelian.
  • Architecture:**
    • Pre-Islamic Architecture**: Remnants of pre-Islamic structures include Buddhist stupas and monasteries (e.g., in Mes Aynak, Hadda), and Hellenistic-influenced city ruins like Ai-Khanoum. The Buddhas of Bamiyan, though destroyed by the Taliban in 2001, were monumental examples of Gandharan-style rock-cut architecture.
    • Islamic Architecture**: With the arrival of Islam, new architectural forms developed.
      • Mosques and Minarets**: Notable examples include the Great Mosque of Herat (Masjid-i Jami), with its stunning tilework, the Blue Mosque (Shrine of Ali) in Mazar-i-Sharif, and the 12th-century Minaret of Jam, a UNESCO World Heritage site.
      • Mausoleums and Shrines**: Tombs of important figures, such as the Gawhar Shad Mausoleum in Herat and the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, showcase fine Islamic architectural details.
      • Citadels and Fortifications**: Ancient citadels like the Bala Hissar in Kabul and the Citadel of Herat (Qala Iktyaruddin) reflect the region's strategic importance and history of conflict. The Qala-i Bost near Lashkargah is another example.
    • Vernacular Architecture**: Traditional houses are often made of mudbrick, designed to suit the local climate, with enclosed courtyards.
    • Colonial and Modern Influences**: While Afghanistan was never formally colonized in the same way as some neighbors, some European-style architecture emerged in the early 20th century, such as the Victory Arch at Paghman and parts of the Darul Aman Palace in Kabul. Recent decades have seen modern construction, particularly in Kabul, though often disrupted by conflict.

    Decades of war have damaged or destroyed many historical monuments and hindered the development of contemporary arts and architecture. Preservation efforts face ongoing challenges.

8.5. Cuisine

Afghan cuisine is diverse and flavorful, reflecting the country's agricultural bounty, cultural heritage, and influences from Central Asian, Persian, Indian, and Middle Eastern culinary traditions. Staples include rice, wheat, barley, dairy products, and a variety of fruits and vegetables.

• Key Dishes and Ingredients:**
  • Kabuli Palaw**: Often considered the national dish, Kabuli Palaw is a fragrant rice dish cooked with lamb or chicken, carrots, raisins, and nuts like almonds or pistachios. The rice is typically long-grain (like Basmati) and seasoned with a blend of spices.
  • Bread (Naan/Non):** Various types of flatbread are central to every meal. Naan-e Afghani is a common variety, often baked in a traditional clay oven (tandoor).
  • Kebabs:** Grilled meats, such as lamb, beef, and chicken, are popular. Seekh kebab (skewered minced meat), chapli kebab (spiced flat patties), and tikka kebab (marinated meat chunks) are common.
  • Mantu and Ashak:** These are types of dumplings. Mantu are steamed dumplings filled with minced meat (usually lamb or beef) and onions, topped with yogurt, garlic, and a tomato-based sauce. Ashak are similar but typically filled with leeks or chives and also served with yogurt and sometimes a meat sauce.
  • Qormah (Korma):** Stews made with meat (lamb, chicken, or beef) and/or vegetables, often with an onion and tomato base, and seasoned with various spices. Examples include Qormah-e Sabzi (spinach stew) and Qormah-e Gosht (meat stew).
  • Dopiaza**: A meat and onion dish, where "dopiaza" means "two onions," referring to onions being used at two stages of cooking.
  • Shorwa:** A hearty soup, often made with meat and vegetables.
  • Dairy Products:** Yogurt (maast) is widely consumed, both plain and as an ingredient in dishes or drinks like doogh (a savory yogurt drink).
  • Fruits and Nuts:** Afghanistan is renowned for its high-quality fruits, including pomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, figs, and mulberries. Nuts like almonds, pistachios, and walnuts are also widely used in cooking and as snacks.
  • Spices:** Common spices include cumin, coriander, cardamom, turmeric, black pepper, and chili. Saffron is used in some special dishes.
  • Tea (Chai):** Tea is the most popular beverage, served with or without milk, often sweetened, and frequently flavored with cardamom. It is a symbol of hospitality.
  • Food Culture:**

  Meals are typically communal, with dishes served on a dastarkhan (a cloth spread on the floor or table). Eating with the right hand is traditional. Hospitality is highly valued, and guests are always offered food and drink. Afghan cuisine emphasizes fresh ingredients and a balance of flavors. Regional variations exist, reflecting local produce and cultural influences. For example, northern Afghan cuisine has stronger Central Asian influences, while southern and eastern cuisines might share some similarities with Pakistani and Indian food.

8.6. Clothing

Traditional Afghan clothing varies by region, ethnicity, and occasion, but generally emphasizes modesty and practicality, reflecting the country's cultural and religious values.

• Men's Clothing:**

• Women's Clothing:**

Traditional footwear includes leather sandals (chapli) and various types of boots or shoes depending on the region and activity. Western-style clothing is also common, particularly in urban areas before the Taliban's return to power, but traditional attire remains prevalent, especially in rural areas and for cultural events. The Taliban's current regime has imposed strict dress codes, particularly for women, mandating face coverings in public.

8.7. Festivals and holidays

Afghanistan celebrates a variety of religious and cultural festivals, as well as national public holidays. These events reflect the country's Islamic heritage, ancient traditions, and historical milestones.

• Major Religious Festivals (Islamic, based on the lunar calendar, so dates vary annually):**

• Cultural Festivals:**

• National Public Holidays (based on the Gregorian or Afghan solar calendar):**

The Taliban administration may have different observances for some national holidays. Religious festivals remain central to Afghan life. Other regional festivals include the Damboora Festival in Bamyan Province.

8.8. Sports

Sports play an important role in Afghan society, with both traditional and modern sports enjoying popularity. The Afghan Sports Federation oversees many sporting activities.

• Popular Traditional Sports:**

• Popular Modern Sports:**

The Afghan Hound, a distinctive breed of sighthound, originated in Afghanistan and was historically used for hunting.

Participation in sports, particularly for women, has faced challenges and restrictions at various times, especially under Taliban rule. However, sports continue to be an important outlet and source of unity for many Afghans.

8.9. Media

The media landscape in Afghanistan has undergone significant transformations over the decades, reflecting the country's political and social changes. It has experienced periods of relative openness and diversification, as well as times of severe restriction and censorship.

• Historical Overview:**

• Post-2001 Development:**

After the fall of the first Taliban regime in 2001, the media sector experienced rapid growth and diversification, supported by international aid and new constitutional guarantees for freedom of expression (though with limitations regarding content deemed contrary to Islamic principles or defamatory).

• Numerous private television and radio stations emerged, alongside a proliferation of print outlets. TOLO TV and Shamshad TV became prominent private broadcasters.
• By 2019, there were an estimated 350 radio stations and over 200 television stations.
• International broadcasters like Voice of America, BBC, and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) provided services in Dari and Pashto.

• Challenges to Press Freedom:**

Despite constitutional protections under the Islamic Republic, journalists and media outlets faced numerous challenges, including:

• Threats and violence from insurgent groups, warlords, and sometimes government officials.
• Political pressure and interference.
• Economic vulnerability and reliance on advertising or donor funding.
• Self-censorship due to security risks and social pressures.

• Current Situation (Post-August 2021):**

Since the Taliban's return to power in August 2021, the media landscape has drastically changed.

• Restrictions and Censorship:** The Taliban have imposed significant restrictions on media content, often vaguely defined, leading to widespread self-censorship. Critical reporting of the Taliban or sensitive issues is highly risky.
• Closure of Outlets and Exodus of Journalists:** Many media outlets have closed due to financial difficulties, lack of staff (many journalists fled the country), or Taliban pressure.
• Violence and Intimidation:** Journalists remaining in Afghanistan face threats, arbitrary detention, and violence. Female journalists have been particularly affected, with many forced to stop working or adhere to strict Taliban dress codes and content guidelines.
• Access to Information:** Access to independent information has become severely limited for the Afghan population. The Taliban control state media, and the space for independent journalism has shrunk dramatically.
• Internet and Social Media:** While internet access exists, there are concerns about surveillance and control over online content.

The state of press freedom and access to information under the Taliban regime is a major concern for human rights organizations and the international community, as a free and independent media is crucial for accountability, transparency, and the protection of other fundamental rights.