Azerbaijan

3.1. Antiquity

The earliest evidence of human settlement in the territory of Azerbaijan dates to the late Stone Age, with findings related to the Guruchay culture at Azykh Cave. In the 9th century BC, the Scythians were among the early settlers. Subsequently, the Iranian Medes came to dominate the area south of the Aras River. The Medes established a vast empire between 900 and 700 BC, which was later integrated into the Achaemenid Empire around 550 BC. The Achaemenid conquest led to the spread of Zoroastrianism in the region.

The first major state to emerge in what is now the Republic of Azerbaijan was Caucasian Albania (not to be confused with the Balkan country of Albania). This kingdom, inhabited by Caucasian-speaking peoples, was established in the 4th century BC. Caucasian Albania maintained relations with neighboring powers, including the Roman Empire and various Persian empires, and developed its own distinct cultural characteristics.

3.2. Middle Ages

The Sasanian Empire of Persia turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state in 252 AD. Christianity was officially adopted as the state religion of Caucasian Albania in the 4th century under King Urnayr. Despite Sasanian rule, Caucasian Albania maintained its monarchy and remained an entity in the region until the 9th century, though heavily subordinate to Sasanian Iran, with the Sasanian marzban (military governor) holding most civil, religious, and military authority.

In the first half of the 7th century, Caucasian Albania, as a Sasanian vassal, came under nominal Muslim rule following the Muslim conquest of Persia. The Umayyad Caliphate repulsed both the Sasanians and the Byzantine Empire from the South Caucasus and turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state after Christian resistance, led by King Javanshir, was suppressed in 667. As the Abbasid Caliphate declined, numerous local dynasties such as the Sallarids, Sajids, and Shaddadids filled the power vacuum.

At the beginning of the 11th century, waves of migrating Oghuz Turks from Central Asia, who adopted the Turkoman ethnonym, gradually seized the territory. The first of these Turkic dynasties was the Seljuk Empire, which entered the area by 1067. Under the Seljuks, local poets like Nizami Ganjavi and Khaqani contributed to a flourishing of Persian literature in the region. The Seljuk Empire's possessions were locally ruled by the Eldiguzids, who were technically vassals but often acted as de facto rulers. The pre-Turkic population spoke various Indo-European and Caucasian languages, including Armenian and an Iranian language known as Old Azeri, which was gradually replaced by a Turkic language, the precursor to modern Azerbaijani.

The local dynasty of Shirvanshahs, originally of Arabic origin but later Persianized, became a vassal state of Timur's Timurid Empire and assisted him in his war against Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde. Following Timur's death, two rival Turkoman states, Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu, emerged. The Shirvanshahs returned, maintaining a high degree of autonomy for centuries.

In 1501, the Safavid dynasty of Iran subdued the Shirvanshahs. The Safavids, originating from a religious movement in Azerbaijan, converted the formerly predominantly Sunni population of the region (and what is modern-day Iran) to Shia Islam. This period was crucial in shaping the modern religious identity of Azerbaijan. The Safavids allowed the Shirvanshahs to remain in power under Safavid suzerainty until 1538, when King Tahmasp I fully deposed them and made the area the Safavid province of Shirvan. The Sunni Ottomans briefly occupied parts of present-day Azerbaijan during the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1578-1590, but were ousted by Safavid ruler Abbas I in the early 17th century. Following the demise of the Safavid dynasty, Baku and its environs were briefly occupied by the Russians during the Russo-Persian War of 1722-1723, and other parts by the Ottomans from 1722 to 1736. Despite these intermissions, the land largely remained under Iranian rule until the 19th century.

3.3. Modern History

After the Safavids, the Iranian Afsharid dynasty ruled the area. Following the death of Nader Shah in 1747, numerous semi-autonomous khanates emerged, capitalizing on the ensuing instability. These khanates, often related to Iranian ruling dynasties and subjects of the Iranian shah, controlled trade routes between Central Asia and the West. Subsequently, the area fell under the Iranian Zand dynasty and then the Qajar dynasty.

From the late 18th century, Imperial Russia adopted a more aggressive stance towards Iran and the Ottoman Empire, seeking to gain possession of the Caucasus. In 1804, the Russians invaded and sacked the Iranian town of Ganja, sparking the Russo-Persian War of 1804-1813. The militarily superior Russians won, and under the Treaty of Gulistan (1813), Qajar Iran was forced to cede most of its Caucasian khanates, along with Georgia and Dagestan, to the Russian Empire.

The Russo-Persian War of 1826-1828 followed, resulting in the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), which forced Iran to cede the Erivan Khanate, the Nakhchivan Khanate, and the remainder of the Talysh Khanate to Russia. This treaty defined the Aras River as the border between Russia and Iran, effectively dividing the Azerbaijani-populated territories. Despite Russian conquest, Iranian culture, literature, and language remained influential among intellectuals in Russian-held cities like Baku, Ganja, and Tiflis throughout the 19th century. An Azerbaijani national identity began to emerge in the late 19th century within Russian-ruled East Caucasia.

Following the collapse of the Russian Empire during World War I, the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic was declared, comprising present-day Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. It dissolved in May 1918, after which the leading Musavat party declared the independence of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) on May 28, 1918. The ADR was the first modern parliamentary republic in the Muslim world and notably granted women suffrage, making it the first Muslim nation to grant women equal political rights. Baku State University, the first modern university in the Muslim East, was established during this period. However, this period was also marked by inter-ethnic violence, including the March Days massacres in Baku in March 1918, where thousands of Azerbaijani civilians were killed.

Independent Azerbaijan lasted only 23 months. In April 1920, the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army invaded, establishing the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (Azerbaijan SSR). Despite resistance, which saw as many as 20,000 Azerbaijani soldiers die, the country was incorporated into the Soviet Union. Initially part of the Transcaucasian SFSR (with Armenia and Georgia), Azerbaijan became a direct constituent republic of the USSR in 1936. The early Soviet period was instrumental in forging the modern Azerbaijani national identity. The Treaty of Kars in 1921 established the borders with Turkey, creating the Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic as an exclave of Azerbaijan SSR.

During World War II, Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the Soviet war effort, supplying 80% of the Soviet Union's oil for the Eastern Front. Baku was a primary target of Operation Edelweiss, the German Wehrmacht's plan to seize Soviet oilfields. Approximately 681,000 Azerbaijanis, including over 100,000 women, fought in the war, with around 250,000 killed. Azerbaijani Major-General Azi Aslanov was twice awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union.

3.4. Independence

The politics of glasnost initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s led to civil unrest and ethnic strife across the Soviet Union, including in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast of Azerbaijan SSR. Azerbaijani protests against Moscow's handling of the escalating Nagorno-Karabakh conflict culminated in the Black January events of 1990 in Baku, where Soviet troops violently suppressed demonstrations, killing many civilians. This event significantly fueled the movement for independence. Later in 1990, the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped "Soviet Socialist" from its title, adopted the "Declaration of Sovereignty of the Azerbaijan Republic," and restored the flag of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.

Following the failed 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt in Moscow, the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence on August 30, 1991, which was affirmed by a nationwide referendum in December 1991. The Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on December 26, 1991. Azerbaijan celebrates its Day of Restoration of Independence on October 18 (the date the formal act of independence was adopted).

The early years of independence were overshadowed by the First Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988-1994) with ethnic Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh, backed by Armenia. By the end of hostilities in 1994, with a ceasefire brokered by Russia (the Bishkek Protocol), Armenian forces controlled Nagorno-Karabakh and seven surrounding Azerbaijani districts, amounting to about 14-16% of Azerbaijan's internationally recognized territory. The war resulted in an estimated 30,000 deaths and over a million displaced persons, including over 800,000 Azerbaijanis and 300,000 Armenians. Atrocities were committed by both sides, including the Khojaly massacre against Azerbaijani civilians and massacres of Armenians in Kirovabad (Ganja) and Baku. Four UN Security Council resolutions (822, 853, 874, and 884) adopted in 1993 demanded the immediate withdrawal of all Armenian forces from the occupied territories of Azerbaijan.

In 1993, democratically elected President Abulfaz Elchibey was overthrown in a military insurrection led by Colonel Surat Huseynov. This led to the return to power of Heydar Aliyev, former leader of Soviet Azerbaijan. Aliyev consolidated power, surviving further coup attempts in 1994 (by Huseynov, then Prime Minister) and 1995 (by OMON commander Rovshan Javadov). Heydar Aliyev's presidency brought a degree of stability and saw the signing of major oil contracts (like the "Contract of the Century" in 1994) with international companies, which became crucial for Azerbaijan's economy. However, his rule was characterized by authoritarian tendencies, suppression of political opposition, and widespread corruption. He was re-elected in 1998.

Ilham Aliyev, Heydar Aliyev's son, succeeded his father as president in 2003 after an election widely criticized by international observers as fraudulent. He has since been re-elected in 2008, 2013, 2018, and 2024, with elections consistently drawing criticism for lacking genuine competition and fairness. Constitutional changes have removed presidential term limits and extended the presidential term from five to seven years. His wife, Mehriban Aliyeva, was appointed Vice President in 2017, further consolidating the family's power. While Azerbaijan has experienced significant economic growth driven by oil and gas revenues (particularly from the Azeri-Chirag-Gunashli oil field and Shah Deniz gas field), the Aliyev regime has faced persistent accusations of authoritarianism, human rights abuses, systemic corruption (as highlighted by reports like the Azerbaijani laundromat), restrictions on civil liberties, particularly press freedom, and political repression. Wealth distribution remains a significant issue, with concerns about economic inequality.

3.4.1. Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict and Impact

The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, rooted in historical and ethnic tensions, escalated into full-scale war following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, an ethnically Armenian enclave within Soviet Azerbaijan, declared its intent to join Armenia or achieve independence, leading to the First Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988-1994). The war resulted in significant territorial losses for Azerbaijan, including Nagorno-Karabakh itself and seven surrounding districts, and a major humanitarian crisis with hundreds of thousands of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Azerbaijan and refugees in both countries. The Khojaly massacre in February 1992, where hundreds of Azerbaijani civilians were killed by Armenian forces, became a particularly traumatic event for Azerbaijanis. Armenian populations in Azerbaijan also faced violence and displacement, such as the Baku pogrom in 1990.

International mediation efforts, primarily led by the OSCE Minsk Group (co-chaired by Russia, France, and the United States), failed to produce a lasting peace settlement for decades. A ceasefire was signed in Bishkek in May 1994, freezing the conflict but leaving the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) in de facto control of the region, unrecognized internationally. Sporadic clashes continued along the line of contact.

On September 27, 2020, the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War erupted. Over six weeks of intense fighting, Azerbaijan, utilizing advanced military technology including drones, made significant territorial gains, recapturing the seven surrounding districts and parts of Nagorno-Karabakh, including the strategically important city of Shusha. The war ended with a Russian-brokered ceasefire agreement on November 10, 2020. Under the terms of the agreement, Armenia agreed to withdraw from remaining occupied territories, and Russian peacekeepers were deployed to the region, including the Lachin corridor connecting Armenia to the parts of Nagorno-Karabakh still inhabited by Armenians. The outcome was widely celebrated in Azerbaijan as a major victory but was a source of deep political crisis in Armenia. The conflict caused thousands of casualties on both sides and further displacement. Human rights organizations raised concerns about alleged war crimes and the humanitarian situation.

Despite the 2020 ceasefire, tensions remained high. In September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a military offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh. Within 24 hours, the de facto authorities of Artsakh surrendered and agreed to dissolve the self-proclaimed republic by January 1, 2024. This led to a mass exodus of almost the entire ethnic Armenian population from Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia, raising international concerns about ethnic cleansing and humanitarian conditions. Azerbaijan reasserted full control over the territory. The conflict's legacy continues to shape regional politics, with ongoing peace negotiations between Azerbaijan and Armenia focusing on border delimitation, transport links, and a comprehensive peace treaty. The humanitarian impact, particularly concerning the rights and return of displaced populations, remains a critical issue.

4.1. Topography and Landscape

Azerbaijan's topography is dominated by three main physical features: the Caspian Sea to the east, the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north, and the Lesser Caucasus mountains to the west and southwest. These mountain ranges cover approximately 40% of the country. The highest peak in Azerbaijan is Mount Bazardüzü, reaching an elevation of 15 K ft ^{(4.47 K m)}, located in the Greater Caucasus on the border with Russia. The lowest point is in the Caspian Sea, at -91.9 ft ^{(-28 m)} below sea level.

Between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus ranges lies the expansive Kura-Aras Lowland, a fertile plain through which the country's major rivers, the Kura and Aras, flow. This lowland, along with the Lankaran Lowland in the south, constitutes the country's primary agricultural regions. The Absheron Peninsula, jutting into the Caspian Sea, is home to the capital, Baku, and is known for its oil reserves and unique geological features, including mud volcanoes. Azerbaijan is home to nearly half of the world's mud volcanoes, which are a significant geological and tourist attraction. The Gobustan Rock Art Cultural Landscape, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, features numerous petroglyphs and mud volcanoes. The Talysh Mountains form part of the border with Iran in the southeast.

4.2. Climate

Azerbaijan possesses a remarkably diverse climate, with nine out of the eleven existing climate zones found within its borders. This diversity is due to its complex topography, proximity to the Caspian Sea, and the influence of different air masses. The Greater Caucasus mountains protect the country from direct cold air intrusions from the north, contributing to a subtropical climate in many foothills and plains.

The Kura-Aras Lowland generally has a semi-arid and steppe climate, with hot summers and mild winters. Average July temperatures in the lowlands can reach 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}, while January averages are around 33.8 °F ^{(1 °C)}. The Lankaran Lowland in the southeast has a humid subtropical climate, receiving the highest annual precipitation, ranging from 0.1 K in ^{(1.60 K mm)} to 0.1 K in ^{(1.80 K mm)}. In contrast, the Absheron Peninsula experiences a temperate semi-arid climate with average annual precipitation between 7.9 in ^{(200 mm)} and 14 in ^{(350 mm)}.

The mountainous regions experience cooler temperatures and higher precipitation. Alpine tundra climates are found at the highest elevations. The absolute minimum temperature recorded in Azerbaijan was in the Julfa and Ordubad districts of Nakhchivan, while these areas also experienced the absolute maximum temperature.

4.3. Water Resources

Azerbaijan's primary water resources are its surface waters, comprising rivers and lakes, all of which ultimately drain into the Caspian Sea. The country has over 8,350 rivers and streams, though only 24 of them are longer than 62 mile ^{(100 km)}.

The largest and most important rivers are the Kura River and its major tributary, the Aras River. The Kura, originating in Turkey and flowing through Georgia, is the longest river in the Caucasus and traverses Azerbaijan before emptying into the Caspian Sea. The Aras River forms a significant portion of Azerbaijan's border with Iran and Turkey. These rivers are vital for irrigation, hydroelectric power, and water supply. The Mingachevir Reservoir, built on the Kura River, is the largest artificial lake in the Caucasus and plays a crucial role in energy production and water management.

Other notable rivers originate from the northeastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus and the Talysh Mountains, flowing through the Samur-Devechi and Lankaran lowlands. Azerbaijan also has several natural lakes, the largest being Lake Sarysu (26 mile^{2 (67 km2)}). The Caspian Sea, the world's largest inland body of water, forms Azerbaijan's eastern border, stretching for about 497 mile ^{(800 km)}. The Caspian provides important fishery resources and is central to the country's oil and gas industry. However, water scarcity is a concern in some regions, and the country's per capita water availability is below the global average.

4.4. Biodiversity

Azerbaijan boasts a rich biodiversity due to its varied landscapes, climate zones, and geographical location at the crossroads of several biogeographical regions. The country lies within four ecoregions: Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests, Caucasus mixed forests, Eastern Anatolian montane steppe, and Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe.

The flora of Azerbaijan is diverse, with over 4,500 species of higher plants recorded. This richness is greater than that of other South Caucasian republics, with approximately 66% of all species found in the Caucasus present in Azerbaijan. Forests cover around 14% of the total land area, predominantly in mountainous regions. Key tree species include oak, beech, hornbeam, and pine. The Hirkan National Park in the Lankaran region protects relict Hyrcanian forests, which are of global importance.

The fauna of Azerbaijan is equally varied, with 106 species of mammals, 363 species of birds, 52 species of reptiles, 10 species of amphibians, and 97 species of fish. Notable mammals include the Caucasian leopard (rare), brown bear, wolf, jackal, lynx, red deer, roe deer, and goitered gazelle. The Caspian seal is an endemic marine mammal. The national animal is the Karabakh horse, an ancient mountain-steppe breed known for its speed and endurance, though it is now an endangered species.

Azerbaijan has established a network of protected areas to conserve its biodiversity, including several national parks such as Shirvan National Park, Agh Gol National Park, and Gobustan National Park, as well as state reserves and sanctuaries. These areas collectively cover about 8% of the country's territory. Conservation efforts face challenges from habitat loss, poaching, and the impacts of economic development, particularly in the oil and gas sector. The government has increased environmental protection measures since the early 2000s, partly funded by oil revenues.

5.1. Governance and Political System

The Constitution of Azerbaijan, adopted on November 12, 1995, establishes Azerbaijan as a presidential republic with a separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. However, in practice, power is heavily concentrated in the hands of the President.

The Executive Branch is headed by the President of Azerbaijan, currently Ilham Aliyev. The president is elected by direct popular vote for a seven-year term, following constitutional amendments in 2016 that extended the term from five years and removed term limits (a previous amendment in 2009 had already removed the two-term limit). The president appoints the Prime Minister and the Cabinet of Ministers. The president has extensive powers, including the authority to dissolve the legislature under certain conditions, issue decrees, and command the armed forces. In 2017, the post of First Vice President was created, with President Aliyev appointing his wife, Mehriban Aliyeva, to the position.

The Legislative Branch is the unicameral National Assembly (Milli Məclis_{Milli Məclis (National Assembly)}^Azerbaijani). It consists of 125 members elected for five-year terms from single-member constituencies using a majority system. The National Assembly's primary functions include adopting laws, approving the state budget, and ratifying international treaties. However, its influence is limited by the dominant executive.

The Judicial Branch comprises the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and lower courts. Judges are nominated by the president and appointed by the National Assembly. The judiciary has faced criticism regarding its independence from the executive and its role in upholding the rule of law and protecting human rights.

While the constitution guarantees fundamental freedoms, the practical application of democratic principles is severely constrained. Political freedoms, such as freedom of assembly, association, and expression, are heavily restricted. The ruling New Azerbaijan Party (YAP) dominates the political landscape, and opposition parties face significant obstacles, including harassment, lack of media access, and an uneven playing field during elections. International organizations like Freedom House consistently rate Azerbaijan as "Not Free," citing a lack of political pluralism, pervasive corruption, and a poor human rights record.

5.2. Major Political Parties and Elections

The dominant political force in Azerbaijan is the New Azerbaijan Party (Yeni Azərbaycan Partiyası_{Yeni Azərbaycan Partiyası (New Azerbaijan Party)}^Azerbaijani), founded by former President Heydar Aliyev in 1992. It has been the ruling party since 1993 and currently holds a vast majority of seats in the National Assembly. The YAP's dominance has effectively created a dominant-party system, significantly limiting political pluralism and democratic development.

Opposition parties exist but operate in a highly restrictive environment. Key opposition parties include the Musavat Party and the Popular Front Party of Azerbaijan (PFPA). These parties, along with smaller groups, have struggled to gain significant traction due to government pressure, limited access to media, and restrictions on their activities. Many opposition figures have faced harassment, arrest, and imprisonment on charges often described as politically motivated.

Presidential and parliamentary elections in Azerbaijan have consistently been criticized by international observers, including the OSCE, for failing to meet democratic standards. Criticisms include a lack of genuine competition, restrictions on fundamental freedoms, an uneven playing field favoring the ruling party, media bias, and irregularities in vote counting and tabulation. For example, the 2018 presidential election, which saw Ilham Aliyev re-elected for a fourth term, was boycotted by major opposition parties citing a fraudulent environment. The dominance of the YAP and the nature of elections raise serious concerns about the state of democratic accountability and political competition in Azerbaijan.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

Azerbaijan is administratively divided into:

• 66 rayons (districts; rayonlar_{rayonlar (districts)}^Azerbaijani, singular: rayon_{rayon (district)}^Azerbaijani)
• 11 cities (şəhərlər_{şəhərlər (cities)}^Azerbaijani, singular: şəhər_{şəhər (city)}^Azerbaijani) under direct authority of the republic.
• 1 autonomous republic (muxtar respublika_{muxtar respublika (autonomous republic)}^Azerbaijani): the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic.

The Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic is an exclave of Azerbaijan, bordered by Armenia, Iran, and Turkey. It has its own constitution, elected legislature (Supreme Assembly), and government, although it remains part of Azerbaijan. The President of Azerbaijan appoints governors to head the executive power in the rayons and cities.

In 2021, a new system of 14 economic regions was established by presidential decree, replacing an older system of 10 economic regions. These economic regions are for planning and statistical purposes. The major cities include the capital Baku, Ganja, and Sumgait. The administrative divisions also include numerous urban-type settlements and villages. The territories formerly part of the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh, including Khankendi (Stepanakert), are now fully under Azerbaijani administrative control and are being integrated into its existing rayon structure, particularly within the Karabakh and East Zangezur economic regions.

The economic regions are:

• Baku Economic Region (Baku city)
• Nakhchivan Economic Region (Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic)
• Absheron-Khizi Economic Region (Absheron, Khizi districts; Sumgait city)
• Mountainous Shirvan Economic Region (Agsu, Gobustan, Ismayilli, Shamakhi districts)
• Ganja-Dashkasan Economic Region (Dashkasan, Goranboy, Goygol, Samukh districts; Ganja, Naftalan cities)
• Karabakh Economic Region (Aghjabadi, Aghdam, Barda, Fuzuli, Khojaly, Khojavend, Shusha, Tartar districts; Khankendi city)
• Gazakh-Tovuz Economic Region (Aghstafa, Gadabay, Gazakh, Shamkir, Tovuz districts)
• Guba-Khachmaz Economic Region (Guba, Gusar, Khachmaz, Shabran, Siyazan districts)
• Lankaran-Astara Economic Region (Astara, Jalilabad, Lankaran, Lerik, Masally, Yardimli districts; Lankaran city)
• Central Aran Economic Region (Aghdash, Goychay, Kurdamir, Ujar, Yevlakh, Zardab districts; Mingachevir city)
• Mil-Mughan Economic Region (Beylagan, Imishli, Saatly, Sabirabad districts)
• Shaki-Zagatala Economic Region (Balakan, Gabala, Gakh, Oghuz, Shaki, Zagatala districts; Shaki city)
• East Zangezur Economic Region (Kalbajar, Lachin, Gubadly, Zangilan districts)
• Shirvan-Salyan Economic Region (Bilasuvar, Hajigabul, Neftchala, Salyan districts; Shirvan city)

5.4. Foreign Relations

Azerbaijan's foreign policy since independence has been shaped by its geopolitical location, energy resources, and the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. The country pursues a "balanced" foreign policy, aiming to maintain good relations with major regional and global powers while safeguarding its national interests, particularly its sovereignty and territorial integrity.

Key foreign policy priorities include the full restoration of territorial integrity (achieved in Nagorno-Karabakh in 2023), integration into Euro-Atlantic structures, cooperation with international organizations, regional cooperation, and strengthening defense capabilities. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 182 countries and is a member of numerous international organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Non-Aligned Movement (which it chaired from 2019-2023), and the Organization of Turkic States. It is also part of NATO's Partnership for Peace (PfP) program and the EU's Eastern Partnership.

Relations with neighboring countries are complex:

• Turkey: Azerbaijan shares exceptionally close ethnic, cultural, and political ties with Turkey, often described as "one nation, two states." Turkey is a key strategic partner, providing strong political and military support, particularly concerning the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
• Russia: Relations with Russia are pragmatic, balancing Azerbaijan's desire for sovereignty with Russia's regional influence. Russia is a major trading partner and played a key role in mediating the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire.
• Iran: Relations with Iran are influenced by ethnic Azerbaijani populations in northwestern Iran, religious ties (Shia Islam), and Caspian Sea delimitation issues. There have been periods of tension and cooperation.
• Georgia: Azerbaijan and Georgia have strong strategic partnerships, particularly in energy transit (BTC and South Caucasus pipelines) and transportation projects.
• Armenia: Relations have been dominated by the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Following Azerbaijan's military success in 2020 and 2023, efforts are underway to negotiate a comprehensive peace treaty, though significant challenges remain regarding border demarcation and other contentious issues. The human rights implications of the conflict and its aftermath, including the displacement of populations and the rights of those affected, are major international concerns.

Azerbaijan plays a significant role in regional energy security as a supplier of oil and gas to European markets. It is a key participant in the Southern Gas Corridor. Relations with the European Union are multifaceted, involving energy cooperation, trade, and political dialogue, though progress on democratic reforms and human rights remains a point of contention. Relations with the United States focus on energy security, counter-terrorism, and regional stability.

Azerbaijan has been criticized for its "caviar diplomacy," a term referring to alleged efforts to influence foreign politicians and international organizations through lavish gifts and lobbying to deflect criticism of its human rights record and legitimize elections. The Azerbaijani laundromat scandal further highlighted concerns about money laundering and illicit financial flows. Regional stability and the human rights implications of its international policies continue to be important aspects of its foreign relations.

5.5. Military

The Azerbaijani Armed Forces (Azərbaycan Silahlı Qüvvələri_{Azərbaycan Silahlı Qüvvələri (Azerbaijani Armed Forces)}^Azerbaijani) were officially re-established on October 9, 1991, following Azerbaijan's independence from the Soviet Union. The original National Army of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was created on June 26, 1918, and this date is celebrated as Army Day. The President of Azerbaijan is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.

The armed forces consist of three main branches:

• Land Forces
• Air and Air Defence Forces
• Navy

Additionally, there are several paramilitary forces that can be involved in state defense, including the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the State Border Service, which includes the Coast Guard. The Azerbaijani National Guard is a paramilitary force operating as a semi-independent entity of the Special State Protection Service.

As of 2021, Azerbaijan had approximately 126,000 active military personnel, with an additional 17,000 paramilitary troops and around 330,000 reserve personnel. Military service is compulsory for adult males.

Azerbaijan's defense policy has been heavily influenced by the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Since the early 2000s, the country has significantly increased its military expenditure, fueled by oil revenues, to modernize its armed forces and acquire advanced weaponry. Key arms suppliers include Turkey, Israel, Russia, and Belarus. The Ministry of Defence Industry, established in 2005, aims to develop domestic production of military equipment, including small arms, artillery systems, armored vehicles, and UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles).

Azerbaijan actively participates in international military cooperation. It is a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace (PfP) program and has contributed to NATO-led peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. It also cooperates closely with Turkey on military training and defense industry projects. The country adheres to the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) and has signed major international arms control treaties. The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020 demonstrated the increased capabilities of the Azerbaijani military, particularly in the use of drone technology and modern warfare tactics. In 2020, Azerbaijan's defense budget was 2.24 B USD, amounting to approximately 5.4% of its GDP.

5.6. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Azerbaijan is a subject of significant concern for international organizations and democratic governments. While the Constitution of Azerbaijan guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms, their practical implementation is severely limited, and the country's human rights record has been widely criticized.

Freedom of the Press and Expression: Freedom of speech and the press are heavily curtailed. Most major television and print media outlets are state-controlled or aligned with the government, providing limited space for dissenting voices. Independent and opposition media outlets face harassment, legal pressure, and economic difficulties. Journalists critical of the government have been subjected to intimidation, violence, arbitrary arrest, and imprisonment on politically motivated charges. Foreign broadcasts are restricted, and access to some websites has been blocked. Azerbaijan consistently ranks very low in international press freedom indices. For example, Reporters Without Borders and Freedom House regularly classify Azerbaijan as "not free" in terms of press freedom, noting a climate of fear and self-censorship among journalists.

Freedom of Assembly and Association: The right to freedom of assembly is severely restricted. Unauthorized public protests are often dispersed forcefully, and organizers and participants face arrest and detention. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), particularly those working on human rights, democracy, and anti-corruption, operate in a challenging environment. Restrictive legislation has made it difficult for NGOs to register and receive foreign funding, leading to the closure of many independent civil society groups. Activists and human rights defenders frequently face harassment, surveillance, and politically motivated prosecution.

Political Freedoms and Political Prisoners: Political opposition is marginalized, and the space for political dissent is narrow. Numerous opposition activists, youth activists (such as members of the Nida Civic Movement), and government critics have been imprisoned on charges widely considered to be fabricated. International human rights groups like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have documented dozens of cases of political prisoners and prisoners of conscience.

Freedom of Religion: While Azerbaijan is a secular state and the constitution guarantees freedom of religion, some religious communities face restrictions. All religious groups are required to register with the State Committee on Religious Associations, and unregistered religious activity is prohibited. Some minority religious groups, including certain Muslim communities (particularly those perceived as "non-traditional") and some Christian denominations like Jehovah's Witnesses and Baptists, have reported difficulties with registration, interference in their activities, and harassment.

Rights of Minorities and Vulnerable Groups: Discrimination against LGBT individuals is widespread, and there are no specific anti-discrimination laws protecting them. While ethnic minorities are generally integrated, some groups, like the Talysh and Lezgin, have occasionally voiced concerns about cultural and linguistic rights. The rights of internally displaced persons from the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict remain a significant issue, particularly concerning their safe and dignified return and access to property and livelihoods.

Torture and Ill-Treatment: Reports of torture and other ill-treatment in police custody and detention facilities persist. Impunity for such abuses is common.

International human rights bodies, including the Council of Europe (of which Azerbaijan is a member) and various UN mechanisms, have repeatedly called on Azerbaijan to address these systemic human rights problems and uphold its international commitments. However, the government has often dismissed such criticism as biased or politically motivated. The "caviar diplomacy" and Azerbaijani laundromat scandals further raised concerns about Azerbaijan's efforts to silence international criticism of its human rights record.

6.1. Economic Overview

Following independence, Azerbaijan transitioned from a centrally planned Soviet economy to a market-oriented system. This transition was initially difficult, marked by high inflation and economic decline due to the collapse of Soviet trade links and the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. However, large-scale foreign investment in the oil and gas sector, particularly following the "Contract of the Century" in 1994, led to a period of rapid economic expansion.

Key economic indicators such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) saw substantial growth. For instance, between 1995 and 2012, Azerbaijan's GDP increased twentyfold. Inflation, which was extremely high in the early 1990s, was brought under control by the early 2000s, leading to the introduction of the new Azerbaijani manat (AZN) in 2006. The Central Bank of Azerbaijan manages monetary policy. The country's main trading partners include Italy, Turkey, Russia, Israel, and China. Azerbaijan joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) as an observer and has been negotiating full membership.

Despite macroeconomic successes, issues of wealth distribution and social equity persist. While Baku, the capital, has seen significant development and rising incomes, rural areas and regions outside the oil sector often lag behind. Unemployment and underemployment remain concerns, particularly among youth and in non-oil sectors. The government has established the State Oil Fund of Azerbaijan (SOFAZ) to manage oil revenues, aiming to ensure macroeconomic stability and save resources for future generations, though transparency and effective use of these funds for broad-based social development remain subjects of public discussion. The impact of economic policies on different social groups, particularly vulnerable populations, requires continuous attention.

6.2. Energy and Natural Resources

Azerbaijan's economy is dominated by its energy sector. The country has a long history of oil production, with the Baku oil fields being among the world's oldest. Two-thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas. The Absheron Peninsula was a major global oil producer in the early 20th century. After independence, major offshore fields like Azeri-Chirag-Gunashli (ACG) in the Caspian Sea were developed by international consortia led by companies like BP, in partnership with the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic (SOCAR). The ACG field is a primary source of Azerbaijan's oil production.

The Shah Deniz gas field is one of the world's largest natural gas fields, and its development has positioned Azerbaijan as a significant gas exporter. Key infrastructure projects include:

• The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BTC), operational since 2006, transports crude oil from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean port of Ceyhan in Turkey.
• The South Caucasus Pipeline (SCP), running parallel to the BTC, transports natural gas from Shah Deniz to Turkey.
• The Southern Gas Corridor, a major initiative to supply gas to Europe, includes the SCP, the Trans-Anatolian gas pipeline (TANAP) across Turkey, and the Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) to Italy. This corridor aims to diversify Europe's gas supplies.

While energy resources have brought wealth, they also pose challenges. The economy's heavy reliance on oil and gas makes it vulnerable to fluctuations in global energy prices. There are also significant social and environmental consequences associated with resource extraction, including potential pollution in the Caspian Sea, land use issues, and the need for sustainable development practices. The government's strategy includes efforts to ensure that energy revenues contribute to long-term national development and mitigate negative impacts. Besides hydrocarbons, Azerbaijan has deposits of gold, silver, iron ore, copper, and other minerals, though their exploitation is less significant than oil and gas.

6.3. Agriculture

Agriculture has historically been an important sector in Azerbaijan, although its share of GDP has declined with the rise of the oil industry. About 54.9% of Azerbaijan's land is agricultural. Key agricultural products include grains (wheat, barley), cotton, fruits (grapes, pomegranates, apples), vegetables (tomatoes, cucumbers), tobacco, and tea (especially in the Lankaran region). Livestock farming, primarily sheep and cattle, is also significant. The Caspian Sea supports a fishing industry, though stocks of valuable species like sturgeon have declined due to overfishing and pollution, prompting conservation measures.

Since independence, land reforms have transferred much agricultural land to private ownership. The government has implemented various programs to support agricultural development, focusing on improving productivity, modernizing infrastructure (such as irrigation systems), and promoting exports. However, the sector faces challenges, including water scarcity in some areas, outdated farming practices, and limited access to credit and markets for small farmers.

The social impact of agricultural policies on rural communities is a key consideration. Ensuring food security, sustainable land use, and improving the livelihoods of rural populations are important goals. Some products previously imported are now produced locally, contributing to self-sufficiency. Agricultural research institutes focus on areas like horticulture, viticulture (Azerbaijan has a long tradition of winemaking), and medicinal plants.

6.4. Industry

Beyond the dominant oil and gas sector, Azerbaijan's industry includes manufacturing, processing, and construction. Historically, during the Soviet era, Azerbaijan developed industries related to oil equipment manufacturing, chemical production, and metallurgy. After independence, many of these industries faced decline due to outdated technology and loss of traditional markets.

Current efforts focus on diversifying the industrial base and reducing reliance on hydrocarbons. The government is promoting the development of non-oil manufacturing sectors, including food processing, construction materials, machinery, and light industry. Industrial parks and special economic zones have been established to attract investment and stimulate growth in these areas.

Labor conditions, environmental standards in industrial production, and the social impact of industrial development are important considerations. Ensuring worker safety, fair wages, and minimizing industrial pollution are challenges that require ongoing attention. The development of a skilled workforce and the adoption of modern technologies are also crucial for the competitiveness of Azerbaijan's non-oil industries.

6.5. Tourism

Tourism in Azerbaijan is a growing sector with significant potential, driven by the country's rich historical and cultural heritage, diverse natural landscapes, and improving infrastructure. Azerbaijan was a known tourist destination in the Soviet era, but the industry declined after independence due to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and economic instability.

Since the 2000s, the government has prioritized tourism development as part of its economic diversification strategy. Key tourism resources include:

• Historical and Cultural Sites:** The Walled City of Baku with the Palace of the Shirvanshahs and Maiden Tower (UNESCO World Heritage site), the Gobustan Rock Art Cultural Landscape (UNESCO), the Ateshgah of Baku (fire temple), and numerous castles, mausoleums, and caravanserais. The city of Shaki with its historic Palace of Shaki Khans is also a UNESCO site.
• Natural Landscapes:** The Caucasus Mountains offer opportunities for hiking and winter sports (e.g., Shahdag Mountain Resort and Tufandag Mountain Resort). Mud volcanoes, national parks like Hirkan National Park (with its unique relict forests) and Göygöl National Park (with its scenic lakes), and the Caspian Sea coast are also attractions.
• Health and Wellness Tourism:** Azerbaijan has a tradition of spa treatments and health tourism, particularly related to the unique therapeutic properties of Naftalan oil.

The government has invested in improving tourism infrastructure, including hotels, transportation, and visa facilitation (e.g., e-visa system). Baku has hosted major international events, such as the Eurovision Song Contest (2012), the European Games (2015), Formula One Azerbaijan Grand Prix races, and UEFA Euro 2020 matches, which have helped raise the country's international profile.

The socio-economic impact of tourism on local communities is an important consideration. While tourism can create jobs and generate income, it also requires careful planning to ensure sustainability, protect cultural heritage, and distribute benefits equitably. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism regulates the sector.

6.6. Transportation

Azerbaijan's strategic location on the crossroads of major international traffic arteries, including the historic Silk Road and the modern International North-South Transport Corridor, highlights the importance of its transportation sector. The country has been investing heavily in upgrading its transport infrastructure.

• Roads:** An extensive network of roads connects major cities and regions. Efforts are ongoing to modernize highways and improve road quality to international standards.
• Railways:** Railways play a significant role in freight and passenger transport. The Baku-Tbilisi-Kars railway (BTK), launched in 2017, provides a direct rail link connecting Azerbaijan with Georgia and Turkey, and further to Europe and Central Asia, enhancing regional connectivity. The railway network uses Russian broad gauge.
• Aviation:** Heydar Aliyev International Airport in Baku is the main international gateway and a regional hub. Azerbaijan Airlines (AZAL) is the national flag carrier. There are several other international and domestic airports.
• Maritime Transport:** The Port of Baku, located on the Caspian Sea, is the largest port in the region and a key hub for maritime trade and ferry services across the Caspian, connecting with ports in Russia, Iran, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan.
• Pipelines:** Azerbaijan is a crucial transit country for energy resources. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) for oil and the South Caucasus Pipeline (SCP) for natural gas are major arteries transporting Caspian energy to Western markets.

The development of transport infrastructure is aimed at facilitating trade, supporting economic diversification, and enhancing Azerbaijan's role as a regional transit hub. The Ministry of Transport, Communications and High Technologies oversees the sector.

6.7. Science and Technology

Azerbaijan has been working to develop its science and technology sectors as part of its broader economic modernization and diversification strategy. The government aims to transform the country into a regional hub for innovation and high technology, with a particular focus on Information and Communication Technology (ICT).

• ICT Sector:** The ICT sector has seen significant growth, with increasing internet penetration and development of digital services. The government has supported initiatives like e-government services and the development of high-tech parks to foster innovation and attract investment. Mobile telecommunications are widespread, with several providers offering GSM and other services.
• Aerospace:** The Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency (Azercosmos) launched Azerbaijan's first telecommunications satellite, Azerspace-1 (also known as Azersat 1), in 2013. This was followed by other satellites for telecommunications and Earth observation (e.g., Azersky), marking Azerbaijan's entry into the space industry.
• Seismic Research:** Given Azerbaijan's location in a seismically active zone, significant research is conducted in geodynamics, geotectonics, and earthquake prediction. The Republican Center of Seismic Service monitors seismic activity and works on developing earthquake-resistant building standards.
• Energy Technology:** With its large oil and gas sector, there is ongoing research and development related to hydrocarbon exploration, extraction, and processing technologies.
• Other Areas:** Efforts are also being made to develop biotechnology, nanotechnology, and renewable energy technologies, though these are at earlier stages of development. The Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences is the main state research institution.

Government support policies include funding for research and development, promoting science education, and creating a favorable environment for innovation. However, challenges remain, including the need for greater investment in R&D, strengthening links between academia and industry, and developing a larger pool of highly skilled scientists and engineers. The societal implications and ethical considerations of technological advancements, such as data privacy and the digital divide, are also becoming increasingly important. Azerbaijan was ranked 95th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

7.1. Population Statistics

As of March 2022, the population of Azerbaijan was estimated to be approximately 10,164,464. About 52.9% of the population is urban, while 47.1% resides in rural areas. In January 2019, females constituted 50.1% of the total population, with a sex ratio of 0.99 males per female.

The population growth rate in 2011 was 0.85%. Migration has been a factor influencing population trends, with periods of both emigration and immigration, particularly related to economic opportunities and the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, which caused significant internal displacement. Life expectancy has been increasing. The largest city is the capital, Baku, followed by Sumgait and Ganja. Urbanization has been a steady trend, though a significant portion of the population still lives in rural communities.

7.2. Ethnic Groups

Azerbaijan is a multiethnic country, though Azerbaijanis (also referred to as Azeris) form the dominant ethnic group. According to the 2009 census, the ethnic composition was as follows:

• Azerbaijanis: 91.6%
• Lezgins: 2.0%
• Armenians: 1.4% (almost all living in the Nagorno-Karabakh region at the time of the census; this figure has drastically changed since 2023)
• Russians: 1.3%
• Talysh: 1.3%
• Avars: 0.6%
• Turks (primarily Meskhetian Turks): 0.4%
• Tatars: 0.3%
• Tats: 0.3%
• Ukrainians: 0.2%
• Tsakhurs: 0.1%
• Georgians (Ingiloys): 0.1%
• Jews (including Mountain Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, and Georgian Jews): 0.1%
• Kurds: 0.1%
• Other ethnic groups (including Udis, etc.): 0.2%

The status and rights of ethnic minorities are important considerations. While the government promotes a narrative of multiculturalism and tolerance, some minority groups have raised concerns about the preservation of their languages and cultures, as well as equitable representation and socio-economic opportunities. The Lezgin and Talysh communities are notable indigenous minorities. The Russian population has decreased since the Soviet era but remains a visible minority. The Armenian population outside Nagorno-Karabakh largely left or was expelled during the conflict, and the vast majority of Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh itself departed in 2023. The Udi, an ancient Christian group, are considered descendants of Caucasian Albanians. Social integration and the protection of minority rights are crucial for a harmonious multiethnic society.

7.3. Languages

The official language of Azerbaijan is Azerbaijani (Azərbaycan dili_{Azərbaycan dili (Azerbaijani language)}^Azerbaijani), a Turkic language belonging to the Oghuz branch. Approximately 92% of the population speaks Azerbaijani as their mother tongue. Azerbaijani is closely related to Turkish, Turkmen, and Gagauz.

Russian continues to be widely spoken, especially in urban areas and among the older generation, as a legacy of the Soviet era. It often serves as a lingua franca and a language of business and higher education for some.

Armenian was historically spoken by the Armenian population, predominantly in Nagorno-Karabakh. Following the events of 2023, its use within Azerbaijan has become minimal.

Numerous other minority languages are spoken in Azerbaijan, including Lezgian, Talysh, Avar, Tat (including Judæo-Tat spoken by Mountain Jews), Tsakhur, Budukh, Khinalug, Kryts, Udi, and Georgian (by the Ingiloy minority). Many of these languages are indigenous to the Caucasus region.

Language policy in Azerbaijan promotes the use of Azerbaijani in all official spheres. However, there are concerns about the preservation and development of minority languages. While some minority languages have media and educational opportunities, resources can be limited. The impact of language policy on linguistic diversity and the ability of minority groups to express their cultural identity is an ongoing issue. The Azerbaijani alphabet has changed multiple times: from Perso-Arabic script to Latin (1920s), then to Cyrillic (1930s), and back to a modified Latin script after independence in 1991.

7.4. Religion

Azerbaijan is a secular state, as enshrined in its constitution, which guarantees freedom of religion. However, Islam is the predominant religion. Approximately 97% of the population identifies as Muslim.

• Islam: The majority of Azerbaijani Muslims, estimated to be around 65-85%, adhere to Shia Islam (primarily Twelver Shia), a legacy of the Safavid conversion in the 16th century. The remaining 15-35% are Sunni Muslims (primarily Hanafi school). This makes Azerbaijan one of the few Muslim-majority countries where Shia Muslims constitute the majority or a very significant portion of the population. While religious observance varies, Islamic traditions and holidays play a role in cultural life.
• Christianity: Christians make up a small minority, around 3%. The largest Christian denomination is the Russian Orthodox Church. The Georgian Orthodox Church also has adherents, particularly among the Ingiloy community. The ancient Caucasian Albanian Church has historical significance, and efforts are underway to revive Udi Christian traditions. There are also smaller communities of Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Baptists, and Molokans (a Spiritual Christian group). Most ethnic Armenians, who traditionally adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church, resided in Nagorno-Karabakh and largely departed in 2023.
• Judaism: Azerbaijan has an ancient Jewish community. The Mountain Jews, who speak Judæo-Tat, have lived in the region for centuries and form the largest Jewish group. Qırmızı Qəsəbə (Krasnaya Sloboda) in the Guba region is a unique, historically all-Jewish town. There are also smaller communities of Ashkenazi and Georgian Jews, mainly in Baku.
• Other Religions: Small communities of Baháʼís, Hare Krishnas, and Jehovah's Witnesses also exist. Zoroastrianism, once dominant in the region, has left a significant cultural and historical imprint (e.g., Novruz holiday, fire temples like Ateshgah), though it has very few active adherents today.

The state body responsible for overseeing religious affairs is the State Committee on Religious Associations. All religious communities are required to register. While the government promotes religious tolerance, some minority religious groups and non-traditional Muslim groups have reported difficulties with registration, restrictions on their activities (such as importing religious literature or appointing clergy), and government interference. Freedom of belief and the state's policies on religion are areas monitored by international human rights organizations. Overall, Azerbaijani society is largely secular in its public life, with religion often being a private or cultural matter for many.

7.5. Education

Azerbaijan has a long tradition of education, and the literacy rate is high, estimated at 99.5%. The education system has undergone reforms since independence to align with international standards while preserving national cultural values.

The education system is structured as follows:

• Preschool Education:** For children up to age 6.
• General Secondary Education:** This is compulsory and free for 11 years, divided into:
  • Primary Education (Grades 1-4)
  • Basic Secondary Education (Grades 5-9)
  • Complete Secondary Education (Grades 10-11)
• Vocational Education:** Provides specialized training for various trades and professions.
• Higher Education:** Includes universities, academies, and institutes offering bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.

The Ministry of Science and Education oversees the education system. Baku State University, founded in 1919, is the oldest modern university. Other major institutions include the Azerbaijan State Oil and Industry University, Azerbaijan Medical University, Khazar University, and ADA University.

Since independence, curriculum changes have re-emphasized the Azerbaijani language and national history and culture, replacing Soviet-era ideological content. The official script for Azerbaijani was changed from Cyrillic to Latin. Efforts have been made to modernize teaching methods, update textbooks, and integrate ICT into education. Azerbaijan is a participant in the Bologna Process, aiming to create a common European Higher Education Area.

Challenges in the education sector include ensuring equitable access to quality education, particularly in rural areas and for vulnerable groups. Improving the quality of teaching, addressing issues of corruption in the education system, and strengthening research capacity in universities are ongoing priorities. The government has also supported programs for Azerbaijanis to study abroad to gain international experience. Accessibility, quality, and equity in education are crucial for the country's human and economic development.

7.6. Health

Azerbaijan's healthcare system has undergone significant changes since the Soviet era, with ongoing efforts to modernize infrastructure and improve the quality and accessibility of medical services. Key health indicators, such as life expectancy, have generally improved since independence.

The healthcare system is predominantly state-run, though a private healthcare sector is also developing, particularly in urban areas. The Ministry of Health is the main government body responsible for healthcare policy and regulation. Medical care in public facilities is nominally free, but informal payments are common, and the quality of services can vary.

Major public health issues include non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes, which are leading causes of mortality. Infectious diseases like tuberculosis remain a concern. Maternal and child health have seen improvements, but disparities persist between urban and rural areas.

Government health policies focus on strengthening primary healthcare, improving hospital infrastructure, modernizing medical equipment, and enhancing the training of healthcare professionals. There is an emphasis on preventive medicine and promoting healthy lifestyles. However, the healthcare system faces challenges, including underfunding, outdated infrastructure in some regions, shortages of certain medical specialists, and the need for greater efficiency and transparency.

Equity in access to healthcare is a significant concern. Disparities exist between urban and rural areas, and between different socio-economic groups. The well-being of vulnerable populations, including IDPs, the elderly, and those with disabilities, requires particular attention in healthcare provision. Health insurance reforms are being explored to improve funding and access. International organizations have collaborated with Azerbaijan on various health programs, particularly in areas like immunization, disease control, and health system strengthening.

8.1. Architecture

Azerbaijani architecture displays a blend of indigenous styles with Persian, Ottoman, and Russian influences, evolving over centuries.
Ancient and medieval architectural treasures include the prehistoric petroglyphs of Gobustan, the remains of Caucasian Albanian churches, and impressive defensive structures. The Walled City of Baku (Icherisheher), a UNESCO World Heritage site, is a prime example, featuring iconic landmarks such as the 12th-century Maiden Tower and the 15th-century Palace of the Shirvanshahs. Other notable historical structures include the Momine Khatun Mausoleum in Nakhchivan, the Palace of Shaki Khans with its exquisite stained glass (shebeke), and numerous fortresses, caravanserais, and bridges throughout the country.

During the oil boom of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Baku saw the construction of opulent mansions and public buildings in various European styles, often referred to as Baku's "Baroque" or "Art Nouveau" period, reflecting the city's growing wealth and cosmopolitanism. Soviet-era architecture introduced constructivist and later neoclassical styles, evident in many public buildings and residential areas.

Since regaining independence, Azerbaijan has witnessed a new wave of architectural development, particularly in Baku. Modern architecture is characterized by ambitious projects that often incorporate contemporary aesthetics and advanced engineering. Iconic examples include the Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center designed by Zaha Hadid, the Flame Towers (a trio of skyscrapers symbolizing Azerbaijan's "Land of Fire" moniker), the Baku Crystal Hall (built for the Eurovision Song Contest 2012), and the SOCAR Tower. These structures have significantly transformed Baku's skyline, aiming to project an image of a modern and dynamic nation. There is an ongoing dialogue about balancing modern development with the preservation of historical architectural heritage.

8.2. Music and Dance

Azerbaijani music is rich and diverse, encompassing traditional folk genres, classical forms, and contemporary popular styles.
Mugham is a highly esteemed classical improvisational genre, often compared to jazz for its expressive freedom. It is a complex modal music system, typically performed by a trio consisting of a singer (khananda) playing a daf (frame drum), and instrumentalists playing the tar (long-necked lute) and kamancha (bowed string instrument). Azerbaijani Mugham was proclaimed a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2003 (inscribed in 2008). Prominent Mugham performers include Alim Qasimov.

Ashiq art combines poetry, storytelling, dance, and instrumental music (primarily on the saz, a type of lute). Ashiqs are travelling bards or troubadours, and their art form has ancient Turkic shamanistic roots. Ashiq art was also inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage list in 2009.
Folk music and dances are integral to Azerbaijani culture. There are numerous traditional folk dances, often performed at festivals and celebrations, characterized by intricate footwork and expressive gestures. Dancers typically wear national costumes like the chokha. Traditional musical instruments include the tar, kamancha, saz, balaban (a cylindrical double-reed wind instrument), and naghara (a double-headed drum).

In the early 20th century, composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov pioneered Azerbaijani classical music by synthesizing Mugham and folk traditions with Western classical forms. He composed the first opera in the Muslim world, "Leyli and Majnun" (1908). Other notable composers include Gara Garayev and Fikret Amirov.

Contemporary popular music, including pop, rock, and hip hop, has gained popularity. Azerbaijan has actively participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since 2008, winning in 2011 with the song "Running Scared" by Eldar & Nigar, and subsequently hosting the 2012 contest in Baku.

8.3. Art

Azerbaijani art encompasses a wide range of forms, from ancient rock carvings to contemporary painting and sculpture. Traditional handicrafts are particularly significant.
Carpet weaving is one of the most celebrated Azerbaijani art forms. Azerbaijani carpets are renowned for their intricate designs, vibrant colors, and high quality. Different regions of Azerbaijan (such as Quba, Shirvan, Ganja, Kazakh, and Karabakh) have their own distinct carpet weaving traditions and patterns. The art of Azerbaijani carpet weaving was inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010. The Azerbaijan Carpet Museum in Baku showcases a vast collection. The work of Latif Karimov, a prominent carpet designer and scholar, was instrumental in studying and promoting this art.

Other traditional handicrafts include metalwork (especially copperware from Lahij), jewelry making, wood carving, stone carving, ceramics, and decorative embroidery like kelaghayi (silk headscarves for women, also on the UNESCO Intangible Heritage list).

Painting and Sculpture: Azerbaijani painting traditions include medieval miniature painting, which flourished in centers like Tabriz and Shamakhi. Notable 19th and 20th-century painters include Mirza Gadim Iravani, Bahruz Kangarli, and Azim Azimzade. During the Soviet era, Socialist Realism was the dominant style, but artists like Sattar Bahlulzade (known for lyrical landscapes) and Tahir Salahov (a prominent figure of the "severe style") gained international recognition. Togrul Narimanbekov and Mikayil Abdullayev are also well-known artists. Contemporary Azerbaijani art explores diverse themes and styles.

Ancient art forms like the petroglyphs of Gobustan, dating back thousands of years, provide insights into the early cultures of the region. Notable examples of Azerbaijani visual art include:

8.4. Literature

Azerbaijani literature has a rich history, with roots in both oral folk traditions and written works in Azerbaijani Turkic and Persian.
The earliest known figure in written Azerbaijani literature is considered to be Izzeddin Hasanoghlu (13th-14th century), who composed ghazals in both Azerbaijani and Persian. The epic Book of Dede Korkut, a collection of heroic tales reflecting the Oghuz Turkic oral tradition, is a foundational work, with manuscripts dating to the 16th century.

Classical Azerbaijani literature flourished from the 14th century onwards. Imadaddin Nasimi (late 14th - early 15th century) was a prominent Hurufi mystical poet who wrote in Azerbaijani, Persian, and Arabic. The 16th-century poet Fuzuli (Muhammad bin Suleyman) is one of the greatest figures in Turkic literature, renowned for his lyrical and philosophical ghazals and epic poems, including "Leyli and Majnun". He wrote in Azerbaijani, Persian, and Arabic. Shah Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid dynasty, wrote poetry in Azerbaijani under the pen name "Khata'i".

Other notable classical poets include Gazi Burhanaddin, Haqiqi (Jahan Shah Qara Qoyunlu), Habibi, and Qovsi Tabrizi. In the 18th century, Molla Panah Vagif and Molla Vali Vidadi were significant poets.

The 19th century saw the rise of realism and enlightenment ideas in Azerbaijani literature, influenced by Russian and European thought. Mirza Fatali Akhundov is considered the founder of modern Azerbaijani drama and prose.

During the Soviet era, literature was often subject to state control and the dictates of Socialist Realism. However, writers like Samed Vurgun, Rasul Rza, and Anar Rzayev made significant contributions.

Contemporary Azerbaijani literature continues to evolve, with writers exploring diverse themes and styles. The legacy of classical Persian literature, particularly the works of Nizami Ganjavi (12th century), born in Ganja (present-day Azerbaijan) and a master of Persian epic poetry (e.g., "Khamsa"), is also highly revered and considered part of Azerbaijan's cultural heritage, although he wrote in Persian.

8.5. Media and Cinema

Media: The first Azerbaijani-language newspaper, Akinchi (Əkinçi, "The Cultivator"), was published in 1875 by Hasan bey Zardabi. Today, Azerbaijan has a mix of state-owned and private media outlets. State-run television channels include AzTV (Azerbaijan Television), İdman TV (sports), and Mədəniyyət TV (culture). There is also a public broadcaster, İctimai Television (İTV), and several private channels such as ANS TV (though its license was revoked), Space TV, Lider TV, Azad Azerbaijan TV (ATV), Khazar TV, and ARB TV. Numerous newspapers and online news portals operate in Azerbaijani and Russian.

However, the media landscape in Azerbaijan is characterized by significant government control and restrictions on freedom of the press. Most major media outlets are either directly state-owned or aligned with the government, and critical reporting is often suppressed. Independent journalists and media outlets face harassment, legal pressure, and economic challenges. International organizations consistently rank Azerbaijan low in press freedom indices, citing censorship, self-censorship, and the imprisonment of journalists on politically motivated charges. Issues related to media freedom and freedom of expression are ongoing concerns for human rights advocates.

Cinema: The cinema of Azerbaijan dates back to 1898, making Azerbaijan one of the first countries involved in cinematography. The early film industry was centered in Baku, with pioneers like Alexandre Michon shooting documentary footage of the Baku oil fields. In 1916, the film In the Kingdom of Oil and Millions was produced. In 1919, a documentary titled The Celebration of the Anniversary of Azerbaijani Independence was filmed.

After the Soviet takeover in 1920, the Azerbaijani film industry was nationalized and became part of the Soviet cinema system. During this period, numerous feature films, documentaries, and animated films were produced. Notable Soviet-era Azerbaijani films include Arshin Mal Alan (a musical comedy) and The Cloth Peddler.

Since independence in 1991, Azerbaijani filmmakers have faced new challenges and opportunities, including funding issues and the need to develop a national cinema identity. The Baku International Film Festival East-West was established to promote local and international cinema. Contemporary Azerbaijani cinema explores a range of themes, from historical narratives to social issues. Azerbaijanfilm is the main state-owned film studio.

8.6. Cuisine

Azerbaijani cuisine is diverse and flavorful, influenced by the country's fertile land, abundant seasonal vegetables and greens, and historical culinary traditions. It shares similarities with other Caucasian and Middle Eastern cuisines but has its own distinct characteristics.

Key ingredients include mutton, beef, poultry, fish (especially from the Caspian Sea), and a wide variety of fresh herbs such as mint, cilantro (coriander), dill, basil, parsley, tarragon, leeks, chives, thyme, and marjoram, which often accompany main dishes. Fruits like pomegranates, apricots, plums, and grapes are also widely used.

Signature dishes include:

• Plov (pilaf): Considered the flagship dish, Azerbaijani plov comes in many varieties, typically made with saffron-flavored rice, meat (lamb or chicken), dried fruits, chestnuts, and aromatic herbs.
• Dolma: Stuffed vegetables (tomatoes, eggplants, peppers) or grape leaves (yarpaq dolması) filled with minced meat, rice, and herbs.
• Kebab (shashlik): Grilled skewers of marinated meat, typically lamb (tika kebab), minced lamb (lula kebab), or chicken.
• Bozbash: A hearty lamb soup with vegetables like potatoes, peas, and often fruits like quince or sour plums.
• Dushbara: Small dumplings filled with minced meat and spices, served in a clear broth.
• Qutab: A savory turnover, similar to a thin pancake, filled with minced meat, greens, or pumpkin, cooked on a griddle.
• Lavangi: Stuffed chicken or fish with a filling of walnuts, onions, and sour plum paste, particularly popular in the Lankaran region.

Bread (çörək), especially tandoor-baked bread (təndir çörəyi), is a staple. Dairy products like qatiq (yogurt) and various cheeses are also common.

Tea Culture: Black tea is the national beverage and an integral part of Azerbaijani hospitality. It is traditionally served strong in pear-shaped glasses called armudu, often accompanied by sweets, fruit preserves (murabba), and lemon. Tea houses (çayxana) are important social gathering places.

Sweets and desserts include pakhlava (baklava), shakarbura (sweet pastry filled with nuts), and halva. Novruz, the traditional spring festival, features a special array of festive foods and sweets.

8.7. Sports

Sport in Azerbaijan is popular and diverse, with both traditional and modern sports enjoying a strong following. The government has invested significantly in sports infrastructure and hosting international events.

Wrestling is traditionally regarded as Azerbaijan's national sport. Azerbaijani wrestlers have achieved considerable success in international competitions, including the Olympic Games, in both freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling. Notable wrestlers include Namig Abdullayev, Toghrul Asgarov, Rovshan Bayramov, Sharif Sharifov, and Mariya Stadnik.

Football (soccer) is the most popular team sport. The Azerbaijan Premier League is the top professional league. Clubs like Qarabağ FK and Neftçi PFK have competed in UEFA club competitions, with Qarabağ FK being the first Azerbaijani team to reach the group stage of the UEFA Champions League. The Azerbaijan national football team represents the country in international matches. Baku National Stadium has hosted major events, including UEFA Euro 2020 matches and the 2019 UEFA Europa League Final.

Chess has a strong tradition in Azerbaijan, which has produced numerous grandmasters and hosted major international tournaments. The Azerbaijani men's team has won the European Team Chess Championship multiple times. Notable players include Teimour Radjabov, Shakhriyar Mamedyarov, and former World Champion Garry Kasparov (born in Baku). The Shamkir Chess tournament is a high-profile annual event.

Other Sports:

• Futsal: The Azerbaijan national futsal team has performed well in European championships.
• Judo: Azerbaijani judokas have won medals at Olympic and world championships (e.g., Elnur Mammadli, Rustam Orujov).
• Boxing: Boxing is also popular, with Azerbaijani boxers achieving international success.
• Rhythmic gymnastics: Azerbaijan has strong rhythmic gymnasts and has hosted European and World Championships.
• Volleyball: Women's volleyball has seen success at the club level, with teams like Rabita Baku and Azerrail Baku performing well in European competitions.
• Martial arts: Karate, taekwondo, and other martial arts are practiced.
• Weightlifting: Has brought Olympic medals to Azerbaijan.

Azerbaijan has actively hosted major international multi-sport events, including the inaugural 2015 European Games in Baku, the 2017 Islamic Solidarity Games, and the 2019 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival. Baku has also hosted Formula One Azerbaijan Grand Prix races annually since 2016 (initially as the European Grand Prix). Other annual events include the Baku Cup tennis tournament and the Tour d'Azerbaïdjan cycling race.

Backgammon is a traditional board game widely played and enjoyed in Azerbaijan.

8.8. Public Holidays

Azerbaijan observes several national and public holidays, reflecting its historical, cultural, and religious heritage.
Key public holidays include:

• January 1-2:** New Year's Day
• January 20:** Martyrs' Day (Qara Yanvar / Black January) - Commemorates the victims of the Soviet army crackdown in Baku in 1990.
• March 8:** International Women's Day
• March 20-24 (approx.):** Novruz Bayram - The traditional spring festival marking the vernal equinox and the Persian New Year. It is the most widely celebrated holiday in Azerbaijan, involving extensive preparations, festive foods, folk traditions, and public celebrations lasting several days.
• May 9:** Victory Day over Fascism - Commemorates the victory over Nazi Germany in World War II.
• May 28:** Independence Day (formerly Republic Day) - Marks the founding of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918.
• June 15:** National Salvation Day - Commemorates Heydar Aliyev's return to power in 1993.
• June 26:** Armed Forces Day
• November 8:** Victory Day - Marks Azerbaijan's victory in the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020, specifically the recapture of Shusha.
• November 9:** State Flag Day
• November 12:** Constitution Day - Marks the adoption of the Constitution of Azerbaijan in 1995.
• November 17:** National Revival Day
• December 31:** Day of Solidarity of World Azerbaijanis

Religious holidays with non-working status, based on the Islamic lunar calendar and varying annually, include:

• Ramazan Bayram** (Eid al-Fitr) - Marks the end of Ramadan, the month of fasting.
• Gurban Bayram** (Eid al-Adha) - The Feast of Sacrifice.

Novruz Bayram is particularly significant, involving deep-rooted traditions such as spring cleaning, cooking special dishes like shekerbura, pakhlava, and shorgoghal, lighting bonfires (tonqal), and family gatherings. These holidays play a crucial role in preserving cultural identity and social cohesion.