Syria

3.1. Ancient Antiquity

The Natufian culture was the first to become sedentary around the 11th millennium BC and became one of the centers of Neolithic culture (known as PPNA), where agriculture and cattle breeding first began to appear. The site of Tell Qaramel has several round stone towers dated to 10650 BC, making them the oldest structures of this kind in the world. The Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by rectangular houses of Mureybet culture. At the time, people used containers made of stone, gyps, and burnt lime (Vaisselle blanche). The discovery of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidence of early trade. The ancient cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age. Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only that of Mesopotamia.

The earliest recorded indigenous civilization in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, northern Syria. Ebla appears to have been founded around 3500 BC and gradually built its fortune through trade with the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Assyria, and Akkad, as well as with the Hurrian and Hattians peoples to the northwest, in Asia Minor. Gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is a trading agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal around 2300 BC. This is known as the Treaty between Ebla and Abarsal. Scholars believe the Eblaite language to be among the oldest known written Semitic languages after Akkadian. Recent classifications of the Eblaite language have shown that it was an East Semitic language, closely related to the Akkadian language. Ebla was weakened by a long war with Mari, and the whole of Syria became part of the Mesopotamian Akkadian Empire after Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram-Sin of Akkad's conquests ended Eblan domination over Syria in the first half of the 23rd century BC.

By the 21st century BC, Hurrians settled in the northern east parts of Syria while the rest of the region was dominated by the Amorites. Syria was called the Land of the Amurru (Amorites) by their Assyro-Babylonian neighbors. The Northwest Semitic Amorite language is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages. Mari reemerged during this period until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia. Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages and developed the Ugaritic alphabet, considered to be the world's earliest known alphabet. The Ugaritic kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC in what was known as the Late Bronze Age Collapse.

Aleppo and Damascus are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Yamhad (modern Aleppo) dominated northern Syria for two centuries, although eastern Syria was occupied in the 19th and 18th centuries BC by the Old Assyrian Empire ruled by the Amorite dynasty of Shamshi-Adad I, and by the Babylonian Empire which was founded by Amorites. Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, and the Euphrates valley down to the borders with Babylon. The army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam (modern Iran). Yamhad was conquered and destroyed, along with Ebla, by the Hittites from Asia Minor circa 1600 BC. From this time, Syria became a battleground for various foreign empires, these being the Hittite Empire, Mitanni Empire, Egyptian Empire, Middle Assyrian Empire, and to a lesser degree Babylonia. The Egyptians initially occupied much of the south, while the Hittites and the Mitanni occupied much of the north. However, Assyria eventually gained the upper hand, destroying the Mitanni Empire and annexing huge swathes of territory previously held by the Hittites and Babylon.

Around the 14th century BC, various Semitic peoples appeared in the area, such as the semi-nomadic Suteans who came into an unsuccessful conflict with Babylonia to the east, and the West Semitic speaking Arameans who subsumed the earlier Amorites. They too were subjugated by Assyria and the Hittites for centuries. The Egyptians fought the Hittites for control over western Syria; the fighting reached its zenith in 1274 BC with the Battle of Kadesh. The west remained part of the Hittite empire until its destruction circa 1200 BC, while eastern Syria largely became part of the Middle Assyrian Empire, who also annexed much of the west during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I (1114-1076 BC). With the destruction of the Hittites and the decline of Assyria in the late 11th century BC, the Aramean tribes gained control of much of the interior, founding states such as Bit Bahiani, Aram-Damascus, Hamath, Aram-Rehob, Aram-Naharaim, and Luhuti. From this point, the region became known as Aramea or Aram. There was also a synthesis between the Semitic Arameans and the remnants of the Indo-European Hittites, with the founding of a number of Syro-Hittite states centered in north central Aram (Syria) and south central Asia Minor (modern Turkey), including Palistin, Carchemish and Sam'al.

A Canaanite group known as the Phoenicians came to dominate the coasts of Syria (and also Lebanon and northern Palestine) from the 13th century BC, founding city-states such as Amrit, Simyra, Arwad, Paltos, Ramitha, and Shuksi. From these coastal regions, they eventually spread their influence throughout the Mediterranean, including building colonies in Malta, Sicily, the Iberian peninsula, and the coasts of North Africa and most significantly, founding the major city-state of Carthage in the 9th century BC, which was much later to become the center of a major empire, rivaling the Roman Republic.

Syria and the western half of Near East then fell to the vast Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 BC - 605 BC). The Assyrians introduced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of their empire. This language was to remain dominant in Syria and the entire Near East until after the Islamic conquest in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, and was to be a vehicle for the spread of Christianity. The Assyrians named their colonies of Syria and Lebanon Eber-Nari. Assyrian domination ended after the Assyrians greatly weakened themselves in a series of brutal internal civil wars, followed by attacks from: the Medes, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians. During the fall of Assyria, the Scythians ravaged and plundered much of Syria. The last stand of the Assyrian army was at Carchemish in northern Syria in 605 BC. The Assyrian Empire was followed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire (605 BC - 539 BC). During this period, Syria became a battleground between Babylonia and another former Assyrian colony, that of Egypt. The Babylonians, like their Assyrian relations, were victorious over Egypt.

3.2. Classical Antiquity

Lands that constitute modern-day Syria were part of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and had been annexed by the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC. Led by Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenid Persians retained Imperial Aramaic as one of the diplomatic languages of their empire, as well as the Assyrian name for the new satrapy of Aram/Syria Eber-Nari. Syria was conquered by the Macedonian Empire which was ruled by Alexander the Great around 330 BC and consequently became Coele-Syria province of the Seleucid Empire (323 BC - 64 BC), with the Seleucid kings styling themselves "King of Syria" and the city of Antioch being its capital starting from 240 BC. Thus, it was the Greeks who introduced the name "Syria" to the region. Originally an Indo-European corruption of "Assyria" in northern Mesopotamia (Iraq), the Greeks used this term to describe not only Assyria itself but also the lands to the west which had for centuries been under Assyrian dominion. Thus in the Greco-Roman world both the Arameans of Syria and the Assyrians of Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) to the east were referred to as "Syrians" or "Syriacs", despite these being distinct peoples in their own right, a confusion which would continue into the modern world. Eventually parts of southern Seleucid Syria were taken by the Jewish Hasmonean dynasty upon the slow disintegration of the Hellenistic Empire.

Syria briefly came under Armenian control from 83 BC, with the conquests of the Armenian king Tigranes the Great, who was welcomed as a savior from the Seleucids and Romans by the Syrian people. However, Pompey the Great, a general of the Roman Empire, rode to Syria and captured Antioch and turned Syria into a Roman province in 64 BC, thus ending Armenian control over the region which had lasted two decades. Syria prospered under Roman rule, being strategically located on the Silk Road, which gave it massive wealth and importance, making it the battleground for the rivaling Romans and Persians.

Palmyra, a rich and sometimes powerful native Aramaic-speaking kingdom, arose in northern Syria in the 2nd century; the Palmyrenes established a trade network that made the city one of the richest in the Roman Empire. In the late 3rd century the Palmyrene king Odaenathus defeated the Persian emperor Shapur I and controlled the entirety of the Roman East while his successor and widow Zenobia established the Palmyrene Empire, which briefly conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine, much of Asia Minor, Judah and Lebanon, before being finally brought under Roman control in 273.

The northern Mesopotamian Assyrian kingdom of Adiabene controlled areas of north east Syria between AD 10 and 117, before it was conquered by Rome. The Aramaic language has been found as far afield as Hadrian's Wall in Roman Britain, with an inscription written by a Palmyrene emigrant at the site of Fort Arbeia. Control of Syria eventually passed from the Romans to the Byzantine Empire with the split in the Roman Empire. The largely Aramaic-speaking population of Syria during the heyday of the Byzantine Empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Prior to the Arab Islamic Conquest in the 7th century, the bulk of the population were Arameans, but Syria was also home to Greek and Roman ruling classes, Assyrians still dwelt in the north east, Phoenicians along the coasts, and Jewish and Armenian communities were also extant in major cities, with Nabateans and pre-Islamic Arabs such as the Lakhmids and Ghassanids dwelling in the deserts of southern Syria. Syriac Christianity had taken hold as the major religion, although others still followed Judaism, Mithraism, Manichaeanism, Greco-Roman Religion, Canaanite Religion and Mesopotamian Religion. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman and Byzantine provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.

Syrians held considerable power during the Severan dynasty. The matriarch of the family and empress of Rome as wife of emperor Septimius Severus was Julia Domna, a Syrian from the city of Emesa (modern day Homs), whose family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the god El-Gabal. Her great nephews, also Arabs from Syria, would also become Roman emperors, the first being Elagabalus and the second his cousin Alexander Severus. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus), who was born in Roman Arabia. He was emperor from 244 to 249 and ruled briefly during the Crisis of the Third Century. During his reign, he focused on his home town of Philippopolis (modern day Shahba) and began many construction projects to improve the city, most of which were halted after his death.
Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Saul of Tarsus, better known as the Apostle Paul, was converted on the road to Damascus and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria.

3.3. Middle Ages

Muhammad's first interaction with the people of Syria was during the invasion of Dumatul Jandal in July 626 where he ordered his followers to invade Duma, because Muhammad received intelligence that some tribes there were involved in highway robbery and were preparing to attack Medina. William Montgomery Watt claims that this was the most significant expedition Muhammad ordered at the time, even though it received little notice in the primary sources. Dumat Al-Jandal was 500 mile from Medina, and Watt says that there was no immediate threat to Muhammad, other than the possibility that his communications to Syria and supplies to Medina would be interrupted. Watt says "It is tempting to suppose that Muhammad was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death", and that the rapid march of his troops must have "impressed all those who heard of it". William Muir also believes that the expedition was important as Muhammad followed by 1,000 men reached the confines of Syria, where distant tribes had learnt his name, while the political horizon of Muhammad was extended.

By 640, Syria was conquered by the Rashidun army led by Khalid ibn al-Walid. In the mid-7th century, the Umayyad dynasty placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. The country's power declined during later Umayyad rule; this was mainly through totalitarianism, corruption and the resulting revolutions. The Umayyad dynasty was overthrown in 750 by the Abbasid dynasty, which moved the capital of empire to Baghdad. Arabic - made official under Umayyad rule - became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic of the Byzantine era. In 887, the Egypt-based Tulunids annexed Syria from the Abbasids and were later replaced by the Egypt-based Ikhshidids and then by the Hamdanids originating in Aleppo founded by Sayf al-Dawla.

Sections of Syria were held by French, English, Italian and German overlords between 1098 and 1189 during the Crusades and were known collectively as the Crusader states, among which the primary one in Syria was the Principality of Antioch. The coastal mountainous region was occupied in part by the Nizari Ismailis, the so-called Assassins, who had intermittent confrontations and truces with the Crusader States. Later in history when "the Nizaris faced renewed Frankish hostilities, they received timely assistance from the Ayyubids." After a century of Seljuk rule, Syria was largely conquered (1175-1185) by the Kurdish liberator Saladin, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt. Aleppo fell to the Mongols of Hulegu in January 1260; Damascus fell in March, but then Hulegu was forced to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute.

A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt and defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut in Galilee. The Mamluk leader, Baibars, made Damascus a provincial capital. When he died, power was taken by Qalawun. In the meantime, an emir named Sunqur al-Ashqar had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280 and fled to northern Syria. Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols. The Mongols of the Ilkhanate took Aleppo in October 1280, but Qalawun persuaded Al-Ashqar to join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281 in the Second Battle of Homs, which was won by the Mamluks. In 1400, the Muslim Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamurlane invaded Syria, in which he sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans who were deported to Samarkand. Tamurlane conducted massacres of the Assyrian Christian population, greatly reducing their numbers. By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an overland trade route through Syria.

3.4. Ottoman Syria

In 1516, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, conquering Syria and incorporating it into its empire. The Ottoman system was not burdensome to Syrians because the Turks respected Arabic as the language of the Quran and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus was made the major entrepot for Mecca, and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the beneficial results of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the Hajj.
Ottoman administration followed a system that led to peaceful coexistence. Each ethno-religious minority-Arab Shia Muslim, Arab Sunni Muslim, Syriac Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Maronite Christians, Assyrian Christians, Armenians, Kurds and Jews-constituted a millet. The religious heads of each community administered all personal status laws and performed certain civil functions as well. In 1831, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt renounced his loyalty to the empire and overran Ottoman Syria, capturing Damascus. His short-term rule over the domain attempted to change the demographics and social structure of the region: he brought thousands of Egyptian villagers to populate the plains of Southern Syria, rebuilt Jaffa and settled it with veteran Egyptian soldiers aiming to turn it into a regional capital, and he crushed peasant and Druze rebellions and deported non-loyal tribesmen. By 1840, however, he had to surrender the area back to the Ottomans. From 1864, Tanzimat reforms were applied on Ottoman Syria, carving out the provinces (vilayets) of Aleppo, Zor, Beirut and Damascus; Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon was created, and soon after the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was given a separate status.

During World War I, the Ottoman Empire entered the conflict as a Central Power. It ultimately suffered defeat and loss of control of the entire Near East to the British Empire and French Empire. During the conflict, genocide against indigenous Christian peoples was carried out by the Ottomans and their allies in the form of the Armenian genocide and Assyrian genocide (Sayfo), of which Deir ez-Zor in Ottoman Syria was the final destination of these death marches. In the midst of World War I, two Allied diplomats (Frenchman François Georges-Picot and Briton Mark Sykes) secretly agreed on the post-war division of the Ottoman Empire into respective zones of influence in the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916. Initially, the two territories were separated by a border that ran in an almost straight line from Jordan to Iran. However, the discovery of oil in the region of Mosul just before the end of the war led to yet another negotiation with France in 1918 to cede this region to the British zone of influence, which was to become Iraq. The fate of the intermediate province of Zor was left unclear; its occupation by Arab nationalists resulted in its attachment to Syria. This border was recognized internationally when Syria became a League of Nations mandate in 1920 and has not changed to date.

3.5. French Mandate

In 1920, a short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria was established under Faisal I of the Hashemite family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate. General Gouraud had according to his secretary de Caix two options: "Either build a Syrian nation that does not exist... by smoothing the rifts which still divide it" or "cultivate and maintain all the phenomena, which require our arbitration that these divisions give". De Caix added "I must say only the second option interests me". This is what Gouraud did.
In 1925, Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt that broke out in the Druze Mountain and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French, notably the Battle of al-Kafr on 21 July 1925, the Battle of al-Mazraa on 2-3 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, al-Musayfirah and Suwayda. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal, leading the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Syrian-French Treaty.

Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi was the first president to be elected under the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of Vichy France until the British and Free French occupied the country in the Syria-Lebanon campaign in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate. Nationalist movements, fueled by a desire for self-determination and an end to colonial rule, gained momentum, challenging French authority through protests and armed resistance, which ultimately paved the way for Syria's independence.

3.6. Independent Syrian Republic

This period covers Syria's tumultuous early independence, marked by political instability, military coups, and participation in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It details Syria's brief union with Egypt in the United Arab Republic (UAR) from 1958 to 1961, a period which saw significant land reforms before the union's dissolution and a return to further instability.
In May 1948, Syrian forces invaded Palestine, together with other Arab states, and immediately attacked Jewish settlements. President Shukri al-Quwwatli instructed his troops in the front, "to destroy the Zionists". The invasion purpose was to prevent the establishment of the state of Israel. Toward this end, the Syrian government engaged in an active process of recruiting former Nazis, including several former members of the Schutzstaffel, to build up their armed forces and military intelligence capabilities. Defeat in this war was one of several trigger factors for the March 1949 Syrian coup d'état by Colonel Husni al-Za'im, described as the first military overthrow of the Arab World since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthrow, by Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi, who was quickly deposed by Colonel Adib Shishakli, all within the same year.

Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether but was overthrown in a 1954 coup, and the parliamentary system was restored. However, by this time, power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment. The weakness of Parliamentary institutions and the mismanagement of the economy led to unrest and the influence of Nasserism and other ideologies. There was fertile ground for various Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist, and socialist movements, which represented disaffected elements of society. Notably included were religious minorities, who demanded radical reform. The period was marked by frequent coups and political instability, reflecting deep societal divisions and external pressures, hindering the development of stable democratic institutions and contributing to ongoing regional tensions.

3.6.1. United Arab Republic (1958-1961)

On 1 February 1958, Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Egypt's Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the United Arab Republic (UAR), and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities. The union was motivated by pan-Arab nationalist sentiments and a desire to counter Western influence in the region. However, the UAR was short-lived. Syrian military officers, alarmed by the dominance of Egyptian officials in the new state and the marginalization of Syrian political and economic interests, staged a coup d'état on 28 September 1961, leading to Syria's secession from the union.
During the UAR period, significant land reform measures were introduced. These consisted of three interrelated programs: legislation regulating the relationship between agricultural laborers and landowners; legislation governing the ownership and use of private and state domain land and directing the economic organization of peasants; and measures reorganizing agricultural production under state control. Despite high levels of inequality in land ownership, these reforms allowed for more progress in the redistribution of land from 1958 to 1961 than any other reforms in Syria's history since independence. The first law passed (Law 134; 4 September 1958) was in response to concern about peasant mobilization and aimed at expanding peasants' rights. This law strengthened the position of sharecroppers and agricultural laborers in relation to landowners, led to the creation of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, regulated working conditions, set work hours, introduced minimum wage principles, and obligated landlords to honor contracts. While these reforms aimed to empower agricultural workers, they also acknowledged landlords' rights to form their own syndicates. The dissolution of the UAR marked another phase of political instability for Syria.

3.6.3. Fall of the Assad Regime and Transitional Period (2024-present)

In late November 2024, a coalition of opposition forces, led by the Islamist group Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), launched a series of coordinated offensives across northwestern Syria. This marked a significant escalation in the long-running civil war. The rebels swiftly captured Aleppo, Syria's second-largest city, on November 29-30, prompting retaliatory airstrikes by Syrian regime forces, supported by Russian aviation. These strikes targeted population centers and several hospitals in the rebel-held city of Idlib, resulting in numerous civilian casualties. International actors, including NATO members, called for de-escalation and the protection of civilians.

The rebel offensive continued, with forces advancing into Hama province and capturing the key city of Hama on December 5, despite government counteroffensives. The fighting led to widespread displacement, with nearly 50,000 people fleeing the Hama area and hundreds of casualties reported. Rebel forces then reached the outskirts of Homs on December 5, beginning a battle for the city. Simultaneously, an HTS-coordinated uprising in southern Syria, led by a coalition of local groups including Druze militias and opposition forces, captured the cities of Suwayda and Daraa by December 6. These southern forces rapidly advanced northwards, encircling Damascus over the following day. Homs was captured by rebel forces by the early morning of December 8.

Facing a multi-front collapse and with Damascus isolated, the authority of Bashar al-Assad's regime disintegrated. The Syrian Arab Armed Forces largely dissolved as soldiers abandoned their posts. Opposition forces entered Damascus on December 8, and Bashar al-Assad fled the country with his family, reportedly to Moscow, where he was granted asylum. This marked the end of the Assad family's 53-year rule over Syria.

Following the regime's collapse, Assad's last prime minister, Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali, remained in a caretaker capacity until a transitional government led by Mohammed al-Bashir (formerly head of the HTS-backed Syrian Salvation Government in Idlib) was formed on December 10. Al-Jalali called for fresh elections. The new transitional government, largely composed of figures from the Syrian Salvation Government, announced the suspension of the constitution and parliament for a three-month period, with a 'judicial and human rights committee' to be established to review the constitution. Ahmed al-Sharaa (also known as Abu Mohammad al-Jolani), the leader of HTS, emerged as the de facto leader of the new governing authority and was later appointed president for the transitional period in January 2025.

The initial aftermath was marked by significant challenges. Israel launched a ground invasion into the UN buffer zone in the Golan Heights and conducted airstrikes against Syrian military depots and naval bases, claiming to prevent rebels from acquiring advanced weaponry. Turkish-backed Syrian National Army fighters in northern Syria continued an offensive against U.S.-backed Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) until a ceasefire was brokered on December 11. The SDF later announced plans to merge with the new Syrian Armed Forces.
The transitional government faces immense tasks, including ensuring security, providing humanitarian aid, addressing the legacy of human rights abuses, initiating national reconciliation, and rebuilding state institutions. International reactions were mixed, with many countries expressing cautious hope for a more democratic and stable Syria, while also voicing concerns about the influence of HTS, an Islamist group with past links to al-Qaeda. The transitional period is intended to last until at least March 2025, with promises of inclusive governance and respect for minority rights, though the long-term political, social, and humanitarian trajectory remains uncertain. The focus is on fostering democratic development, upholding human rights, and achieving social justice in a country devastated by years of conflict and authoritarian rule.

4.1. Climate

Syria's climate varies significantly across its regions. The coastal areas experience a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Average temperatures on the coast range from around 84.2 °F ^{(29 °C)} in summer to 50 °F ^{(10 °C)} in winter. Rainfall is most abundant in this region.
Inland, the climate transitions to semi-arid conditions. The areas east of the coastal mountains receive less rainfall and experience greater temperature fluctuations between seasons and between day and night.
The eastern and southeastern parts of Syria are dominated by a desert climate, with very hot summers, cool winters, and minimal precipitation. Aleppo, in the northwest, has an average August temperature of 86 °F ^{(30 °C)} and an average January temperature of around 39.92 °F ^{(4.4 °C)}. Damascus experiences similar temperature patterns. Higher altitude areas, such as Bloudan and Mashta al-Helu, offer cooler summer temperatures and are popular local resorts.

4.2. Biodiversity

Syria contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands, Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests, Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests, and Mesopotamian shrub desert. The country's flora and fauna are adapted to these varied climates and terrains.
Characteristic flora includes species adapted to Mediterranean, steppe, and desert conditions. Forests, though limited, are found in the coastal mountains and include pine, oak, and cedar. Steppe regions support grasses and shrubs, while desert areas have drought-resistant plants.
Fauna includes mammals such as gazelles, wild boars, hyenas, jackals, and various rodents. Birdlife is diverse, particularly along migratory routes. Reptiles like snakes and lizards are common in arid regions.
Environmental issues in Syria have been exacerbated by the civil war, including deforestation, water scarcity, pollution, and damage to natural habitats. Conservation efforts, which were limited even before the conflict, face immense challenges. The recovery of Syria's biodiversity and the establishment of effective environmental protection measures are crucial for the country's long-term ecological health and sustainable development, particularly in the context of post-conflict reconstruction and the impacts of climate change. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.64/10, ranking it 144th globally out of 172 countries.

5.1. Post-Ba'athist Syria (2024-present)

Following the fall of the Assad regime on 8 December 2024, Syria entered a transitional period. A Syrian transitional government, led by Prime Minister Mohammed al-Bashir, was formed on December 10, 2024, initially to govern until 1 March 2025, a term later extended. This government largely succeeded the Syrian Salvation Government which had operated in Idlib under Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS). On 12 December 2024, the transitional government announced the suspension of the constitution and the parliament for the duration of the transitional period.
Ahmed al-Sharaa (also known as Abu Mohammad al-Jolani), leader of HTS, who served as the de facto leader following the regime's collapse, was appointed president for the transitional period on 29 January 2025, by the Syrian General Command. An interim legislative council is expected to be formed to serve as Syria's legislature until a new constitution is adopted.
The stated objectives of the transitional government include political reform, constitutional review, national reconciliation, and the rebuilding of state institutions. However, it faces significant challenges related to security, establishing broad legitimacy both domestically and internationally, achieving national unity among diverse ethnic and political groups, and addressing the immense humanitarian and economic crises.
Critics have raised concerns about the HTS's past human rights record and its Islamist ideology. Reports from organizations like the Syrian Network for Human Rights have documented repression of critics and opponents by HTS in areas previously under its control, including enforced disappearances and torture. The transitional government, under Prime Minister Mohammed al-Bashir, has made promises to protect minorities, including Christians, allowing them to practice their religion without interference. However, these assurances have been met with skepticism by some, given HTS's historical connections to al-Qaeda and the Islamic State. The use of a variation of the Tawhid flag by the new government alongside the opposition flag has also raised concerns about the secular nature of the future Syrian state. Aisha al-Dibs was appointed as the Minister of Women's Affairs on 22 December 2024, a move seen by some as an attempt to address concerns about women's rights under the new administration.
On 12 February 2025, Foreign Minister Asaad al-Shaibani announced that a new, more inclusive government would be formed by March 1, aiming to "represent the Syrian people as much as possible and take its diversity into account." The success of this transition will depend on its ability to foster genuine democratic participation, ensure accountability for past abuses, protect human rights for all citizens, and navigate complex internal and external pressures.

5.2. Ba'athist Syria (1963-2024)

The Syrian Arab Republic under Ba'athist rule (1963-2024) was a presidential state that, particularly after the 2012 constitutional changes, nominally permitted the candidacy of individuals not part of the Ba'ath-controlled National Progressive Front. Despite this, Syria remained a one-party state dominated by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, with an extensive secret police apparatus (Mukhabarat) that severely curtailed any independent political activity and suppressed dissent.
The Ba'ath Party governed Syria as a police state, controlling the Syrian military, security apparatus, media, education sector, and religious and cultural spheres. This system was frequently described as totalitarian, though some scholars preferred the term authoritarian. Freedom House consistently ranked Syria among the "Worst of the Worst" for political rights and civil liberties.
The 2012 Syrian constitution, introduced unilaterally by the Assad regime, ostensibly allowed for a multi-party system but in practice, reinforced the authoritarian nature of the state by bestowing extraordinary powers on the presidency. A Ba'athist political committee continued to be responsible for authorizing political parties. The President of Syria was the head of state, while the Prime Minister of Syria was nominally the head of government, though real power lay with the presidency. The legislature, the People's Assembly, primarily served to validate the Ba'ath party's decisions and lacked genuine legislative independence.

Since Hafez al-Assad's rule (1970-2000) and continued by his son Bashar al-Assad (2000-2024), the political system was centered around a comprehensive cult of personality focused on the Assad family. Alawite loyalists of the Ba'ath party dominated key positions in the military, secret police, and political establishment, creating a system of minority rule over a majority Sunni population, which contributed to sectarian tensions.
The constitution required the president to be a Muslim but did not make Islam the state religion. However, the 1973 constitution, implemented by Hafez al-Assad, initially did not require the president to be Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations by the Muslim Brotherhood and traditional ulama, who labeled Assad an "enemy of Allah" and called for jihad. This pressure led to an amendment specifying the president must be Muslim. The government survived a series of armed revolts by Islamists between 1976 and 1982 through severe repression, culminating in the Hama massacre.
The judiciary under Ba'athist rule was not independent, with judges and prosecutors often being Ba'athist appointees. The system included a Supreme Constitutional Court, a High Judicial Council, a Court of Cassation, and State Security Courts (abolished in 2011 but often replaced by other special courts) that handled political cases with little due process.
Elections were widely regarded as sham processes, characterized by rigging, lack of genuine competition, and intimidation, serving to legitimize the regime rather than reflect popular will. International observers and organizations frequently condemned these elections as illegitimate. The system ensured the Ba'ath Party and its allies in the National Progressive Front maintained overwhelming control of the People's Assembly. This entrenched one-party rule, suppression of dissent, and lack of accountability were key grievances that fueled the Syrian Civil War.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

Syria is divided into 14 governorates (muhafazat, singular: muhafazah). These governorates are further subdivided into 61 districts (manatiq, singular: mintaqah), which are then divided into sub-districts (nawahi, singular: nahiya). The capital city, Damascus, is its own governorate.
The governorates are:

The hierarchical structure of governance extended down to local councils, but under the Ba'athist regime, significant power remained centralized in Damascus. The fall of the Assad regime and the ongoing transitional period may lead to reforms in administrative structures and local governance.

5.4. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Syria has been a matter of grave concern for decades, particularly under the Ba'athist regime of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad, and has catastrophically worsened during the Syrian Civil War (2011-2024). Independent organizations like Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International consistently ranked Syria among the worst countries for human rights.
Under Ba'athist rule (1963-2024), the government maintained power through an extensive security apparatus that systematically suppressed dissent. Key human rights violations included:

• Lack of Political Freedoms: A one-party state where meaningful political opposition was impossible. Elections were not free or fair. Freedom of expression, association, and assembly were severely curtailed. Critics of the government, human rights defenders, journalists, and perceived opponents faced arbitrary arrest, detention, and often torture.
• Arbitrary Detention and Enforced Disappearances: Tens of thousands of individuals were subjected to arbitrary detention without charge or trial, often held incommunicado. Enforced disappearance became a widespread tactic, with families often unaware of the fate or whereabouts of their loved ones for years.
• Torture and Ill-Treatment: Torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment were systematic in Syrian detention facilities. Reports detailed horrific conditions and methods of torture leading to countless deaths in custody. The Caesar photographs, smuggled out of Syria, provided gruesome evidence of widespread torture and killing of detainees.
• Suppression of Minorities: While the regime projected an image of secularism, minority groups, particularly Kurds, faced discrimination and denial of cultural and political rights. Sunni Muslims, the majority, often felt marginalized by the Alawite-dominated regime.
• Impunity: There was near-total impunity for human rights violations committed by state security forces and officials.

The Syrian Civil War (2011-2024) saw an escalation of human rights abuses and the commission of war crimes and crimes against humanity by all parties to the conflict, though UN and other international inquiries consistently found the Assad regime responsible for the vast majority of civilian casualties and abuses. These included:

• Indiscriminate Attacks on Civilians: Regime forces conducted widespread and systematic attacks on civilian-populated areas, including the use of barrel bombs, shelling, and airstrikes on homes, markets, hospitals, and schools.
• Chemical Weapons Attacks: Multiple investigations by the UN and the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) found the Syrian regime responsible for using chemical weapons, including sarin and chlorine, against civilian populations, notably in Ghouta (2013) and Khan Shaykhun (2017).
• Sieges and Denial of Humanitarian Aid: The regime frequently used siege warfare, encircling opposition-held areas and blocking access to food, water, and medical supplies, leading to starvation and widespread suffering.
• Abuses by Non-State Actors: Extremist groups like ISIL and HTS (and its predecessors) also committed egregious human rights abuses, including summary executions, sectarian violence, torture, and persecution of minorities and dissenting individuals. Other armed opposition groups were also implicated in abuses.
• Impact on Vulnerable Groups: Women and children were disproportionately affected by the conflict, facing sexual violence, displacement, recruitment as child soldiers, and denial of basic rights. Religious and ethnic minorities, such as Christians, Yazidis, and Druze, were targeted by extremist groups and caught in the crossfire.

Following the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024, the transitional government faces immense challenges in addressing this legacy of human rights violations. Key priorities include:

• Accountability and Justice: Establishing mechanisms for transitional justice to hold perpetrators of war crimes and crimes against humanity accountable, provide redress for victims, and combat the culture of impunity. This includes supporting international efforts like those by the International, Impartial and Independent Mechanism (IIIM) and potential national processes.
• Release of Political Prisoners and Disclosing the Fate of the Disappeared: Locating and releasing all arbitrarily detained individuals and providing information to families about the fate of the forcibly disappeared.
• Reforming Security Sector and Judiciary: Dismantling the repressive security apparatus and reforming the judiciary to ensure independence, due process, and respect for human rights.
• Protecting Fundamental Freedoms: Guaranteeing freedom of expression, assembly, and association, and creating a safe environment for civil society and independent media.
• Minority Rights: Ensuring the protection and equal rights of all ethnic and religious minorities within a new constitutional and legal framework.

The success of the transition will heavily depend on its commitment to upholding human rights, fostering reconciliation based on truth and justice, and building democratic institutions that protect all Syrians. International support and scrutiny will be crucial in this process.

6.1. Relations with Neighboring Countries

Syria's relations with its neighbors have been multifaceted and often fraught with tension, marked by political rivalries, security concerns, border disputes, and significant refugee flows.

• Turkey: Relations have been historically complex, with periods of cooperation and intense antagonism. Key issues include disputes over the Hatay Province (which Syria claims), water resources from the Euphrates, and Turkey's concerns about Kurdish separatism linked to the PKK. During the Syrian Civil War, Turkey became a major backer of opposition forces and conducted several military incursions into northern Syria, establishing a zone of influence to counter the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) and ISIL, and to manage refugee flows. The fall of the Assad regime presents an opportunity for recalibrating relations, though Turkish security interests in northern Syria remain a significant factor.
• Iraq: Relations have fluctuated, influenced by Ba'athist party rivalries (Syrian vs. Iraqi factions), the Iran-Iraq War (where Syria backed Iran), and the rise of ISIL, which controlled territory across their shared border. Cooperation on security, particularly against ISIL remnants, and managing economic ties and refugee issues are ongoing priorities. The porous border has historically been a concern for both smuggling and militant movement.
• Jordan: Jordan has hosted a vast number of Syrian refugees since 2011, straining its resources. Relations with the Assad regime were tense, with Jordan cautiously supporting some opposition elements and concerned about spillover from the conflict, including drug trafficking (Captagon) and extremist groups. Border security and the safe return of refugees are key concerns.
• Lebanon: Syria exerted significant political and military influence over Lebanon for decades, including a military presence from 1976 to 2005. The assassination of Lebanese PM Rafic Hariri in 2005, widely blamed on Syria, led to the Cedar Revolution and Syrian withdrawal. The Syrian civil war saw Lebanon again impacted by refugee inflows and political spillover, with Hezbollah actively supporting the Assad regime. The new Syrian government will need to establish relations based on mutual respect for sovereignty.
• Israel: The two countries have remained in a state of war since 1948. The primary dispute is over the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, annexed by Israel in 1981 (a move not recognized internationally). Israel conducted numerous airstrikes in Syria during the civil war, targeting Iranian-backed militias and weapons shipments. Following the Assad regime's collapse in December 2024, Israel invaded and occupied the UN buffer zone in southern Syria, further complicating the situation. The resolution of the Golan Heights issue and ensuring border stability are paramount.

6.2. Relations with Major Powers

Syria's interactions with major global powers have been pivotal, especially during the civil war and the current transitional phase.

• Russia: Russia was a steadfast ally of the Assad regime, providing crucial military, economic, and diplomatic support that was instrumental in its survival during the civil war. Russia maintains significant military bases in Syria (Tartus naval base and Khmeimim airbase). The transitional government's relationship with Russia will be a key factor in Syria's future, given Russia's entrenched interests and influence.
• United States: The U.S. designated the Assad regime as a state sponsor of terrorism and imposed extensive sanctions. During the civil war, the U.S. supported opposition groups and led the international coalition against ISIL, partnering with the SDF in northeastern Syria. The U.S. seeks a political transition in line with UN Security Council Resolution 2254, counter-terrorism efforts, and accountability for human rights abuses.
• Iran: Iran was another crucial ally of the Assad regime, providing substantial financial, military (including IRGC forces and allied militias like Hezbollah), and political support. Iran's influence in Syria, aimed at bolstering its "axis of resistance" against Israel and the U.S., is a major concern for regional and international actors. The transitional government's stance towards Iran will significantly impact regional dynamics.
• China: China, alongside Russia, often used its UN Security Council veto to shield the Assad regime from international pressure. Its engagement has been primarily economic and diplomatic, emphasizing non-interference and stability. China may see opportunities in Syria's reconstruction but will likely proceed cautiously.
• European Union: EU members imposed sanctions on the Assad regime and provided humanitarian aid. They support a political solution based on UNSCR 2254 and emphasize human rights, accountability, and democratic reforms. The EU will be a key player in reconstruction efforts, contingent on a credible political transition.

6.3. International Disputes

Syria has been involved in several significant international territorial and political disputes, which continue to affect its stability and foreign relations.

• Golan Heights: This strategically important plateau was captured by Israel from Syria in the 1967 Six-Day War and effectively annexed by Israel in 1981, a move not recognized by international law. United Nations Security Council Resolution 497 declared the annexation "null and void and without international legal effect." Syria demands the full return of the Golan Heights. The region is home to a significant Druze population, many of whom maintain Syrian identity and face challenges under Israeli occupation. Human rights concerns related to the occupation and the rights of the Druze population are ongoing. The dispute is a core element of the Arab-Israeli conflict.
• Hatay Province: Syria has a long-standing claim to the Hatay Province (formerly the Sanjak of Alexandretta), which was transferred from French Mandate Syria to Turkey in 1939 following a controversial referendum. Syria does not officially recognize Turkish sovereignty over Hatay and often depicts it as Syrian territory on maps. This issue remains a point of contention in Turkish-Syrian relations, though it has been less prominent in recent decades compared to other disputes.
• 2024 Israeli invasion and occupation of southern Syria: Following the collapse of the Assad regime in December 2024, Israeli forces invaded and occupied the UN-patrolled buffer zone (Purple Line) in southern Syria, adjacent to the Golan Heights. Israel stated this was a temporary measure to prevent a power vacuum and potential threats. This action violated the 1974 disengagement agreement and drew international concern. The invasion has significant humanitarian implications and complicates the efforts of the Syrian transitional government to assert sovereignty and stability. Israel has since demanded the complete demilitarization of southern Syria and the withdrawal of Syrian forces south of Damascus. The new Syrian leadership has condemned the occupation and demanded Israeli withdrawal.

These disputes are deeply intertwined with regional power dynamics, historical grievances, and the ongoing quest for security and sovereignty in a volatile part of the world. Their resolution will require complex diplomatic efforts and a commitment to international law and peaceful conflict resolution.

8.1. Economic History

Syria's economic history since independence in 1946 has been marked by several distinct phases. Initially, the economy was largely agrarian and dominated by a landed elite. The Ba'ath Party's rise to power in 1963 ushered in an era of state-led development, characterized by nationalizations, land reforms, and a centrally planned economy. While this led to improvements in some social indicators like education and healthcare access, it also resulted in inefficiencies, corruption, and limited private sector growth.
In the 2000s, under Bashar al-Assad, Syria initiated cautious market-oriented reforms aimed at liberalizing the economy and attracting foreign investment. These reforms led to some economic growth but also increased social inequalities and were often implemented in a way that benefited regime-connected elites. The World Bank classified Syria as a "lower middle income country" before the civil war.
The Syrian Civil War (2011-2024) had catastrophic consequences for the economy. GDP contracted massively, estimated by the World Bank to have shrunk by 84% from 2010 to 2023. Infrastructure was destroyed, industrial and agricultural production plummeted, and unemployment and poverty rates soared, with over 90% of the population living in poverty by the war's later stages. International sanctions imposed on the Assad regime further crippled the formal economy. The regime became heavily reliant on support from allies like Iran and Russia, and illicit activities, notably the Captagon trade, became a significant source of revenue. The collapse of the Assad regime in December 2024 has left the Syrian economy in ruins, requiring massive international aid and comprehensive reforms for reconstruction and sustainable development, with a focus on social equity and rebuilding human capital.

8.2. Major Sectors

Syria's economy traditionally relied on several key sectors, all of which have been severely impacted by years of conflict.

• Oil and Gas: Syria is a modest oil producer. Before the civil war, the oil sector provided about 40% of export earnings. Production was centered in the northeast and east. During the war, many oil fields fell under the control of various groups, including ISIL and the SDF. The Assad regime lost control of significant reserves, and infrastructure suffered extensive damage. Natural gas reserves also exist, primarily used for domestic power generation. Rebuilding this sector and ensuring transparent management of resources will be crucial for the new government. Offshore exploration has indicated potential reserves in the Mediterranean.
• Agriculture: Agriculture has historically been a vital sector, contributing significantly to GDP (around 20% pre-war) and employment (around 20% pre-war). Key crops include wheat, barley, cotton, olives, fruits (especially citrus and grapes), and vegetables. Livestock farming (sheep, goats, cattle) is also important. The war disrupted agricultural production due to displacement, damaged irrigation systems, lack of inputs, and insecurity. Water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change and mismanagement, remains a long-term challenge. Revitalizing agriculture is essential for food security and rural livelihoods.
• Manufacturing: Syria's manufacturing sector, which included textiles, food processing, cement, and pharmaceuticals, suffered heavily during the conflict. Industrial zones, particularly around Aleppo and Homs, were devastated. Lack of electricity, raw materials, skilled labor, and damaged infrastructure are major hurdles to recovery. Rebuilding this sector requires significant investment and a stable environment. The traditional Aleppo soap is a well-known artisanal product.
• Tourism: Before 2011, Syria had a growing tourism industry, attracting visitors to its rich historical and cultural sites, such as Palmyra, Damascus Old City, Aleppo, and Crusader castles. The war decimated this sector. Around 40% of all employees in the tourism sector lost their jobs early in the war. Rebuilding infrastructure, ensuring security, and restoring Syria's image as a safe destination are prerequisites for reviving tourism, which has the potential to contribute significantly to the economy and employment.

In 2007, main exports included crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of imports were raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery.
As of 2012, the value of overall exports was slashed by two-thirds, from US$12 billion in 2010 to only US$4 billion in 2012. Sanctions, particularly US and EU bans on oil imports, cost Syria an estimated $400 million per month. In May 2015, ISIL captured Syria's phosphate mines, a key income source for the regime. ISIS also targeted energy infrastructure. The Syrian pound lost 80% of its value during the war, and the economy became a mix of state-owned enterprises and a war economy. The World Bank estimated Syria's GDP in 2023 at $6.2 billion.

8.3. Transport and Communications

Syria's transport and communications infrastructure, once relatively developed for the region, has suffered extensive damage due to the civil war.

• Roads: Syria had a substantial road network, including expressways connecting major cities. The pre-war network was about 43 K mile ^{(69.87 K km)} long, including 0.7 K mile ^{(1.10 K km)} of expressways. Many roads and bridges were damaged or destroyed during the conflict, disrupting internal trade and movement. Reconstruction of the road network is a priority for economic recovery.
• Railways: Syrian Railways (CFS) operated the national rail network, which carried both passengers and freight. Lines connected major cities and extended to neighboring countries like Turkey. However, rail services were severely disrupted, and much of the infrastructure and rolling stock was damaged or fell into disuse during the war. International rail services ceased.
• Ports: Syria's main seaports are Latakia and Tartus on the Mediterranean coast. These ports are crucial for international trade. While they remained largely under government control during the war, their capacity and efficiency were affected by the conflict and sanctions. Tartus naval base also hosts a significant Russian naval facility.
• Airports: Syria has several international airports, including Damascus, Aleppo, and Latakia (Bassel Al-Assad), and Qamishli. These served as hubs for Syrian Air and other carriers. Air traffic was severely curtailed during the war due to security concerns, sanctions, and damage to facilities. Re-establishing international air links is vital for economic and social reconnection.
• Telecommunications: The telecommunications sector, including landlines, mobile networks, and internet services, was overseen by the Ministry of Communications and Technology and dominated by state-controlled Syrian Telecom. Internet penetration and mobile usage had been growing before the war but infrastructure suffered damage. The Assad regime heavily censored the internet and monitored communications. The Syrian Electronic Army was a pro-regime hacktivist group. Rebuilding a modern, accessible, and open telecommunications infrastructure is a key challenge.
• Waterways: Syria has about 559 mile ^{(900 km)} of navigable waterways, primarily on the Euphrates River, but these are not economically significant for large-scale transport.

Rehabilitating and modernizing Syria's transport and communications infrastructure will require massive investment and will be essential for economic recovery, humanitarian aid delivery, and national reintegration.

8.4. Drug Industry

Under the Assad regime, particularly during the Syrian Civil War, Syria became a major center for the production and trafficking of illicit drugs, most notably Captagon, an amphetamine-type stimulant. This trade evolved into a multi-billion dollar enterprise, with some analysts referring to Syria as a narco-state.
The drug industry was reportedly run by associates and relatives of Bashar al-Assad and elements within the military and security apparatus. The production of Captagon provided the regime with a significant source of hard currency, helping it to bypass international sanctions and fund its war efforts. By 2021, drug exports were estimated to have eclipsed Syria's legal exports, with Captagon alone valued at a minimum of 3.40 B USD annually, far surpassing legitimate exports like olive oil.
The primary markets for Syrian-made Captagon were countries in the Arabian Gulf and other parts of the Middle East, though seizures also occurred in Europe and elsewhere. The trade not only fueled conflict within Syria but also contributed to addiction problems and criminality in destination countries, becoming a regional security concern.
Following the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024, the new transitional government has vowed to dismantle this illicit industry. This presents a significant challenge, as the drug trade had become deeply entrenched in parts of the Syrian economy and involved powerful networks. Effectively combating Captagon production and trafficking will require comprehensive efforts, including law enforcement, border control, addressing root causes like poverty and lack of economic opportunity, and regional cooperation. The dismantling of this narco-economy is crucial for Syria's long-term stability, economic normalization, and improved relations with neighboring countries.

9.1. Largest Cities

Syria's urban centers have historically been hubs of culture, commerce, and administration. The civil war caused extensive damage and demographic shifts in many cities. The largest cities, based on pre-war or estimated populations, include:

• Damascus: The capital and largest city, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Population of metropolitan area estimated around 2.5-3 million before substantial war-related influx.
• Aleppo: Historically Syria's largest city and a major industrial and commercial center. Suffered immense destruction during the war. Pre-war population was over 2 million.
• Homs: A major city in central Syria, it saw extensive fighting and destruction. Pre-war population was around 800,000 to over 1 million in its metropolitan area.
• Hama: An important agricultural and historical city on the Orontes River. Pre-war population around 700,000-800,000.
• Latakia: A major port city on the Mediterranean coast. Remained relatively stable during the war and hosted many internally displaced persons.
• Deir ez-Zor: Located in eastern Syria on the Euphrates River, it was heavily contested during the war.
• Raqqa: Became the de facto capital of ISIL and suffered heavily during its liberation.
• Al-Hasakah and Qamishli: Major cities in northeastern Syria, with significant Kurdish and Assyrian populations, part of the AANES.
• Idlib: Became a major center for opposition forces and internally displaced persons from other parts of Syria.
• Daraa: Located in southern Syria, considered the birthplace of the 2011 uprising.
• Tartus: Another port city on the Mediterranean, hosting a Russian naval base.
• Al-Suwayda: The main center of Syria's Druze population in the south.
• Other significant urban areas include Douma, Jaramana, Sayyidah Zaynab, Manbij, Al-Thawrah (Al-Tabqah), Darayya, and Al-Hajar al-Aswad.

The populations of these cities have fluctuated dramatically due to displacement and conflict. Reconstruction and the safe return of populations are major post-conflict challenges.

9.2. Ethnic Groups

Syria is a mosaic of diverse ethnic groups, each with its own cultural heritage and contributions to Syrian society. The estimated pre-war ethnic composition was approximately:

• Arabs: Constituting the largest ethnic group, around 74% of the population (including some 600,000 Palestinians). Syrian Arabs themselves are a Levantine people, closely related to neighboring Lebanese, Palestinians, and Jordanians. Within the Arab population, there is significant religious diversity.
• Kurds: The second-largest ethnic group, making up about 9-10% of the population (approximately 2 million people, including around 40,000 Yazidis who are ethnically Kurdish). Most Kurds reside in the northeastern region (Al-Hasakah, Qamishli, Kobani) and Afrin, and largely speak the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish. They have sought greater cultural and political rights, which culminated in the establishment of the de facto Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES) during the civil war.
• Turkmen/Turkoman: The third-largest group, with estimates varying widely from several hundred thousand to 3.5 million. They primarily inhabit areas in northern Syria, particularly around Aleppo, Latakia, Homs, and along the Turkish border. They speak a Turkish dialect and have close cultural ties with Turkey.
• Assyrians (also referred to as Syriacs or Chaldeans): An indigenous Christian group, making up about 3-4% of the population. They primarily reside in northeastern Syria (e.g., Qamishli, Al-Hasakah), Homs, and Aleppo. Many still speak Neo-Aramaic dialects. They are among the oldest inhabitants of the region and have a rich Christian heritage.
• Armenians: Constituting about 1-2% of the population, most are descendants of refugees who fled the Armenian genocide in the early 20th century. They are concentrated in cities like Aleppo, Damascus, Qamishli, and Kesab, and have maintained their distinct language, religion (Armenian Apostolic Church), and cultural institutions. Syria holds the 7th largest Armenian diaspora population in the world.
• Circassians (Adyghe): A smaller minority (around 1.5%), descendants of those who fled the Caucasus in the 19th century after the Russian conquest. They are mainly Sunni Muslims and have largely integrated while preserving some cultural traditions.
• Other groups: Smaller communities include Greeks, Persians, Albanians, Bosnians, Pashtuns, and Russians. Many of these smaller groups have become largely Arabized, particularly those who share the Muslim faith.

The civil war has significantly impacted inter-ethnic relations and the demographic distribution of these groups. National reconciliation and ensuring the rights and cultural expression of all ethnic communities will be crucial for Syria's future stability and social cohesion. The largest concentration of the Syrian diaspora outside the Arab world is in Brazil. Brazil was the first country in the Americas to offer humanitarian visas to Syrian refugees. Many Arab Argentines also have Syrian or Lebanese backgrounds.

9.3. Languages

Arabic is the official language of Syria and is used in government, education, and media. In everyday life, several Arabic dialects are spoken:

• Levantine Arabic: Predominant in western Syria, including Damascus, Homs, and the coastal regions. It is mutually intelligible with dialects spoken in Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine.
• Mesopotamian Arabic (specifically North Mesopotamian Arabic): Spoken in northeastern Syria, particularly in areas bordering Iraq.

In addition to Arabic, several minority languages are spoken:

• Kurdish: Primarily the Kurmanji dialect, spoken by the Kurdish minority, mainly in northeastern Syria (AANES region) and other Kurdish enclaves.
• Turkish: Spoken by the Syrian Turkmen minority, particularly in northern regions close to the Turkish border.
• Aramaic dialects: Historically the lingua franca of the region before Arabic. Today, several Neo-Aramaic dialects survive:
  • Western Neo-Aramaic: Remarkably still spoken in the village of Maaloula and two neighboring villages northeast of Damascus. It is the only surviving Western Aramaic dialect.
  • Syriac: Used as a liturgical language by various Syriac Christian denominations.
  • Other Neo-Aramaic dialects like Turoyo and Assyrian Neo-Aramaic are spoken by the Assyrian community in northeastern Syria.
• Armenian: Spoken by the Armenian community, primarily Western Armenian.
• Circassian: Spoken by the Circassian minority.
• Chechen: Spoken by a small Chechen community.
• Greek: Spoken by a small Greek community.

None of these minority languages had official status under the Ba'athist regime, though some gained more local recognition within the AANES. English and French are widely understood as second languages, especially among the educated population, with English being more commonly used in recent years. The linguistic diversity of Syria reflects its rich historical and cultural tapestry.

9.4. Religion

Syria is a country of significant religious diversity, with Islam being the predominant religion. The religious landscape comprises:

• Islam (Approximately 87% of the population):
  • Sunni Muslims: The largest religious group, constituting about 74% of the total population. This includes the majority of Syrian Arabs, most Kurds (around 8.5% of the total population), and most Turkmens (around 3% of the total population).
  • Shia Muslims: Representing about 3% of Syrians, including Ismailis and Twelvers. Shia communities are found among Arabs, Kurds, and Turkmens.
  • Alawites: An esoteric offshoot of Shia Islam, constituting about 10-13% of the population. The Assad family and many key figures in the Ba'athist regime were Alawites, leading to their dominance in government and military positions, which was a source of sectarian tension. They are concentrated in the coastal mountains and major cities.
• Christianity (Approximately 10% of the population before the civil war, significantly reduced since):

Syrian Christians belong to various denominations, many of which are among the oldest Christian communities in the world. These include:

• Antiochian Greek Orthodox Church: The largest Christian denomination.
• Syriac Orthodox Church.
• Catholic Rites: Including Melkite Greek Catholic, Syriac Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Maronite, and Chaldean Catholic.
• Armenian Apostolic Church.
• Assyrian Church of the East.
• Various Protestant denominations.

Christian populations were historically concentrated in cities like Aleppo, Damascus, Homs, and the coastal areas, as well as in northeastern Syria. The civil war led to a significant exodus of Christians. Many Christian Syrians historically belonged to a high socio-economic class.

• Druze (Approximately 3% of the population):

An esoteric, monotheistic ethnoreligious group that originated from Ismaili Islam but is generally considered distinct. The Druze population is concentrated in the Jabal al-Druze (Mountain of the Druze) region in southwestern Syria, with Al-Suwayda as its main center. They number around 500,000.

• Yazidis: A smaller ethnoreligious minority, primarily of Kurdish ethnicity, who practice Yazidism, a syncretic religion with ancient roots. They have faced severe persecution, especially from extremist groups like ISIL.
• Judaism: Syria once had a substantial Jewish population, with communities in Damascus, Aleppo, and Qamishli. Due to persecution and emigration, particularly after the establishment of Israel in 1948, the community dwindled significantly. Today, only a very small number of Jews remain in Syria.

The Ba'athist constitution declared that the President must be a Muslim and that Islamic jurisprudence is a main source of legislation, but it did not establish Islam as the state religion, projecting a secular image. However, religious tensions and sectarianism were exacerbated by the Alawite minority's dominance under the Assad regime and became a significant factor in the civil war. Ensuring freedom of religion and belief, and fostering positive interfaith relations, are critical challenges for the transitional government and future Syrian society.

9.5. Education

Syria's education system, prior to the severe disruptions caused by the civil war, was characterized by free and compulsory primary education. Schooling consisted of six years of primary education, followed by a three-year lower secondary (preparatory) stage, and then a three-year upper secondary stage. Upper secondary education was divided into general (academic) and vocational tracks. Successful completion of the general secondary track, culminating in the Baccalaureate exam, was required for university admission.
The literacy rate for Syrians aged 15 and older was reported as 90.7% for males and 82.2% for females before the major impact of the war.

Higher education was provided by several state universities and a growing number of private universities. The main state universities included Damascus University (the oldest and largest, with around 210,000 students as of 2014), Aleppo University, Tishreen University (Latakia), Al-Baath University (Homs), and Al-Furat University (Deir ez-Zor). Private universities began to emerge in the 2000s. There were also various higher institutes offering specialized programs.
The civil war had a devastating impact on the education sector. Schools were destroyed, damaged, or repurposed for military use or as shelters for displaced persons. Millions of children were out of school, and many teachers were displaced or killed. Access to education became extremely challenging in conflict-affected areas, leading to a lost generation in terms of educational attainment. Universities also faced significant disruptions.
Rebuilding the education system is a monumental task for post-conflict Syria. This includes reconstructing infrastructure, recruiting and training teachers, developing updated curricula that promote critical thinking and tolerance, ensuring equitable access for all children (including refugees and internally displaced persons), and addressing the psycho-social needs of students affected by trauma. Investment in vocational training and higher education relevant to reconstruction needs will also be crucial.

9.6. Health

Syria's public health system, which had made considerable progress in previous decades, was severely crippled by the civil war. Before the conflict, key health indicators such as life expectancy and infant mortality rates had been improving. In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.4% of GDP. In 2008, there were 14.9 physicians and 18.5 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants. Life expectancy at birth was 75.7 years in 2010 (74.2 for males, 77.3 for females).
The civil war caused a catastrophic collapse of the healthcare infrastructure. Hospitals and clinics were deliberately targeted and destroyed, medical personnel were killed, injured, or forced to flee, and access to essential medicines and medical supplies was severely restricted, particularly in besieged and opposition-held areas. This led to a resurgence of preventable diseases, a decline in vaccination rates, and immense challenges in providing care for war-wounded individuals and those with chronic illnesses.
Malnutrition became widespread, especially among children in besieged areas. The psychological trauma of the conflict also created a massive need for mental health services, which were largely unavailable.
The key health challenges for post-conflict Syria include:

• Rebuilding and equipping healthcare facilities.
• Recruiting and training healthcare professionals, and incentivizing the return of those who fled.
• Restoring supply chains for medicines and medical equipment.
• Implementing mass vaccination campaigns and controlling infectious disease outbreaks.
• Addressing the long-term health needs of a population affected by war injuries, chronic diseases, malnutrition, and psychological trauma.
• Ensuring equitable access to healthcare for all Syrians, including displaced populations and those in remote areas.

International aid organizations played a critical role in providing emergency healthcare during the conflict, but a sustainable, functioning national health system will require massive investment and long-term strategic planning.

10.1. Literature

Syrian literature has made significant contributions to Arabic literature, with a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers played a crucial role in the Nahda (Arab Renaissance) of the 19th century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include poets like Nizar Qabbani and Adonis (Ali Ahmad Said Esber), and prose writers such as Muhammad Maghout, Haidar Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, and Zakariyya Tamer.
Under Ba'ath Party rule, literature faced censorship. The historical novel became a means for some writers (e.g., Nabil Sulayman, Fawwaz Haddad, Khyri al-Dhahabi, Nihad Siris) to express dissent by critiquing the present through depictions of the past. Syrian folk narrative, often imbued with magical realism, also served as a vehicle for veiled criticism. Salim Barakat, an émigré writer, is a leading figure in this genre. Contemporary Syrian literature also includes science fiction and futuristic utopias. The civil war has profoundly impacted Syrian writers, many of whom have gone into exile or faced persecution, with their works often reflecting the trauma and upheaval of the conflict.

10.2. Music

The Syrian music scene, particularly in Damascus and Aleppo, has long been important in the Arab world, especially in classical Arab music. Syria has produced pan-Arab stars like Asmahan, Farid al-Atrash, and contemporary singer Lena Chamamyan. Aleppo is known for its muwashshah (a form of Andalous sung poetry, popularized by Sabri Moudallal) and renowned performers like Sabah Fakhri.
Syria is also one of the earliest centers of Christian hymnody, in a tradition known as Syriac chant, which continues to be the liturgical music for various Syriac Christian denominations. Traditional folk music and dance, such as the Dabke, remain popular.

10.3. Media

Television was introduced to Syria and Egypt in 1960 when both were part of the United Arab Republic. It broadcast in black and white until 1976. Syrian soap operas (musalsalat) have a considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world and are a significant cultural export.
Under the Ba'athist regime, nearly all Syria's media outlets were state-owned or tightly controlled by the government. The authorities operated several intelligence agencies that monitored and censored content. Freedom of the press was severely restricted, and journalists faced harassment, arrest, and violence. During the civil war, many journalists and activists were targeted; famed cartoonist Ali Ferzat was brutally attacked, and Akram Raslan died in detention.
The fall of the Assad regime presents an opportunity for the development of a more independent and pluralistic media landscape. However, challenges remain, including rebuilding infrastructure, training journalists, establishing legal frameworks that protect press freedom, and overcoming legacies of censorship and propaganda. The rise of citizen journalism and online media during the conflict has also changed the media environment.

10.4. Cuisine

Syrian cuisine is rich and varied, reflecting the country's diverse regional influences, historical connections, and agricultural bounty. It shares many characteristics with other Levantine cuisines and has influences from Turkish, Greek, and broader Southwest Asian culinary traditions.
Key ingredients include olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, chickpeas, yogurt, and various herbs and spices like mint, parsley, and sumac.
Popular dishes include:

• Mezze: A selection of appetizers served at the beginning of a meal, such as hummus (chickpea dip), baba ghanoush (eggplant dip), tabbouleh (parsley and bulgur salad), fattoush (salad with toasted bread), labneh (strained yogurt), muhammara (hot pepper dip), and shanklish (aged cheese).
• Main Dishes: Kibbeh (bulgur and minced meat, prepared in many ways - fried, baked, or raw), kebab (grilled meats like shish kebab), stuffed vegetables like zucchini (kousa mahshi) and grape leaves (yabraʾ or waraq enab), shawarma, and mujaddara (lentils and rice).
• Breads: Khubz (Arabic flatbread) is a staple, eaten with most meals. Various types of manakish (flatbread topped with za'atar, cheese, or minced meat) are popular for breakfast or as snacks.
• Sweets: Baklava (phyllo pastry with nuts and syrup), knafeh (cheese pastry soaked in syrup), halva, and various fruit-based desserts.
• Drinks: Arabic coffee is ubiquitous. Other traditional drinks include ayran (yogurt drink), jallab (date, grape molasses, and rose water drink), white coffee (caffeine-free, made with orange blossom water or rose water), and arak (anise-flavored spirit). A locally manufactured beer, Al Shark, was also known.

Syrian cuisine varies by region, with Aleppo known for its sophisticated dishes and use of spices. The culinary traditions are an integral part of Syrian social life and hospitality.

10.5. Sports

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Syria. The Syrian national football team has achieved some success in regional competitions, such as the AFC Asian Cup, reaching the knockout stage for the first time in the 2023 edition. The Syrian Premier League is the top professional football league in the country, with clubs like Al-Jaish SC (Damascus) and Al-Ittihad SC (Aleppo) being among the most successful.
Other popular sports include basketball, wrestling, boxing, and weightlifting. Syria has participated in the Olympic Games since 1948, with athletes winning medals in disciplines like wrestling, athletics, boxing, and weightlifting. Notable achievements include a gold medal in heptathlon by Ghada Shouaa at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, and a bronze medal in weightlifting by Man Asaad at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics (held in 2021).
The civil war severely impacted sports infrastructure and activities, but efforts continue to support athletes and rebuild sports programs as part of national recovery.