India

3.1. Ancient India

By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or Homo sapiens, had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved. The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago. After 6500 BCE, evidence for the domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan. These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilization, the first urban culture in South Asia, which flourished during 2500-1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and western India. Centered around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilization engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.

During the period 2000-500 BCE, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the Iron Age ones. The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism, were composed during this period, and historians have analyzed these to posit a Vedic period culture in the Punjab region and the upper Indo-Gangetic Plain. Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migrations into the subcontinent from the north-west. The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests (Brahmins), warriors (Kshatriyas), and free peasants (Vaishyas), but which excluded indigenous peoples and certain occupational groups by labeling their occupations impure (leading to the Shudras and later Untouchables), arose during this period. This social stratification had profound and lasting impacts on social equity, human dignity, and access to opportunities, often marginalizing large sections of the population. On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation. In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period, as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions. The status of women during the Vedic period, while varied, generally saw them participating in religious rituals and having access to education, though this would decline in later periods, reflecting a shift in social norms that negatively impacted gender equality.

In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas. The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira. Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from all social classes and notably challenged the hereditary basis of the caste system, offering an alternative path to spiritual fulfillment and promoting a more egalitarian social outlook; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India. Both religions emphasized renunciation as an ideal and established long-lasting monastic traditions, which provided avenues for social mobility and spiritual development outside the rigid Brahminical order.

Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Maurya Empire. The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas. The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dharma (moral law and righteousness). Ashoka's policies promoted social welfare, justice, tolerance, and non-violence, marking a significant period for the development of ethical governance and concern for human well-being.

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West Asia and Southeast Asia. In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women and a decline in their public role and access to education, a development detrimental to gender equality. By the 4th and 5th centuries CE, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms. Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself. This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite. Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances. However, this era also saw the consolidation of untouchability as an organized feature of the caste system, further marginalizing certain communities and deeply entrenching social inequalities that violated human dignity.

3.2. Medieval India

The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan. When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal. When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south. No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region. During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes. The caste system consequently began to show regional differences and further rigidification, which negatively impacted social mobility and inter-group relations, reinforcing discriminatory hierarchies.

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language. They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent. Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well. Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation. By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in Southeast Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; Southeast Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206. The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs, though instances of religious persecution and temple destruction occurred, impacting inter-religious relations and causing suffering to affected communities. By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north. The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire. Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards. In the Punjab, Sikhism emerged, founded by Guru Nanak, who notably rejected institutionalised religion, the caste system, and emphasized equality and social justice, providing a powerful voice for the marginalized.

3.3. Early Modern India

In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers, fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors. The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status. Akbar's reign was particularly noted for its promotion of religious tolerance and attempts at social reform, which had a positive impact on inter-community relations and governance. The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency, caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion, resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture. This period saw significant socio-economic changes, including increased urbanization and monetisation of the economy, though benefits were not always evenly distributed, and peasant distress could occur due to high tax demands, highlighting ongoing issues of economic equity.

Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience. Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India. As the empire disintegrated in the 18th century due to internal weaknesses, succession struggles, and the rise of regional powers, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.

By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts. The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 (after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Battle of Buxar in 1764) and sideline the other European companies. Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s. India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials. This shift had a profound and often detrimental socio-economic impact, leading to de-industrialization in some sectors, the transformation of India into a colonial economy dependent on the metropole, and widespread exploitation of resources and labor, severely affecting the livelihoods of many Indians. By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture, often with disruptive effects on existing social structures and practices, and sometimes in ways that undermined indigenous institutions and human rights.

3.4. Modern India

Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes-among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph-were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe. However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms seen as attacks on Indian culture and religion, harsh land taxes that impoverished many, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule. The rebellion, though ultimately suppressed with considerable brutality by the British, demonstrated widespread resistance to colonial injustices.

Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest, often at the expense of the broader populace. In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. This marked the beginning of an organized political movement for greater representation, democratic rights, and eventually, complete independence from colonial rule.

The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks for many, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets, leading to increased rural indebtedness and vulnerability. There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines, exacerbated by colonial economic policies that prioritized resource extraction and revenue over the welfare of the Indian people, and administrative failures in relief efforts. These famines had a devastating impact on the vulnerable rural population, causing immense suffering and loss of life, starkly highlighting the human cost of colonial governance. Despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians, hindering indigenous economic development and perpetuating dependency. There were also some salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption. The railway network provided critical famine relief, notably reduced the cost of moving goods, and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.

After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served (often under duress or for economic reasons, fighting for an empire that denied them their own freedom), a new period began. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation like the Rowlatt Act, which curtailed civil liberties and was met with widespread protest, such as the tragic Jallianwala Bagh massacre. This period saw more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mahatma Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol. His philosophy of Satyagraha (truth force) and Ahimsa (non-violence) mobilized millions from all walks of life, becoming a powerful tool for social and political change, emphasizing the empowerment of the masses, interfaith unity, the upliftment of untouchables (whom he called Harijans, "children of God"), and challenging colonial authority through peaceful resistance. During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections, demonstrating growing popular support for the independence movement. The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II (often without full consent of its people), the Congress's final push for non-co-operation (the Quit India Movement, which was met with severe British repression), and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism led by the All-India Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, demanding a separate state for Muslims. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: the Hindu-majority Dominion of India and the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan. The partition, driven by complex political factors and British policies, resulted in large-scale communal violence, mass migrations under horrific conditions, and an immense loss of life, leaving deep scars on the subcontinent, creating millions of refugees, and fostering enduring challenges for nation-building, human rights, and inter-state relations.

Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic. This constitution, championed by leaders like B. R. Ambedkar, guaranteed fundamental rights to all citizens, including freedom of speech, religion, and equality before the law, and importantly, included measures for affirmative action (reservations) for historically disadvantaged groups like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, aiming to rectify centuries of social injustice. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister and embarked on a path of nation-building focusing on planned economic development, industrialization to achieve self-reliance, and a non-aligned foreign policy that asserted India's independence on the global stage. The subsequent decades saw India consolidate its democratic institutions, conduct regular elections despite immense challenges, and address issues of linguistic reorganization of states. Various social reform movements continued to fight against caste discrimination, for women's rights, and for the rights of other marginalized communities, reflecting an ongoing societal struggle for greater equality and justice.

Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1980s and accelerated in 1991, transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies, creating a large urban middle class and increasing its geopolitical clout. Collaboration with the Soviet Union for technical know-how was significant in earlier decades. Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban; by religious and caste-related violence, which continue to threaten its secular fabric and cause immense human suffering; by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies often rooted in socio-economic grievances and state neglect; and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India, where human rights violations by both state and non-state actors have been a concern. It has unresolved territorial disputes with China and with Pakistan, the latter having led to several wars and ongoing tensions, particularly affecting the lives of people in border regions like Kashmir. India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, achieving freedom from want, ensuring social equity, upholding the rule of law, and protecting human rights for its entire disadvantaged population remain crucial ongoing goals for this vibrant and complex democracy.

4.1. Topography and Geology

India's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east. Simultaneously, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate. These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's mantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas. The Himalayas, forming India's northern and northeastern frontiers, are the world's highest mountain range and include peaks like Kanchenjunga (India's highest undisputed peak). These mountains are a critical source of water for much of the subcontinent but are also ecologically fragile and prone to seismic activity.

Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This fertile plain, watered by the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra river systems, is one of the most densely populated regions in the world and the agricultural heartland of India, though it faces challenges like soil degradation and water scarcity in some areas. The original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient Aravalli Range, which extends from the Delhi Ridge in a southwesterly direction. To the west lies the Thar Desert, the eastern spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.

The remaining Indian Plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the Satpura Range and Vindhya Range in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats; the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. These regions are rich in biodiversity and mineral resources but also face pressures from mining and development.

India's coastline measures 4.7 K mile ^{(7.52 K km)} in length; of this distance, 3.4 K mile ^{(5.42 K km)} belong to peninsular India and 1.3 K mile ^{(2.09 K km)} to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains. According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudflats or marshy shores. Coastal ecosystems are vital for livelihoods but are vulnerable to erosion, pollution, and the impacts of climate change. Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient, caused by long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course changes, often displacing vulnerable communities. Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal; and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea. These rivers are crucial for water supply and agriculture but are increasingly stressed by pollution and overuse. Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh and is a unique mangrove ecosystem and tiger habitat, threatened by rising sea levels. India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea. These islands have unique ecosystems and indigenous cultures facing development pressures. India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.

4.2. Climate

The climate of India is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons. The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall, which is essential for agriculture and replenishing water resources. India's climate varies from tropical monsoon in the south to temperate in the north. Parts of India in the Himalayas have a tundra or polar climate.

Four major climatic groupings predominate in India:

• Tropical wet (humid): Characterized by high temperatures and heavy rainfall, found in the southwest (e.g., Kerala, Western Ghats) and the northeast. These regions are rich in biodiversity but also prone to flooding.
• Tropical dry: Covers a large part of peninsular India, with high temperatures throughout the year and moderate to low rainfall, making it vulnerable to drought.
• Subtropical humid: Found in the Indo-Gangetic plain and northern India, characterized by hot summers, cool winters, and moderate rainfall, largely from the summer monsoon. This region supports intensive agriculture but also experiences extreme weather events.
• Montane (Alpine): Prevails in the Himalayan region, with temperatures decreasing with altitude; higher reaches experience snowfall and tundra conditions. These fragile mountain ecosystems are particularly sensitive to climate change.

Temperatures in India have risen by 1.3 °F ^{(0.7 °C)} between 1901 and 2018. Climate change in India is a significant concern, with impacts including the retreat of Himalayan glaciers, which has adversely affected the flow rate of major Himalayan rivers like the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, threatening water security for millions. According to some current projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the present century, posing serious challenges to agriculture, water security, and the livelihoods of millions, particularly vulnerable communities whose resilience is already low. This underscores the urgent need for climate adaptation and mitigation measures focused on equity and justice.

4.3. Biodiversity

India is a megadiverse country, a term employed for 17 countries that display high biological diversity and contain many species exclusively indigenous, or endemic, to them. India is the habitat for 8.6% of all mammal species, 13.7% of bird species, 7.9% of reptile species, 6% of amphibian species, 12.2% of fish species, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species. Fully a third of Indian plant species are endemic. India also contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity hotspots, or regions that display significant habitat loss in the presence of high endemism. These hotspots are the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, the Indo-Burma region, and Sundaland (shared with other countries). Protecting this rich biodiversity is crucial not only for ecological balance but also for the livelihoods and cultural heritage of many communities.

India's forest cover is approximately 21.7% of its total land area. The country's most dense forests, such as the tropical moist forest of the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India, occupy approximately 3% of its land area. Moderately dense forest, whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India's land area. It predominates in the temperate coniferous forest of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India. India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the Deccan Plateau, immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Forest conservation efforts often involve balancing ecological needs with the rights of forest-dwelling communities.

Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the astringent Azadirachta indica, or neem, which is widely used in rural Indian herbal medicine, and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or peepul, which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro, and under which Gautama Buddha is recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment. These species highlight the deep cultural and traditional connections between people and nature in India.

Many Indian species have descended from those of Gondwana. India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographic passes flanking the Himalayas. This had the effect of lowering endemism among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians. Among endemics are the vulnerable hooded leaf monkey and the threatened Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats.

India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% of endangered forms. These include the endangered Bengal tiger and the Ganges river dolphin. Critically endangered species include the gharial, a crocodilian; the great Indian bustard; and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle. The decline of such species often points to broader ecological imbalances and human impacts. Before they were extensively used for agriculture and cleared for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were mingled at intervals with open grasslands that were grazed by large herds of blackbuck preyed on by the Asiatic cheetah; the blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is now severely endangered in India, and the cheetah, declared extinct in India in 1952, has recently been part of reintroduction programs, which involve complex ecological and social considerations.

The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife, leading to habitat loss and increased human-wildlife conflict, which disproportionately affects marginalized communities dependent on natural resources and often residing near protected areas. In response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988. India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and eighteen biosphere reserves, four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; seventy-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention. These conservation efforts are vital for protecting India's rich biodiversity but face challenges from development pressures, inadequate enforcement, and the need to ensure that conservation goals are pursued in a manner that is just and equitable for local populations, respecting their rights and traditional knowledge.

5.1. Political System

India operates as a multi-party parliamentary democracy. The country has six recognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 50 regional parties. The Congress is generally considered centre-left or centrist in the Indian political spectrum, historically advocating for secularism, social justice, and pro-poor policies. The BJP is considered right-wing, often associated with Hindu nationalism, and its rise has led to increased concerns about the rights of religious minorities and the secular fabric of the nation.

For most of the period between 1950 and the late 1980s, the Congress party held a majority in the Parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP, as well as with powerful regional parties. This has often led to the formation of multi-party coalition governments at the federal level, reflecting the diverse political landscape of the country. The electoral process involves regular general elections for the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and state legislative assemblies, overseen by the Election Commission of India, an autonomous constitutional body crucial for upholding democratic processes. Contemporary political trends include a rise in identity politics based on caste and religion, debates over secularism versus religious nationalism, and increasing demands for regional autonomy and social justice. Democratic participation is high, with a large and engaged electorate, but concerns persist about the influence of money in politics, criminalization of politics, the equitable representation of marginalized groups, including women and minorities, and the shrinking space for dissent and free speech.

5.2. Government

India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India-the country's supreme legal document. It is a constitutional republic. Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the union (federal government) and the states. The Constitution of India originally stated India to be a "sovereign, democratic republic;" this characterisation was amended in 1971 to "a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic," reflecting a commitment to social equity and pluralism. India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states, has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes, though recent trends have shown a tendency towards recentralization of power. The framework of the government is based on the principle of separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, intended to ensure checks and balances and prevent authoritarianism.

5.2.1. Executive

The executive branch of the Indian government is headed by the President of India, who is the ceremonial head of state. The President is elected indirectly for a five-year term by an electoral college comprising members of national and state legislatures. While the President has certain constitutional powers, the actual executive authority is exercised by the Prime Minister of India and the Union Council of Ministers (Cabinet).

The Prime Minister of India is the head of government. Appointed by the president, the prime minister is by convention the leader of the party or political alliance holding a majority of seats in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament). The Prime Minister leads the Union Council of Ministers, whose members are appointed by the President on the Prime Minister's advice. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament. The executive is responsible to the legislature, embodying the principle of democratic accountability, although the strength of this accountability is often debated. Civil servants act as permanent executives, implementing the decisions of the elected government, and their neutrality and efficiency are crucial for good governance and the protection of citizens' rights. Currently, Droupadi Murmu is the President, and Narendra Modi is the Prime Minister.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

India is a federal union comprising states and union territories, each with varying degrees of autonomy and administrative structures. This federal structure is designed to accommodate the country's vast diversity and promote democratic governance at multiple levels.

6.1. Foreign Policy

India's foreign policy was initially shaped by its experience of colonialism and the visionary leadership of its first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. A cornerstone of early Indian foreign policy was non-alignment, which sought to maintain autonomy from the major power blocs of the Cold War and advocate for a more just world order. India played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), consistently championing decolonization, disarmament, anti-racism, and a more equitable international economic order that benefited developing nations.

In the post-Cold War era, India's foreign policy has become more pragmatic and multi-directional, often described as "multi-alignment." While striving to maintain its strategic autonomy, India has pursued closer ties with major global powers, including the United States, Russia, and the European Union, as well as key regional actors. Key contemporary principles include "Strategic Autonomy," "Neighborhood First" (prioritizing relations with South Asian neighbors based on mutual respect and shared prosperity), and the "Look East" policy (now "Act East"), which focuses on strengthening engagement with Southeast and East Asian nations. India advocates for a multipolar world order and reform of global governance institutions, including the United Nations Security Council, to make them more representative and effective. Its diplomatic engagements often emphasize issues such as counter-terrorism, climate change (with a focus on climate justice), maritime security, and sustainable development, aligning with its commitment to global well-being and human rights. India has consistently supported decolonization and development in Africa and Asia.

6.2. Relations with Major Countries

India's bilateral relations are diverse and complex, often reflecting historical legacies and contemporary geopolitical realities:

• Pakistan: Relations with Pakistan have been historically fraught, primarily due to the Kashmir dispute, which originated from the partition, and issues related to cross-border terrorism. The two nations have fought four wars (1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999). Efforts towards dialogue and peace have been intermittent, often derailed by political tensions and security incidents. India's stance emphasizes the need to end terrorism for any meaningful dialogue. From a human rights perspective, the conflict has had a severe impact on the people of Kashmir, with concerns about abuses from all sides and the need for a just and peaceful resolution that respects their aspirations.
• China: Relations with China are multifaceted, involving significant economic ties alongside unresolved border disputes, notably in Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, which led to the Sino-Indian War in 1962 and subsequent military standoffs, including recent clashes. China's growing influence in South Asia and the Indian Ocean is also a strategic concern for India. Both countries are members of BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), providing platforms for engagement, but a deep-seated mistrust persists.
• United States: The Indo-US strategic partnership has deepened considerably in recent years, driven by shared democratic values, economic interests, and common concerns about regional security, counter-terrorism, and the rise of China. Cooperation spans defense, trade, energy, climate change, and technology. The civilian nuclear agreement of 2008 was a landmark development. However, differences on issues like trade and human rights occasionally surface.
• Russia: India has maintained a long-standing "special and privileged strategic partnership" with Russia, historically a major supplier of defense equipment and a key diplomatic ally. Relations continue to be strong, particularly in defense and energy, though India has diversified its defense procurement and foreign policy engagements in the post-Cold War era.
• Neighboring Countries: India pursues a "Neighborhood First" policy, focusing on close ties with countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Maldives. Development assistance, connectivity projects, cultural exchanges, and disaster relief are key components of this policy. However, relations can be complex due to historical factors, internal political dynamics in these countries, and perceived "big brother" attitude from India, requiring sensitive and equitable engagement.
• Other Powers: India has strengthening partnerships with Japan, Australia (as part of the Quad, a strategic grouping also including the US), France, and countries in Southeast Asia (ASEAN), Africa, and Latin America, focusing on economic, strategic, and multilateral cooperation to promote a balanced and inclusive global order.

6.3. Role in International Organizations

India is an active participant in numerous international organizations, reflecting its commitment to multilateralism, its aspiration for a greater role in global governance, and its advocacy for the interests of the developing world.

• United Nations (UN): A founding member, India has consistently contributed to UN peacekeeping operations, being one of the largest troop contributors globally, with over 100,000 military and police personnel having served in 35 UN missions. India strongly advocates for UN reform, including permanent membership in an expanded UN Security Council to make it more representative of contemporary global realities. It actively participates in UN debates on development, human rights, climate change, disarmament, and counter-terrorism.
• World Trade Organization (WTO): India is a member of the WTO and often acts as a leading voice for developing countries in global trade negotiations, particularly concerning issues like agricultural subsidies, intellectual property rights, and special and differential treatment to ensure equitable trade outcomes.
• South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC): As the largest member, India plays a key role in SAARC. However, the organization's effectiveness has been significantly hampered by Indo-Pakistani tensions, preventing deeper regional integration.
• BRICS: India is a founding member of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa), a grouping of major emerging economies, and participates in initiatives like the New Development Bank, aiming to create alternative financial and governance structures.
• G20: India is a member of the G20, which comprises the world's largest economies, and contributes to discussions on global economic stability, financial regulation, sustainable development, and other pressing global issues.
• Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO): India became a full member in 2017, enhancing its engagement with Central Asian countries on issues of security, connectivity, and counter-terrorism, while navigating complex relationships within the organization.
• Other Forums: India participates in the East Asia Summit, the Commonwealth of Nations, and various other regional and international forums, consistently seeking to promote a rules-based international order, sustainable development, global peace and security, and a stronger voice for the Global South, while carefully balancing its national interests and strategic autonomy.

7.1. Indian Armed Forces

The Indian Armed Forces consist of three main branches: the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, and the Indian Air Force, supported by the Indian Coast Guard and various paramilitary forces. The President of India is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. With approximately 1.45 million active personnel, India has one of the largest standing armies in the world, composed entirely of volunteers.

• The Indian Army is the land-based branch and the largest component of the armed forces. It is responsible for land-based military operations, maintaining security along India's extensive and often challenging land borders, and counter-insurgency operations. It has a long and distinguished history of service.
• The Indian Navy is tasked with protecting India's maritime interests, securing its long coastline and Exclusive Economic Zone, and playing an increasingly significant role in regional maritime security in the Indian Ocean and beyond, reflecting India's growing maritime concerns and capabilities.
• The Indian Air Force is responsible for air defense, offensive air operations, and strategic airlift capabilities. It is undergoing significant modernization to maintain a technological edge.

India has been significantly modernizing its armed forces, acquiring advanced weaponry and technology from various countries, including Russia, the United States, France, and Israel, while also placing a strong emphasis on indigenous defense production through the "Make in India" initiative to enhance self-reliance and technological capacity. Indian forces have a long and respected history of participation in United Nations peacekeeping missions, reflecting India's commitment to global peace and security. In May 2017, the Indian Space Research Organisation launched the South Asia Satellite, a gift from India to its neighboring SAARC countries, demonstrating its commitment to regional cooperation.

7.2. Nuclear Policy

India became a nuclear-weapon state after conducting its first nuclear test (termed a "peaceful nuclear explosion") in 1974 and further tests in 1998. India's nuclear doctrine is based on "Credible minimum deterrence" and a policy of "no first use" (NFU) against non-nuclear weapon states, meaning it pledges not to be the first to use nuclear weapons in a conflict. However, this NFU policy is subject to review, particularly in the context of threats from other nuclear-armed states, and has been debated within India. India is developing a nuclear triad capability, comprising nuclear weapons deliverable by aircraft, land-based missiles, and sea-based assets (submarines), to ensure a credible and survivable deterrent.

India is not a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) or the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), arguing that these treaties are discriminatory and do not address the security concerns of non-signatory states in a universal and non-discriminatory manner. Despite this, India has a strong record on non-proliferation and has adhered to responsible nuclear stewardship. It has engaged in civilian nuclear cooperation with several countries following waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in 2008, which recognized India's non-proliferation record and its need for nuclear energy. India is estimated to possess up to 172 nuclear warheads and is thought to be producing both highly enriched uranium (HEU) and weapons-grade plutonium, with its HEU production assumed to be focused on fuel for its growing number of nuclear-powered vessels and submarines. As of 2024, India is operating eight nuclear-capable systems, including aircraft, land-based, and sea-based ballistic missile systems, with most of its development programs nearing completion and expected to be fielded soon.

The country is also developing a ballistic missile defence shield and a fifth-generation fighter jet to enhance its defensive capabilities. Indigenous military projects include the design and implementation of Vikrant-class aircraft carriers and Arihant-class nuclear submarines, reflecting its growing technological prowess in defense. India's official defence budget was approximately 70.12 B USD for the fiscal year 2022-23, making it one of the highest in the world, reflecting its security challenges and modernization goals.

8.1. Economic Structure and Trends

According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2024 was nominally worth 3.94 T USD, making it the fifth-largest economy by market exchange rates. In terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), India's GDP is around 15.00 T USD, ranking it the third-largest globally. Over the past two decades, India has maintained an average annual GDP growth rate of around 5.8%, reaching 6.1% during 2011-2012, positioning it as one of the world's fastest-growing economies. However, its GDP per capita remains relatively low, ranking 136th in nominal terms and 125th in PPP terms globally, indicating that a large portion of the population still faces economic hardship and lacks access to basic necessities and opportunities.

Until 1991, Indian governments pursued protectionist policies influenced by socialist economics, with widespread state intervention and regulation that often stifled enterprise and led to inefficiencies. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 prompted significant economic liberalization, leading to a shift towards a free-market system with an emphasis on foreign trade, private sector participation, and direct investment inflows. India became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on January 1, 1995, further integrating into the global economy.

The Indian labour force is the world's second largest, estimated at 522 million workers as of 2017. The service sector is the largest contributor to GDP, accounting for 55.6%, followed by the industrial sector at 26.3%, and the agricultural sector at 18.1%. While agriculture's share in GDP has declined, it still employs a large proportion of the workforce, many of whom are small and marginal farmers facing significant vulnerabilities. Foreign exchange remittances from the Indian diaspora are substantial, amounting to 100.00 B USD in 2022, the highest in the world, contributed by 32 million Indians working abroad, which significantly aids the balance of payments and household incomes.

While economic growth has been robust, concerns about income inequality, which has widened post-liberalization, and sustainable development remain critical. The government's fiscal policies aim to manage inflation, promote investment, and maintain macroeconomic stability, but ensuring that the benefits of growth reach the most disadvantaged sections of society is a major policy challenge. Current economic outlooks are generally positive, but dependent on continued reforms, global economic conditions, and domestic factors like infrastructure development, human capital improvement, good governance, and addressing social inequities. The Gini coefficient for India was 35.7 in 2019, indicating a moderate level of income inequality, though this has been a subject of ongoing debate regarding its true extent and impact on social equity and opportunity.

8.2. Major Industries

India's economy is diversified across several major sectors, each contributing significantly to national income and employment. The development of these industries must be balanced with concerns for labor rights, environmental protection, and equitable distribution of benefits to ensure social justice.

8.2.1. Agriculture

Agriculture remains a crucial sector, employing a significant portion of the workforce (around 43% in 2019) and contributing about 18.1% to the GDP. India is a major global producer of various agricultural commodities.
Principal agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. India is the world's largest producer of milk, pulses, and jute, and ranks as the second largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, groundnut, vegetables, fruit and cotton. It is also one of the leading producers of spices, fish, poultry, livestock and plantation crops.
Farming techniques vary from traditional subsistence farming to modern, mechanized agriculture. Government policies have focused on improving irrigation, providing subsidies for inputs like fertilizers and seeds, and ensuring minimum support prices for certain crops. The Green Revolution in the mid-20th century significantly boosted food grain production, making India self-sufficient in food and averting widespread famines.
However, the agricultural sector faces numerous challenges, including small and fragmented landholdings, heavy dependence on monsoons and vulnerability to climate change, soil degradation, water scarcity, high input costs, indebtedness among farmers (often leading to tragic farmer suicides), and inadequate infrastructure (storage, transport, and marketing). These issues contribute to agrarian distress and highlight the need for sustainable agricultural practices, diversification, and policies that support small and marginal farmers, ensuring their livelihoods, food security, and promoting social equity in rural areas. Addressing farmer welfare and ensuring fair returns for their produce are critical human rights and social justice concerns.

8.3. Energy

India's energy sector is critical for its economic development and faces the dual challenge of meeting rapidly growing demand while transitioning towards more sustainable energy sources to combat climate change and reduce pollution. India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is renewable.

• Primary Energy Sources: Coal is the dominant source of energy, particularly for electricity generation, accounting for a significant portion of India's energy mix. This reliance on coal contributes to high greenhouse gas emissions (India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions, or about 2.5 t of carbon dioxide per person per year, half the world average) and severe air pollution, which has major public health consequences, especially for the poor. Oil and natural gas are also major sources, with India being heavily import-dependent for crude oil, affecting its energy security. Renewable energy sources, including solar, wind, hydroelectric, and biomass, are rapidly expanding, driven by government policies aimed at energy transition and declining costs.
• Energy Policy: India's energy policy aims to ensure energy security, promote energy efficiency, and significantly increase the share of renewable energy in its mix. The government has set ambitious targets for renewable energy capacity addition. Increasing access to electricity for all households (achieved to a large extent) and providing clean cooking fuels (like LPG) to replace traditional biomass (which causes indoor air pollution and disproportionately affects women and children) have been key priorities to improve living standards and health, particularly in rural areas and for vulnerable populations.
• Challenges: Meeting the energy needs of a growing population and economy is a major challenge. Other challenges include improving the financial health of power distribution companies, upgrading transmission and distribution infrastructure, reducing energy losses, and balancing energy development with environmental protection and climate change mitigation commitments under international agreements. The transition to cleaner energy sources requires substantial investment, technological advancements, and ensuring a just transition for communities dependent on fossil fuel industries.

8.4. Transport

India's transport infrastructure is a critical enabler of economic growth and social development, but it also faces challenges in terms of capacity, quality, safety, and environmental impact.

• Railways: India has one of the largest rail networks in the world, operated by the state-owned Indian Railways. It is a vital mode of transport for passengers (especially long-distance and for lower-income groups) and freight, connecting vast parts of the country. Efforts are underway to modernize the railway system, including upgrading tracks, introducing high-speed trains (such as the Vande Bharat Express), improving safety, and enhancing passenger amenities. Ensuring affordable and accessible rail transport for all, including those in remote areas, and improving the efficiency of freight movement are key social and economic considerations.
• Roads: Roads are the dominant mode of transport for both passengers and freight. India has an extensive road network, including National Highways, State Highways, and rural roads. Major projects like the Golden Quadrilateral and the North-South and East-West Corridors have improved connectivity. However, road quality, traffic congestion (especially in cities), and road safety (India has one of the highest rates of road fatalities globally) remain significant concerns requiring urgent attention. Rural road development (e.g., under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana) is crucial for connecting remote villages to markets, education, and healthcare services, impacting poverty reduction and accessibility for marginalized rural populations.
• Aviation: The aviation sector has grown rapidly, with increased domestic and international air travel. Major airports have been modernized, and new airports are being developed. Low-cost carriers have made air travel more accessible to a larger segment of the population, but air travel remains unaffordable for the vast majority.
• Ports and Shipping: India has a long coastline with several major and minor ports that handle a significant volume of international trade. Port infrastructure development and improving hinterland connectivity are priorities for boosting trade and economic growth.
• Urban Transport: Rapid urbanization has put immense pressure on urban transport systems, leading to severe congestion, pollution, and long commute times. Many cities are developing metro rail systems, bus rapid transit (BRT) systems, and promoting non-motorized transport (cycling and walking) to address these issues and improve urban livability. The environmental impact of transport, including emissions and land use, is a growing concern, prompting a push for cleaner fuels, electric vehicles, and a greater emphasis on public transport to ensure sustainable and equitable mobility for all urban dwellers.

Ongoing development projects aim to create an integrated, efficient, and sustainable transport network that supports economic growth while ensuring accessibility and affordability for all segments of society and minimizing environmental damage and social displacement.

8.5. Tourism

Tourism is a significant sector of the Indian economy, contributing to foreign exchange earnings, employment, and regional development. India's diverse offerings range from historical monuments and cultural heritage sites to natural landscapes, wildlife sanctuaries, and wellness retreats (yoga and Ayurveda).

• Tourism Resources: India boasts 42 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including iconic landmarks like the Taj Mahal, Ajanta and Ellora Caves, Khajuraho temples, and numerous forts, palaces, and ancient cities. Its natural attractions include the Himalayas, beaches, backwaters of Kerala, deserts, and national parks. Medical tourism, wellness tourism (yoga and Ayurveda), and adventure tourism are also growing segments.
• Economic Impact: The tourism industry contributes significantly to India's GDP and provides employment to millions, both directly and indirectly, particularly in local communities. In 2018, tourism contributed 9.2% to India's GDP and supported 42.6 million jobs. The sector also attracts foreign investment and promotes local handicrafts and cultural industries, which can empower artisans and preserve traditional skills.
• Government Initiatives: The Indian government has undertaken various initiatives to promote tourism, including the "Incredible India" marketing campaign, development of tourist infrastructure, visa liberalization (e.g., e-Visa facility), and promotion of niche tourism products. State governments also play a crucial role in developing and managing tourist destinations.
• Challenges: The sector faces challenges such as infrastructure gaps (especially in remote areas), safety and security concerns (particularly for women tourists), cleanliness and sanitation issues, and the need for sustainable tourism practices to minimize environmental impact (e.g., on fragile ecosystems) and ensure that economic benefits reach local communities equitably. Promoting responsible tourism that respects local cultures, traditions, and environments, and ensures fair wages and working conditions for those employed in the sector, is essential for the ethical and long-term growth of tourism in India. Despite receiving only about three million foreign visitors annually in earlier years, this number has been growing, with over 10 million foreign tourist arrivals in 2017. Domestic tourism is also very significant and plays a major role in the sector's economy.

8.6. Socio-economic Challenges

Despite significant economic progress, India continues to grapple with a range of deeply entrenched socio-economic challenges that profoundly impact the well-being, dignity, and human rights of a large segment of its population. Addressing these issues from a social justice and human rights perspective is crucial for achieving inclusive, equitable, and sustainable development.

• Poverty: While the proportion of people living in extreme poverty has declined considerably, a substantial number of Indians still live below the poverty line and face daily struggles for survival. In 2006, India had the largest number of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of 1.25 USD per day. This proportion decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005, and further to 21% in 2011 (under the revised poverty line of 1.9 USD per day). Poverty in India is multi-dimensional, encompassing not just lack of income but also lack of access to nutritious food, clean water, sanitation, healthcare, education, and decent housing. It disproportionately affects marginalized groups like Dalits, Adivasis, and certain religious minorities.
• Income Inequality: Economic growth has been accompanied by rising income inequality, both between different income groups (the gap between the rich and poor has widened) and between states, as well as between urban and rural areas. The per-capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest. This disparity can exacerbate social tensions, limit opportunities for marginalized communities, and undermine social cohesion.
• Unemployment and Underemployment: Providing sufficient and quality employment for a young and rapidly growing labor force is a major challenge. High rates of youth unemployment, underemployment (where people work fewer hours than they want or in jobs below their skill level), and informal sector employment (characterized by low wages, lack of job security, and poor working conditions) are widespread.
• Corruption: Corruption is perceived to be a significant and pervasive issue, affecting governance, public service delivery, economic efficiency, and the rule of law. It often disproportionately harms the poor and marginalized who rely on public services. While India's ranking on the Corruption Perceptions Index improved from 85th in 2014 to 78th (out of 180 countries) in 2018, it remains a persistent concern requiring systemic reforms and greater accountability.
• Access to Essential Services: Ensuring universal access to quality education (especially for girls and children from disadvantaged backgrounds), healthcare (affordable and accessible), clean water and sanitation, and adequate housing remains a challenge, particularly for rural populations and the urban poor living in slums. Malnutrition, especially among children (30.7% of children under five are underweight), and inadequate public health infrastructure are critical issues with long-term consequences for human development. According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015, 15% of the population is undernourished. The Midday Meal Scheme in schools attempts to lower these rates by providing nutritious meals to children.
• Social Issues: Deep-rooted social issues such as caste-based discrimination (despite its constitutional abolition and affirmative action policies, "untouchability" and caste-based violence persist, violating fundamental human rights), gender inequality (including high rates of violence against women, female foeticide and infanticide leading to skewed sex ratios, limited economic and political opportunities for women, and discriminatory social norms), and communal tensions (often politically instigated) continue to affect social harmony, human rights, and democratic values. A 2018 Walk Free Foundation report estimated that nearly 8 million people in India were living in different forms of modern slavery, such as bonded labour, child labour, and human trafficking, highlighting the exploitation of vulnerable populations. According to the 2011 census, there were 10.1 million child labourers, a decline from 12.6 million in 2001, but still a stark reminder of the violation of children's rights.

Addressing these multifaceted challenges requires comprehensive policy interventions focusing on inclusive growth, strengthening social safety nets, improving governance and accountability, empowering marginalized communities, ensuring the rule of law, and vigorously upholding human rights and social justice principles.

9.1. Demographics

With an estimated 1,428,627,663 residents in 2023, India surpassed China to become the world's most populous country. The 2011 census reported 1,210,193,422 residents. The population grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011. The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, was 940 females per 1,000 males, a significant concern reflecting deeply ingrained societal issues like sex-selective abortion (female foeticide) and differential care and nutrition for girls, which are violations of human rights. The median age was 28.7 in 2020, indicating a youthful population, which presents a potential demographic dividend if adequately educated and employed, but also immense challenges for job creation, resource allocation, and social services. The first post-colonial census in 1951 counted 361 million people. Medical advances leading to reduced mortality rates and increased agricultural productivity due to the "Green Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly, though fertility rates have been declining in recent years.

Life expectancy in India is around 70 years (71.5 for women, 68.7 for men), which, while an improvement, still lags behind many other countries. There are approximately 93 physicians per 100,000 people, indicating a shortage of healthcare professionals, especially in rural areas. Migration from rural to urban areas has been a significant trend, driven by search for economic opportunities, leading to rapid and often unplanned urbanization. The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001. Yet, in 2001, over 70% still lived in rural areas. Urbanization increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011. According to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus urban agglomerations, which face challenges of overcrowding, pollution, and inadequate infrastructure. The Indian diaspora is also substantial, with millions of Indians living and working abroad, contributing significantly through remittances but also representing a "brain drain" in some sectors.

9.2. Ethnic Groups

India is a mosaic of numerous ethnic groups, reflecting a long history of migrations, interactions, and assimilations. The primary broad categorizations based on linguistic affiliations include:

• Indo-Aryans: Predominantly found in northern, western, and central India, they speak Indo-Aryan languages. This group forms the largest linguistic-ethnic component.
• Dravidians: Primarily inhabiting South India, they speak Dravidian languages. These languages and peoples are considered indigenous to the subcontinent, with a rich and ancient cultural heritage predating the arrival of Indo-Aryans in some regions.
• Austroasiatic groups: Found in parts of eastern and central India, speaking languages like Munda and Khasi. These groups often represent some of the earliest inhabitants of these regions.
• Tibeto-Burman groups: Reside in the Himalayan region and Northeast India, speaking languages belonging to the Sino-Tibetan family. This region is characterized by immense cultural and linguistic diversity.

These broad groups encompass hundreds of distinct ethnic and tribal communities, each with its own unique cultural traditions, social structures, and historical experiences. The Adivasi (indigenous tribal populations), who are often the original inhabitants of forested and hilly regions, are recognized as Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution and have specific protections aimed at preserving their culture and addressing historical injustices. However, they often face severe marginalization, displacement due to development projects, loss of traditional livelihoods, and challenges to their land rights and cultural identity, making their empowerment a key human rights and social justice issue.

9.3. Languages

India's linguistic diversity is immense and is a defining characteristic of its pluralistic society. There is no single "national language."

• Official Languages of the Union: Hindi (spoken by about 43.6% of the population as a first language) is the official language of the federal government. English serves as an "additional official language" and is widely used in administration, business, higher education, and inter-state communication, a legacy of colonial rule but now an important tool for global engagement.
• Scheduled Languages: The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution recognizes 22 languages, granting them official encouragement and status. These include major regional languages like Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, Odia, Malayalam, Punjabi, and Assamese, among others. States are free to adopt one or more of these, or other languages spoken within their territory, as their official language(s) for administrative and educational purposes.
• Other Languages: Besides the scheduled languages, India is home to hundreds of other languages and thousands of dialects, many of which belong to vulnerable indigenous communities. Ethnologue lists 447 living languages in India. The 2011 census reported 74% of the population speaking Indo-Aryan languages, 24% Dravidian languages, and the remaining 2% speaking Austroasiatic languages or Sino-Tibetan languages. The preservation and promotion of these diverse languages, especially those of minority and tribal groups, is a cultural and human rights concern.

Language plays a significant role in regional identity, culture, and politics. The linguistic reorganization of states in 1956 was a major step in acknowledging this diversity and promoting regional languages. However, language issues can sometimes lead to political tensions and demands for linguistic rights, particularly concerning the promotion of Hindi versus regional languages and the rights of linguistic minorities within states. Ensuring equitable access to education and government services in one's mother tongue is an ongoing challenge.

9.4. Religion

India is a secular state as per its Constitution and is renowned for its profound religious diversity, being the birthplace of several major world religions and home to many others. The major religions practiced are:

• Hinduism: Practiced by approximately 79.8% of the population (2011 census). It is an ancient and diverse religion with a vast array of deities, philosophies, rituals, and scriptures. It is not a monolithic religion but a conglomeration of diverse traditions.
• Islam: The second-largest religion, followed by about 14.2% of the population. India has one of the largest Muslim populations in the world (the largest Muslim-minority country). Indian Muslims have made rich contributions to the nation's culture and history.
• Christianity: Practiced by about 2.3% of the population. Christianity has ancient roots in India, particularly in the south with the St. Thomas Christians, and has various denominations spread across the country.
• Sikhism: Followed by about 1.7% of the population, primarily concentrated in Punjab but with communities worldwide. Sikhism emerged in the 15th century, emphasizing monotheism, equality, and social justice.
• Buddhism: While originating in India and flourishing for over a millennium, it is now practiced by about 0.7% of the population. There has been a revival, notably Neo-Buddhism (Navayana Buddhism), particularly among Dalits seeking to escape caste oppression, following the example of B. R. Ambedkar.
• Jainism: An ancient Indian religion practiced by about 0.4% of the population, emphasizing non-violence (ahimsa), asceticism, and self-control. Jains have made significant contributions to Indian philosophy, art, and ethics.
• Other Religions: This includes Zoroastrianism (Parsis), who sought refuge in India centuries ago and have contributed significantly to its economic and social life, Judaism with ancient communities in several parts of India, the Baháʼí Faith, and various indigenous tribal religions and animist beliefs (0.9% "Others" and "Religion not stated" in 2011).

The Indian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion as a fundamental right, including the freedom to profess, practice, and propagate one's religion. However, communal tensions and violence, particularly between some Hindu nationalist groups and religious minorities (especially Muslims and Christians), have occurred periodically and have reportedly increased in recent years. The state of religious freedom, the protection of minority rights, prevention of discrimination, and combating communally motivated violence are important aspects of India's democratic and secular fabric and are subjects of ongoing public, political, and international discourse. Upholding secular principles and ensuring the safety and equal rights of all religious communities is vital for India's social harmony and commitment to human rights.

9.5. Caste System

The Indian caste system is a complex, deeply entrenched, and historically oppressive system of social stratification and hierarchy. It has historical origins in the varna system (Brahmins - priests and scholars, Kshatriyas - warriors and rulers, Vaishyas - merchants and traders, Shudras - laborers and service providers) and is further manifested through thousands of endogamous hereditary groups known as Jātis (sub-castes), often linked to traditional occupations. Historically, the caste system dictated occupation, social interaction, ritual status, and access to resources, with Dalits (formerly "Untouchables" or "Harijans") placed outside and below the varna system, subjected to severe forms of discrimination, social exclusion, exploitation, and violence.

The Constitution of India, largely drafted under the leadership of B. R. Ambedkar (himself a Dalit), abolished untouchability (Article 17) and prohibits discrimination based on caste (Article 15). Affirmative action policies (reservations) in government jobs, educational institutions, and elected bodies are in place for Scheduled Castes (Dalits) and Scheduled Tribes (Adivasis), and more recently for Other Backward Classes (OBCs), to address historical injustices, promote social equity, and ensure representation.

Despite these constitutional guarantees, legal measures, and ongoing social reform movements, caste-based discrimination, prejudice, and violence persist, particularly in rural areas but also in subtle forms in urban settings. It continues to affect aspects of social life like marriage (endogamy is still widely practiced), housing, access to resources (like water and land), education, employment, and political participation. Caste identity continues to influence social relations, economic opportunities, and political dynamics, often intersecting with class and gender to create multiple layers of disadvantage. Violence against Dalits and lower castes, including atrocities and lynchings, remains a serious human rights concern. Social movements, Dalit activism, and civil society organizations continue to work towards the annihilation of caste, demanding dignity, equal rights, justice for victims of caste atrocities, and the realization of a truly egalitarian society as envisioned by reformers like Ambedkar. This struggle for social justice is central to India's democratic and human rights commitments.

9.6. Education

India's education system is one of the largest in the world, catering to a vast student population from diverse socio-economic backgrounds. It is structured into primary, secondary, and higher education levels. Significant progress has been made in expanding access to education, but challenges related to quality, equity, and relevance remain.

• Literacy Rate: The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04% (82.14% for males and 65.46% for females). Significant progress has been made since independence (when literacy was around 18% in 1951), but disparities persist based on gender, caste, religion, region (urban-rural divide), and socio-economic status. Ensuring literacy and quality education for all is a key goal for social empowerment.
• School Education: The Right to Education Act (2009) made education a fundamental right for children aged 6 to 14, mandating free and compulsory elementary education. There are both government-run schools (which form the backbone of the system, especially in rural areas) and private schools (which have seen significant growth). Challenges include ensuring quality education for all, reducing dropout rates (especially for girls, Dalit, and Adivasi children), improving school infrastructure (classrooms, sanitation, drinking water), addressing teacher shortages and improving teacher training and accountability, and making curricula more relevant and inclusive.
• Higher Education: India has a large number of universities and colleges, including prestigious institutions like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), and central universities. However, issues of quality (with many institutions lacking adequate faculty and resources), relevance of courses to job market needs, and equitable access (especially for students from marginalized backgrounds) remain significant concerns. There is a need to expand quality higher education and promote research and innovation.
• Challenges and Reforms: Efforts are ongoing to improve the quality and accessibility of education at all levels. This includes curriculum reforms (like the National Education Policy 2020), teacher training programs, promoting the use of technology in education, and initiatives to promote vocational education and skill development to enhance employability. Providing equitable access to quality education that fosters critical thinking, creativity, and democratic values is crucial for India's socio-economic development, for empowering its citizens, and for realizing its demographic dividend.

The education system of India is the world's second-largest. India has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges and 1.5 million schools. These numbers reflect the scale of the system but also the magnitude of the challenge in ensuring quality and equity across such a vast network.

9.7. Health and Healthcare

India's public health landscape faces significant challenges, including a high burden of both communicable (like tuberculosis) and non-communicable diseases (like diabetes and heart disease), wide disparities in health outcomes across states and socio-economic groups, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure and workforce, particularly in rural and underserved areas.

• Healthcare Infrastructure: India has a mixed healthcare system, with both public sector (government-run hospitals and primary health centers) and private sector providers (which range from small clinics to large corporate hospitals). Public healthcare services are often underfunded, understaffed, and poorly equipped, leading many, even the poor, to rely on the private sector, which can be expensive and largely unregulated, leading to high out-of-pocket expenditure.
• Access to Medical Services: Access to quality and affordable healthcare varies significantly across regions and socio-economic groups. Rural areas often lack adequate medical facilities and qualified personnel. Out-of-pocket expenditure on healthcare is very high in India, pushing many families into poverty each year due to medical expenses. This highlights the urgent need for strengthening public healthcare and expanding health insurance coverage.
• Major Health Challenges:
  • Malnutrition (especially child and maternal malnutrition, including stunting and anemia) remains a severe and persistent problem with long-term consequences for health and development.
  • Communicable diseases like tuberculosis (India has the highest TB burden globally), malaria, dengue fever, and HIV/AIDS continue to pose significant public health threats, though progress has been made in controlling some.
  • Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases are rapidly increasing and are now the leading causes of death and disability.
  • Maternal and child mortality rates, though declining over the decades, are still high compared to many other countries and global targets, reflecting deficiencies in maternal and child health services.
• Government Health Policies: The government has launched various health initiatives, such as the National Health Mission (NHM) which aims to strengthen rural and urban health systems, and Ayushman Bharat (Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana - PMJAY), a national health insurance scheme launched in 2018, which aims to provide health coverage to vulnerable families for secondary and tertiary care. Efforts are focused on strengthening primary healthcare, improving maternal and child health, controlling diseases, and promoting wellness.

Ensuring universal access to affordable, equitable, and quality healthcare is a critical goal for India, essential for improving public health outcomes, reducing health-related poverty and impoverishment, achieving social equity, and fulfilling the right to health for all citizens. There are around 93 physicians per 100,000 people, indicating a significant shortage and maldistribution of health professionals.

9.8. Social Issues

India grapples with a multitude of critical social issues that impact human rights, social equity, environmental sustainability, and overall development. Addressing these issues through democratic means, legal reforms, and social movements is central to the nation's progress towards a just, inclusive, and rights-respecting society.

• Human Rights: While the Constitution of India guarantees a range of fundamental rights, their full realization remains a challenge, and violations persist. Issues include police brutality and misconduct, custodial deaths and torture, extrajudicial killings ("encounter killings"), restrictions on freedom of expression and press freedom (including intimidation and attacks on journalists and activists), misuse of sedition and anti-terror laws to suppress dissent, and concerns about the rights of human rights defenders, minorities, and vulnerable groups. The protection of civil liberties and ensuring accountability for human rights violations by state and non-state actors are ongoing concerns.
• Gender Inequality: Despite legal protections and some progress, women in India continue to face deep-rooted discrimination in various forms. This includes alarming rates of violence against women (such as domestic violence, sexual assault, rape, acid attacks, and dowry-related violence and deaths), female infanticide and sex-selective foeticide (leading to skewed sex ratios in many parts of the country), limited access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities, unequal pay, and severe underrepresentation in political and public life. Traditional family values and patriarchal social norms, while important to many, have sometimes contributed to the perpetuation of patriarchal attitudes that restrict women's autonomy and rights. An overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged, often with limited say for the individuals involved. Marriage is often considered for life, and the divorce rate is extremely low, though this may also reflect social stigma and lack of options for women. Child marriages, though illegal, are still common, especially in rural areas and among disadvantaged communities, violating the rights of girls. The payment of dowry by the bride's family to the groom's, although illegal since 1961, remains widespread across class and caste lines and is a major source of financial burden and violence against women. Deaths resulting from dowry harassment, mostly from bride burning or suicides, are a serious and persistent concern.
• Women's Rights: Efforts to empower women and advance their rights include legal reforms (e.g., laws against domestic violence, sexual harassment at workplace), initiatives for girls' education and women's economic empowerment (e.g., microfinance, skill development), and grassroots feminist movements and campaigns against gender-based violence. However, deep-rooted patriarchal attitudes, discriminatory social norms, and inadequate implementation of laws continue to pose significant challenges to achieving gender equality and justice.
• Environmental Pollution: Air pollution (especially in cities, with many Indian cities ranking among the world's most polluted), water pollution (of rivers, lakes, and groundwater), and inadequate waste management are severe environmental problems with significant public health impacts, disproportionately affecting the poor. Deforestation, land degradation, loss of biodiversity, and the impacts of climate change also pose serious threats to ecological balance and livelihoods.
• Sanitation: Access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation remains a challenge, particularly in rural areas and urban slums. Open defecation has been a major public health and human dignity issue, though government campaigns like the Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission) have aimed to improve sanitation coverage by promoting toilet construction. Ensuring sustainable and equitable access to water and sanitation is crucial.
• Regional Conflicts: Insurgencies and conflicts in regions like Jammu and Kashmir (marked by decades of violence, militancy, and counter-insurgency operations) and parts of Northeast India (with various ethnic and separatist movements) have led to human rights abuses by all parties, displacement, and loss of life, hindering peace and development. The Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies affect several central and eastern states, often rooted in issues of land alienation, poverty, and lack of governance in tribal areas.
• Terrorism: India has faced significant threats from both domestic (e.g., ethno-nationalist, religious extremist) and international terrorist groups, resulting in tragic loss of life and impacting security and social cohesion.
• Caste Discrimination: As detailed previously, despite constitutional prohibition and affirmative action, caste-based discrimination, social exclusion, and violence, particularly against Dalits and Adivasis, remain prevalent and systemic, hindering social equity, human dignity, and the promise of equality.

These social issues are often interconnected and require multifaceted approaches involving effective legal reforms, robust policy interventions, active community participation, strengthening of democratic institutions, and a strong societal and political commitment to social justice, human rights, and constitutional values.

10.1. Space Program

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is India's national space agency and has achieved remarkable success in space science, technology, and applications, often at a fraction of the cost of other major space-faring nations. Key highlights of India's space program include:

• Satellite Launches: ISRO has developed a series of indigenous launch vehicles, such as the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) - known for its reliability and cost-effectiveness - and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), capable of launching Indian and international satellites into various orbits. India has launched numerous satellites for communication, remote sensing (earth observation for resource management, disaster monitoring, and national security), navigation (NavIC - India's regional navigation satellite system), and scientific research. In May 2017, ISRO launched the South Asia Satellite, a gift to neighboring SAARC countries, demonstrating its commitment to regional cooperation through space technology.
• Planetary Exploration:
  • Chandrayaan Missions: India's lunar exploration program has garnered international acclaim. Chandrayaan-1 (2008) was India's first mission to the Moon and was instrumental in the discovery of water molecules on the lunar surface. Chandrayaan-2 (2019), comprising an orbiter, lander (Vikram), and rover (Pragyan), aimed to further study the Moon, particularly its south polar region; while the lander and rover mission was partially successful (lander crash-landed), the orbiter continues to provide valuable scientific data. Chandrayaan-3 (2023) successfully landed a rover near the lunar south pole, making India the fourth country to achieve a soft landing on the Moon and the first to land near the challenging south polar region, a significant milestone for Indian science and technology.
  • Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan): Launched in 2013, Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission) successfully entered Mars orbit in 2014 on its first attempt, making India the first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit and the first nation in the world to do so on its maiden attempt, at a remarkably low cost. The mission studied the Martian surface features, morphology, mineralogy, and Martian atmosphere.
• Future Missions: ISRO is planning ambitious future missions, including Gaganyaan (India's first human spaceflight mission, aiming to send Indian astronauts into space), Aditya-L1 (a solar observation mission to study the Sun's corona), Shukrayaan-1 (a mission to Venus), and further planetary exploration missions, including a follow-up Mars mission and lunar sample return.
• Applications: Space technology developed by ISRO is widely used in India for societal benefits, including telecommunications (connecting remote areas), broadcasting, weather forecasting (improving disaster preparedness), disaster management (monitoring floods, cyclones, forest fires), natural resource mapping (agriculture, water resources, forestry), urban planning, and navigation services (enhancing transport and logistics).

India's space program is known for its cost-effectiveness, self-reliance in developing critical technologies, and its focus on societal applications, contributing to both national development and international scientific collaboration. The country also has significant capabilities in nuclear technology (for power generation and strategic purposes), biotechnology (particularly in pharmaceuticals and agriculture), and information technology, with a large pool of scientists, engineers, and researchers contributing to these fields. Continued investment in R&D and fostering a culture of scientific inquiry are crucial for addressing India's developmental challenges and enhancing its global competitiveness.

11.1. Art and Architecture

Indian art and architecture boast an ancient, rich, and incredibly diverse heritage, with distinct regional styles and influences from various historical periods and cultural interactions.

• Visual Arts:
  • Painting: Ancient Indian painting, as seen in the magnificent murals of the Ajanta Caves (dating from 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE), was highly developed, depicting Jataka tales, courtly life, and nature with vibrant colors and expressive forms. Later traditions include the exquisite Mughal miniatures (flourishing from the 16th to 19th centuries, known for detailed portraits, historical scenes, and manuscript illustrations), Rajput paintings (from various principalities, often depicting epic and romantic themes, Krishna-lila, and courtly life with distinct regional styles like Kangra, Mewar, Bundi), Deccan paintings (from the Sultanates of the Deccan, showing a unique blend of Persian, Turkish, and indigenous influences), and various vibrant folk painting styles like Madhubani, Warli, Kalamkari, and Pattachitra, which are living traditions. Company painting emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries under European (primarily British) patronage, adapting Indian artistic skills to Western tastes and subjects. The Bengal School of Art in the early 20th century, led by artists like Abanindranath Tagore, marked a nationalist revival in Indian art, seeking to create a modern Indian aesthetic distinct from Western academic styles. Warli painting is a notable tribal art form from Maharashtra, characterized by its simple geometric forms depicting social life and nature.
  • Sculpture: The Indus Valley Civilization (circa 2500-1900 BCE) produced sophisticated seals with animal and human figures, terracotta figurines, and bronze sculptures like the "Dancing Girl." Mauryan art (3rd century BCE), like the iconic Lion Capital of Ashoka (now India's national emblem) and polished stone pillars, marked an imperial phase with strong Persian and Hellenistic influences. Buddhist art flourished at sites like Sanchi (with its intricately carved stupa gateways), Sarnath (where the Buddha gave his first sermon), Bharhut, and Amaravati Stupa, as well as in rock-cut reliefs and sculptures at Ajanta and Ellora Caves. Hindu and Jain sculptures appeared later and also achieved great sophistication. Gupta art (circa 300-600 CE) is considered a classical period, characterized by serene and spiritually profound images of Hindu deities (like Vishnu, Shiva, Durga) and Buddhas, as seen at sites like Deogarh, Sarnath, and the monumental sculptures at Elephanta Caves. Chola bronzes (9th-13th centuries), especially the iconic Nataraja (Shiva as Lord of Dance), are world-renowned for their dynamism, grace, and profound symbolism. Temple sculpture across India, in various regional styles, showcases an astonishing profusion of carved deities, celestial beings, animals, and narrative scenes.

  

  

  • Architecture:
    • Hindu Temple Architecture: Characterized by distinct regional styles such as the northern Nagara style (with curvilinear towers or shikharas) and the southern Dravida style (with pyramidal towers or vimanas), both featuring elaborate carvings, mandapas (halls), and towering gopurams (gateway towers, especially in the south). Examples include the Khajuraho temples (Madhya Pradesh), Konark Sun Temple (Odisha), Lingaraja Temple (Bhubaneswar), and the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu).
    • Buddhist Architecture: Includes stupas (relic mounds, e.g., Sanchi, Sarnath), chaityas (prayer halls, often rock-cut), and viharas (monasteries), frequently adorned with intricate sculptures and paintings.
    • Rock-Cut Architecture: India is a pioneer in rock-cut architecture, with masterpieces like the Ajanta, Ellora (featuring Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain caves, including the monolithic Kailasa Temple), and Elephanta caves, carved out of solid rock cliffs, showcasing remarkable engineering skill and artistic vision.
    • Indo-Islamic Architecture: Developed with the arrival and establishment of Islamic rule, blending Indian and Islamic (Persian, Turkish, Central Asian) architectural elements. Examples include the Qutb Minar complex in Delhi, various grand mosques (Jama Masjids), tombs (dargahs), and forts. Mughal architecture (16th-18th centuries) represents a pinnacle of this style, characterized by symmetry, grandeur, intricate inlay work (pietra dura), and beautiful gardens, with landmarks like the Taj Mahal (Agra), Agra Fort, Red Fort (Delhi), Humayun's Tomb (Delhi), and Fatehpur Sikri.
    • Colonial Architecture: European powers, particularly the British, introduced styles like Indo-Saracenic (a hybrid style blending Indian and Islamic motifs with European forms), Gothic Revival (e.g., Victoria Terminus/CST Mumbai), and Neoclassical, visible in many public buildings, railway stations, churches, and administrative centers like New Delhi (designed by Lutyens and Baker).
    • Vernacular Architecture: Varies greatly by region, reflecting local materials (mud, brick, wood, stone, bamboo), climate, cultural practices, and socio-economic conditions. Vastu shastra (traditional Indian science of architecture and town planning) often influences design principles for layout and orientation, aiming for harmony with natural forces.

    

    

    
    These artistic and architectural traditions are not merely historical relics but continue to inspire contemporary artists and architects, and form an integral part of India's cultural identity and global heritage, though their preservation often faces challenges from neglect, urbanization, and inadequate conservation efforts.

11.2. Literature

Indian literature has a vast, ancient, and multilingual tradition, composed in numerous languages and scripts, reflecting the country's diverse cultural and historical experiences. It encompasses a wide range of genres, from sacred texts and epic poetry to philosophical treatises, drama, lyrical poetry, and prose.

• Classical Literature:
  • Sanskrit Literature: The earliest Indian literature, dating from around 1500 BCE, includes the Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda) - collections of hymns, prayers, and philosophical insights, considered sacred texts in Hinduism. The Upanishads (philosophical treatises forming part of the Vedas) explore metaphysical concepts. The great epics - the Mahabharata (one of the longest poems in the world, which includes the influential Bhagavad Gita - a philosophical dialogue) and the Ramayana (narrating the story of Rama) - have profoundly shaped Indian culture, values, and storytelling traditions. Classical Sanskrit literature also flourished with poets and playwrights like Kālidāsa (circa 4th-5th century CE), renowned for his plays like Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala) and epic poems (Mahākāvya) like Raghuvamsha and Kumarasambhava. Other important works include philosophical texts (Darshanas), scientific treatises, and narrative literature (Panchatantra, Kathasaritsagara).
  • Tamil Sangam Literature (circa 300 BCE - 300 CE): One of the oldest bodies of secular and religious literature in the world, comprising poems on themes of love (akam) and war/public life (puram), governance, and trade. It provides rich insights into early Tamil society and culture. Key works include the Ettuthokai (Eight Anthologies) and Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls). Thiruvalluvar's Tirukkuṛaḷ is a celebrated work of ethical maxims.
  • Pali and Prakrit Literature: Important for Buddhist and Jain traditions respectively. The Pali Canon contains the teachings of the Buddha, while Prakrit literature includes Jain Agamas and secular works.
• Medieval Literature: From the 10th century onwards, literature in regional languages (Apabhramsha and early forms of modern Indian languages) began to flourish. The period from the 14th to 18th centuries saw the rise of the Bhakti movement, which spurred a wave of devotional poetry and songs in various regional languages by saints and poets like Kabir, Tulsidas (author of the influential Hindi epic Ramcharitmanas, a retelling of the Ramayana), Mirabai, Surdas, Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism, whose hymns are in the Guru Granth Sahib), Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Bengal), Tukaram (Maharashtra), and the Alvars and Nayanars (Tamil Nadu). This period saw the development of rich literary traditions in languages like Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, Odia, and Punjabi. Sufi poetry also flourished in Persian and regional languages.
• Modern Literature: In the 19th century, Indian writers began to address social issues (like caste discrimination, women's status, colonial oppression) and explore psychological themes, influenced by Western literary forms (novel, short story, essay) as well as indigenous traditions. The Indian Renaissance saw a flowering of literature in various languages. The 20th century saw the rise of prominent writers who engaged with nationalism, social reform, and the complexities of modern Indian identity. Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali polymath (poet, novelist, playwright, philosopher, musician, painter), became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 for his work Gitanjali (Song Offerings). Post-independence literature has continued to explore diverse themes of nationhood, partition, identity, social change, caste, gender, and human experience, with authors writing in various Indian languages and in English. Notable figures include Munshi Premchand (Hindi/Urdu), Subramania Bharati (Tamil), Muhammad Iqbal (Urdu/Persian), Mulk Raj Anand, R. K. Narayan, Raja Rao (early Indian English writers), and contemporary authors like Salman Rushdie, Arundhati Roy, Amitav Ghosh, Vikram Seth, Mahasweta Devi, U. R. Ananthamurthy, and many others who have gained national and international recognition.

Indian literature continues to be a vibrant and dynamic field, reflecting the multifaceted realities and aspirations of its people.

11.3. Performing Arts

India has a rich, ancient, and diverse tradition of performing arts, encompassing music, dance, and theatre, with a vast array of classical, folk, and contemporary forms that are integral to its cultural life.

• Music:
  • Classical Music: Two main traditions, both highly sophisticated and based on melodic frameworks (ragas) and rhythmic cycles (talas):
    • Hindustani Music: Predominant in North India, with influences from Persian and Islamic traditions. It features elaborate improvisational development of ragas and diverse vocal (Khayal, Dhrupad, Thumri) and instrumental (Sitar, Sarod, Tabla, Flute) forms.
    • Carnatic Music: Prevalent in South India, generally considered older and less influenced by external traditions. It also uses raga and tala systems but with different structures, compositions (Kritis), and nomenclature. Vocal music is central, accompanied by instruments like Veena, Violin, Mridangam, Ghatam.
  • Folk Music: Immensely diverse regional styles, often associated with agricultural cycles, festivals, rituals, social events, and daily life. Examples include Baul devotional music of Bengal, energetic Bhangra and Giddha of Punjab, Lavani of Maharashtra, Bihu Geet of Assam, Pandavani of Chhattisgarh, Qawwali (Sufi devotional music), and numerous other forms.
  • Filmi Music: Popular film songs from Bollywood and regional cinema, which are a dominant part of Indian popular culture. Filmi music is often a blend of classical ragas, folk melodies, Western popular music idioms, and increasingly, global music trends.
• Dance:
  • Classical Dance: India's Sangeet Natak Akademi (National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama) recognizes eight classical dance forms, each with a distinct style, technique, and repertoire rooted in ancient treatises like the Natya Shastra: Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathak (North India), Kathakali (Kerala), Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh), Odissi (Odisha), Manipuri (Manipur), Mohiniyattam (Kerala), and Sattriya (Assam). These dances often have narrative forms, drawing from Hindu mythology and epics, and involve intricate footwork (nritta), expressive hand gestures (mudras or hastas), codified body movements, and elaborate facial expressions (abhinaya). They are highly spiritual and aesthetically refined art forms.
  • Folk Dances: Numerous vibrant and energetic folk dances specific to different regions, communities, and occasions, reflecting local traditions and social life. Examples include Bhangra and Giddha (Punjab), Garba and Dandiya Raas (Gujarat), Bihu (Assam), Chhau (Eastern India - West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand), Lavani (Maharashtra), Ghoomar (Rajasthan), and countless others.
• Theatre: Indian theatre has ancient roots and diverse traditions, combining music, dance, dialogue (often improvised or based on written texts), and spectacle. Traditional theatre forms are often based on Hindu mythology (Ramayana, Mahabharata), medieval romances, historical legends, or social events. Examples include Ramlila (dramatic enactment of the Ramayana, especially in North India), Jatra (Bengal), Yakshagana (Karnataka), Tamasha (Maharashtra), Koodiyattam (Kerala, a Sanskrit theatre form), and Bhavai (Gujarat). Modern Indian theatre, influenced by Western traditions as well as indigenous forms, addresses contemporary social and political issues in various languages. The National School of Drama (NSD) in New Delhi is a premier theatre training institute.

These performing arts are not static but are constantly evolving, with contemporary artists and performers reinterpreting traditional forms and creating new works that reflect the changing realities of Indian society.

11.4. Cinema

The Indian film industry is the largest in the world in terms of the number of feature films produced annually and also in terms of tickets sold. It is a highly influential part of Indian popular culture, shaping trends, attitudes, and social discourse, and has a significant global reach, particularly within the Indian diaspora and increasingly beyond.

• Bollywood: This refers to the Hindi-language film industry based in Mumbai (formerly Bombay, hence the portmanteau). Bollywood is known for its musicals (featuring elaborate song-and-dance sequences that are integral to the narrative), melodramas, action films, romances, and star-driven productions. It is the largest segment of Indian cinema in terms of national reach and revenue, representing 43% of Indian box office revenue.
• Regional Cinema: India has strong and prolific regional film industries in various languages, each with its own distinct style, themes, stars, and audience base. Prominent among these are:
  • Tamil Cinema (Kollywood), based in Chennai, known for its mass entertainers, star power, and technically innovative films.
  • Telugu Cinema (Tollywood), based in Hyderabad, also known for its large-scale productions, mythological films, and popular appeal.
  • Malayalam Cinema (Mollywood), based in Kerala, often lauded for its art-house and realistic films, strong scripts, and talented actors.
  • Kannada Cinema (Sandalwood), based in Bengaluru.
  • Bengali Cinema, based in Kolkata, with a rich tradition of art-house and parallel cinema, historically associated with renowned directors like Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, and Mrinal Sen.
  • Other significant regional cinemas include Marathi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Assamese, and Odia films.

  South Indian Telugu and Tamil film industries combined represent a significant portion of the national box office revenue (around 36%).

  • History and Genres: Indian cinema has a long history, dating back to the silent era with Dadasaheb Phalke's Raja Harishchandra (1913) considered the first full-length Indian feature film. It encompasses a wide range of genres, including mythological films, historical epics, social dramas (addressing issues like caste, poverty, women's rights), action films, comedies, and romances. Parallel cinema or art cinema movements (particularly in Hindi and Bengali cinema in the 1950s-70s) emerged, focusing on more realistic portrayals of life, social critique, and artistic experimentation, offering an alternative to mainstream commercial cinema.
  • Global Influence: Indian films, particularly Bollywood productions, have a large and dedicated viewership among the Indian diaspora worldwide and are gaining popularity in non-Indian audiences in parts of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and even some Western countries. Indian cinema is a significant cultural export and a tool of soft power.

  The Indian film industry is a complex and dynamic entity, reflecting the nation's diversity, its social and political concerns, and its evolving cultural landscape.

11.5. Cuisine

Indian cuisine is renowned worldwide for its incredible diversity, sophisticated use of aromatic spices and herbs, and a vast array of regional variations that reflect the country's complex history, diverse geography, religious beliefs (especially the prevalence of vegetarianism), and cultural interactions.

• Regional Cuisines: Each region of India has its distinct culinary traditions, ingredients, and cooking techniques:
  • North Indian Cuisine: Characterized by the use of dairy products like paneer (Indian cheese), ghee (clarified butter), and yogurt, tandoori cooking (using a clay oven for dishes like tandoori chicken, naan bread), rich gravies made with onions, tomatoes, and cashews, and wheat-based breads like roti, paratha, and chapati. Popular dishes include Butter Chicken, Rogan Josh, Dal Makhani, Chole Bhature.
  • South Indian Cuisine: Features rice as a staple, liberal use of lentils and spices (mustard seeds, curry leaves, asafoetida), coconut (in various forms), and tamarind for sourness. Popular dishes include dosa (crispy crepes), idli (steamed rice cakes), vada (savory fritters), sambar (lentil-based vegetable stew), rasam (thin spicy soup), and various rice preparations (e.g., lemon rice, tamarind rice, coconut rice). Seafood is common in coastal areas.
  • East Indian Cuisine: Known for its use of mustard oil, freshwater fish (especially in Bengal and Assam), and a wide variety of sweets (e.g., rasgulla, sandesh). Bengali and Odia cuisines are prominent, with distinct flavors and preparations. Rice is a staple.
  • West Indian Cuisine: Varies significantly. Gujarati cuisine is largely vegetarian, often with a hint of sweetness, featuring dishes like dhokla, thepla, and undhiyu. Rajasthani cuisine is known for its rich, spicy dishes adapted to an arid climate, like dal baati churma. Goan cuisine shows strong Portuguese influence, with dishes like vindaloo and xacuti, often featuring pork and seafood. Maharashtrian cuisine has a range of flavors from mild to very spicy.
  • Northeast Indian Cuisine: Distinct from other regions, with influences from neighboring countries (Tibet, Burma, China). Features fermented foods (bamboo shoots, soybeans), smoked meats, a variety of greens, and often less use of oil and complex spices, with an emphasis on fresh, local ingredients.
• Common Dishes and Ingredients:
  • Curries: A broad term for dishes, typically with gravies or sauces, made from a complex combination of spices and often including vegetables, lentils, meat, or fish. The composition of "curry powder" varies greatly.
  • Lentils (Dal): A staple source of protein for many Indians, prepared in numerous ways across different regions (e.g., dal makhani, dal tadka, sambar).
  • Breads: Besides roti and naan, includes chapati, puri (deep-fried bread), bhatura (leavened deep-fried bread), paratha (pan-fried flatbread, often stuffed), and many regional varieties.
  • Rice Dishes: Biryani (a mixed rice dish, often with meat or vegetables), pulao (pilaf), and plain steamed rice are common accompaniments or main courses.
  • Spices: Essential to Indian cooking, creating complex flavors and aromas. Common spices include turmeric, cumin, coriander, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, black pepper, mustard seeds, fenugreek, chili powder, asafoetida, and spice blends like garam masala.
• Vegetarianism: A significant portion of the Indian population practices vegetarianism due to religious (Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism) and cultural reasons, making India home to one of the most diverse and sophisticated vegetarian culinary traditions in the world.
• Sweets and Desserts (Mithai): Indian sweets are often milk-based (using khoya/mawa, paneer/chenna), very rich, and flavored with cardamom, saffron, rosewater, and nuts. Examples include gulab jamun (deep-fried milk balls in syrup), jalebi (syrup-filled spirals), barfi (milk fudge), rasmalai (cheese dumplings in sweetened milk), kheer/payasam (rice pudding), and ladoo (spherical sweets).
• Beverages: Chai (spiced tea, usually with milk and sugar) is a ubiquitous and culturally significant drink throughout India. Lassi (a yogurt-based drink, sweet or salty), nimbu pani (lemonade), fruit juices, and traditional drinks like jaljeera are also popular.

Indian cuisine is a journey of flavors, textures, and aromas, deeply intertwined with the country's culture, traditions, and social life.

11.6. Clothing

Traditional Indian attire varies significantly by region, religion, climate, and occasion, reflecting the country's rich textile heritage, intricate weaving traditions, and diverse cultural expressions.

• For Women:
  • Sari: A long, unstitched drape of fabric, typically around 5 yd to 9 yd in length, wrapped around the body in various styles. It is usually worn with a fitted blouse (choli) and an underskirt (petticoat) to which it is tucked. The sari is an iconic and elegant Indian garment, with countless regional variations in fabric (silk varieties like Banarasi, Kanjeevaram, Paithani; cotton varieties like Tant, Jamdani, Kota Doria), weave, motifs, and draping style.
  • Salwar Kameez: A popular and practical outfit, especially in North India and among many communities across the country. It consists of loose trousers (salwar, tapered at the ankles) or fitted trousers (churidar, gathered at the ankles) and a tunic top (kameez), often accompanied by a scarf (dupatta) draped over the shoulders or head.
  • Lehenga Choli (Ghagra Choli): A traditional outfit comprising a long, flared, often elaborately embroidered or embellished skirt (lehenga or ghagra), a fitted blouse (choli), and a dupatta. Often worn for festivals, weddings, and special occasions, particularly in North and West India.
  • Regional attire includes garments like the Mundum Neriyathum (a two-piece sari) in Kerala, the Mekhela Chador in Assam, and the Puanchei (a draped shawl) in Mizoram, among many others.
• For Men:
  • Dhoti: A traditional unstitched lower garment, usually a rectangular piece of cloth, wrapped around the waist and legs in various styles. Commonly worn in many parts of India, especially for religious ceremonies and in rural areas.
  • Lungi: A sarong-like lower garment, a tube of stitched cloth, common in South India and other coastal regions, worn for comfort and in informal settings.
  • Kurta: A loose-fitting collarless or collared shirt or tunic, often worn with pyjama (loose drawstring trousers), a dhoti, or even jeans. Kurtas come in various lengths, fabrics, and styles, from simple cotton for daily wear to elaborate silk for formal occasions.
  • Sherwani: A long, coat-like garment, buttoned up to the collar, typically worn for formal occasions and weddings, often with churidar trousers or a dhoti. It is considered a regal and elegant attire.
  • Pagri (Turban): Headwear worn in various styles, colors, and fabrics across different regions and communities (e.g., Sikh turbans, Rajasthani pagris), holding significant cultural, religious, or social meaning.
• Contemporary Trends: While traditional clothing remains prevalent, especially for formal events, festivals, and in rural areas, Western attire (shirts, trousers, jeans, T-shirts, dresses, skirts) is widely adopted in urban areas and among younger generations for daily wear and professional settings. Indo-Western fusion wear is also very popular, blending traditional Indian fabrics, motifs, and silhouettes with Western styles, creating unique and contemporary outfits. India has a vibrant and growing fashion industry that showcases both traditional craftsmanship and modern design sensibilities, with many Indian designers gaining international recognition.

The diversity of Indian clothing reflects the country's pluralism and rich cultural tapestry, with textiles playing a crucial role in identity, status, and artistic expression.

11.7. Media

The media landscape in India is one of the oldest, largest, and most diverse in the world, characterized by its vibrancy, multilingualism, and significant reach across a vast population. It plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion, disseminating information, providing entertainment, and acting as a watchdog in a democratic society, though it also faces challenges related to ownership patterns, political influence, and ethical standards.

• Newspapers: India has a vast and diverse newspaper industry with thousands of publications in numerous languages, including English, Hindi, and various regional languages. Major English dailies include The Times of India, The Hindu, Hindustan Times, The Indian Express, and The Telegraph. Hindi newspapers like Dainik Jagran and Dainik Bhaskar have massive circulations, making them among the most read newspapers globally. Regional language newspapers also have very high readership. The press enjoys a significant degree of freedom guaranteed by the Constitution, though challenges related to media ownership concentration, "paid news" (advertorials disguised as news), political pressures, and threats to journalists (especially those covering corruption or conflict) exist and are subjects of concern for press freedom. India has around 1000 Hindi dailies with a total circulation of about 80 million, while English dailies number around 250 with a total circulation of about 40 million.
• Television Broadcasting: Television is the most penetrative and influential media in India. Broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium (Doordarshan). The sector was liberalized in the 1990s, leading to a proliferation of private satellite channels. Today, there are hundreds of channels offering news (in multiple languages, often highly competitive and sensationalized), entertainment (soap operas, reality shows, films), sports, and regional content. As of 2012, there were over 554 million TV consumers, and this number has grown significantly since.
• Radio: All India Radio (AIR), the state-owned public service broadcaster, has a wide reach across the country, providing news, information, and entertainment in various languages. Private FM radio stations have become popular in urban areas, primarily offering music and entertainment. Community radio stations also play a role in local communication, empowering marginalized voices and addressing local issues.
• Digital Media and Internet: Internet penetration has grown rapidly in India, driven by affordable smartphones and declining data plan costs. Digital news platforms, social media (like WhatsApp, Facebook, YouTube, Twitter/X), and online streaming services (Over-The-Top or OTT platforms) are increasingly influential, especially among the youth and urban populations. India had over 900 million internet users by 2023. However, issues like the digital divide (disparities in access based on region, gender, and socio-economic status), rampant misinformation and disinformation ("fake news") on social media, online hate speech, and internet censorship or shutdowns by the government (often citing law and order concerns) are significant challenges impacting freedom of expression and access to information. Online speech and expression face increasing restrictions through various laws and government actions.
• Film Industry: While primarily an entertainment medium, Indian cinema (as detailed earlier) also reflects and influences social, cultural, and political narratives, often serving as a powerful medium for storytelling and social commentary.

The media in India is diverse, dynamic, and plays a crucial role in its democracy. However, it also faces challenges related to maintaining journalistic independence, ensuring ethical standards, combating misinformation, promoting media literacy, and addressing the diverse informational and cultural needs of a vast and complex society in an equitable manner.

11.8. Festivals and Holidays

India is often called a land of festivals, with a multitude of religious, cultural, and national celebrations observed throughout the year, reflecting its rich cultural tapestry and religious diversity. These festivals are integral to the social fabric and are marked by vibrant rituals, feasting, music, dance, and enthusiastic community participation, often transcending religious and social boundaries.

• Religious Festivals:
  • Hindu Festivals:
    • Diwali (Deepavali): The "festival of lights," one ofthe most significant and widely celebrated festivals across India and by the Indian diaspora. It typically spans five days and symbolizes the victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance. Homes are decorated, lamps (diyas) are lit, fireworks are set off, sweets are exchanged, and prayers are offered to Goddess Lakshmi.
    • Holi: The "festival of colors" or "festival of spring," a joyous and exuberant festival celebrated with the playful throwing of colored powders (gulal) and water on friends and family, signifying the triumph of good over evil, the arrival of spring, and a time for forgiveness and renewing relationships.
    • Dussehra (Vijayadashami): Celebrates the victory of Lord Rama over the demon king Ravana (as narrated in the Ramayana), or the victory of Goddess Durga over the demon Mahishasura. Effigies of Ravana are often burnt, and large processions and fairs are held.
    • Navaratri: A nine-night (ten-day) festival dedicated to the worship of Goddess Durga (or Shakti) in her various forms. Celebrated with fasting, prayers, dance (especially Garba and Dandiya Raas in Gujarat), and community gatherings.
    • Ganesh Chaturthi: Celebrates the birth of Lord Ganesha, the elephant-headed god of wisdom, prosperity, and new beginnings. Elaborate idols of Ganesha are worshipped and then immersed in water bodies.
    • Krishna Janmashtami: Celebrates the birth of Lord Krishna, an important deity in Hinduism. Marked by fasting, prayers, devotional singing, and re-enactments of Krishna's life.
    • Maha Shivaratri: A festival dedicated to the worship of Lord Shiva, one of the principal deities of Hinduism. Observed with fasting, night-long vigils, and prayers.
    • Raksha Bandhan: Celebrates the bond between brothers and sisters. Sisters tie a sacred thread (rakhi) on their brothers' wrists, and brothers promise to protect them.
    • Thai Pongal (primarily in Tamil Nadu) / Makar Sankranti (celebrated under various names in different regions): Harvest festivals marking the winter solstice and the sun's northward journey.
    • Onam (primarily in Kerala): A major harvest festival celebrating the homecoming of the legendary King Mahabali. Marked by floral carpets (pookalam), boat races (vallamkali), traditional dances, and elaborate feasts (onasadya).
    • Durga Puja (especially in Bengal, Assam, Odisha): A major festival celebrating Goddess Durga's victory over the demon Mahishasura. Marked by elaborate temporary temples (pandals), idol worship, cultural performances, and feasting. It is a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.
  • Muslim Festivals:
    • Eid al-Fitr: Marks the end of Ramadan, the holy month of fasting. Celebrated with prayers, feasting, charity, and community gatherings.
    • Eid al-Adha (Bakr-Id): The "festival of sacrifice," commemorating Prophet Ibrahim's willingness to sacrifice his son. Marked by animal sacrifice, prayers, and sharing food with the needy.
    • Mawlid an-Nabi: Celebrates the birthday of Prophet Muhammad.
    • Muharram: Commemorates the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, the grandson of Prophet Muhammad, particularly by Shia Muslims, with processions and mourning rituals.
  • Sikh Festivals:
    • Gurpurabs: Celebrate the birthdays or martyrdom anniversaries of the ten Sikh Gurus, especially Guru Nanak Jayanti (birth of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism) and Guru Gobind Singh Jayanti. Marked by prayers, kirtan (devotional singing), and community meals (langar).
    • Vaisakhi: Marks the Sikh New Year and the formation of the Khalsa (the Sikh community of initiated members) by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699.
  • Christian Festivals:
    • Christmas: Celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ. Observed by Christians and also participated in by many non-Christians, with midnight masses, carol singing, and festive decorations.
    • Easter: Commemorates the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
  • Buddhist Festivals:
    • Buddha Jayanti (Vesak): Celebrates the birth, enlightenment (Nirvana), and passing (Parinirvana) of Gautama Buddha. Marked by prayers, meditation, and acts of charity.
  • Jain Festivals:
    • Mahavir Jayanti: Celebrates the birth of Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism.
    • Paryushana: A period of fasting, penance, introspection, and forgiveness for Jains.
• National Holidays: These are secular holidays observed throughout the country:
  • Republic Day (January 26): Commemorates the adoption of the Indian Constitution in 1950, when India officially became a republic. Marked by a grand military parade and cultural pageantry in New Delhi.
  • Independence Day (August 15): Celebrates India's independence from British rule in 1947. Marked by flag-hoisting ceremonies, patriotic programs, and the Prime Minister's address from the Red Fort in Delhi.
  • Gandhi Jayanti (October 2): Marks the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi, revered as the "Father of the Nation" for his leadership in the non-violent struggle for independence. Observed with prayer meetings and tributes.

  These are just a few examples, as numerous other regional, local, and tribal festivals are celebrated across the country, each with its unique customs, rituals, and cultural significance, contributing to India's vibrant and pluralistic ethos.

11.9. Sports

Sports are an integral part of Indian culture and society, ranging from highly popular modern international sports like cricket to traditional indigenous games that have been played for centuries.

• Cricket: By far the most popular sport in India, often described as a "religion" in the country due to its massive following and cultural significance. The India national cricket team has achieved significant international success, including winning the Cricket World Cup in 1983 and 2011, and the ICC T20 World Cup in 2007 and 2024. The Indian Premier League (IPL), a professional Twenty20 cricket league established in 2008, is one of the most lucrative and popular sports leagues globally, attracting top players from around the world and generating immense viewership. Iconic players like Sachin Tendulkar, Kapil Dev, Sunil Gavaskar, Rahul Dravid, MS Dhoni, and Virat Kohli are national heroes and have a huge fan base.
• Field Hockey: Historically, field hockey was India's most successful sport at the Olympic Games, with the Indian men's team winning an impressive eight gold medals between 1928 and 1980. While its popularity relative to cricket has declined since then, it remains an important sport with a rich legacy, and there have been efforts to revive its prominence.
• Football (Soccer): Popular in certain regions like West Bengal, Goa, Kerala, and the Northeastern states, football (soccer) has a dedicated following. The Indian Super League (ISL), launched in 2014, is the country's premier professional football league and has helped to increase the sport's visibility and attract investment. The national team has had success at the South Asian level but is yet to make a significant impact on the global stage.
• Kabaddi: A traditional contact team sport, originating in ancient India, which has gained immense popularity and professionalization with the advent of the Pro Kabaddi League (PKL) in 2014. The Indian national kabaddi teams (both men's and women's) have dominated international competitions.
• Badminton: India has produced several world-class badminton players, including Prakash Padukone, Pullela Gopichand, Saina Nehwal, and P. V. Sindhu, who have won Olympic medals, World Championships, and other major international tournaments, significantly boosting the sport's popularity.
• Wrestling (Pehlwani): Traditional Indian wrestling (kushti), practiced in mud pits (akharas), has a long and rich history. Indian wrestlers have also achieved considerable success in modern Olympic wrestling (freestyle and Greco-Roman), winning several medals.
• Boxing: Has gained popularity, particularly after Indian boxers started winning medals at the Olympics, World Championships, and Commonwealth Games.
• Shooting: Indian shooters have performed exceptionally well in international competitions, including Abhinav Bindra's historic individual Olympic gold medal in 2008 (10m air rifle).
• Chess: Believed to have originated in India (as Chaturanga), chess is widely played, and India has produced many Grandmasters, including former World Champion Viswanathan Anand and current World Champion Gukesh D, inspiring a new generation of players.
• Athletics: While India's success in Olympic athletics has been historically limited, there is growing participation and focus on developing talent in track and field events, with some notable performances in recent years, like Neeraj Chopra's gold medal in javelin throw at the Tokyo Olympics 2020.
• Traditional Indigenous Sports: Besides kabaddi and pehlwani, other traditional sports and games like kho kho, gilli-danda, lagori, mallakhamb, and various martial arts such as Kalaripayattu (from Kerala) and Varma kalai (Tamil Nadu) continue to be practiced in various parts of the country, representing a rich sporting heritage.

India also participates regularly in multi-sport events like the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, and Asian Games, with improving performances over the years. Professional leagues in various sports beyond cricket are gaining traction, reflecting the growing sports culture and commercialization of sports in the country. Promoting sports at the grassroots level and ensuring equitable access to facilities and training for all, especially in rural areas and for girls, are ongoing priorities.