Kazakhstan

3.1. Ancient and Middle Ages

The vast territory of modern-day Kazakhstan has been a cradle of nomadic civilizations and a crossroads of empires since antiquity. Early inhabitants adapted to the challenging steppe environment, developing sophisticated equestrian cultures. The region witnessed the rise and fall of various Turkic khaganates, which played a crucial role in the ethnogenesis of the Kazakh people, and later experienced the profound impact of the Mongol Empire, which reshaped its political and social landscape.

3.1.2. Cuman-Kipchak Confederation and Golden Horde

Around the 11th century, the Cumans (Polovtsians) and Kipchaks, both Turkic groups, migrated into the steppes of present-day Kazakhstan. They formed a loose but extensive political entity known as the Cuman-Kipchak Confederation, which controlled a vast territory stretching from the Irtysh River to the Danube. This confederation was not a centralized state but a collection of tribes and clans that shared a common language and culture. The Kipchak language became a lingua franca across much of the Eurasian steppe. Cities like Taraz and Hazrat-e Turkestan (then Yasi) continued to be important centers on the Silk Road.

In the early 13th century, the Mongol invasions led by Genghis Khan swept through Central Asia. The Cuman-Kipchak lands were conquered and incorporated into the Mongol Empire. After Genghis Khan's death and the division of his empire, the territory of Kazakhstan primarily fell under the control of the Golden Horde (Ulus of Jochi), one of the successor states. The Golden Horde, founded by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu Khan, dominated much of Eastern Europe and parts of Central Asia for over two centuries.

Under Golden Horde rule, a Turco-Mongol tradition emerged, where the Mongol ruling class gradually adopted Turkic languages and Islam. The administration was structured into districts (ulus), and the nomadic economy continued. The Golden Horde's influence facilitated trade and cultural exchange but also imposed heavy burdens on the local population. The eventual decline and fragmentation of the Golden Horde in the late 14th and 15th centuries created a power vacuum, paving the way for the emergence of new political entities, including the Kazakh Khanate.

3.2. Kazakh Khanate

The Kazakh Khanate was formed around 1465 in the region of Jetisu (Semirechye) by Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan, who led a breakaway faction of Uzbek tribes from the Uzbek Khanate ruled by Abu'l-Khayr Khan. This event marked a crucial step in the consolidation of a distinct Kazakh ethnic identity. The Khanate gradually expanded its territory, encompassing much of modern-day Kazakhstan. The early Kazakh khans, descendants of Jochi (Genghis Khan's eldest son), established a political system based on nomadic traditions and Islamic law.

The society was structured around a system of three jüz (hordes or tribal divisions): the Senior Jüz (Uly Jüz) in the southeast, the Middle Jüz (Orta Jüz) in the central and northern steppes, and the Junior Jüz (Kishi Jüz) in the west. Each jüz was a confederation of various Kazakh tribes and clans, often acting with considerable autonomy. This system, while reflecting the nomadic socio-political organization, sometimes led to internal divisions and weakened central authority.

Key rulers of the Kazakh Khanate include Kasym Khan (reigned c. 1511-1521), under whom the Khanate reached a peak of power and codified Kazakh customary law (Qasym Khannyn Qasqa Zholy). Later, Haqnazar Khan (reigned 1538-1580) and Tauke Khan (reigned 1680-1715) also played significant roles in strengthening the Khanate and unifying the Kazakh tribes. Tauke Khan is particularly known for the Jeti Jarghy, a comprehensive code of laws.

Throughout the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Kazakh Khanate faced severe threats from the Dzungar Khanate, a powerful Oirat Mongol confederation to its east. The period known as the "Great Disaster" (Aqtaban Shubyryndy) in the 1720s saw devastating Dzungar invasions that displaced large numbers of Kazakhs and threatened the Khanate's existence. Kazakh heroes (batyrs) like Abul Khair Khan and Ablai Khan rose to prominence leading resistance efforts. Victories at the Battle of Bulanty (1726) and the Battle of Añyraqai (1729) were crucial in turning the tide against the Dzungars. Ablai Khan, who later became khan of the Middle Jüz, was instrumental in unifying Kazakh forces and eventually repelling the Dzungars, contributing significantly to his legendary status. The Kokand Khanate and the Emirate of Bukhara also exerted influence and control over parts of southern Kazakh lands, including cities like Shymkent and Almaty, before Russian expansion.

The political disunity among the jüzes, coupled with external pressures, eventually led to the gradual absorption of the Kazakh lands into the Russian Empire.

3.3. Russian Empire Rule

The incorporation of Kazakh lands into the Russian Empire was a gradual process spanning the 18th and 19th centuries. Faced with persistent Dzungar aggression and internal divisions, khans of the Junior Jüz (1731) and later parts of the Middle Jüz sought Russian protection. Russia, eager to expand its influence and secure its borders, established a series of fortified lines, such as the Irtysh Line including forts like Omsk (1716), Semipalatinsk (1718), and Orenburg (1743), gradually extending its control over the steppe.

Russian colonization policies involved the seizure of fertile Kazakh pasturelands for Russian and Cossack settlers. This process intensified in the latter half of the 19th century, especially after the abolition of serfdom in Russia, which freed up peasants to migrate. The Trans-Aral Railway, completed in 1906, further facilitated this settlement. A special Migration Department in St. Petersburg oversaw and encouraged this colonization. By the early 20th century, millions of Slavic settlers had moved into Kazakh territories, leading to significant demographic shifts and increasing pressure on traditional Kazakh nomadic lifestyles.

The Tsarist administration dismantled the traditional Kazakh political structures, abolishing the khanates and replacing them with Russian administrative units. Policies aimed at sedentarization and Russification were implemented, disrupting the nomadic economy and traditional social order. Russian language was introduced in schools and administration. These changes led to widespread discontent among the Kazakh population. The economic impact was severe, with loss of grazing lands leading to poverty and famine for many Kazakhs.

Resistance to Russian rule was recurrent. Notable uprisings included those led by Srym Datuly (1783-1797), Kenesary Kasymov (1837-1847), who sought to restore Kazakh independence, and Isatay Taymanuly (1836-1838). The Central Asian revolt of 1916 (Urkun) was a particularly large-scale and brutal rebellion, triggered by a decree conscripting Central Asian men for labor duties during World War I. The revolt involved attacks on Russian settlers and garrisons, followed by harsh reprisals from Tsarist forces, resulting in massacres and the flight of hundreds of thousands of Kazakhs and other Central Asians, many of whom perished. This period under Tsarist rule fundamentally altered Kazakh society, economy, and political landscape, laying the groundwork for further transformations in the Soviet era. The legacy of colonization and resistance shaped Kazakh national consciousness and fueled aspirations for self-determination.

3.4. Soviet Era

The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the collapse of Tsarist rule and a period of turmoil in Kazakhstan. Kazakh intellectuals and nationalists formed the Alash Orda movement, proclaiming an autonomous Alash Autonomy (1917-1920) with the aim of self-governance. However, the ensuing Russian Civil War saw the Bolsheviks gradually consolidate power. In 1920, the Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (ASSR) was established within the Russian SFSR, with Orenburg as its capital. In 1925, it was renamed the Kazak ASSR, and its capital was moved to Kyzylorda, and then to Alma-Ata (now Almaty) in 1927. On December 5, 1936, its status was upgraded to the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (Kazakh SSR), a full union republic of the USSR.

Soviet policies brought radical transformations with devastating social and environmental consequences. The forced collectivization of agriculture in the late 1920s and early 1930s aimed to sedentarize the nomadic Kazakhs and integrate them into the Soviet economic system. This policy, implemented with brutality, led to the confiscation of livestock, the backbone of the Kazakh economy. The result was a catastrophic famine (known as Asharshylyk or the Kazakh catastrophe) that claimed the lives of an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Kazakhs (about 30-40% of the ethnic Kazakh population) and forced many others to flee. This tragedy decimated the Kazakh population and profoundly altered their traditional way of life.

Industrialization programs focused on exploiting Kazakhstan's vast natural resources, particularly coal, oil, and non-ferrous metals. This led to the development of industrial centers but often at great environmental cost and with reliance on labor from other parts of the USSR. During World War II, Kazakhstan served as a crucial rear base, receiving evacuated industries and populations. Many Kazakhs fought in the Red Army.

The Soviet era also saw large-scale deportations of various ethnic groups to Kazakhstan. These included hundreds of thousands of Volga Germans, Chechens, Ingush, Crimean Tatars, Koreans (Koryo-saram), Poles, and others who were forcibly resettled under Stalin's regime. Kazakhstan became home to notorious Gulag labor camps, such as ALZhIR for wives of "enemies of the people." These deportations drastically altered the ethnic composition of the republic, making ethnic Kazakhs a minority in their own land for a period.

The Virgin Lands Campaign, launched by Nikita Khrushchev in the mid-1950s, aimed to convert vast tracts of Kazakh steppe into grain-producing regions. While it initially boosted grain production, it led to severe environmental degradation, including soil erosion and desertification, and further influx of Slavic settlers.

From 1949 to 1989, the Semipalatinsk Test Site in northeastern Kazakhstan was the primary nuclear weapons testing facility for the Soviet Union. Over 450 nuclear tests were conducted, exposing local populations and the environment to significant radioactive fallout, leading to long-term health problems and environmental contamination. The anti-nuclear movement, Nevada Semipalatinsk, which emerged in the late 1980s, became a powerful symbol of growing Kazakh nationalism and environmental consciousness. The Baikonur Cosmodrome, established in the 1950s, became the Soviet Union's (and later Russia's) main space launch facility.

Growing nationalist sentiments and discontent with Moscow's rule culminated in the Jeltoqsan (December) protests in Almaty in 1986. These demonstrations, primarily by young ethnic Kazakhs, were sparked by the replacement of Dinmukhamed Kunaev, an ethnic Kazakh First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan, with Gennady Kolbin, an ethnic Russian from outside the republic. The protests were suppressed by Soviet authorities, resulting in casualties and arrests, further fueling Kazakh national aspirations. Under Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of glasnost and perestroika, these sentiments found greater expression, leading Kazakhstan to declare sovereignty in October 1990 and, ultimately, independence.

3.5. Post-Independence

Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty on October 25, 1990, and full independence on December 16, 1991, becoming the last Soviet republic to do so, shortly before the final dissolution of the Soviet Union. Nursultan Nazarbayev, who had been the leader of Soviet Kazakhstan since 1989, became the country's first president and remained in power for nearly three decades.

The early years of independence were marked by significant nation-building efforts, economic transition from a centrally planned system to a market economy, and establishing a new national identity. A key decision was the relocation of the capital from Almaty to Astana (then Akmola) in 1997, a move aimed at modernizing the country, asserting control over northern territories with significant Russian populations, and creating a symbol of the new Kazakhstan. Astana was later renamed Nur-Sultan in March 2019 to honor Nazarbayev upon his resignation, but reverted to Astana in September 2022.

Economically, Kazakhstan benefited from its vast oil, gas, and mineral resources, attracting significant foreign investment. This resource wealth fueled rapid economic growth for much of the 2000s, making Kazakhstan a dominant economic power in Central Asia. However, the economy remained heavily reliant on commodity exports, making it vulnerable to fluctuations in global prices. Efforts towards diversification faced challenges.

Politically, Nazarbayev's rule was characterized by stability but also by authoritarian tendencies, with limited political pluralism, restrictions on media freedom and opposition activities, and concerns about human rights. Elections were often criticized by international observers for not meeting democratic standards. His party, Nur Otan (then Otan), dominated the political landscape. Despite constitutional provisions for a democratic republic, power was heavily concentrated in the presidency.

On March 19, 2019, Nazarbayev announced his resignation. He was succeeded by Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, who had been the Speaker of the Senate. Tokayev won the subsequent presidential election in June 2019. While Nazarbayev retained significant influence as Chairman of the Security Council and "Leader of the Nation" (Elbasy), Tokayev began to implement some political and social reforms.

A major turning point occurred in January 2022, when large-scale protests, initially sparked by a sharp increase in fuel prices, erupted across the country. The unrest, known as "Bloody January" or "Qandy Qantar," quickly escalated into broader anti-government demonstrations, reflecting deep-seated grievances over corruption, inequality, and lack of political freedoms. The protests turned violent in several cities, particularly Almaty, leading to clashes with security forces and numerous casualties. President Tokayev declared a state of emergency, requested assistance from the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) which deployed troops (primarily Russian), and dismissed Nazarbayev from his influential post as Chairman of the Security Council. Tokayev consolidated his power, promising further reforms and a "New Kazakhstan." Constitutional amendments were passed in a June 2022 referendum, aimed at reducing presidential powers and increasing the role of parliament, though critics argued the changes were not substantial enough to fundamentally alter the political system.

Post-independence Kazakhstan has faced ongoing challenges in democratic development, balancing its multi-vector foreign policy between major powers like Russia, China, and the West, addressing social inequalities, and ensuring sustainable development. Human rights issues, including freedom of speech, assembly, and the rights of minorities, remain a concern for international organizations and local activists. The impact of leadership and policies on democratic progress, social equity, and the well-being of its citizens continues to be a central theme in Kazakhstan's contemporary history.

4.1. Topography and Borders

With an area of 1.1 M mile^{2 (2.72 M km2)}, Kazakhstan is the world's ninth-largest country and the largest landlocked country. Its territory extends from the Caspian Sea in the west to the Altai Mountains in the east, and from the plains of Western Siberia in the north to the deserts and oases of Central Asia in the south.

The topography is varied. The Kazakh Steppe (also known as the Kirghiz Steppe) covers approximately one-third of the country, an area of around 311 K mile^{2 (804.50 K km2)}, making it the world's largest dry steppe region. This region is characterized by vast grasslands and sandy areas. Deserts and semi-deserts, such as the Kyzylkum Desert (partially in Kazakhstan), Betpak-Dala, and the Ustyurt Plateau, dominate the southern and western parts of the country. Mountain ranges are found primarily along the eastern and southeastern borders. These include the Altai Mountains, Tarbagatai Mountains, Dzungarian Alatau, and the Tian Shan range, with Khan Tengri (23 K ft ^{(7.01 K m)}) being one of its highest peaks, shared with Kyrgyzstan and China. These mountainous regions are sources for many of Kazakhstan's rivers. Lowlands are found along the Caspian Sea coast and in river valleys. A small portion of Kazakhstan's territory, west of the Ural River, lies in Eastern Europe.

Kazakhstan shares extensive international borders:

• Russia to the north and west (4.3 K mile ^{(6.85 K km)})
• China to the east (1.0 K mile ^{(1.53 K km)})
• Kyrgyzstan to the southeast (0.7 K mile ^{(1.05 K km)})
• Uzbekistan to the south (1.4 K mile ^{(2.20 K km)})
• Turkmenistan to the southwest (235 mile ^{(379 km)})

It also has a long coastline on the Caspian Sea (1.2 K mile ^{(1.89 K km)}). Major bodies of water within or bordering Kazakhstan include the Aral Sea (which has drastically shrunk due to Soviet-era irrigation projects), Lake Balkhash (a large, partially freshwater and partially saline lake), Lake Zaysan, and numerous rivers such as the Syr Darya, Irtysh, Ural, Ishim, and Ili. The Charyn Canyon, located in the Almaty Region, is a notable natural landmark, often compared to the Grand Canyon.

4.2. Climate

Kazakhstan has an extreme continental climate, characterized by hot summers and very cold winters. Astana is notable for being the second-coldest capital city in the world after Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

Summer temperatures can average over 86 °F ^{(30 °C)} in the south, while winter temperatures can drop well below -4 °F ^{(-20 °C)} in the north. The vastness of the country and its varied topography lead to regional climatic differences. For instance, southern regions experience milder winters and hotter summers compared to the northern plains.

Precipitation is generally low, varying between arid and semi-arid conditions across most of the country. The winter months are particularly dry. Mountainous regions in the east and southeast receive higher levels of precipitation, primarily as snow, which feeds the country's major rivers. Droughts are common in the steppe and desert regions. Strong winds are also a feature of the Kazakh climate, particularly in the open steppe.

4.3. Natural Resources

Kazakhstan is exceptionally rich in natural resources, which form the backbone of its economy. The country possesses significant reserves of oil and natural gas, primarily located in the western regions and the Caspian Sea shelf. Major oil and gas fields include Tengiz, Karachaganak, and the giant Kashagan offshore field. Kazakhstan ranks among the world's top oil producers and exporters.

In addition to hydrocarbons, Kazakhstan has vast mineral wealth. It holds the world's second-largest reserves of uranium (and is a leading producer), chromium, lead, and zinc. It has the third-largest manganese reserves and fifth-largest copper reserves. The country also ranks in the top ten globally for coal, iron ore, and gold. Other significant mineral deposits include bauxite (for aluminum production), phosphate rock, asbestos, silver, and diamonds. In 2015, Kazakhstan's gold production was 64 metric tonnes. There are 160 deposits with over 2.7 Gt of petroleum. Oil explorations have shown that the deposits on the Caspian shore are only a small part of a much larger deposit; it is estimated that 3.5 Gt of oil and 0.6 mile^{3 (2.5 km3)} of gas could be found in that area. Overall, the estimate of Kazakhstan's oil deposits is 6.1 Gt. However, there are only three oil refineries within the country, situated in Atyrau, Pavlodar, and Shymkent, which are not capable of processing the total crude output, so much of it is exported.

The extraction of these resources has attracted substantial foreign investment since independence. However, this reliance on resource extraction also presents challenges, including vulnerability to global commodity price fluctuations, environmental degradation (such as land and water pollution from mining activities), and social issues related to resource distribution and local community impacts. The government has made efforts to diversify the economy and promote sustainable resource management, but progress has been gradual. The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) accepted Kazakhstan as "EITI Compliant" in 2013, signifying a commitment to transparency in natural resource revenues.

4.4. Wildlife

Kazakhstan's diverse ecosystems, ranging from steppes and deserts to mountains and wetlands, support a rich variety of flora and fauna. The country is home to several ecoregions, including the vast Kazakh Steppe, the Alai-Western Tian Shan steppe, and various desert and semi-desert zones.

The flora includes numerous species adapted to continental climates and arid conditions. Common plants include various grasses (like feather grass), shrubs such as Astragalus, Gagea, Allium (wild onions), Carex (sedges), and Oxytropis. Kazakhstan is considered a center of origin for some cultivated plants, including the wild apple (Malus sieversii), believed to be an ancestor of domesticated apples, and various wild tulip species (e.g., Tulipa greigii, Tulipa kaufmanniana) and rare onion species like Allium karataviense. The Charyn Canyon is a refuge for the rare Sogdian ash tree (Fraxinus sogdiana).

The fauna is equally diverse. Mammals characteristic of the steppes and deserts include the saiga antelope (an endangered species), goitered gazelle, corsac fox, wolf, various rodents like marmots and ground squirrels. Mountainous regions are home to the snow leopard (a highly endangered species), argali (wild sheep), Siberian ibex, Eurasian lynx, and Pallas's cat. Przewalski's horse has been reintroduced to the steppes. Birdlife is abundant, particularly in wetland areas like the Korgalzhyn State Nature Reserve, which is a UNESCO World Heritage site and an important stopover for migratory birds, including pink flamingos. The Saryarka - Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan is another World Heritage site recognized for its importance to migratory waterbirds.

Kazakhstan has established a network of protected areas, including ten nature reserves (zapovedniks) and ten national parks, to conserve its biodiversity. These areas aim to protect endangered species and unique ecosystems. However, challenges remain, including poaching, habitat degradation from agriculture and resource extraction, and the impacts of climate change. Conservation efforts are ongoing, often in collaboration with international organizations. Kazakhstan had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.23/10, ranking it 26th globally out of 172 countries. The Red Book of Protected Species of Kazakhstan lists 125 vertebrates and 404 plants (including fungi, algae, and lichens) that are considered rare or endangered.

5.1. Political system

Kazakhstan is a unitary republic with a presidential system of government. The Constitution of Kazakhstan, adopted in 1995 and subsequently amended, serves as the legal foundation. The President of Kazakhstan is the head of state and holds significant executive power. The President is directly elected by popular vote. Until constitutional amendments in 2022, the presidential term was five years, with a limit of two consecutive terms, though special provisions had allowed the first president, Nursultan Nazarbayev, to serve without term limits. The 2022 amendments established a single, non-renewable seven-year term for the president. The president has the authority to appoint and dismiss the Prime Minister and government ministers, veto legislation, dissolve parliament, call referendums, and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

The Prime Minister is the head of government and chairs the Cabinet of Ministers. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the Mazhilis (the lower house of Parliament). The government is responsible for implementing laws and managing the day-to-day affairs of the state.

The Parliament of Kazakhstan is bicameral, consisting of the Senate (upper house) and the Majilis (lower house). The Senate has 48 members. Two senators are elected by each of the country's twenty principal administrative divisions (seventeen regions and three nationally significant cities) through indirect elections by local representative bodies (Maslihats). The president appoints the remaining fifteen senators. The Majilis consists of 98 deputies directly elected through a mixed electoral system (party-list proportional representation and single-mandate constituencies following the 2022 reforms). Parliament has legislative authority, approves the budget, and oversees the government. However, historically, the presidency has dominated the political landscape.

The judicial system includes the Supreme Court and local courts. The Constitutional Court was re-established in 2022 to ensure the conformity of laws and other normative legal acts with the constitution. Despite reforms, concerns about judicial independence persist.

5.2. Parties and Elections

Kazakhstan has a multi-party system, but the political landscape has long been dominated by a pro-presidential party, currently known as Amanat (formerly Nur Otan). While other political parties exist and participate in elections, opposition parties have historically faced significant challenges, including restrictive registration requirements, limited access to media, and alleged political pressure.

Elections for the presidency and the Majilis are held regularly. However, international observers, including the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), have often criticized Kazakhstan's elections for not fully meeting democratic standards, citing issues such as lack of genuine political competition, restrictions on fundamental freedoms, and irregularities in vote counting and tabulation.

The 2004 parliamentary elections saw the Otan Party (later Nur Otan) dominate the Majilis, with other pro-presidential parties securing most remaining seats. Following the resignation of Nursultan Nazarbayev in 2019, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev won the presidential election, which was marked by protests and arrests. Subsequent parliamentary elections and referendums have been part of a declared reform process, but challenges to political pluralism and genuine contestation remain. The minimum membership threshold to register a political party was reduced from 40,000 to 20,000 members, and later further reduced, as part of reform efforts.

The development of a truly pluralistic and competitive party system is considered crucial for Kazakhstan's democratic progress. Issues such as freedom of assembly and speech, which are vital for political party activity, have been areas of concern for human rights organizations.

5.3. Political Reforms

Since the transition of presidential power in 2019 and particularly following the January 2022 unrest, Kazakhstan has embarked on a series of political reforms. President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev announced a "New Kazakhstan" agenda, promising democratization, decentralization, and enhanced public trust and participation in governance.

Key reforms have included:

• Constitutional Amendments (2022):** Approved by a national referendum, these amendments aimed to limit presidential powers, strengthen the role of Parliament, re-establish the Constitutional Court, simplify the registration of political parties, and abolish the death penalty. Relatives of the president are now barred from holding senior government positions. The special status and privileges of the first president, Nursultan Nazarbayev (Elbasy), were also largely removed.
• Electoral System Changes:** The electoral system for the Majilis was changed to a mixed model, with a portion of deputies elected through party lists and another portion through single-mandate constituencies, intended to increase representation and accountability.
• Decentralization:** Measures to increase the decision-making authority of local governments (Maslihats) and to introduce direct elections for rural Akims (local administrators) have been initiated.
• Public Assembly:** Laws regarding public assembly have been reformed to move from a permission-based system to a notification-based one for peaceful rallies, though practical implementation and remaining restrictions have been points of discussion.
• Human Rights:** The government established the role of a Human Rights Ombudsman and has stated commitments to improving the human rights situation. However, critics and international observers note that significant challenges remain in practice, particularly concerning freedoms of speech, assembly, and the press, and the treatment of activists.

The impact and extent of these reforms on fostering genuine democratic development, strengthening human rights protections, and ensuring accountability are subjects of ongoing observation and debate both domestically and internationally. The success of these reforms will depend on their consistent implementation and the creation of an environment where civic participation and political competition can flourish.

5.4. Administrative Divisions

Kazakhstan is a unitary state divided into seventeen regions (облыстар_oblystar^Kazakh; области_oblasti^Russian) and four cities with special status (cities of republican significance). The regions are:

• Abai (center: Semey)
• Akmola (center: Kokshetau)
• Aktobe (center: Aktobe)
• Almaty Region (center: Konaev)
• Atyrau (center: Atyrau)
• East Kazakhstan (center: Oskemen)
• Jambyl (center: Taraz)
• Jetisu (center: Taldykorgan)
• Karaganda (center: Karaganda)
• Kostanay (center: Kostanay)
• Kyzylorda (center: Kyzylorda)
• Mangystau (center: Aktau)
• North Kazakhstan (center: Petropavl)
• Pavlodar (center: Pavlodar)
• Turkistan (center: Turkistan)
• Ulytau (center: Jezkazgan)
• West Kazakhstan (center: Oral)

The four cities of republican significance are:

• Almaty (the largest city and former capital)
• Astana (the current capital city)
• Shymkent
• Baikonur (has a special status due to the Baikonur Cosmodrome being leased to Russia until 2050)

Each region and city of republican significance is headed by an Akim (governor or mayor), who is appointed by the President of Kazakhstan. Regions are further subdivided into districts (аудандар_audandar^Kazakh; районы_rayony^Russian), which are also headed by appointed akims. At the lowest level are rural districts and settlements. Recent reforms have aimed at increasing the role of local representative bodies (Maslihats) and introducing elections for some lower-level akims. The administrative structure reflects a centralized system, though decentralization efforts are part of ongoing political reforms.

5.5. Foreign Relations

Kazakhstan has pursued a "multi-vector foreign policy" since its independence, aiming to maintain balanced and constructive relations with major global and regional powers, particularly its large neighbors Russia and China, as well as the United States, the European Union, and the Turkic and Islamic world. This policy is driven by its strategic location, economic interests (especially in energy exports and transit), and security considerations.

Key aspects of Kazakhstan's foreign relations include:

• Russia:** Relations with Russia remain crucial due to long historical ties, extensive borders, significant economic links (including membership in the Eurasian Economic Union - EAEU), and security cooperation (including membership in the Collective Security Treaty Organization - CSTO). Russia leases the Baikonur Cosmodrome. However, Kazakhstan also strives to maintain its sovereignty and pursue its national interests, sometimes leading to nuanced positions on international issues where Russian interests are involved, such as the conflict in Ukraine.
• China:** China is a major economic partner, a significant investor, and a key market for Kazakh exports. Kazakhstan is a vital transit hub for China's Belt and Road Initiative. Relations are strong, but there are also public concerns within Kazakhstan regarding Chinese influence and debt.
• United States and European Union:** Kazakhstan seeks to develop partnerships with Western countries for trade, investment, technology transfer, and political dialogue. The U.S. and E.U. are important investors in Kazakhstan's energy sector. Dialogue often includes discussions on democratic reforms and human rights.
• Central Asia:** Kazakhstan plays a leading role in Central Asian regional cooperation, promoting stability, economic integration, and addressing common challenges like water management and security.
• International Organizations:** Kazakhstan is an active member of the United Nations (UN) and served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council for 2017-2018. It is also a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) (chairing it in 2010), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Organization of Turkic States, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO).

Kazakhstan has been a strong advocate for nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament, having voluntarily renounced its Soviet-era nuclear arsenal and closed the Semipalatinsk Test Site. It initiated the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA).

The country has generally maintained a neutral or balanced stance on many international disputes, offering itself as a venue for peace talks (e.g., on Syria, the Astana Process). Human rights concerns raised by international bodies and Western partners are often a point of discussion in its diplomatic engagements, with Kazakhstan typically highlighting its reform efforts while emphasizing its unique path of development. The 2022 unrest and the subsequent CSTO intervention briefly put its multi-vector policy under scrutiny but also reinforced its efforts to assert an independent foreign policy course.

5.6. Military

The Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan were established after the country gained independence in 1991, largely inheriting units, equipment, and infrastructure from the Soviet Armed Forces' Turkestan Military District. The President of Kazakhstan is the Commander-in-Chief. The military's primary roles are to defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Kazakhstan, protect its national interests, and participate in international peacekeeping operations.

The Armed Forces consist of three main branches:

• Ground Forces:** These form the largest component and are equipped primarily with Soviet-era and Russian-made tanks, armored vehicles, artillery, and air defense systems. Modernization efforts have focused on improving mobility, firepower, and compatibility with international standards.
• Air Defense Forces:** This branch operates a mix of fighter aircraft (such as MiG-29, MiG-31, Su-27, Su-30), transport aircraft, helicopters, and air defense missile systems, largely of Soviet/Russian origin.
• Naval Forces:** Kazakhstan maintains a small naval force operating on the Caspian Sea, primarily tasked with protecting maritime borders, offshore energy infrastructure, and combating smuggling and terrorism.

In addition to these branches, there are also the Republican Guard (an elite unit responsible for ceremonial duties and protecting key state officials and installations) and border troops under the National Security Committee (KNB).

Kazakhstan's defense policy emphasizes maintaining readiness, modernizing equipment, and enhancing professional training. The country participates in the NATO's Partnership for Peace program and engages in military cooperation and exercises with various countries, including Russia (through the Collective Security Treaty Organization - CSTO), China (through the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation - SCO), the United States, and Turkey.

Kazakhstan has contributed personnel to UN peacekeeping missions in various countries, including Haiti, Western Sahara, and Côte d'Ivoire. Since 2002, Kazakhstan has hosted the "Steppe Eagle" joint tactical peacekeeping exercises, often involving NATO and U.S. military participation, to enhance interoperability.

Military service is based on conscription for male citizens, though the role of contract service personnel is increasing. Challenges for the military include modernizing aging Soviet-era equipment, improving training standards, and adapting to evolving security threats in the region. The country's defense budget has seen gradual increases to support these modernization efforts.

5.7. Human Rights

The state of human rights in Kazakhstan has been a subject of ongoing concern for domestic activists and international organizations since its independence. While the constitution guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms, their practical implementation has often been inconsistent, and the political system has been characterized by authoritarian traits for significant periods.

• Freedoms of Speech, Assembly, and Press:**

• Political Rights and Democratic Processes:**

• Rights of Minorities and Vulnerable Groups:**

• Conditions in Detention and Judicial Independence:**

• Reforms and Accountability:**

The Economist Intelligence Unit has consistently ranked Kazakhstan as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index. In 2024, Reporters Without Borders ranked Kazakhstan 142nd out of 180 countries in its Press Freedom Index.

6.1. Economic Overview

Kazakhstan's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was approximately $179.3 billion in 2018, with a per capita GDP of around $9,686. Economic growth was robust in the 2000s, fueled by high global prices for oil and other commodities, with annual growth rates often exceeding 8%. However, the economy remains vulnerable to fluctuations in these prices, as seen during the 2008-2009 global financial crisis and the oil price decline starting in 2014, which led to slowdowns and currency devaluations (e.g., in 2014 and 2015).

The government has pursued national development strategies, such as "Kazakhstan 2050," aiming for diversification away from over-reliance on raw material exports and towards higher value-added industries and innovation. Fiscal policy has generally been conservative, with revenues from the oil sector often channeled into a national fund (Samruk-Kazyna) to cushion against economic shocks and fund development projects. Kazakhstan was the first former Soviet republic to repay its debt to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) ahead of schedule.

Key economic indicators include inflation, which has sometimes been a challenge, and employment. While official unemployment rates are relatively low, underemployment and regional disparities in economic opportunity persist. Social equity concerns relate to the distribution of resource wealth and access to quality public services. Sustainable development is a growing focus, given the environmental impact of resource extraction and the need to transition towards a greener economy.

6.2. Major Industries

Kazakhstan's economy is dominated by a few key sectors, particularly energy and mining, though agriculture remains significant for employment. Efforts to diversify into manufacturing and services are ongoing.

6.2.1. Agriculture

Agriculture accounts for approximately 5% of Kazakhstan's GDP but employs a larger share of the workforce. The vast steppes provide extensive land for grain cultivation (Kazakhstan is a major wheat exporter) and livestock raising (cattle, sheep, horses). Other agricultural products include potatoes, grapes, vegetables, and melons. Agricultural land occupies over 327 K mile^{2 (846.00 K km2)}, with 79 K mile^{2 (205.00 K km2)} of arable land and 236 K mile^{2 (611.00 K km2)} of pasture.

Government policies have aimed at modernizing the agricultural sector, improving productivity, and ensuring food security. However, the sector faces challenges such as arid climate conditions in many areas, legacy environmental problems from Soviet-era mismanagement (like soil degradation from the Virgin Lands Campaign), and the need for greater investment in infrastructure and technology. Some Kazakh wine is produced in the mountains east of Almaty. Chief livestock products are dairy products, leather, meat, and wool.

6.2.2. Energy and Mining

This is the leading sector of Kazakhstan's economy, accounting for a significant portion of GDP and export revenues.

• Oil and Gas:** Kazakhstan has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas globally. Major fields like Tengiz, Karachaganak, and Kashagan have attracted massive foreign investment. Production has steadily increased, making Kazakhstan a major oil exporter. The national oil and gas company is KazMunayGas (KMG). Challenges include managing volatile global energy prices, developing complex offshore fields, and ensuring environmental protection.
• Mining:** The country is rich in various minerals. It is the world's largest producer of uranium and has significant reserves and production of chromium, coal, copper, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, gold, and bauxite. The mining industry is a major contributor to industrial output and exports. However, it also faces issues of environmental impact, aging infrastructure in some areas, and the need for investment in modern extraction and processing technologies. The social implications of mining, including labor conditions and benefits for local communities, are important considerations.

Kazakhstan launched a Green Economy Plan in 2013, aiming to increase the share of renewable energy sources to 50% of its energy needs by 2050, though progress towards this goal has been gradual given the dominance of fossil fuels.

6.2.3. Tourism

Tourism in Kazakhstan is a developing sector with considerable potential, given the country's diverse natural landscapes (mountains, lakes, steppes, canyons like Charyn) and cultural heritage (Silk Road sites, nomadic traditions). In 2014, tourism accounted for only 0.3% of GDP, but the government has ambitious plans to increase this share, aiming for 3% by 2020 under its "Tourism Industry Development Plan 2020." This plan identified five tourism clusters: Astana city, Almaty city, East Kazakhstan, South Kazakhstan, and West Kazakhstan regions.

Key attractions include the modern architecture of Astana, the cultural hub of Almaty with nearby ski resorts like Shymbulak and natural sites like Big Almaty Lake, the Korgalzhyn State Nature Reserve (a UNESCO site known for birdwatching), the Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in Turkistan (another UNESCO site), and opportunities for ecotourism, adventure tourism (trekking, horse riding), and cultural tourism.

Despite its potential, the tourism industry faces challenges such as underdeveloped infrastructure in some regions, high prices, service quality issues, and the vast distances involved in traveling within the country. The government has implemented measures to improve the investment climate for tourism and has introduced visa-free regimes for citizens of many countries to encourage international arrivals. Expo 2017 in Astana also provided a boost to tourism infrastructure and international visibility. Further development is seen as a way to diversify the economy and create employment.

6.3. Foreign Trade

Kazakhstan is an open economy with significant international trade, largely driven by its exports of natural resources. The country joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2015, which further integrated it into the global trading system. In 2018, Kazakhstan's foreign trade turnover was $93.5 billion.

• Exports:**

• Imports:**

Kazakhstan is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) along with Russia, Belarus, Armenia, and Kyrgyzstan, which provides for a customs union and free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor among member states. This has significantly influenced its trade patterns, particularly with Russia.

The country's geographical location makes it a crucial transit hub in Eurasia, particularly for trade between China and Europe as part of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Significant investments have been made in developing transport and logistics infrastructure, such as railways and the Khorgos Gateway dry port on the Chinese border, to facilitate this transit trade.

Challenges in foreign trade include vulnerability to global commodity price shocks, the need to diversify exports beyond raw materials, and improving trade facilitation and logistics to fully capitalize on its transit potential.

6.4. Foreign Direct Investment

Kazakhstan has actively sought foreign direct investment (FDI) since its independence to develop its economy, particularly its resource-rich sectors. The country has attracted substantial FDI, totaling over $330 billion from more than 120 countries by 2019, making it one of the leading FDI recipients in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) on a per capita basis.

• Principal Investor Countries and Sectors:**

• Investment Climate and Incentives:**

• Challenges:**

6.5. Banking and Finance

Kazakhstan's banking and financial sector has experienced significant development and also faced considerable challenges since independence.

• Structure of the Banking Sector:**

• Financial Markets:**

• Regulatory Framework:**

• Challenges:**

6.6. Infrastructure

Kazakhstan's vast territory and landlocked position make well-developed infrastructure crucial for its economic development, internal connectivity, and role as a transit hub in Eurasia.

• Transportation Networks:**
  • Railways:** Railways are the backbone of Kazakhstan's transportation system, accounting for the majority of freight and significant passenger traffic. The network, largely inherited from the Soviet era, uses a 0.1 K in ^{(1.52 K mm)} gauge. There are 9.5 K mile ^{(15.33 K km)} in common carrier service. Kazakhstan Temir Zholy (KTZ) is the national railway company. Significant investments have been made in modernizing existing lines and constructing new ones, particularly those facilitating transit trade between China and Europe (e.g., the Zhezkazgan-Beineu line, and links to the Khorgos Gateway). High-speed passenger trains like the Talgo operate on key routes. Astana Nurly Zhol railway station is a modern hub.
  • Roads:** The road network is extensive but varies in quality. Major highways connect principal cities, but many rural and regional roads require upgrades. Efforts are underway to improve road infrastructure through projects like the Western Europe-Western China international transit corridor.
  • Air Transport:** Air travel is important for domestic connectivity due to large distances. Major international airports are located in Almaty, Astana, and other regional centers. Air Astana is the national flag carrier and has a good safety record. The government has worked to improve air safety oversight, leading to the lifting of previous EU blacklist restrictions for Kazakh airlines.
  • Pipelines:** An extensive network of oil and gas pipelines is critical for exporting Kazakhstan's hydrocarbon resources to international markets, including routes through Russia, to China, and towards the Caspian Sea.
  • Ports:** Aqtau on the Caspian Sea is Kazakhstan's main seaport, facilitating trade with other Caspian littoral states and providing a link in trans-Caspian transport corridors. The Khorgos Gateway is a major inland dry port on the border with China, integral to the Belt and Road Initiative.
  • Telecommunications:**

• Energy Infrastructure:**

Infrastructure development remains a priority for the government to support economic diversification, improve living standards, and enhance Kazakhstan's competitiveness as a transit country. Many projects are funded through state programs and international partnerships.

6.7. Economic Competitiveness

Kazakhstan's economic competitiveness has been a focus of government policy, with efforts aimed at improving the business environment, fostering innovation, and enhancing institutional quality. The country's position in global competitiveness rankings, such as those by the World Economic Forum (WEF) and the World Bank, provides insights into its strengths and weaknesses.

In the WEF's Global Competitiveness Report, Kazakhstan has typically ranked in the middle tier globally. Its strengths often include macroeconomic stability (though vulnerable to commodity shocks), market size, and relatively low tax rates. The country achieved its goal of entering the top 50 most competitive countries in the WEF report in 2013 and maintained a similar position for a few years.

In the World Bank's Doing Business reports, Kazakhstan has made significant progress in recent years in areas like starting a business, dealing with construction permits, and protecting minority investors (where it has ranked highly). For example, in the 2020 Doing Business Report, Kazakhstan ranked 25th globally.

• Strengths:**

• Weaknesses and Challenges:**

Government strategies like "Kazakhstan 2050" and various industrial-innovative development programs aim to address these weaknesses by promoting diversification, innovation, human capital development, and institutional reforms. The development of the Astana International Financial Centre (AIFC) is also intended to enhance financial competitiveness. Sustained commitment to structural reforms, improving governance, and investing in human capital are seen as crucial for enhancing Kazakhstan's long-term economic competitiveness.

6.8. Corruption

Corruption has been a significant and persistent challenge in Kazakhstan, impacting its economy, society, and efforts towards good governance and democratic development. It manifests in various forms, including bribery, nepotism, and the misuse of public office for private gain.

• Impact:**
  • Economic:** Corruption can distort market competition, deter foreign and domestic investment, increase the costs of doing business, and lead to inefficient allocation of resources. It can also result in the loss of public funds that could otherwise be used for social programs, infrastructure, and development.
  • Social:** Corruption erodes public trust in government institutions, exacerbates social inequality, and can undermine the rule of law. It can create an environment where access to public services, justice, and economic opportunities is dependent on connections or illicit payments, disproportionately affecting vulnerable groups.
  • Government Anti-Corruption Measures:**

• International Rankings and Perception:**

• Challenges in Combating Corruption:**

Addressing corruption is crucial for Kazakhstan's sustainable economic development, strengthening the rule of law, and building public trust. A comprehensive approach involving robust legal frameworks, independent institutions, transparency, active civil society participation, and a commitment to accountability at all levels is considered necessary for meaningful progress.

8.1. Population

As of November 2023, the population of Kazakhstan reached 20 million. The US Census Bureau International Database listed the population as 18.9 million in May 2019. Official estimates from Kazakhstan's Statistics Agency indicated a population of 17.28 million in 2013, with a growth rate of 1.7% over the previous year. The population density is among the lowest in the world, at fewer than 6 people per 0.4 mile^{2 (1 km2)} (approximately 15 per square mile).

After a period of population decline following the collapse of the Soviet Union (due to emigration, particularly of ethnic Russians and Germans, and lower birth rates), the population has been growing in recent years. This growth is attributed to rising birth rates among the ethnic Kazakh population and immigration, including the return of ethnic Kazakhs (Oralmans) from neighboring countries.

Urbanization has been increasing, with a majority of the population now living in urban areas. Major cities include Almaty (the largest city and commercial hub), Astana (the capital), and Shymkent. The gender distribution is relatively balanced, with slightly more women than men (51.7% women, 48.3% men according to some estimates).

In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Kazakhstan ranks 25th out of 127 countries, with a score of 5.3, indicating a low level of hunger.

8.2. Ethnic groups

Kazakhstan is a multi-ethnic country with over 130 ethnic groups.

According to 2023 estimates, ethnic Kazakhs constitute the majority at 70.7% of the population. Ethnic Russians form the largest minority group at 15.2%, though their numbers have declined significantly since independence due to emigration.

Other notable ethnic groups include:

• Uzbeks (3.3%)
• Ukrainians (1.9%)
• Uyghurs (1.5%)
• Tatars (1.1%)
• Germans (1.1%)
• Koreans (Koryo-saram) (0.6%)
• Smaller communities of Azerbaijanis, Dungans, Turks, Poles, Lithuanians, Chechens, and Greeks.

Many of these minority groups, such as Germans, Koreans, Chechens, Poles, and Meskhetian Turks, were forcibly deported to Kazakhstan during Stalin's era in the 1930s and 1940s. Significant Russian and Ukrainian immigration also occurred during the Virgin Lands Campaign and Soviet industrialization projects.

Inter-ethnic relations are generally peaceful, and the government promotes a policy of inter-ethnic harmony and tolerance through institutions like the Assembly of People of Kazakhstan. However, ensuring the rights and cultural identities of all ethnic groups, equitable representation, and social cohesion remains an ongoing task. The government has a program to encourage the return of ethnic Kazakhs (Oralmans) living abroad, primarily from China, Mongolia, Uzbekistan, and Russia. While this has contributed to the demographic growth of the Kazakh population, the integration of Oralmans into Kazakhstani society has sometimes presented social and economic challenges. The issue of minority rights, including language use and cultural preservation, is an important aspect of Kazakhstan's social fabric and democratic development.

8.3. Languages

Kazakhstan is officially a bilingual country.

• The Kazakh language, a Turkic language belonging to the Kipchak branch, is the "state language." According to the 2021 census, it is proficiently spoken by 80.1% of the population. The government has actively promoted its use in public life, education, and media since independence as part of nation-building and cultural revival efforts. A significant initiative is the ongoing transition of the Kazakh script from Cyrillic to a Latin alphabet, planned for completion by 2025 (though timelines have shifted), aimed at modernization and strengthening ties with other Turkic-speaking countries.
• The Russian language has the status of an "official language" and is widely used in government, business, inter-ethnic communication, and daily life, especially in urban areas and the northern regions. As of 2021, 83.7% of the population reported speaking Russian. For many citizens, particularly older generations and some ethnic minorities, Russian remains their primary language of communication. According to the 2021 census, only 63.4% of ethnic Kazakhs and 49.3% of the country's total population are daily speakers of the Kazakh language.

The government promotes a policy of trilingualism, encouraging proficiency in Kazakh, Russian, and English. English is increasingly taught in schools and universities and is seen as important for international communication and economic development.

Other minority languages, such as Uzbek, Ukrainian, Uyghur, Tatar, and German, are spoken within their respective ethnic communities, and efforts are made to support their cultural and linguistic preservation, though the dominance of Kazakh and Russian presents challenges. The linguistic landscape reflects the country's complex history and diverse population, with language policy being a sensitive and important aspect of national identity and social cohesion.

8.4. Religion

Kazakhstan is a secular state that constitutionally guarantees freedom of religion. The religious landscape is diverse, reflecting its multi-ethnic population and historical influences.

According to the 2021 census:

• Islam** is the predominant religion, adhered to by 69.3% of the population. The majority of Muslims are Sunnis of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. Islam is primarily practiced by ethnic Kazakhs, as well as Uzbeks, Uyghurs, Tatars, and other Turkic and Muslim groups. There are numerous mosques across the country, and major Islamic holidays like Eid al-Adha (Qurban Ait) are recognized as national holidays. The Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan (SAMK) is the main state-sanctioned Islamic body.
• Christianity** is the second-largest religion, practiced by 17.2% of the population. The largest Christian denomination is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, primarily associated with the ethnic Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian communities. The Russian Orthodox Church has a significant presence in Kazakhstan. Christmas (Orthodox Christmas on January 7th) is a national holiday. Other Christian groups include Roman Catholics (including Greek Catholics) and various Protestant denominations (Baptists, Pentecostals, Lutherans, Presbyterians, etc.).
• Atheism** was reported by 2.25% of the population.
• Other religions** are practiced by 0.2% of the population, including Buddhism, Judaism, the Baháʼí Faith, and Hinduism.

While religious freedom is legally protected, the government maintains oversight over religious activities. A 2011 law on religious activity requires religious groups to register with the state, and some smaller or non-traditional groups have reported difficulties with registration or restrictions on their activities. The state aims to counter religious extremism and promote interfaith harmony. The Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions is an international forum hosted regularly in Astana, initiated by Kazakhstan to promote dialogue among different faiths. The role of religion in society has seen a resurgence since independence, after decades of suppression during the Soviet era.

8.5. Education

Kazakhstan has a well-established education system with high literacy rates. Education is universal and mandatory through the secondary level, and the adult literacy rate is approximately 99.5%. The system has undergone significant reforms since independence to modernize and align with international standards.

• Structure of the Education System:**
  • Preschool Education:** Available for children before primary school.
  • Primary Education:** Typically forms 1-4.
  • Basic General Education (Lower Secondary):** Forms 5-9.
  • Senior Level Education (Upper Secondary):** Forms 10-11 (or 12 in some reformed curricula), which can be general secondary education or vocational/technical education. Specialized schools, gymnasiums, and lyceums offer focused programs.
  • Vocational and Technical Education:** Offered in colleges and vocational schools, providing training for various trades and professions.
  • Higher Education:** Includes universities, academies, institutes, and conservatories. The system generally follows the Bologna Process model, with Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral (PhD) degrees. The Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) degree, a legacy of the Soviet system, is also recognized.
  • Key Institutions and Initiatives:**

• Reforms and Challenges:**

8.6. Health

Kazakhstan's healthcare system has undergone significant reforms since independence, aiming to improve public health indicators, modernize services, and ensure accessibility for its population.

• Healthcare System Structure:**

• Public Health Indicators:**

• Government Policies and Reforms:**

• Challenges:**

Kazakhstan has collaborated with international organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) to support its health sector reforms and address public health challenges. The Alma-Ata Declaration of 1978, a landmark international declaration on primary health care, originated in Kazakhstan (then part of the USSR) and continues to influence global health policy.

9.1. Traditional Culture

The nomadic lifestyle of the Kazakh people has profoundly shaped their traditional culture. Key elements include:

• Equestrianism:** Horses have played a central role in Kazakh life, used for transportation, warfare, food (horse meat and kymyz - fermented mare's milk), and sport. Traditional equestrian games like Kyz kuu (girl chasing), Kokpar (a form of polo with a goat carcass), and Audaryspak (wrestling on horseback) are still popular.
• Yurt (Kiyiz Üy):** The traditional dwelling of nomadic Kazakhs, a portable, felt-covered wooden frame structure, perfectly adapted to steppe life. It remains a potent symbol of Kazakh heritage.
• Hospitality:** Deeply ingrained in Kazakh culture, with guests traditionally welcomed warmly and offered the best food and accommodation.
• Respect for Elders and Ancestors:** Strong family ties and respect for elders are fundamental values. Genealogies (shezhire) tracing lineage back seven generations were traditionally important.
• Oral Traditions:** A rich body of epic poems (zhyr), lyrical songs (olen), and improvisational poetry contests (Aitys) performed by Akyns (poet-singers) and Zhyraus (bards) have preserved history, folklore, and wisdom.
• Arts and Crafts:** Traditional crafts include felt-making (for yurts, carpets - tekemet, syrmak), intricate embroidery, leatherwork, jewelry making (often with silver and semi-precious stones), and wood carving.
• Customs and Rituals:** Life-cycle events like births, weddings (toy), and funerals are accompanied by specific customs and rituals. Holidays like Nowruz (Nauryz Meyramy), the traditional spring festival, are widely celebrated.

9.2. Literature

Kazakh literature encompasses a vast heritage from ancient oral epics to contemporary writing.

• Oral Epics:** Heroic epics like Koblandy Batyr, Alpamys Batyr, and Er Sain recount the deeds of legendary heroes and historical events. The Book of Dede Korkut, a collection of Turkic epic tales, also has relevance.
• 19th Century Enlightenment:** Abai Qunanbaiuly (1845-1904) is considered the father of modern Kazakh written literature. A poet, philosopher, and composer, his works, including The Book of Words (Qara Sözder), emphasized education, enlightenment, and critical reflection on Kazakh society. Other important figures of this era include Ybyrai Altynsarin (educator) and Shoqan Walikhanov (scholar and ethnographer).
• Soviet Period:** Literature during the Soviet era was often influenced by socialist realism, but also saw the emergence of prominent writers like Mukhtar Auezov (author of the epic novel The Path of Abai), Sabit Mukanov, and Gabit Musirepov. Many writers faced political repression during Stalin's purges.
• Contemporary Literature:** Post-independence literature explores themes of national identity, historical reinterpretation, and contemporary social issues. Olzhas Suleimenov is a well-known poet and writer.

Literary magazines like Ay Qap (early 20th century) played a crucial role in developing Kazakh intellectual life.

9.3. Music

Kazakh music is diverse, ranging from ancient folk traditions to modern classical and popular genres.

• Traditional Folk Music:** Characterized by the use of unique instruments. The Dombra (a two-stringed lute) is the most iconic Kazakh instrument, central to Kui (instrumental narrative pieces). Other traditional instruments include the Kobyz (a bowed string instrument often associated with shamanism), Syrnai (a type of flute), and various percussion instruments. Folk songs often reflect nomadic life, love, and nature. Aitys, the improvisational song duel between akyns, is a highly valued art form.
• Famous Composers and Performers:** Historical figures like Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly (19th-century dombra player and kui composer), Dauletkerey, and Dina Nurpeisova are revered.
• Classical Music:** Kazakhstan has a developed classical music tradition, with institutions like the Kazakh National Conservatory (named after Kurmangazy) in Almaty and the Astana Opera. Kazakh composers have integrated folk melodies into classical forms.
• Popular Music:** Contemporary Kazakh pop music, often blending traditional motifs with modern sounds, is popular among the youth. Bands like A-Studio have gained international recognition. SuperStar KZ, a local version of Pop Idol, has been popular.

The Kazakh State Kurmangazy Orchestra of Folk Instruments and the Kazakh State Philharmonic Orchestra are prominent ensembles. The Foundation Asyl Mura archives and publishes historical recordings of Kazakh music.

9.4. Fine Arts

Kazakh art encompasses traditional crafts, painting, sculpture, and contemporary art.

• Traditional Crafts:** As mentioned, felt-making, embroidery, leatherwork, jewelry, and wood carving are highly developed. Ornamental patterns (oyu-örnek) with symbolic meanings are a key feature.
• Painting and Sculpture:** The development of formal painting and sculpture in the European sense began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, influenced by Russian artists like Vasily Vereshchagin and Nikolai Khludov. Abilkhan Kasteyev is considered one of the founders of Kazakh professional painting. Soviet-era art often followed socialist realism but also saw artists exploring national themes. Notable painters include Oral Tansykbayev and Salihittin Aitbaev.
• Contemporary Art:** Post-independence, contemporary artists have explored new forms and themes, often reflecting on identity, history, and social change. Almaty and Astana are centers for contemporary art.

9.5. Cuisine

Kazakh cuisine is traditionally based on meat (especially horse meat and mutton) and dairy products, reflecting the nomadic pastoral lifestyle.

• Beshbarmak** (meaning "five fingers," as it was traditionally eaten by hand) is the most famous national dish, typically made with boiled horse meat or mutton, large flat noodles, and onion sauce (tuzdyk).
• Horse meat delicacies:** Kazy (horse meat sausage), shuzhyk, and karta are highly valued.
• Dairy products:** Kymyz (fermented mare's milk), Shubat (fermented camel's milk), Ayran (a yogurt-based drink), Qurt (dried cheese balls), and sary mai (clarified butter) are staples.
• Bread:** Various types of bread, such as Baursak (fried dough puffs) and tandyr nan (tandoor bread), are served with meals.
• Other dishes:** Pilaf (plov), manti (dumplings), Laghman (noodle dish), and various soups are common.
• Beverages:** Tea (black tea with milk is common, green tea in the south) is a ubiquitous drink.

Modern Kazakh cuisine also incorporates influences from Russian, Uzbek, Uyghur, and other cuisines.

9.6. Sport

Sport in Kazakhstan is diverse, with both traditional nomadic sports and modern international sports being popular.

• Boxing:** Kazakhstan has a strong tradition in boxing and has produced numerous Olympic and world champions. Vassiliy Jirov, Bakhtiyar Artayev, Serik Sapiyev, and Gennady Golovkin are among the most famous Kazakh boxers.
• Wrestling:** Various forms of wrestling (Greco-Roman, freestyle) are popular, with Kazakh athletes achieving success in international competitions.
• Equestrian Sports:** Traditional horse games like kokpar, kyz kuu, and horse racing remain important.
• Football (Soccer):** The most popular sport. The Kazakhstan Premier League is the top professional league. The Kazakhstan national football team competes in UEFA competitions. FC Astana has had success in European club competitions.
• Ice Hockey:** Popular, especially in northern regions. Barys Astana competes in the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL). Kazakhstan has produced NHL players like Nik Antropov and Evgeni Nabokov (who represented Russia internationally).
• Bandy:** Kazakhstan has a strong national bandy team, often medaling in world championships. Dynamo Alma-Ata was a successful club during the Soviet era.
• Other Sports:** Cycling (with Astana Qazaqstan Team being a prominent professional team and Alexander Vinokourov a famous cyclist), weightlifting, judo, and athletics also have a following.

Kazakhstan has participated in the Olympic Games since 1994 (Winter) and 1996 (Summer), winning medals in various sports. Almaty has bid for the Winter Olympics. The 2011 Asian Winter Games were co-hosted by Astana and Almaty.

9.7. Film and Media

• Film:** The Kazakh film industry, often centered around the state-owned Kazakhfilm studios, has produced notable films. Directors like Sergey Dvortsevoy (Tulpan) and Ermek Tursunov have gained international acclaim. Timur Bekmambetov, a Kazakh-Russian director, has achieved success in Hollywood. Kazakhstan hosts film festivals like the Eurasia International Film Festival.
• Media:** The media landscape includes state-owned and private television channels, radio stations, newspapers, and online media. However, press freedom has been a concern, with government influence and restrictions on independent media reported by international organizations. Access to information and freedom of expression are critical issues for societal development.

9.8. World Heritage Sites

Kazakhstan has several sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, highlighting its rich cultural and natural heritage:

• Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi (in Turkistan)
• Petroglyphs of Tamgaly
• Saryarka - Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan
• Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor (transnational, shared with China and Kyrgyzstan)
• Western Tian Shan (transnational, shared with Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan)

These sites attract tourism and contribute to the preservation of Kazakhstan's heritage.

9.9. Public Holidays

Major national and public holidays celebrated in Kazakhstan include:

• January 1-2: New Year's Day
• January 7: Orthodox Christmas
• March 8: International Women's Day
• March 21-23: Nowruz (Nauryz Meyramy) - Traditional Spring Festival/New Year
• May 1: Kazakhstan People's Unity Day
• May 7: Defender of the Fatherland Day
• May 9: Victory Day (commemorating the end of World War II)
• July 6: Capital City Day (Astana Day)
• August 30: Constitution Day
• October 25: Republic Day (commemorating the 1990 declaration of sovereignty)
• December 16: Independence Day

The Islamic holiday of Eid al-Adha (Qurban Ait) is also a public holiday, with the date varying according to the lunar calendar. These holidays reflect Kazakhstan's history, cultural traditions, and national identity.