Paik Sun-yup

4.1. Pre-Korean War Command Experience

On April 23, 1950, just two months before the outbreak of the Korean War, Paik Sun-yup was transferred to command the 1st Infantry Division. This division was responsible for guarding a 90-kilometer front along the increasingly tense 38th Parallel, particularly in the Kaesong area. At the time of the invasion, he was attending a three-month advanced officer training course at the Infantry School in Siheung, temporarily away from his unit.

5.1. War Outbreak and Initial Defense

The Korean War erupted at 4:00 AM on June 25, 1950. Paik, then in Seoul for officer training, was alerted at 7:00 AM by his division's Chief of Staff about the full-scale invasion. He immediately reassumed command of the 1st Infantry Division, which was engaged in fierce fighting near Kaesong and Munsan. The 1st Division, along with units led by Colonels Kim Jeom-gon and Kim Ik-ryeol, confronted the advancing Korean People's Army (KPA). On June 26, they also engaged KPA forces at Goranpo in Jangdan-gun, Gyeonggi-do, alongside a regiment commanded by Colonel Choe Gyeong-rok.

Despite resisting the overwhelming KPA offensive, particularly the advance of T-34 tanks, for three days, Paik's division was eventually forced into a fighting withdrawal following the fall of Seoul. The 1st Division was the only remaining obstacle between the KPA and the capital, and Paik received orders to hold the line to the last man. However, with the Han River Bridge bombing cutting off retreat routes and communication with Army Headquarters, Paik skillfully managed a fighting withdrawal while maintaining the division's order of battle. This disciplined retreat, a rarity among ROK units in the initial chaos, led to his promotion to Brigadier General on July 25, 1950. The 1st Division, though halved in strength after crossing the Han River, continued to engage the KPA, repelling the vanguard of the KPA 2nd Division at Pungdeokcheon-ri on July 4.

5.2. Major Battles and Defense Operations

Paik's 1st Infantry Division then pulled back to the Nakdong River line, forming a crucial part of the Pusan Perimeter, the final defensive stronghold of the Allied forces at the southern tip of the Korean Peninsula. Here, his division was responsible for holding a 55 mile front on the northern boundary of the perimeter, heavily supported by American units. It was during this desperate period that Paik successfully commanded the first joint operation between Korean and American forces. Despite his lines being stretched thin, the 1st Division successfully held off successive assaults by the KPA's 2nd, 3rd, and 15th divisions. The division received adequate anti-tank weaponry, which enabled them to form "hunter-killer teams" and effectively destroy the KPA's dreaded T-34-85 tanks.

The Battle of Tabu-dong in August 1950, a pivotal engagement within the Pusan Perimeter defense, is considered one of the major turning points of the Korean War. Paik, along with Colonel John H. Michaelis, commander of the U.S. 27th Regiment, led the breakout from the Pusan Perimeter northward. During this battle, the ROK 1st Division faced three KPA divisions. When ROK troops began to retreat due to heavy casualties and exhaustion, Paik, despite suffering from a high fever due to malaria, personally intervened. He rallied his retreating soldiers with a powerful speech, urging them to fight for their homeland and not to betray the trust of the American forces fighting alongside them. He famously declared, "If I retreat, shoot me. Now, let's go! Charge with your last bullet!" He then personally led a counter-attack, a rare act for a division commander during the war. This display of courage deeply impressed Colonel Michaelis and significantly strengthened the trust and cooperation between the American and South Korean forces. The ROK 1st Division, replenished with refugees and students who often lacked sufficient training, managed to hold its ground, preventing the collapse of the Pusan Perimeter.

5.3. Northern Advance and Chinese Intervention

Following the success of the Inchon landing on September 15, 1950, and the subsequent UN counter-offensive, the ROK 1st Division, now under the command of the U.S. I Corps, spearheaded the northward advance. On October 19, 1950, Paik's division achieved the distinction of being the first Allied unit to enter and recapture Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea.

After securing Pyongyang, the division was ordered to continue its advance northward towards the Yalu River, the border with China. It was during this phase that Paik became one of the first Allied commanders to recognize the large-scale intervention of the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) into the conflict. Fluent in Chinese, Paik personally interrogated the first captured Chinese prisoners of war, who revealed the presence of significant PVA forces. However, his warnings about the Chinese intervention were largely unheeded by the overall theater command, who initially dismissed the intelligence.

Once the full extent of the Chinese threat was realized, Paik was appointed to command the defense of northwestern Korea. His forces were continuously pushed back by the superior numbers and ferocity of the Chinese Second Phase Offensive. During this stage of the war, Paik was promoted to command the ROK I Corps, tasked with securing eastern Korea. He found his new corps composed largely of green recruits and conscripts lacking sufficient training and battle experience. Consequently, he dedicated much of his initial time in this new post to intensively training his men and fortifying the battle lines. In mid-March 1951, the ROK 1st Division, under Paik's broader command, successfully recaptured Seoul from the communist forces.

5.4. Armistice Negotiation Representative

Armistice talks between the United Nations Command, North Korea, and China began in July 1951 in Kaesong. Paik Sun-yup was selected as a South Korean representative for these negotiations. He was fundamentally opposed to the peace negotiations, fearing that an armistice would lead to the permanent division of Korea and the abandonment of the goal of a unified Korea. His selection was influenced by the recommendations of U.S. Lieutenant General C. Turner Joy and Rear Admiral Arleigh Burke, who knew Paik well from his command of operations on the east coast. By September 1951, he was replaced as the ROK representative by Major General Lee Hyung-geun and returned to command the ROK I Corps.

In August 1951, Paik oversaw heavy fighting around the Punchbowl (Korean War) and Heartbreak Ridge near the 38th Parallel. His troops were engaged in a war of attrition, with both sides fortifying their positions, leading to high casualties with little territorial gain. In May 1952, Paik conveyed the strong opposition of the Korean people to an armistice to U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Despite these objections, the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed in July 1953, leaving Korea divided.

During the war, Paik was noted for avoiding major tactical errors, such as the disintegration of formations that plagued other commanders, and for maintaining smooth relations with U.S. military officers. His actions and successes significantly contributed to the U.S. military's positive assessment of the ROK military, motivating U.S. command to recognize the ROK military as a valuable ally in the developing Cold War.

5.5. Post-Combat Command and Promotions

In November 1951, with the front lines stabilizing, Paik was appointed commander of the "Paik Field Combat Command" (백야전사령부_{Baek Yajeonsaryeongbu}^Korean). This command was specifically created to address the deteriorating security situation in the southern Jirisan region, where communist partisans (a mix of remnants from the Yeosu-Suncheon rebellion, the South Korean Labor Party, and isolated North Korean units) had formed a significant force known as the "Southern Army." Drawing on his prior experience in counter-guerrilla operations in Manchukuo and during the Sukgun movement, Paik led a large-scale anti-guerrilla operation from December 1, 1951, to March 14, 1952, against an estimated 50,000 guerrillas. The operation was successful, and following its conclusion, Paik established an orphanage in Gwangju for war orphans, which was later renamed Baekseon Baoro House.

The Paik Field Combat Command, along with the Capital Division, formed the core of the newly established ROK II Corps in April 1952, which Paik commanded. This corps was the first modernized ROK corps, comprising the Capital Division, the 3rd Division, and the 6th Division (commanded by his brother, Brigadier General Paik In-yeop), along with corps-level artillery. The II Corps was responsible for the Geumseong front in the central sector.

In July 1952, at the age of 32, Paik was appointed Chief of Staff of the Republic of Korea Army and concurrently the Martial Law Commander. During his tenure, he focused on administrative improvements across the military, enhancing supplementary education and training, and maintaining internal security. He also oversaw the re-establishment of 17 educational facilities. He worked closely with U.S. General James Van Fleet to develop and implement plans for strengthening the ROK Army, including the creation of 10 standing divisions and 10 reserve divisions. Paik's excellent English proficiency allowed him to effectively mediate relations between the ROK government, particularly President Syngman Rhee, and the U.S. military command.

On January 31, 1953, Paik Sun-yup was promoted to the rank of General (대장_Daejang^Korean), becoming the first four-star general in the history of the South Korean military. In May 1953, he visited the United States to discuss post-war security arrangements, meeting with President Dwight D. Eisenhower, General Douglas MacArthur, and Brigadier General John H. Michaelis. He also attended a two-week advanced course at the United States Army Command and General Staff College before returning early due to the impending armistice.

After the armistice, Paik was appointed the first commander of the newly formed ROK 1st Field Army on March 21, 1954, the first such field army in Asia. He effectively took over responsibility for defending the 155 mile armistice line from the U.S. Eighth Army, a role he held for 43 months, laying the groundwork for the field army's operational structure. He was reappointed Chief of Staff of the Army in May 1957. In February 1959, he became the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, where he contributed to the modernization of the Korean military by introducing advanced weaponry. However, he retired from military service on May 31, 1960, amidst a "purification movement" led by younger officers, including Lieutenant Colonel Kim Jong-pil, who sought to reform the military leadership after the April Revolution.

6.1. Diplomatic Service

In July 1960, Paik was appointed as the Ambassador to the Republic of China (Taiwan). His diplomatic career expanded significantly in July 1961 when he became the Ambassador to France, concurrently serving as ambassador to the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and Luxembourg. On July 16, 1961, he led the Korea-Senegalese Friendship Mission to Senegal, meeting with Prime Minister Dudu Thiam. In 1962, he further expanded his diplomatic reach, serving concurrently as ambassador to Gabon, Togo, Cameroon, Chad, the Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, the Central African Republic, Niger, Ivory Coast, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Mauritania. On August 27, 1963, while serving as adjunct ambassador to France, he established diplomatic relations with President Amadou Ahizo of Cameroon. In July 1965, Paik became the first Korean Ambassador to Canada.

6.2. Government and Public Service

In October 1969, Paik returned to South Korea to serve in the government of President Park Chung Hee as the Minister of Transportation. In this role, he directed the construction of Seoul's public transportation infrastructure, including the initial phases of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway system. He also played a role in resolving the 1970 Yodo-go hijacking incident at Gimpo International Airport. However, he resigned from his post in January 1971, taking responsibility for the Namyeong-ho ferry sinking incident, which resulted in nearly 300 casualties.

After his government service, Paik remained active in public life, serving as an advisor to the Permanent Advisory Office of the National Unification Agency from 1986, where he conducted security and lecture activities. He also served as the chairman of the Commemorative Projects Committee on the 50th anniversary of the Korean War in 1998 and as the Advisory Chairman of the Advisory Committee of the No Gun Ri Incident Countermeasures Group from 1999 to 2001.

6.3. Business and Advisory Roles

Following his tenure as Minister of Transportation, Paik transitioned into the business sector. He was appointed president of Chungju Fertilizer Co. in 1971, and concurrently served as president of Korea Integrated Chemical Inc. He was also elected as a director of the Federation of Korean Industries. In 1972, he completed CEO courses at Yonsei University and Korea University business schools, and in 1976, he completed a CEO course at Seoul National University business school.

In April 1973, he was re-elected president of Korea Chemical Industries, where he oversaw the construction of what was then the largest fertilizer manufacturing plant in Southeast Asia. He also served as president of Korea Chemical Pulp from 1974 and as chairman of the Fertilizer Industry Association in 1975. From 1976 to 1981, he was the director of the Korea Chemical Research Institute.

After resigning from Korea Chemicals in March 1981, he was appointed as an adviser to Fujitsu Korea in March 1980. He also held positions as chairman of the Korea Chemical Research Institute and National Chairperson of the International Chamber of Commerce and Industry.

In his later years, Paik continued to be a prominent figure. In 2002, the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division at Camp Casey in Dongducheon opened the "General Paik Sun-yup Hero Room," a combat training facility named in his honor. His voice recordings of his Korean War experiences are exhibited at the U.S. National Infantry Museum, and his memoir, "Gun gwa Na," is used as a textbook in major U.S. military schools. In 2013, the U.S. military in Korea appointed him as an "Honorary U.S. 8th Army Commander," a role in which he represented the U.S. 8th Army at various official events. He was also the first Korean to be invited to a U.S. 8th Army Commander's change of command ceremony in 2016. In 2010, he received the James A. Van Fleet Award.

Paik Sun-yup died on July 10, 2020, at the age of 99, and was buried in Daejeon National Cemetery. The Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs stated that the designated area for generals in Seoul National Cemetery was full.

7.1. Manchukuo Service and Pro-Japanese Allegations

The most persistent controversy surrounding Paik Sun-yup is his service in the Manchukuo Imperial Army and, specifically, the Gando Special Force from 1943 to 1945. This unit was created to suppress anti-Japanese guerrillas, including Korean independence fighters, in Manchuria. Critics accuse Paik of being a "chinilpa" (친일파_Chinilpa^Korean), a term for pro-Japanese collaborators during the colonial period.

In 2008, the Research Institute for Pro-Japanese Activities included Paik in its list of prospective "chinilpa" candidates in the military section. Subsequently, in 2009, the Presidential Committee for the Investigation of Pro-Japanese Collaborators under the Roh Moo-hyun administration officially listed Paik Sun-yup among 705 individuals identified as "pro-Japanese anti-national collaborators."

While Paik's Korean memoirs largely omit details of his Manchukuo service, his Japanese-published memoirs contain passages that acknowledge the Gando Special Force's role in suppressing "guerrillas" who included Koreans. He expressed a "heartbreaking reflection on the tragedy of Koreans fighting Koreans" but maintained that his actions did not delay Korea's independence. He also claimed in a 2009 interview that he "never even saw independence fighters." However, critics argue that his participation in a unit dedicated to suppressing anti-Japanese resistance, regardless of direct engagement with specific Korean independence groups, constitutes collaboration with the colonial power.

7.2. Korean War Narrative and Legacy Debates

Beyond his Manchukuo service, Paik's role in the Korean War has also been subject to differing historical interpretations. While widely celebrated by conservatives as a hero who saved South Korea, some progressive historians and military figures have questioned the narrative surrounding his achievements.

General Park Gyeong-seok (retired ROK Army Brigadier General) criticized the popular perception that Paik alone saved South Korea at the Battle of Tabu-dong. Park argued that the defense of the Nakdong River front, which stretched 149 mile ^{(240 km)}, was a collective effort involving eight divisions (three U.S. and five ROK divisions), and that attributing the victory solely to Paik exaggerates his individual contribution. This perspective emphasizes the collective victory of the Allied forces and the Korean people rather than diminishing Paik's role.

Furthermore, there have been accusations that Paik's influence extended to the official historical accounts of the Korean War, particularly those compiled by the Ministry of National Defense's Military History Compilation Institute. Critics suggest that he may have influenced these narratives to portray Japanese and Manchukuo-trained officers in a more favorable light or to downplay controversial actions by figures like Army Chief of Staff Chae Byeong-deok during the early stages of the war.

7.3. National Cemetery Burial and Other Disputes

The controversy surrounding Paik Sun-yup's legacy extended even to his burial site after his death in 2020. While Paik himself had expressed a wish to be interred at Daejeon National Cemetery, a debate arose regarding whether he, as an individual accused of pro-Japanese collaboration, should be buried in a national cemetery alongside other national heroes. Conservatives argued for his burial in Seoul National Cemetery, citing his status as a war hero who enabled the survival of South Korea. However, the Moon Jae-in administration ultimately proceeded with his burial in Daejeon National Cemetery, with the Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs stating that the designated area for generals in Seoul National Cemetery was full. This decision further highlighted the deep ideological divisions within South Korea concerning his historical standing.

Additionally, Paik's presence at an event commemorating child soldiers during the Korean War sparked controversy, as he declined to answer questions regarding the ROK military's conscription of child soldiers during the conflict.

8.1. Impact on ROK Military and Korean War History

Paik's military leadership, particularly during the Korean War, significantly influenced the ROK military's combat effectiveness and its relationship with the U.S. military. His command of the 1st Infantry Division during the desperate defense of the Pusan Perimeter, especially at the Battle of Tabu-dong, is often cited as a testament to his tactical acumen and leadership under extreme pressure. His ability to maintain unit cohesion during retreats and his personal courage in rallying troops were critical in preventing the collapse of the South Korean front.

As the first four-star general in the ROK Army, and later as Army Chief of Staff and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Paik was instrumental in modernizing the South Korean military. He advocated for improved training systems, logistical reforms, and the expansion of the ROK Army, including the establishment of new divisions and the adoption of advanced weaponry. His strong rapport and excellent communication skills with U.S. military commanders, facilitated by his fluency in English, were crucial in securing U.S. support and fostering the enduring ROK-US Alliance. His experiences and strategic insights from the Korean War, documented in his memoirs, have been used as educational material in U.S. military academies.

However, his legacy is also complicated by the historical debates surrounding his service in the Manchukuo Imperial Army and the allegations of pro-Japanese collaboration. These controversies have led to differing assessments of his overall impact on Korean history, with some viewing him as a national savior and others as a figure whose early career compromises his later contributions. The ongoing discussions reflect the complex and often painful process of historical evaluation in South Korea.

8.2. Awards, Honors, and Memorials

Paik Sun-yup received numerous domestic and international awards and honors throughout his career, recognizing his military valor and diplomatic service.

Korean Decorations
	Gold Star 'Taegeuk' Medal of Merit (2 times)
	Eulji Military Medal (2 times)
	Chungmu Service Medal
	Military Medal of Honor
	Korean War Service Medal
	Gold Tower Order of Industrial Service
	Tin Tower Order of Industrial Service
	Grand GwangHwa Medal (3 times)
U.S. Decorations
	Silver Star
	Legion of Merit (Chief Commander)
	Legion of Merit (Commander)
	Legion of Merit (Officer)
	Legion of Merit (Legionnaire)
	Bronze Star
	Air Medal
	Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service
	Meritorious Public Service Medal
Other Foreign Decorations
	Order of Merit (Canada)
	Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur (France)
	Ordre national du Mérite (France)
	Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures (France)
	Order of Leopold (Belgium)
	Order of the Cloud and Banner (Republic of China)
	Order of Brilliant Star (Republic of China)
	Philippine Legion of Honor (Philippines)
	Order of the White Elephant (Thailand)
	Cross for Law and Liberty (Netherlands)
	Order of the Star of Ethiopia (Ethiopia)
	National Order of Upper Volta (Burkina Faso)
	Order of the Phoenix (Greece)
	Order of George I (Greece)
	Distinguished Service Medal of the Republic of Cuba
	Order of Merit (Niger)
	Order of the Sacred Treasure (Japan)
	United Nations Service Medal for Korea (UN)

In addition to formal decorations, Paik received several significant honors and memorials. In 2000, he was awarded the Truman-Reagan Medal of Freedom. In 2002, the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division at Camp Casey in Dongducheon, South Korea, opened the "General Paik Sun-yup Hero Room," a combat training facility named in his honor. His voice recordings of his Korean War experiences are preserved at the U.S. National Infantry Museum, and his memoir, "Gun gwa Na," is used as a textbook in U.S. military schools. In 2013, the U.S. military in Korea appointed him as an "Honorary U.S. 8th Army Commander," a role in which he represented the U.S. 8th Army at various official events. He was also the first Korean to be invited to a U.S. 8th Army Commander's change of command ceremony in 2016. In 2010, he received the James A. Van Fleet Award.

A monument, the "Paik Sun-yup Hoguk Guminbi" (백선엽 호국구민비_{Baekseon-yeop Hoguk Guminbi}^Korean, Paik Sun-yup National Salvation Monument), was established near the Dabudong Battle Memorial Museum in Chilgok County, Gyeongsangbuk-do, commemorating his victory against the KPA 3rd Division during the Battle of Tabu-dong in 1951. He also received an honorary doctorate in Military Science from Chungnam National University in 2010 and was the first recipient of an honorary military science doctorate from the National Defense University in 2015. Although there were plans by the Lee Myung-bak administration to promote him to the rank of Marshal, the highest military rank in South Korea, this did not come to fruition due to the controversies surrounding his past.