Cameroon

3.1. Early history

Archaeological evidence from sites such as Shum Laka in the Northwest Region indicates human occupation in Cameroon dating back at least 30,000 years. The Baka (Pygmies) are considered among the longest continuous inhabitants of the region, particularly in the southeastern rainforests. About 2,000 years ago, Bantu migrations are believed to have originated from the Cameroonian highlands, spreading across eastern, southern, and central Africa. Around 500 CE, the Sao civilization emerged around Lake Chad, eventually giving way to the Kanem Empire and its successor, the Bornu Empire. In the western and northwestern parts of present-day Cameroon, various ethnic groups established powerful chiefdoms and fondoms.
Portuguese sailors first reached the Cameroonian coast in 1472. They noted a large number of ghost shrimps in the Wouri River and named it Rio dos Camarões_{River of Shrimps}^Portuguese, from which the name "Cameroon" is derived. Over the subsequent centuries, European traders established regular commerce with coastal peoples, and Christian missionaries gradually ventured inland.
In the early 19th century, Modibo Adama, a Fulani scholar and warrior, led a jihad in the north against non-Muslim and syncretic Muslim populations, founding the Adamawa Emirate. Those fleeing the Fulani forces resettled in various other regions.
In 1896, Sultan Ibrahim Njoya of the Bamum Kingdom created the Bamum script (Shu Mom) for the Bamum language. This script is still taught in Cameroon today by the Bamum Scripts and Archives Project. Joseph Merrick, a Baptist missionary from Jamaica, established a church among the Isubu people during this period.

3.2. German colonial rule

Germany began to establish a presence in Cameroon in 1868 when the Woermann Company of Hamburg built a warehouse on the estuary of the Wouri River. In July 1884, Gustav Nachtigal, acting for the German Emperor, signed a treaty with local Duala kings, formally annexing the region as the German colony of Kamerun. The Germans initiated a steady push inland, often met with resistance from indigenous populations.
Under German administration, commercial companies were granted concessions and effectively served as local administrations. These companies exploited the colony's resources, establishing profitable banana, rubber, palm oil, and cocoa plantations. This economic model heavily relied on forced labor, where indigenous people were compelled to work on these plantations and in infrastructure projects, such as the construction of railways and roads. The German colonial regime's use of forced labor and harsh administrative practices had a severe social impact on the local populations, leading to displacement, loss of traditional livelihoods, and numerous casualties. These policies were widely criticized by other colonial powers at the time. In 1911, following the Agadir Crisis (Second Moroccan Crisis), Germany acquired territory from French Equatorial Africa, known as Neukamerun (New Cameroon), which was added to Kamerun.

3.3. French and British rule

With Germany's defeat in World War I, Kamerun became a League of Nations mandate territory in 1919 and was partitioned between France and the United Kingdom. France received the larger eastern portion (about four-fifths), known as French Cameroon (Cameroun_Cameroon^French), while the United Kingdom administered the smaller western strip, British Cameroons, which was further divided into Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons.
France integrated the economy of French Cameroon with its own, investing capital and bringing in skilled workers to improve infrastructure, though it modified rather than abolished the colonial system of forced labor for a time. The British administered their territory from neighboring Nigeria. This arrangement led to complaints from the inhabitants of British Cameroons, who felt they were being treated as a neglected "colony of a colony." Nigerian migrant workers moved into Southern Cameroons, which, while contributing to the end of forced labor there, also caused resentment among some local indigenous populations who felt overwhelmed.
In 1946, after World War II, the League of Nations mandates were converted into United Nations Trusteeships, with France and Britain continuing as administering authorities. The question of independence became a pressing issue, particularly in French Cameroon.
Nationalist sentiments grew, and the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (Union des Populations du Cameroun_{Union of the Peoples of Cameroon}^French, UPC), a prominent pro-independence political party, emerged as a key force. France outlawed the UPC on July 13, 1955, due to its radical stance. This ban prompted a long and violent guerrilla war waged by the UPC against French colonial forces and their local allies. Several UPC leaders were assassinated during this conflict, including Ruben Um Nyobè, Félix-Roland Moumié, and Ernest Ouandie.
In British Cameroons, the political debate centered on whether to reunify with French Cameroon or to integrate with Nigeria. The British authorities largely ruled out the option of full independence for their trusteeship territory.

3.4. Independence

On January 1, 1960, French Cameroon gained independence from France, becoming the Republic of Cameroun with Ahmadou Ahidjo as its first President. The armed struggle by the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC) continued in parts of the newly independent nation.
Following a UN-supervised plebiscite in February 1961, the southern part of British Cameroons voted to achieve independence by joining the Republic of Cameroun, while Northern Cameroons opted to integrate with Nigeria. On October 1, 1961, the southern part of British Cameroons formally united with the Republic of Cameroun to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. This date, October 1, is now observed as Unification Day, a public holiday. The new federal structure comprised two federated states: East Cameroon (formerly French Cameroun) and West Cameroon (formerly Southern Cameroons), each with its own legislature, government, and prime minister. Ahmadou Ahidjo became the president of the federal republic, and John Ngu Foncha, the former Prime Minister of Southern Cameroons, became the vice-president.

3.5. Post-independence era

The period following Cameroon's independence and unification was marked by efforts to consolidate national unity, establish political structures, and pursue economic development. However, it was also characterized by the concentration of power, suppression of dissent, and significant social and political challenges under the leadership of Ahmadou Ahidjo and subsequently Paul Biya.

3.5.1. Ahmadou Ahidjo era (1960-1982)

Ahmadou Ahidjo's presidency began with the independence of French Cameroun in 1960 and continued after the 1961 unification that formed the Federal Republic of Cameroon. Ahidjo used the ongoing war against the UPC and concerns about ethnic divisions to consolidate power in the presidency. His political party, the Cameroon National Union (CNU), formed in 1966 by merging major parties from both federated states, became the sole legal political party on September 1, 1966, effectively establishing a one-party state. This move was justified as necessary for national unity but significantly curtailed democratic space and political opposition.
On May 20, 1972, a referendum was held, which resulted in the abolition of the federal system and the creation of the United Republic of Cameroon, a unitary state with Yaoundé as its capital. This date, May 20, is now celebrated as Cameroon's National Day, a public holiday. The shift to a unitary state further centralized power under Ahidjo. The national flag was changed on May 20, 1975, with the two stars (representing the federated states) removed and replaced with a single large central star, symbolizing national unity.
Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of "planned liberalism", prioritizing cash crops like cocoa and coffee, and later, petroleum development. Oil revenues were used to create a national cash reserve, support farmers, and finance major development projects. However, many of these initiatives were hampered by mismanagement and cronyism, as Ahidjo often appointed unqualified allies to direct them. While his rule brought a degree of stability and economic growth in the initial years, it was also marked by authoritarianism, suppression of political freedoms, and human rights abuses. The impact on democratic development was largely negative, as opposition was stifled and a culture of political patronage took root. National unity was enforced from the top down, often at the expense of regional autonomy and diverse political expression, particularly affecting the Anglophone minority.

3.5.2. Paul Biya era (1982-present)

Ahmadou Ahidjo unexpectedly resigned from the presidency on November 4, 1982, and his constitutional successor, Paul Biya, then Prime Minister, assumed power. Initially, Ahidjo remained head of the CNU party and attempted to wield influence from behind the scenes. However, tensions between Biya and Ahidjo escalated, leading to Ahidjo's forced resignation from the party leadership and eventual exile in 1983 after being accused of plotting a coup. In 1984, a violent but unsuccessful coup attempt, allegedly orchestrated by Ahidjo loyalists, further solidified Biya's control and led him to adopt a more authoritarian leadership style similar to his predecessor. In 1984, by presidential decree, Biya changed the country's name back to the Republic of Cameroon. His party, the CNU, was renamed the Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM) in 1985.
An economic crisis struck Cameroon from the mid-1980s to the late 1990s, triggered by international economic conditions, drought, falling petroleum prices, and compounded by years of corruption, mismanagement, and cronyism. Cameroon sought foreign aid, implemented austerity measures by cutting government spending, and privatised state-owned industries under structural adjustment programs often mandated by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. These measures had severe social impacts, increasing poverty and unemployment.
Under internal and external pressure, multi-party politics was reintroduced in December 1990. The first multi-party legislative and presidential elections were held in 1992. Paul Biya and the CPDM have maintained power through successive elections, which opposition parties and international observers have frequently criticized as being unfair and marred by irregularities. The Social Democratic Front (SDF), led by John Fru Ndi and drawing significant support from the Anglophone regions, emerged as the main opposition party.
Biya's long tenure has been characterized by a high degree of centralization of power, limited democratic progress, and persistent concerns about human rights. Corruption remains a significant problem at all levels of government. Freedom of expression and assembly are often restricted, and political opponents and journalists have faced harassment and arrest.
Growing social tensions, particularly the "Anglophone problem" stemming from perceived marginalization of the English-speaking minority, have intensified. Grievances over the imposition of French language and legal systems in Anglophone regions, coupled with economic disparities and political underrepresentation, led to protests and strikes, eventually escalating into the Anglophone Crisis in 2016.
Critically, Biya's leadership has been associated with democratic stagnation and a poor human rights record. While maintaining stability for a considerable period, this has often come at the cost of suppressing dissent and failing to address deep-seated social and political grievances. Social progress has been uneven, with significant portions of the population still facing poverty and limited access to essential services. Historical evaluations often point to missed opportunities for genuine democratic reform and inclusive development under his prolonged rule. His government has faced criticism for its handling of the Anglophone Crisis and the Boko Haram insurgency in the Far North, with reports of human rights abuses by security forces.

3.6. Recent developments and conflicts

Cameroon has faced significant internal conflicts and security challenges in recent years, most notably the Anglophone Crisis in the Northwest and Southwest Regions and the insurgency by Boko Haram in the Far North Region.
The Anglophone Crisis, also known as the Ambazonian War of Independence, began with lawyer and teacher strikes in late 2016 against the perceived marginalization of the English-speaking regions and the imposition of French language and legal systems. Protests escalated as the government responded with force, leading to arrests, killings, and internet shutdowns in the Anglophone regions. In 2017, separatist groups declared the independence of a state they called Ambazonia, which led to an armed conflict between secessionist militias and Cameroonian government forces. Key actors include various separatist groups (such as the Ambazonia Defence Forces) and the Cameroonian military. The conflict has had a devastating humanitarian impact, with thousands killed, hundreds of thousands internally displaced, and tens of thousands becoming refugees in neighboring Nigeria. Villages have been burned, and civilians have been caught in the crossfire, facing abuses from both sides. Efforts towards resolution, including a Major National Dialogue in 2019, have largely failed to end the violence, with human rights organizations documenting ongoing atrocities.
In the Far North Region, Cameroon has been combating the Boko Haram insurgency, which spilled over from Nigeria. Boko Haram launched several attacks into Cameroon starting around 2014, resulting in civilian deaths, kidnappings, and displacement. The Cameroonian military, as part of a multinational joint task force, has been engaged in operations against the group. While the intensity of Boko Haram attacks within Cameroon has decreased since its peak, the group continues to pose a threat, particularly through suicide bombings and raids on remote villages. The conflict has exacerbated an already dire humanitarian situation in the region, affecting local populations who face food insecurity and displacement. Human rights concerns have been raised regarding the conduct of both Boko Haram and, at times, government security forces in their response. The conflict indirectly led to an upsurge in Boko Haram attacks, as the Cameroonian military largely withdrew from the north to focus on fighting the Ambazonian separatists.
Ethnic clashes over access to resources, such as water, have also occurred. In December 2021, conflicts between Musgum fishermen and ethnic Arab Choa herders in northern Cameroon led to dozens of deaths and forced over 30,000 people to flee to Chad.
In June 2006, talks concerning a territorial dispute over the Bakassi peninsula were resolved. The talks involved President Paul Biya of Cameroon, then President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, and then UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, and resulted in Cameroonian control of the oil-rich peninsula. The northern portion of the territory was formally handed over to the Cameroonian government in August 2006, and the remainder of the peninsula was left to Cameroon two years later, in 2008. The boundary change triggered a local separatist insurgency, as many Bakassians refused to accept Cameroonian rule. While most militants laid down their arms in November 2009, some carried on fighting for years.

4.1. Topography and climate

Cameroon is divided into five major geographical zones:
1. The Coastal Plain: This zone extends 9.3 mile ^{(15 km)} to 93 mile ^{(150 km)} inland from the Gulf of Guinea. It has an average elevation of 295 ft ^{(90 m)}. The climate is exceedingly hot and humid with a short dry season. This belt is densely forested and includes some of the wettest places on Earth, part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests ecoregion.
2. The Southern Plateau: Rising from the coastal plain, this plateau has an average elevation of 2133 ft ^{(650 m)}. Equatorial rainforest dominates this region. While it experiences distinct wet and dry seasons, it is less humid than the coast. This area is part of the Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion.
3. The Cameroon Range: This is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus extending from Mount Cameroon on the coast-which is Cameroon's highest point at 13 K ft ^{(4.09 K m)} (some sources state almost 13 K ft ^{(4.10 K m)})-almost to Lake Chad at Cameroon's northern border. This region generally has a mild climate, particularly on the Western High Plateau, although rainfall is high. Its soils are among Cameroon's most fertile, especially around the volcanic Mount Cameroon. Volcanism in this area has created crater lakes. On August 21, 1986, Lake Nyos, one of these lakes, released a large cloud of carbon dioxide, killing between 1,700 and 2,000 people. The World Wildlife Fund has delineated this area as the Cameroonian Highlands forests ecoregion.
4. The Adamawa Plateau: The southern plateau rises northward to this grassy, rugged plateau. It stretches from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country's north and south. Its average elevation is 3.6 K ft ^{(1.10 K m)}. The average temperature ranges from 71.6 °F ^{(22 °C)} to 77 °F ^{(25 °C)}, with high rainfall between April and October, peaking in July and August.
5. The Northern Lowlands: This region extends from the edge of the Adamawa Plateau to Lake Chad, with an average elevation of 984 ft ^{(300 m)} to 1148 ft ^{(350 m)}. Characteristic vegetation includes savanna scrub and grass. This is an arid region with sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.

The varied topography gives rise to diverse climates. The coastal region has an equatorial climate with high temperatures and rainfall throughout the year. The southern plateau also has an equatorial climate but with more distinct wet and dry seasons. The western highlands experience a cooler, wetter climate, while the Adamawa Plateau has a tropical savanna climate. The northern lowlands are characterized by a hot, dry Sahelian climate, transitioning to desert conditions near Lake Chad.

4.2. Hydrology

Cameroon has four main drainage patterns.
In the south, the principal rivers are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri. These rivers flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. The Sanaga River is the largest river in Cameroon and powers the Edéa hydroelectric station, a major source of the country's energy.
The Dja (also known as the Ngoko River) and the Kadéï drain southeastward, eventually flowing into the Congo River system.
In northern Cameroon, the Bénoué River runs north and west, and is a major tributary of the Niger. The Bénoué is seasonally navigable from Garoua into Nigeria.
The Logone River flows northward into Lake Chad. Cameroon shares Lake Chad with Nigeria, Niger, and Chad. The lake has significantly shrunk in recent decades due to climate change and water extraction for irrigation, impacting the livelihoods of millions in the region. Rapids and waterfalls obstruct many of the southern rivers, which, while hindering navigation, offer potential for hydroelectric development.

4.3. Biodiversity and conservation

Cameroon boasts exceptionally rich biodiversity, reflecting its diverse ecosystems which range from equatorial rainforests in the south, through savannas in the central and northern regions, to montane forests in the western highlands and Sahelian conditions near Lake Chad. It is considered one of Africa's most biodiverse countries, recording Africa's second-highest concentration of biodiversity.
The country's flora includes over 8,260 recorded plant species, with 156 endemic species. Its fauna is equally diverse, with 409 species of mammals (14 endemic), 690 species of birds (8 endemic), 250 species of reptiles, and 200 species of amphibians.
Forest cover is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 50 M acre ^{(20.34 M ha)} of forest in 2020, down from 56 M acre ^{(22.50 M ha)} in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forests covered 50 M acre ^{(20.28 M ha)}, and planted forests covered 151 K acre ^{(61.10 K ha)}.
To preserve its wildlife, Cameroon has established over 20 protected areas, including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and forest reserves. Some of the major national parks include:

• Waza National Park: Located in the Far North Region, known for its populations of lions, elephants, giraffes, and diverse birdlife.
• Korup National Park: Situated in the Southwest Region, it is one of Africa's oldest and richest rainforests in terms of floral and faunal diversity, home to primates like drills and chimpanzees.
• Dja Faunal Reserve: A UNESCO World Heritage Site inscribed in 1987, located in the southeast, it is one of the largest and best-protected rainforests in Africa, supporting a wide array of primate species, forest elephants, and bongo antelopes.
• Bénoué National Park: Also a UNESCO biosphere reserve, located in the North Region, it is home to hippos, giant eland, and various other savanna species.
• Mbam Djerem National Park: Straddles the forest-savanna ecotone, important for its transitional biodiversity.
• Takamanda National Park: Critical habitat for the critically endangered Cross River gorilla.
• Kagwene Gorilla Sanctuary: Created specifically for the protection of gorillas.

Mangrove forests, covering approximately 667 K acre ^{(270.00 K ha)}, are found along the coastline. Cameroon is also an important breeding area for marine and freshwater species, including crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and birds.
Despite conservation efforts, Cameroon faces significant environmental issues. Deforestation is a major concern, driven by logging (both legal and illegal), expansion of agriculture (cash crops like palm oil and rubber), and fuelwood collection. The commercial bushmeat trade has also become a primary threat to wildlife, surpassing deforestation in some areas, and impacting populations of primates, ungulates, and other species. Development projects, mining, and infrastructure expansion also exert pressure on natural habitats. Conservation initiatives often struggle with inadequate funding, insufficient enforcement, and the needs of local communities who depend on forest resources for their livelihoods. Approximately 15% of the forest area was within protected areas as of 2015, with 100% of reported forest area under public ownership.

5.1. Governmental structure

The governmental framework of Cameroon is defined by the constitution, which was adopted in 1972 and significantly revised in 1996.

• Executive Branch: The President is the head of state and holds extensive powers. The president is elected by popular vote for a seven-year term. Originally limited to two terms, a 2008 constitutional amendment removed term limits, allowing President Paul Biya to remain in office. The president creates policy, administers government agencies, commands the armed forces, negotiates and ratifies treaties, and can declare a state of emergency. The president appoints government officials at all levels, including the Prime Minister, who is considered the official head of government, and the members of the cabinet. The Prime Minister and cabinet are responsible for implementing the president's policies.
• Legislative Branch: Cameroon has a bicameral Parliament consisting of the National Assembly (lower house) and the Senate (upper house).
  • The National Assembly has 180 members who are elected for five-year terms via direct popular vote. It meets three times per year, and laws are passed by a majority vote. In practice, the National Assembly has historically had limited influence in significantly altering legislation proposed by the executive.
  • The Senate was established by the 1996 constitution but only became operational in 2013. It has 100 members: 70 are elected by regional councillors, and 30 are appointed by the President. Senators also serve five-year terms. The Senate's role includes reviewing legislation passed by the National Assembly and representing regional interests.
• Judicial Branch: Cameroon's legal system is a mixture of civil law (based on the French system), common law (in the Anglophone regions), and customary law. Although nominally independent, the judiciary often falls under the influence of the executive's Ministry of Justice. The president appoints judges at all levels. The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals, the courts of appeal, and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body and also rules on constitutional matters. The National Assembly elects the members of a nine-member High Court of Justice that is empowered to judge high-ranking members of government if they are charged with high treason or harming national security. The government recognizes the authority of traditional chiefs, fons, and lamibe to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law.

The concentration of power in the executive branch, particularly the presidency, is a defining feature of Cameroon's governmental structure, which critics argue undermines democratic accountability and the separation of powers.

5.2. Political culture and parties

Cameroon's political culture has been largely shaped by its post-independence history, particularly the long tenures of its two presidents, Ahmadou Ahidjo and Paul Biya. The Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM), President Biya's party, was the sole legal political party until December 1990, when multi-party politics was reintroduced. Despite this, the CPDM has maintained a dominant position in Cameroonian politics, controlling the presidency, the National Assembly, and the Senate through elections that opposition parties and international observers have often criticized as unfair and lacking transparency.
The primary opposition party is the Social Democratic Front (SDF), which traditionally draws significant support from the Anglophone regions of the country and is headed by John Fru Ndi. Numerous other regional and smaller opposition parties exist, but they have struggled to present a united front or effectively challenge the CPDM's hold on power.
Corruption is widely viewed as pervasive at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only a small percentage became operational. In 2006, President Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under the direction of the National Anti-Corruption Observatory (CONAC). Despite these efforts, Cameroon consistently ranks poorly on international corruption indices. For instance, Transparency International placed Cameroon at number 144 out of 176 countries in 2012, and 152 out of 180 countries in 2018. High-risk areas for corruption include customs, the public health sector, and public procurement.
Challenges to democratic development are significant. Human rights organizations allege that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations, disrupting meetings, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists. Discrimination against the English-speaking minority has been a persistent issue, with protests often escalating into violent clashes and killings. In 2017, the government shut down internet access in the Anglophone regions for 94 days in response to protests, affecting millions of people and businesses, including Silicon Mountain startups.
Political stability, often cited as an achievement of Biya's long rule, has been maintained through a strong security apparatus and control over state institutions. However, this stability has come at the cost of limited political freedoms and democratic participation. Issues of governance, such as a lack of transparency, accountability, and judicial independence, continue to hinder democratic progress. The Anglophone Crisis that began in 2016 further highlighted the deep divisions and governance challenges within the country.
Freedom House consistently ranks Cameroon as "not free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties. The last parliamentary elections were held on February 9, 2020.

5.3. Administrative divisions

The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions (régions_regions^French), which were formerly known as provinces until a 2008 presidential decree officially changed their designation. Each region is administered by an elected Regional Council and headed by a presidentially appointed governor.
The governors are responsible for implementing the president's policies, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the regions, administering the civil service, maintaining peace, and overseeing the heads of smaller administrative units. Governors possess broad powers, including ordering propaganda in their area and calling in the army, gendarmerie, and police. All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also receive most of their budgets.
The 10 regions are:
1. Adamawa (Adamaoua_Adamawa^French) - Capital: Ngaoundéré
2. Centre (Centre_Centre^French) - Capital: Yaoundé (national capital)
3. East (Est_East^French) - Capital: Bertoua
4. Far North (Extrême-Nord_{Far North}^French) - Capital: Maroua
5. Littoral (Littoral_Littoral^French) - Capital: Douala
6. North (Nord_North^French) - Capital: Garoua
7. Northwest (Nord-Ouest_North-West^French) - Capital: Bamenda
8. South (Sud_South^French) - Capital: Ebolowa
9. Southwest (Sud-Ouest_South-West^French) - Capital: Buea
10. West (Ouest_West^French) - Capital: Bafoussam

The regions are further subdivided into 58 divisions (départements_departments^French). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers (préfets_prefects^French). The divisions are further split into sub-divisions (arrondissements_{arrondissements}^French), headed by assistant divisional officers (sous-préfets_sub-prefects^French). The districts, administered by district heads (chefs de district_{district heads}^French), are the smallest administrative units. This hierarchical structure ensures significant central government control over local and regional governance.

5.4. Foreign relations

Cameroon's foreign policy is officially one of non-alignment, but it traditionally maintains close ties with France, its former colonial ruler and main ally. Cameroon relies heavily on France for its defense and economic partnerships. Military spending in Cameroon is comparatively high relative to other government sectors.
Cameroon is a member of numerous international and regional organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU), the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie_{International Organization of La Francophonie}^French (OIF), the Commonwealth of Nations (which it joined in 1995), the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS). Its membership in both the Francophonie and the Commonwealth reflects its dual French and British colonial heritage.
Regionally, Cameroon has relationships with its neighboring countries: Nigeria to the west, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic (CAR) to the east, and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Relations with Nigeria were strained for decades due to a territorial dispute over the oil-rich Bakassi peninsula. Cameroon petitioned the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 1994 to resolve the dispute. In 2002, the ICJ ruled in favor of Cameroon, basing its decision on the Anglo-German Agreement of 1913. After initial delays, a UN-mediated summit in June 2006 led to the Greentree Agreement, signed by President Paul Biya of Cameroon and then-President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, formalizing Nigeria's withdrawal. The handover was completed by August 2008.
Cameroon has been affected by instability in neighboring countries, particularly the CAR and Nigeria. It hosts a significant number of refugees from the CAR due to ongoing conflict there, and has also contended with the spillover of the Boko Haram insurgency from Nigeria into its Far North Region, deploying troops as part of a multinational task force to combat the group.
With major powers, beyond France, Cameroon engages with countries like the United States and China. China has become an increasingly important economic partner, involved in various infrastructure projects. In July 2019, Cameroon was one of 37 countries whose UN ambassadors signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region, a stance reflective of its complex international alignments and economic interests. Cameroon's foreign policy often seeks to balance its historical ties with pragmatic engagement with new global partners, though its positions on international human rights issues can sometimes draw criticism when they appear to conflict with democratic values.

5.5. Military

The Cameroonian Armed Forces (Forces armées camerounaises_{Cameroonian Armed Forces}^French, FAC) consist of the country's Army (Armée de Terre_Army^French), Navy (Marine Nationale de la République_{National Navy of the Republic}^French, MNR, which includes naval infantry), Air Force (Armée de l'Air du Cameroun_{Cameroonian Air Force}^French, AAC), and the National Gendarmerie. The Gendarmerie is a paramilitary force with law enforcement responsibilities, particularly in rural areas, but it also functions as part of the military. The President of Cameroon is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
The military has played a crucial role in supporting Cameroon's government since independence in 1960. Its primary roles include ensuring national security, defending territorial integrity, and maintaining internal order. The FAC has been involved in various operations, including defeating rebellions in the early post-independence period and controlling protests for democratic reforms.
More recently, the Cameroonian military has been heavily engaged in two major internal and regional conflicts:
1. Combating Boko Haram: Since 2014, the FAC has been actively involved in fighting Boko Haram insurgents in the Far North Region, often in coordination with the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF) comprising troops from Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Benin. Their efforts have included border security, offensive operations against Boko Haram strongholds, and protecting civilian populations from attacks.
2. Anglophone Crisis: Since 2017, the military has been deployed to the Northwest and Southwest Regions to counter Anglophone separatist groups seeking independence for "Ambazonia." This conflict has involved counter-insurgency operations, often in difficult terrain, and has led to accusations of human rights abuses by military forces.
Cameroon also participates in international peacekeeping operations. Military spending is significant, reflecting the security challenges the country faces. While the military is tasked with national defense, its role in internal security and suppression of dissent has raised concerns among human rights organizations regarding its impact on democratic development and civilian protection.

5.6. Human rights

The human rights situation in Cameroon is a subject of significant concern, with numerous reports from local and international organizations detailing abuses and violations. Issues span political freedoms, treatment of detainees, rights of minorities, and the impact of internal conflicts on civilian populations.
Freedom of Speech, Press, and Assembly: Freedoms of speech, press, and assembly are often restricted. Journalists, human rights defenders, and political activists who criticize the government or report on sensitive issues such as corruption or the Anglophone Crisis face harassment, intimidation, arrest, and prosecution. While press freedoms improved slightly in the early 21st century, newspapers often self-censor to avoid government reprisals. The government has also used internet shutdowns, particularly in the Anglophone regions, to suppress information and dissent.
Political Freedoms: While Cameroon is formally a multi-party democracy, the ruling CPDM party heavily dominates the political landscape. Opposition parties face significant obstacles, including restrictions on their activities, and elections have often been marred by allegations of irregularities and unfairness. Political opponents and protesters have been subjected to arrest and detention.
Conditions in Prisons and Treatment of Detainees: Prisons are generally overcrowded, with poor sanitation, inadequate food, and limited access to medical facilities. Human rights groups have documented cases of mistreatment and torture of criminal suspects and detainees by police and military forces. Prisons run by traditional rulers in the north have reportedly been used to hold political opponents at the behest of the government. However, since the early 21st century, an increasing number of police and gendarmes have reportedly been prosecuted for improper conduct.
Rights of Minorities: The Anglophone minority (approximately 20% of the population) has long complained of marginalization and discrimination. The Anglophone Crisis that began in 2016 has seen serious human rights abuses committed by both government security forces and separatist groups, including extrajudicial killings, arbitrary detentions, torture, and attacks on civilian infrastructure like schools and hospitals. Indigenous groups, such as the Baka (Pygmies), also face discrimination and challenges in accessing land, education, and healthcare.
LGBTQ+ Rights: Same-sex sexual acts are illegal under Section 347-1 of the penal code, with penalties ranging from 6 months to 5 years imprisonment. LGBTQ+ individuals face significant societal discrimination, harassment, and violence, and arrests and prosecutions for homosexuality occur.
Impact of Internal Conflicts: The conflicts in the Anglophone regions and the Far North (Boko Haram insurgency) have had a devastating impact on civilians. According to OCHA, as of 2023, over 1.7 million people required humanitarian assistance in the Northwest and Southwest regions, with at least 628,000 internally displaced and over 87,000 refugees in Nigeria. Human Rights Watch reported in December 2020 that Boko Haram had stepped up attacks in the Far North, killing at least 80 civilians. On July 25, 2018, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein, expressed deep concern about reports of violations and abuses in the English-speaking regions.
International and domestic human rights organizations continue to call for investigations into abuses, accountability for perpetrators, and reforms to protect fundamental rights and freedoms in Cameroon.

6.1. Economic overview and policy

Cameroon's per capita GDP (PPP) was estimated at 3.70 K USD in 2017. The economy has experienced periods of growth, averaging around 4% per year in the mid-2000s. During 2004-2008, public debt was reduced from over 60% of GDP to 10%, and official reserves quadrupled to over 3.00 B USD. However, unemployment was estimated at 3.38% in 2019, and in 2014, 23.8% of the population was living below the international poverty threshold of 1.9 USD a day.
The government has pursued long-term development strategies, such as "Vision 2035," which aims to transform Cameroon into an emerging economy. Since the late 1980s, Cameroon has followed programs advocated by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to reduce poverty, privatise industries, and increase economic growth. These have involved structural adjustments, fiscal discipline, and efforts to improve governance, though corruption remains a significant challenge. Major export markets include the Netherlands, France, China, Belgium, Italy, Algeria, and Malaysia.
Cameroon is part of the Bank of Central African States (BEAC), of which it is the dominant economy, and the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC), now part of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC). It is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Its currency is the CFA franc, which is pegged to the Euro. Foreign debt and engagement with institutions like the IMF and World Bank continue to shape its fiscal policies. Inflation has generally been moderate.

6.2. Major sectors

Cameroon's economy is comprised of primary (agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining), secondary (manufacturing, energy), and tertiary (services, tourism) sectors, each contributing to its overall economic landscape but with varying degrees of development and impact on employment and social equity.

6.3. Infrastructure

Cameroon's infrastructure, encompassing transport, energy supply, and telecommunications, is a critical factor for its economic development and social progress. While some progress has been made, significant challenges remain in modernizing and expanding these networks to meet the country's needs.

6.3.1. Transport

Transport in Cameroon is often difficult and presents significant hurdles to trade and mobility.

• Road Network: Cameroon has an extensive road network, but only a small percentage (estimated around 6.6%) is paved. Many roads are poorly maintained and subject to damage from severe weather, particularly during the rainy season. Roadblocks, often for security checks or informal toll collection by police and gendarmes, can cause delays and are a source of frustration for travelers. Road banditry has historically been a problem along the eastern and western borders, and insecurity in regions like the Far North and Anglophone areas further complicates road transport.
• Railways: Camrail, the national railway company, operates services primarily from Kumba in the west and the main port of Douala, through the capital Yaoundé, to Bélabo in the east, and north to Ngaoundéré. The railway is crucial for transporting goods, including timber and agricultural products, from the interior to the port. However, the railway system is aging and requires significant modernization.
• Ports: The main port is the Port of Douala, which handles the vast majority of Cameroon's international maritime trade. It serves as a vital gateway not only for Cameroon but also for landlocked neighboring countries like Chad and the Central African Republic. The Kribi Deepwater Port started operations in 2014, designed to handle larger vessels and specialized cargo (like minerals and gas), aiming to ease congestion at Douala and boost trade capacity. Limbé also has a port.
• Airports: Major international airports are located in Douala and Yaoundé. A third international airport is in Maroua. These airports connect Cameroon to other African countries and international destinations. Domestic air travel options also exist.
• Inland Waterways: In the north, the Bénoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua across into Nigeria, providing a transport route for goods during the high-water season.

Improving the transport infrastructure is a key priority for the Cameroonian government to enhance economic competitiveness, facilitate internal trade, and improve access to services for its population.
Three trans-African automobile routes pass through Cameroon:

• The Lagos-Mombasa Highway
• The Tripoli-Cape Town Highway
• The Dakar-N'Djamena Highway

7.1. Population statistics

The population of Cameroon was estimated to be nearly 31 million people in 2024. In 2015, the UN estimated the population at 22.18 million. The life expectancy at birth was approximately 62.3 years (60.6 years for males and 64 years for females) according to 2023 CIA estimates.
Cameroon has a youthful population structure, with over 60% of the population under the age of 25. People over 65 years of age account for only a small percentage (around 3.11%) of the total population. There are slightly more women (50.5%) than men (49.5%).
The population is almost evenly divided between urban and rural dwellers, with ongoing urbanization trends as people move from rural areas to cities in search of employment and better opportunities. Population density is highest in the large urban centers like Douala, Yaoundé, and Garoua, the western highlands, and the northeastern plain. In contrast, the Adamawa Plateau, the southeastern Bénoué depression, and most of the South Cameroon Plateau are sparsely populated.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the fertility rate was 4.8 births per woman in 2013, with a population growth rate of 2.56%. These figures indicate a relatively high rate of population increase.
Internal migration patterns include people from the overpopulated western highlands and the underdeveloped north moving to the coastal plantation zone and urban centers. Smaller movements occur as workers seek employment in lumber mills and plantations in the south and east. These out-migrations are primarily male, leading to unbalanced sex ratios in some regions.
Both monogamous and polygamous marriage are practiced, and the average Cameroonian family is large and extended. Cameroonian society is generally male-dominated, and violence and discrimination against women are reported as common.

7.2. Ethnic groups

Cameroon is home to a vast array of distinct ethnic groups, with estimates ranging from 230 to over 282. This ethnic diversity is a defining characteristic of the nation. The Adamawa Plateau broadly serves as a geographical and cultural divide between northern and southern peoples.

• Northern Peoples:
  • Sudanic groups inhabit the central highlands and the northern lowlands.
  • The Fulani (also known as Peuhl) are spread throughout northern Cameroon and are traditionally pastoralists. Many are Muslim.
  • A small number of Shuwa Arabs live near Lake Chad.
  • "Kirdi" is a collective term, sometimes considered pejorative, used by the Fulani to refer to various non-Fulani, often non-Muslim or recently Islamized, groups in the north.
• Southern Peoples:
  • Speakers of Bantu and Semi-Bantu languages inhabit Southern Cameroon.
  • Bantu-speaking groups are found in the coastal and equatorial zones. Major groups include the Duala, Bassa, Bakweri, and various Beti-Pahuin subgroups (such as Ewondo, Eton, Bulu, and Fang).
  • Speakers of Semi-Bantu languages (Grassfields Bantu languages) live in the Western Grassfields (Northwest and West Regions). Prominent groups include the Bamileke and Bamun. The Tikar are another significant Grassfields group.
• Pygmy Peoples: Approximately 5,000 Gyele and Baka (Pygmies) reside in the southeastern and coastal rainforests, traditionally as hunter-gatherers, though many now live in small, roadside settlements.

Inter-ethnic relations are generally peaceful, but tensions can arise, sometimes exacerbated by political or economic competition. The dynamics between major groups, such as the Fulani and Kirdi in the north, or between different Grassfields groups, are complex. Issues affecting minority communities include land rights, political representation, and access to resources and services. The Anglophone-Francophone divide also has an ethnic dimension, as the Anglophone regions are home to distinct ethnic groups who feel their cultural identity is threatened. Nigerians constitute the largest group of foreign nationals in Cameroon.

7.3. Languages

Cameroon is characterized by extraordinary linguistic diversity, with approximately 250 distinct native languages spoken by its nearly 31 million people, making it one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world.
The official languages are French and English, legacies of former French Cameroons and British Cameroons, respectively. The Presidency of Cameroon estimates that French is spoken by about 70% of the population and English by about 30%. German, the language of the original colonizers, has long been displaced by French and English.
Cameroonian Pidgin English serves as a lingua franca, particularly in the formerly British-administered territories (Northwest and Southwest Regions) and in urban centers across the country. A hybrid language known as Camfranglais, which mixes English, French, and Pidgin, has gained popularity in urban centers since the mid-1970s, especially among youth.
Indigenous languages belong to several major African language families, primarily Niger-Congo (including Bantu and Grassfields Bantu languages) and Afro-Asiatic (such as Chadic languages like Hausa, and Shuwa Arabic spoken in the Far North). Some Nilo-Saharan languages are also spoken.
The national language policy promotes bilingualism in French and English, but in practice, there is a socio-political divide between the Anglophone minority and the Francophone majority. This linguistic diversity has significant implications, most notably highlighted by the Anglophone Crisis which erupted in 2016. Anglophone populations have protested against perceived marginalization and the dominance of French in public life, education, and the legal system. These language protests against perceived oppression by Francophone speakers escalated, with the military deployed against protesters, leading to killings, imprisonment of hundreds, and thousands fleeing the country. This culminated in the declaration of an independent Republic of Ambazonia by separatists, which evolved into an armed conflict. By June 2020, it was estimated that 740,000 people had been internally displaced as a result of this crisis.
Despite the official status of French and English, indigenous languages remain vital for daily communication within various ethnic communities, though many face the risk of endangerment due to the increasing prominence of the official languages and urbanization.

7.4. Religion

Cameroon has a high level of religious freedom and diversity. The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice.
The majority faith is Christianity, practiced by about two-thirds of the population. Islam is a significant minority faith, adhered to by about one-fourth. In addition, traditional faiths (animist beliefs) are practiced by many, often alongside Christianity or Islam in syncretic forms.

• Christianity: Christians are concentrated primarily in the southern and western regions.
  • Roman Catholicism is the largest Christian denomination, with an estimated 33.1% of the population (CIA World Factbook, 2022 estimate).
  • Protestantism accounts for about 27.1% of the population. This includes various denominations such as Presbyterians, Baptists, Evangelicals, and Pentecostals. The North-West and South-West provinces (formerly British Cameroons) have the highest proportion of Protestants.
  • Other Christian groups make up a smaller percentage.
• Islam: Muslims are most concentrated in the northern regions (Far North, North, and Adamawa). Islam is practiced by about 30.6% of the population (CIA 2022 estimate). Muslims in Cameroon are divided into Sufis, Salafis, Shias, and non-denominational Muslims. The locally dominant Fulani ethnic group in the north is almost entirely Muslim. The Bamum ethnic group of the West Region is also largely Muslim. The Islamist jihadist group Ansar al-Islam has been reported as operating in North Cameroon, and Boko Haram has also been active in the Far North.
• Traditional African Religions: These faiths are practiced by about 1.3% of the population (CIA 2022 estimate), though many more may incorporate traditional beliefs into their practice of Christianity or Islam. Native traditional religions are practiced in rural areas throughout the country but are rarely practiced publicly in cities, in part because many indigenous religious groups are intrinsically local. Belief in witchcraft is widespread, and the government outlaws such practices. Suspected witches are often subject to mob violence.
• Irreligion/None: About 1.2% of the population identifies as having no religion.

Practitioners of both Christian and Muslim faiths can be found throughout the country, and large cities have significant populations of both groups. Interfaith relations are generally peaceful.

7.5. Education

Education in Cameroon is characterized by a dual system inherited from its colonial past (British and French), with efforts to provide widespread access, though quality and equity challenges persist.
In 2013, the total adult literacy rate in Cameroon was estimated to be 71.3%. Among youths aged 15-24, the literacy rate was 85.4% for males and 76.4% for females.
Most children have access to state-run schools that are generally cheaper than private and religious facilities, which also play a significant role in the education sector. The educational system is a mixture of British and French precedents, with instruction primarily in English or French, reflecting the country's bilingual status.
Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa. However, girls attend school less regularly than boys due to cultural attitudes, domestic duties, early marriage and pregnancy, and sexual harassment. Although attendance rates are higher in the south, a disproportionate number of teachers are stationed there, leaving northern schools chronically understaffed. In 2013, the primary school enrollment rate was 93.5%.
The structure of the education system typically includes primary (usually 6 years), secondary (often divided into a first cycle of 4-5 years and a second cycle of 2-3 years leading to qualifications like the GCE Ordinary and Advanced Levels in the Anglophone system, or the BEPC and Baccalauréat in the Francophone system), and tertiary levels. Major universities include the University of Yaoundé I and II, University of Douala, University of Buea, University of Dschang, and University of Ngaoundéré.
Challenges facing the education sector include:

• Quality:** Issues with teacher training, curriculum relevance, and availability of learning materials affect educational quality.
• Equity:** Disparities exist in access and quality between urban and rural areas, and between regions. The Anglophone regions have raised concerns about the imposition of the Francophone educational model.
• Child Labor:** School attendance is also affected by child labour. The United States Department of Labor reported that 56% of children aged 5 to 14 were working children, and almost 53% of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school. Cameroon has been listed among countries resorting to child labor in cocoa production.
• Funding:** Insufficient funding can impact infrastructure, teacher salaries, and resources.

Despite these challenges, the government aims to improve the education system as part of its national development goals.

7.6. Health

The quality of health care is generally low, particularly outside major urban centers where facilities are often poorly equipped and sometimes unsanitary.
Key health indicators include:

• Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 56 years in 2012, with 48 healthy life years expected.
• The maternal mortality rate and infant mortality rate remain high.
• The fertility rate is high, with an average of 4.8 births per woman in 2013, and an average mother's age of 19.7 years old at first birth.
• The contraceptive prevalence rate was estimated at just 34.4% in 2014.

The healthcare system faces significant challenges:

• Access to Services:** There is a shortage of healthcare professionals, with only one doctor for every 5,000 people according to the WHO. Many trained doctors and nurses emigrate due to poor pay and high workload.
• Funding:** In 2014, just 4.1% of total GDP expenditure was allocated to healthcare. Financial cuts have impacted the system.
• Major Diseases:** Endemic diseases include dengue fever, filariasis, leishmaniasis, malaria, meningitis, schistosomiasis, and sleeping sickness. In 2012, the top three deadly diseases were HIV/AIDS, lower respiratory tract infections, and diarrheal diseases.
• HIV/AIDS:** The HIV/AIDS prevalence rate in 2016 was estimated at 3.8% for those aged 15-49. A strong stigma against the illness keeps the number of reported cases artificially low. In 2016, 46,000 children under age 14 were estimated to be living with HIV. Only 58% of those living with HIV knew their status, and just 37% received ARV treatment. In 2016, 29,000 deaths due to AIDS occurred in both adults and children.

Traditional healers remain a popular alternative to evidence-based medicine. Certain traditional practices can also affect health. Breast ironing, prevalent in some communities, may harm girls' health. Female genital mutilation (FGM), while not widespread (1% of women according to a 2013 UNICEF report), is practiced among some populations.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Cameroon ranks 79th out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Cameroon's GHI score is 18.3, which is considered moderate.

7.7. Refugees and internal displacement

Cameroon hosts a significant number of refugees from neighboring countries and also grapples with a large population of internally displaced persons (IDPs) due to internal conflicts.

• Refugees:
  • In 2007, Cameroon hosted approximately 97,400 refugees and asylum seekers. Of these, 49,300 were from the Central African Republic (CAR), many driven west by war in their home country. Another 41,600 were from Chad, and 2,900 from Nigeria.
  • In the first months of 2014, thousands more refugees fleeing violence in the CAR arrived in Cameroon. The UN reported that women and children were arriving in a shocking state after weeks or months on the road. By June 2014, almost 90,000 people had fled to Cameroon from CAR since December of the previous year, with up to 2,000 a week still crossing the border.
• Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs):
  • The Anglophone Crisis, which began in 2016 in the Northwest and Southwest Regions, has led to massive internal displacement. As of recent estimates (e.g., OCHA reports mentioned in source data for 2023), at least 628,000 people have been internally displaced by violence in these two regions. These IDPs often face dire humanitarian conditions, lacking adequate shelter, food, water, and healthcare. Many have reportedly hidden in forests to escape violence.
  • The Boko Haram insurgency in the Far North Region has also caused significant internal displacement, as well as refugee flows from Nigeria into Cameroon.

  The combined refugee and IDP populations place a substantial strain on Cameroon's resources and host communities. Humanitarian organizations work to provide assistance, but access can be challenging in conflict-affected areas. Kidnappings of Cameroonian citizens by Central African bandits had increased since 2005, further compounding security issues in border regions. The needs of these vulnerable populations include protection, food security, healthcare, education, and psychosocial support.

8.1. Music and dance

Music and dance are integral to Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling. Traditional dances are often highly choreographed, sometimes separating men and women or forbidding participation by one sex altogether. The purposes of these dances range from pure entertainment to religious devotion.
Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist. Musical accompaniment can be as simple as clapping hands and stamping feet, but traditional instruments are diverse and vary by ethnic group and region. These include bells worn by dancers, clappers, drums (including talking drums), flutes, horns, rattles, scrapers, stringed instruments (like harplike instruments), whistles, and xylophones. Some performers sing complete songs alone, accompanying themselves on an instrument.
Popular traditional music styles include ambasse bey of the coastal peoples, assiko of the Bassa, mangambeu of the Bangangte, and tsamassi of the Bamileke.
Two of the most well-known contemporary Cameroonian music genres are Makossa and Bikutsi.

• Makossa: Originating in Douala, Makossa is an urban sound that blends traditional Cameroonian folk music with highlife, soul, and Congolese rumba. Artists like Manu Dibango (whose "Soul Makossa" gained international fame), Francis Bebey, Moni Bilé, and Petit-Pays popularized the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s.
• Bikutsi: This genre originated as war music among the Ewondo people. It is characterized by its intense, upfront 6/8 rhythm. Artists such as Anne-Marie Nzié developed it into popular dance music beginning in the 1940s, and performers like Mama Ohandja and Les Têtes Brulées (known for their energetic performances and shaved heads) brought it to international audiences during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.

Nigerian music has also influenced Anglophone Cameroonian performers, and Prince Nico Mbarga's highlife hit "Sweet Mother" remains one of the top-selling African records in history.

8.2. Cuisine

Cameroonian cuisine is varied and reflects the country's diverse geography and ethnic groups. A large, one-course evening meal is common throughout the country.
Staple foods form the base of most meals and include cocoyams, maize (corn), cassava (manioc), millet, plantains, potatoes, rice, or yams. These are often pounded into a dough-like consistency called fufu (known by various local names).
These staples are typically served with a sauce, soup, or stew made from greens (such as bitterleaf for Ndolé, a national dish), groundnuts (peanuts), palm oil, tomatoes, onions, and other ingredients. Ndolé, often considered the national dish, is a flavorful stew made with bitterleaf, groundnuts, and often includes fish or meat. Other popular dishes include Achu soup (with pounded cocoyams), Eru (a vegetable soup), and various grilled fish and meat preparations.
Meat and fish are popular but can be expensive additions, with chicken often reserved for special occasions. Bushmeat has traditionally been a part of the diet in rural areas and is sometimes considered a delicacy in urban centers, though its trade raises conservation concerns.
Dishes are often quite spicy, with common seasonings including salt, red pepper sauce, and Maggi cubes.
Cutlery is common, but food is traditionally eaten with the right hand, especially in rural areas or for certain dishes. Breakfast often consists of leftovers, bread, or fruit, accompanied by coffee or tea. Popular breakfast items made from wheat flour include puff-puff (doughnuts), accra banana (banana fritters), and bean cakes. Snacks are popular, especially in larger towns, where they can be bought from street vendors. These might include grilled plantains, roasted corn, or meat skewers (soya).

8.3. Fashion

Cameroonian fashion is diverse, reflecting the country's numerous ethnic groups, climatic variations, religious beliefs, and influences from colonialism and globalization. Traditional attire plays a significant role in cultural identity and is often worn for ceremonies, festivals, and important social occasions, while contemporary fashion incorporates both local and international styles.
Common traditional garments include:

• Pagne: A versatile piece of cloth, similar to a sarong, widely worn by women. It can be wrapped around the waist as a skirt, used as a head tie, or tailored into dresses and other outfits. Pagnes often feature vibrant colors and intricate patterns. Wrappers and loincloths are used extensively by both women and men, with regional variations; Fulani styles are more present in the north, while Igbo and Yoruba styles influence the south and west.
• Gandoura: A flowing robe, often embroidered, worn by men, particularly in the northern Muslim regions. It is similar to robes found in other parts of West Africa and the Sahel.
• Toghu (or Atoghu): A distinctive and prestigious traditional garment from the Grassfields region (Northwest and West Regions). It is a heavy, often black, robe or gown intricately embroidered with colorful geometric patterns. The Toghu is worn by both men and women for special occasions and signifies royalty or high status.
• Chechia: A traditional brimless cap, often red or black, worn by men in some regions.
• Kwa: A traditional male handbag or shoulder bag, often made of leather or woven materials.

Contemporary Cameroonian fashion often blends traditional fabrics and motifs with modern designs. Local designers are increasingly gaining recognition for creating unique styles that fuse cultural heritage with global trends. Imane Ayissi is one of Cameroon's most prominent fashion designers and has received international recognition for his work, which often incorporates traditional African textiles into haute couture. The use of vibrant wax prints (often called "Ankara" in other parts of Africa) is also widespread in everyday and formal wear.

8.4. Arts and crafts

Traditional arts and crafts are practiced throughout Cameroon for commercial, decorative, and religious or ceremonial purposes, showcasing the rich cultural heritage of its diverse ethnic groups.

• Woodcarving and Sculpture: This is a particularly common and highly developed art form. Carvings include masks (used in traditional ceremonies and dances), statues (often representing ancestors or spirits), and intricately decorated furniture, stools, and household items. Styles vary significantly by region; for example, Grassfields kingdoms like the Bamum and Bamileke are renowned for their powerful and expressive wooden sculptures.
• Pottery and Ceramics: The high-quality clay found in the western highlands is used to create pottery and ceramics. These range from utilitarian pots for cooking and storage to more decorative pieces.
• Basket Weaving: Baskets of various shapes, sizes, and designs are woven from natural fibers for carrying goods, storage, and decoration.
• Beadwork: Elaborate beadwork is used to adorn clothing, masks, statues, and jewelry, particularly in the Grassfields region. Beads are often used to create intricate patterns and symbols with cultural significance.
• Brass and Bronze Working: Some ethnic groups, like the Bamum, have a long tradition of brass and bronze casting, producing items such as pipes, jewelry, and ceremonial objects using the lost-wax method.
• Calabash Carving and Painting: Calabashes (gourds) are dried and then carved or painted with intricate designs, serving as containers, musical instruments, or decorative items.
• Embroidery: This is notably seen on traditional garments like the Toghu from the Grassfields, where elaborate and colorful patterns are stitched onto fabric.
• Leather Working: In the northern regions, leatherworking is a traditional craft, producing items like bags, sandals, and harnesses.
• Textile Work: Besides embroidery, various forms of textile work exist, including the creation of traditional cloths and woven materials.

Traditional housing styles also reflect local artistry and use of materials, varying from temporary wood-and-leaf shelters of nomadic groups like the Mbororo to the rectangular mud-and-thatch homes of southern peoples. Conical mud-brick houses with thatched roofs, like the Musgum "cases obus," are distinctive to the Far North. Dwellings made of modern materials like cement and tin are increasingly common.
Contemporary art in Cameroon is mainly promoted by independent cultural organizations (such as Doual'art in Douala and Africréa) and artist-run initiatives (like Art Wash, Atelier Viking, and ArtBakery), which support emerging and established artists working in various media.

8.5. Literature

Cameroonian literature encompasses both rich oral traditions and a vibrant body of modern written works in French and English, reflecting the country's bilingual colonial heritage and diverse cultural landscape.

• Oral Literary Tradition: Before widespread literacy, storytelling, proverbs, myths, legends, and epic poems formed the backbone of literary expression. These oral traditions were, and in many communities still are, vital for transmitting cultural values, history, and social norms.
• Colonial-Era Writers: Early written literature emerged during the colonial period. Writers such as Louis-Marie Pouka and Sankie Maimo, often educated by European missionary societies, sometimes advocated for assimilation into European culture as a means to modernize Cameroon.
• Post-World War II and Anti-Colonial Literature: After World War II, a new generation of writers emerged, often critical of colonialism and rejecting assimilation. Mongo Beti (Alexandre Biyidi Awala) and Ferdinand Oyono are two of the most prominent figures from this era. Their novels, written in French, powerfully satirized and condemned the injustices and hypocrisies of colonial rule and its impact on African societies. Works like Beti's "Le Pauvre Christ de Bomba" (The Poor Christ of Bomba) and Oyono's "Une vie de boy" (Houseboy) and "Le Vieux Nègre et la Médaille" (The Old Man and the Medal) gained international acclaim.
• Post-Independence Themes: In the 1960s and beyond, writers continued to explore postcolonial themes, including the challenges of nation-building, disillusionment with post-independence leadership, corruption, social inequality, and the quest for African identity. Writers like Francis Bebey (also a renowned musician) contributed significantly with works like "Agatha Moudio's Son."
• Anglophone Literature: A distinct body of Cameroonian literature in English has also developed, often addressing the specific experiences and concerns of the Anglophone minority. Writers from this tradition include Mbella Sonne Dipoko and, more recently, Imbolo Mbue, whose novel "Behold the Dreamers" (2016) achieved international success.
• Contemporary Literature: Modern Cameroonian literature continues to tackle a wide range of themes, including urbanization, gender issues, political commentary, and the diaspora experience. Female writers like Calixthe Beyala have gained prominence for their exploration of feminist themes and social critique.

Major literary themes in Cameroonian literature often revolve around the clash between tradition and modernity, the legacy of colonialism, political satire, social justice, and the search for personal and national identity.

8.6. Cinema

The history and development of Cameroonian cinema began shortly after independence, with early filmmakers exploring themes similar to those in literature, often focusing on cultural identity, the impact of colonialism, and postcolonial societal challenges.
Early filmmakers such as Jean-Paul Ngassa and Thérèse Sita-Bella (one of Africa's first female filmmakers) were pioneers in the 1960s.
In the mid-1970s, filmmakers like Jean-Pierre Dikongué Pipa and Daniel Kamwa gained recognition for their work addressing the conflicts between traditional and postcolonial society. Dikongué Pipa's film "Muna Moto" (1975) is considered a classic of African cinema and won awards at international film festivals. Daniel Kamwa's films also explored social and cultural issues.
Literature and films during the subsequent two decades (1980s and 1990s) increasingly focused on wholly Cameroonian themes, moving beyond direct critiques of colonialism to examine contemporary social realities, urban life, and interpersonal relationships within Cameroonian society.
Other notable Cameroonian film directors include Bassek Ba Kobhio, who has also been influential in promoting African cinema.
The Cameroonian film industry, sometimes referred to as "Collywood," faces challenges common to many African film industries, including limited funding, inadequate infrastructure for production and distribution, and competition from foreign films. However, there is a growing number of independent filmmakers and an increasing presence at regional and international film festivals. Efforts are being made to develop the local industry and provide platforms for Cameroonian filmmakers to share their stories.

8.7. Sports

Sport in Cameroon is diverse, with a strong national policy advocating for participation in all forms. Traditional sports include canoe racing and wrestling. Several hundred runners participate in the 25 mile ^{(40 km)} Mount Cameroon Race of Hope each year. Cameroon is one of the few tropical countries to have competed in the Winter Olympics, with Isaac Menyoli participating in skiing at the 2002 Salt Lake City Games.
However, sport in Cameroon is overwhelmingly dominated by football (soccer). Amateur football clubs are abundant, often organized along ethnic lines or under corporate sponsors.
The Cameroon national football team, famously known as the "Indomitable Lions" (Les Lions Indomptables_{The Indomitable Lions}^French), has been one ofthe most successful national teams in Africa. Their achievements include:

• Winning the Africa Cup of Nations (AFCON) five times (1984, 1988, 2000, 2002, 2017).
• A strong showing in the 1982 and particularly the 1990 FIFA World Cup, where they became the first African team to reach the quarter-finals, capturing global attention with players like Roger Milla.
• Winning the gold medal in men's football at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.

Cameroon has produced many notable footballers who have played for top clubs in Europe and around the world, including Samuel Eto'o (considered one of Africa's greatest players), Roger Milla, Patrick Mboma, Alexandre Song, and Carlos Kameni. Joël Matip and Eric Maxim Choupo-Moting are more recent prominent players.
The Cameroon women's national football team is known as the "Indomitable Lionesses." They have also achieved success on the international stage, although they have not won a major trophy like their male counterparts. They have participated in the FIFA Women's World Cup and the Africa Women Cup of Nations.
Cameroon hosted the Africa Women Cup of Nations in November-December 2016, the 2020 African Nations Championship, and the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations.
Other sports like basketball are also popular. Cameroon has produced multiple National Basketball Association (NBA) players, including Pascal Siakam, Joel Embiid, D. J. Strawberry, Ruben Boumtje-Boumtje, Christian Koloko, and Luc Mbah a Moute.
In combat sports, former UFC Heavyweight Champion Francis Ngannou hails from Cameroon.
Cricket is an emerging sport, with the Cameroon Cricket Federation participating in international matches.

8.8. Media

The media landscape in Cameroon includes newspapers, radio stations, television channels, and online media.
State-run media, such as Cameroon Radio Television (CRTV), have historically played a dominant role in broadcasting. While private media outlets have proliferated since the liberalization in the 1990s, they often face challenges.
Press freedom is a concern. Although improvements were noted in the early 21st century, the press can be influenced by special interests and political groups. Newspapers frequently practice self-censorship to avoid government reprisals, particularly when reporting on sensitive topics like corruption, human rights abuses, or the Anglophone Crisis. Journalists have faced harassment, arrest, and prosecution.
Communications infrastructure, such as land-based telephones and telegraphs, has traditionally been largely under government control. However, mobile phone networks and internet providers have increased dramatically since the first decade of the 21st century and are largely unregulated. Internet usage has grown, particularly in urban areas, and social media has become an important platform for information and discourse. However, the government has resorted to internet shutdowns, especially in the Anglophone regions, as a means of controlling information flow during periods of unrest, drawing criticism from human rights organizations.

8.9. Public holidays

Cameroon observes several public holidays, which include national secular holidays and significant religious holidays reflecting the country's diverse religious makeup.
Major national public holidays include:

• January 1:** New Year's Day
• February 11:** National Youth Day - A day dedicated to the youth of the country, with parades and official ceremonies.
• May 1:** Labour Day
• May 20:** National Day (also known as Unity Day) - This is the most notable patriotic holiday. It commemorates the 1972 referendum that abolished the federal system and created a unitary state. It is celebrated with large military and civilian parades, particularly in Yaoundé.
• August 15:** Assumption Day (Christian holiday, primarily Catholic)
• October 1:** Unification Day - Commemorates the 1961 unification of Southern Cameroons (British) with the Republic of Cameroun (formerly French). In the Northwest and Southwest provinces (former Southern Cameroons, also referred to by separatists as Ambazonia), this date is considered by some as their day of independence, leading to tensions and alternative observances.
• December 25:** Christmas Day (Christian holiday)

Other significant religious holidays that are public holidays include:

• Christian: Good Friday, Easter Sunday, Easter Monday, Ascension Day (typically 39 days after Easter).
• Islamic: Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (Feast of Sacrifice). The dates of these holidays vary according to the Islamic lunar calendar.

These holidays are celebrated with various festivities, religious services, family gatherings, and public events, reflecting the cultural and religious diversity of Cameroon.