Ivory Coast

3.1. Pre-colonial Period

The earliest human presence in Ivory Coast is difficult to pinpoint precisely due to the humid climate which does not preserve human remains well. However, archaeological findings, including polished axes and remnants of cooking and fishing activities, suggest a significant human presence during the Upper Paleolithic period (15,000 to 10,000 BC) or, at the latest, the Neolithic period. These early inhabitants are believed to have been displaced or absorbed by the ancestors of the current indigenous populations who migrated southward before the 16th century. Among these early groups were the Ehotilé (near Aboisso), Kotrowou (near Fresco), Zéhiri (near Grand-Lahou), Ega, and Diès (near Divo).

Recorded history in the region begins with chronicles from North African (Berber) traders who, from early Roman times, conducted trans-Saharan caravan trade in salt, slaves, gold, and other goods. The southern terminals of these trade routes, such as Djenné, Gao, and Timbuktu, became major commercial centers around which large Sudanic empires like the Ghana Empire (4th-13th centuries) and the Mali Empire (14th century) developed. These empires also became centers of Islamic learning, and Islam spread southwards, reaching the northern areas of contemporary Ivory Coast by the 11th century. The Songhai Empire (14th-16th centuries) later emerged, but its internal discord spurred migrations towards the forest belt in the south. The dense rainforest in southern Ivory Coast hindered the formation of large-scale political organizations like those in the north; inhabitants lived in villages, relying on agriculture and hunting.

Several important states flourished in Ivory Coast during the pre-European early modern period.

• The Kong Empire, established by the Dyula in the early 18th century in the north-central region, became a prosperous center for agriculture, trade, and crafts. However, ethnic diversity and religious discord eventually weakened it, leading to its conquest by Samori Ture of the Wassoulou Empire in 1895.
• The Abron kingdom of Gyaaman was established in the 17th century by Akan people who fled the rising Asante confederation in present-day Ghana. Centered south of Bondoukou, they extended their influence over the Dyula in Bondoukou, which became a major center of commerce and Islamic scholarship.
• In east-central Ivory Coast, other Akan groups fleeing the Asante established the Baoulé kingdom at Sakassou and two Agni kingdoms, Indénié and Sanwi, in the mid-17th century. The Baoulé developed a centralized political structure but later fragmented. They, along with the Agni, strongly resisted French subjugation. The Sanwi even attempted to secede in 1969.

3.2. French Colonial Era

Compared to neighboring Ghana, Ivory Coast was less affected by the Atlantic slave trade, as European slave and merchant ships favored other coastal areas. The Portuguese made the earliest recorded European voyage to West Africa in 1482. French presence began with a mission at Assinie near the Gold Coast (now Ghana) border in 1687, but a firm establishment occurred only in the mid-19th century. In 1843-44, French Admiral Louis Édouard Bouët-Willaumez signed treaties with kings in the Grand-Bassam and Assinie regions, establishing French protectorates. French explorers, missionaries, trading companies, and soldiers gradually extended control inland. The first French posts included Assinie and Grand-Bassam, which became the colony's first capital. These treaties allowed French sovereignty within posts and trading privileges in exchange for annual fees paid to local chiefs.

After France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1871), colonial ambitions waned temporarily, and posts like Grand-Bassam were left in the care of merchants such as Arthur Verdier. However, by 1886, France reasserted direct control to support its claims of effective occupation. Lieutenant Louis-Gustave Binger undertook a two-year journey (1887-1889) through the interior, concluding treaties that established French protectorates. Simultaneously, Verdier's agent, Marcel Treich-Laplène, negotiated further agreements.

In 1893, Ivory Coast officially became a French colony, with Grand-Bassam as its capital, and Binger was appointed governor. Agreements with Liberia (1892) and Britain (1893) defined its eastern and western borders, but the northern boundary was not fixed until 1947 due to French efforts to attach parts of Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and French Sudan (now Mali) for economic and administrative reasons. Pacification of the entire territory was not achieved until 1915.

The primary French goal was to stimulate export production. Coffee, cocoa, and palm oil plantations were established along the coast. Ivory Coast became notable for its relatively large European settler population, many of whom owned plantations and utilized local forced-labor systems. Indigenous populations resisted French penetration, notably Samori Ture, founder of the Wassoulou Empire, whose well-equipped army fought French expansion until his capture in 1898.

The imposition of a head tax in 1900 to fund public works provoked protests, as many Ivorians viewed it as a violation of protectorate treaties and a symbol of submission. Slavery was officially abolished in most of French West Africa in 1905. From 1904 to 1958, Ivory Coast was part of the Federation of French West Africa, administered from Paris. French colonial policy was based on "association," meaning Africans were French "subjects" without representation rights. Concepts of assimilation and association were applied, with French culture considered superior. A small number of Westernized Ivorians were granted French citizenship after 1930, but most remained subjects under the indigénat, a separate legal system involving forced labor and military service.

During World War II, the Vichy regime controlled the territory until 1943, when Charles de Gaulle's provisional government took over. Post-war reforms in 1946, influenced by the Brazzaville Conference and gratitude for African loyalty, granted French citizenship to all African "subjects," recognized the right to organize politically, and abolished forced labor. However, the centralized administration left little room for Ivorian policy-making participation. While initially seeking equality through assimilation, Ivorian leaders increasingly realized that true equality and an end to discrimination would only come with complete independence.

3.3. Independence and Houphouët-Boigny Era

Félix Houphouët-Boigny, son of a Baoulé chief, became the father of Ivorian independence. In 1944, he formed the first agricultural trade union for African cocoa farmers to counter colonial policies favoring French plantation owners. He was elected to the French Parliament in Paris and, a year later, France abolished forced labor. Houphouët-Boigny cultivated a strong relationship with France, believing it would benefit Ivory Coast, and he became the first African minister in a European government.
The 1956 Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) transferred powers from Paris to elected territorial governments in French West Africa and removed voting inequities. On 4 December 1958, Ivory Coast became an autonomous member of the French Community.

By 1960, Ivory Coast was French West Africa's most prosperous territory, contributing over 40% of the region's exports. It achieved full independence on 7 August 1960, with Houphouët-Boigny as its first president. His government stimulated agricultural production through good prices and encouraged immigration of workers from neighboring countries. Coffee production surged, making Ivory Coast the world's third-largest producer. By 1979, it was the world's leading cocoa producer and a major exporter of pineapples and palm oil. This period of rapid economic growth, often referred to as the "Ivorian miracle," saw an annual growth rate of nearly 10% for two decades, the highest among Africa's non-oil-exporting countries. French technicians played a role, and the French expatriate community grew significantly, from 30,000 before independence to 60,000 by 1980, mostly teachers, managers, and advisors.

Houphouët-Boigny's rule, under the PDCI, was characterized by political stability but also a one-party system that did not tolerate political competition. Laurent Gbagbo, who later became president, founded the FPI and had to flee the country in the 1980s due to Houphouët-Boigny's opposition. Despite this, Houphouët-Boigny maintained broad popular support and was repeatedly re-elected. He was criticized for costly large-scale projects, such as transforming his home village of Yamoussoukro into the new political capital.

In the early 1980s, a global recession and local drought severely impacted the Ivorian economy. Overcutting of timber and collapsing sugar prices tripled the country's external debt. Crime rose in Abidjan due to unemployment. In 1990, strikes by civil servants and student protests against corruption forced the government to support multi-party democracy. Houphouët-Boigny, increasingly frail, died in 1993, favoring Henri Konan Bédié as his successor. His long rule, while bringing prosperity and stability, also sowed seeds of future conflict by concentrating power and not adequately addressing underlying ethnic and social tensions, particularly concerning land and citizenship for the large immigrant population that fueled the economic boom.

3.4. Political Instability and Conflicts

The death of Félix Houphouët-Boigny in 1993 ushered in an era of political instability, marked by controversial policies, a military coup, and two devastating civil wars. These conflicts significantly impacted human rights, deepened societal divisions, and undermined the country's democratic development.

3.4.2. First Ivorian Civil War (2002-2007)

A presidential election was held in October 2000, in which Laurent Gbagbo of the Ivorian Popular Front (FPI) vied with General Robert Guéï. The election was tumultuous; Alassane Ouattara was disqualified by the Supreme Court due to his contested nationality under Ivoirité rules. After Guéï initially tried to claim victory despite results favoring Gbagbo, a popular uprising in Abidjan, resulting in around 180 deaths, forced Guéï out, and Gbagbo assumed the presidency. Ouattara's disqualification led to violent protests by his supporters, mainly from the north.

On 19 September 2002, while Gbagbo was in Italy, an armed uprising began. Soldiers scheduled for demobilization mutinied, launching attacks in Abidjan, Bouaké, and Korhogo. The government quickly regained control of Abidjan, but rebel forces, soon known as the Forces Nouvelles de Côte d'Ivoire (New Forces or FNCI), secured the northern half of the country, establishing their stronghold in Bouaké. The rebels claimed to be fighting against the exclusion of northerners and the Gbagbo government's policies. During the initial fighting, former president Robert Guéï was killed; the government claimed he led the coup attempt, while others alleged he was assassinated. Ouattara's home was burned, and he took refuge in the German embassy.

The country was effectively split in two: the government-controlled south and the rebel-held north. France deployed troops (Operation Licorne) to halt the rebel advance and protect French citizens, creating a buffer zone. This intervention was controversial, with both sides accusing France of partiality. ECOWAS also deployed peacekeeping forces. Militias, including fighters from Liberia and Sierra Leone, exploited the crisis, seizing parts of the west.

International mediation led to the Linas-Marcoussis Accord in January 2003, which proposed a government of national unity including rebel representatives, with Seydou Diarra as a consensus prime minister. However, the unity government was unstable, and disarmament failed. Human rights violations were widespread, committed by both government forces and rebel groups. In March 2004, an opposition rally in Abidjan was violently suppressed, with around 120 people killed, leading to further mob violence and the evacuation of foreign nationals.

Tensions escalated in November 2004 when Gbagbo ordered airstrikes against rebel positions. During one such strike on Bouaké on 6 November, French peacekeepers were hit, killing nine soldiers. The Ivorian government called it a mistake, but the French claimed it was deliberate. In retaliation, French forces destroyed most of the Ivorian air force. This sparked violent anti-French riots in Abidjan, orchestrated by pro-Gbagbo youth militias like the "Young Patriots" led by Charles Blé Goudé, targeting French citizens and properties, leading to further evacuations.

President Gbagbo's term officially expired in October 2005, but elections were repeatedly postponed due to the ongoing crisis and failure to disarm. The UN Security Council extended his mandate annually amid complex political negotiations. A peace accord signed in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, on 4 March 2007, between Gbagbo and New Forces leader Guillaume Soro (who subsequently became Prime Minister) offered renewed hope. The accord outlined steps for disarmament, reunification, and elections. However, implementation remained slow, and underlying tensions persisted. The war caused significant humanitarian suffering, displacement, and severe damage to infrastructure, including water and sanitation systems.

3.4.3. Second Ivorian Civil War (2010-2011)

The long-delayed presidential election was finally held in two rounds: on 31 October and 28 November 2010. The main contenders were incumbent President Laurent Gbagbo and former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara. The Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) declared Ouattara the winner of the run-off with 54.1% of the vote. This result was endorsed by international observers, including the United Nations. However, Gbagbo refused to concede. The Constitutional Council, led by a Gbagbo ally, annulled results from several northern regions (Ouattara strongholds), citing fraud, and declared Gbagbo the winner with 51.45% of the vote.

Both Gbagbo and Ouattara held presidential inaugurations, leading to a dangerous standoff and the country being split again. Ouattara established his headquarters at the Golf Hotel in Abidjan, protected by UN peacekeepers (UNOCI) and French forces. The international community, including the African Union (AU), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the European Union, and the United States, recognized Ouattara as the legitimate president and imposed sanctions on Gbagbo and his allies. ECOWAS and the AU suspended Ivory Coast's membership.

The political crisis rapidly escalated into armed conflict. Forces loyal to Gbagbo clashed with those supporting Ouattara, which included elements of the New Forces rebels from the north (now called Republican Forces of Côte d'Ivoire, FRCI). Heavy fighting occurred in Abidjan and other parts of the country. Both sides were accused of serious human rights abuses, including killings of civilians, rape, and recruitment of child soldiers. Hundreds were killed in Duékoué in March 2011, primarily ethnic Guéré perceived as Gbagbo supporters, by FRCI forces. In Bloléquin, dozens more were killed. The conflict led to a major humanitarian crisis, with hundreds of thousands displaced internally and many fleeing to neighboring Liberia.

As Gbagbo's forces intensified attacks, including shelling civilian areas in Abidjan and targeting the Golf Hotel, the UN Security Council authorized UNOCI and French forces to use "all necessary means" to protect civilians and neutralize heavy weapons. In early April 2011, following intense fighting and French/UN military intervention targeting Gbagbo's heavy weaponry, Ouattara's forces launched a final offensive on Gbagbo's residence. Laurent Gbagbo was arrested on 11 April 2011.

The conflict resulted in an estimated 3,000 deaths. Gbagbo was later transferred to the International Criminal Court (ICC) to face charges of crimes against humanity; he was acquitted in 2019 and conditionally released. His wife, Simone Gbagbo, was convicted by an Ivorian court for her role in the post-election violence but was later granted amnesty. The war left the country deeply divided and its economy shattered, posing immense challenges for national reconciliation and reconstruction.

3.5. Ouattara Administration and Contemporary Era

Alassane Ouattara assumed the presidency in 2011 after the end of the Second Ivorian Civil War. His administration faced the immediate tasks of restoring security, promoting national reconciliation, rebuilding the war-torn economy, and addressing impunity for human rights violations.
Efforts towards reconciliation included the establishment of a Dialogue, Truth and Reconciliation Commission (CDVR) in 2011, though its impact was viewed as limited by many, with criticisms regarding its independence and capacity to deliver justice. Prosecutions for war-era crimes were largely one-sided, targeting Gbagbo supporters, which drew criticism from human rights organizations and hampered genuine reconciliation. Laurent Gbagbo's return to Ivory Coast in June 2021, following his acquittal by the ICC, was seen by some as a step towards easing political tensions.

Economically, the Ouattara administration oversaw a period of strong recovery and growth. From 2012 to 2023, the economy grew by an average of 7.1% per year in real terms, driven by public investment in infrastructure, agricultural reforms, and a more stable political environment. Projects like the Boundiali Solar Power Station, launched in December 2022 with a 37.5 MW capacity, aimed to diversify energy sources and promote sustainable development. However, this growth did not always translate into significantly reduced poverty or inequality for all segments of the population. As of 2016, 46.1% of the population was still affected by multidimensional poverty. Concerns about equitable distribution of wealth and job creation, especially for youth, remained.

Challenges to democratic consolidation persisted. Ouattara was re-elected in 2015 in an election largely considered peaceful. However, his decision to run for a controversial third term in the 2020 presidential election sparked significant political tension and an opposition boycott. Ouattara argued that the new constitution adopted in 2016 reset his term limits. The election was marred by violence and low turnout, and his victory was contested by the opposition. The Constitutional Council ratified his re-election. Despite these tensions, Ouattara has emphasized political dialogue and national unity in his later years in office.

The government structure saw changes, with Patrick Achi serving as Prime Minister until Ouattara dissolved the government and removed him in October 2023. Robert Beugré Mambé was appointed as the new Prime Minister shortly thereafter.

On the human rights front, while some progress was made in restoring rule of law, issues such as impunity for past crimes, restrictions on freedom of assembly, and concerns about judicial independence continued to be raised by human rights groups. Social issues like access to education and healthcare, as well as addressing child labor in the cocoa sector, remained ongoing challenges.
In foreign policy, Ivory Coast has maintained close ties with France, though recent years have seen discussions about redefining this relationship. In early 2025, it was announced that France would withdraw its troops, marking a shift in bilateral military cooperation, following similar French disengagements in other West African nations. Ivory Coast continues to play an active role in regional organizations like ECOWAS and the African Union.

4.1. Topography and Borders

Ivory Coast is located on the southern coast of West Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea to the south. It covers a total area of approximately 125 K mile^{2 (322.46 K km2)}. The country's topography is generally characterized by a coastal plain that gradually rises to an inland plateau. The western region features more mountainous terrain, with Mount Richard-Molard (also known as Mount Nimba, shared with Guinea and Liberia) being the highest point at 5.7 K ft ^{(1.75 K m)}.
Major rivers in Ivory Coast include the Cavalla (forming part of the border with Liberia), the Sassandra, the Bandama (the longest river entirely within Ivory Coast), and the Comoé River. The coastline stretches for about 320 mile ^{(515 km)}.
Ivory Coast shares land borders with five countries:

• Liberia to the west (445 mile ^{(716 km)})
• Guinea to the northwest (379 mile ^{(610 km)})
• Mali to the northwest (331 mile ^{(532 km)})
• Burkina Faso to the northeast (363 mile ^{(584 km)})
• Ghana to the east (415 mile ^{(668 km)})

The country lies between latitudes 4° and 11° North, and longitudes 2° and 9° West.

4.2. Climate

The climate of Ivory Coast is generally warm and humid, varying from equatorial on the southern coasts to tropical in the center and semi-arid in the far north.

• Coastal Region**: Experiences an equatorial climate with high humidity and temperatures averaging between 77 °F ^{(25 °C)} and 89.6 °F ^{(32 °C)}. There are two rainy seasons: a long one from May to July and a shorter one from October to November.
• Central Region**: Features a tropical climate with a distinct wet season (June to October) and dry season.
• Northern Region**: Has a savanna climate, characterized by a shorter rainy season and a longer, hotter dry season, particularly from November to March. Temperatures can range from 50 °F ^{(10 °C)} to 104 °F ^{(40 °C)}.

Rainfall is heaviest along the coast and decreases towards the north.

4.3. Biodiversity and Environment

Ivory Coast possesses rich biodiversity, with over 1,200 animal species (including 223 mammals, 702 birds, 161 reptiles, 85 amphibians, and 111 fish species) and 4,700 plant species. It is considered the most biodiverse country in West Africa. The majority of its wildlife resides in the rugged interior.
The country contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Guinean forests, Guinean montane forests, Western Guinean lowland forests, Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, West Sudanian savanna, and Guinean mangroves.
Ivory Coast has nine national parks, established to protect its flora and fauna. Notable parks include:

• Taï National Park: A UNESCO World Heritage site, one of the last primary tropical rainforests in West Africa, home to endangered species like the pygmy hippopotamus and various primate species.
• Comoé National Park: Also a UNESCO World Heritage site, characterized by its diverse habitats ranging from gallery forests to savanna.
• Assagny National Park (or Azagny National Park): Occupying an area of around 42 K acre ^{(17.00 K ha)} (42 K acre ^{(42.00 K acre)}), known for its coastal lagoons and mangrove ecosystems.

Despite its rich biodiversity, Ivory Coast faces significant environmental challenges. Deforestation is a major issue, largely due to agricultural expansion (especially for cocoa and palm oil), logging, and fuelwood collection. It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.64/10, ranking it 143rd globally out of 172 countries. Water pollution, stemming from agricultural runoff, industrial waste, and inadequate sanitation, also poses a serious threat to ecosystems and human health. Conservation efforts are underway, but they struggle against economic pressures and limited resources.

5.1. Government Structure

The government of Ivory Coast operates under a presidential system.

• Executive Branch**: The President is the head of state and head of government, vested with strong executive powers. The President is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The President appoints the Vice President and the Prime Minister, who heads the Council of Ministers (Cabinet). The current president is Alassane Ouattara. The Vice President is Tiémoko Meyliet Koné. The Prime Minister is Robert Beugré Mambé (as of late 2023). The main administrative capital is Yamoussoukro, though many governmental functions and embassies remain in the economic capital, Abidjan.
• Legislative Branch**: The Parliament is bicameral, consisting of:
  • The Senate (upper house): Comprises 99 members. Two-thirds are indirectly elected by regional and local councils, and one-third are appointed by the President. Senators serve five-year terms. The Senate was established under the 2016 constitution.
  • The National Assembly (lower house): Comprises 255 members directly elected in single-seat constituencies for five-year terms.
• Judicial Branch**: The judiciary is nominally independent. The highest courts include the Court of Cassation (for criminal and civil matters), the Council of State (for administrative disputes), and the Court of Auditors (for public finances). There are also lower Courts of Appeal and Courts of First Instance. The Constitutional Council rules on constitutional matters, including election disputes.

5.2. Political Landscape

Ivory Coast's political scene has been dynamic and often turbulent. For three decades after independence, the PDCI (Parti Démocratique de Côte d'Ivoire) was the sole legal party. Multi-party politics was introduced in 1990.
Key political parties include:

• RHDP (Rassemblement des Houphouëtistes pour la Démocratie et la Paix)**: The current ruling coalition, led by President Alassane Ouattara. It includes Ouattara's former party, the Rally of the Republicans (RDR).
• PDCI (Parti Démocratique de Côte d'Ivoire - Rassemblement Démocratique Africain)**: The former ruling party, founded by Félix Houphouët-Boigny. It was led by Henri Konan Bédié until his death in 2023.
• PPA-CI (Parti des Peuples Africains - Côte d'Ivoire)**: Founded by former President Laurent Gbagbo upon his return to the country. It emerged from factions of his previous party, the Ivorian Popular Front (FPI).

Electoral processes have often been contentious. The 2010 presidential election led to a major crisis and civil war. While the 2015 election was largely peaceful, the 2020 election was boycotted by major opposition figures who contested President Ouattara's eligibility for a third term, leading to unrest.
Challenges to democratic governance include ensuring free and fair elections, strengthening political institutions, promoting national reconciliation after conflicts, combating corruption, and upholding political freedoms and human rights. The legacy of Ivoirité and ethnic/regional political mobilization continues to influence the political landscape, although efforts are being made to foster a more inclusive national identity.

5.3. Foreign Relations

Ivory Coast pursues a foreign policy focused on economic and political cooperation, both regionally and internationally. Historically, it maintained very close ties with France, its former colonial power, particularly during the Houphouët-Boigny era. This relationship, part of the Françafrique dynamic, included strong economic, political, and military links. While ties with France remain important, there has been a trend towards diversifying partnerships and asserting greater national sovereignty. In early 2025, it was announced that French troops stationed in Ivory Coast would withdraw, reflecting a broader shift in France's military presence in West Africa.
In Africa, Ivorian diplomacy emphasizes regional integration. It is a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union (AU), and plays an active role in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Ivory Coast formed the Council of the Entente in 1959 with Benin, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Togo.
Globally, Ivory Coast is committed to fair economic and trade relations. It is a member of the United Nations and its various agencies, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), La Francophonie, the Latin Union, and the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone. It has signed key UN treaties, including those related to refugees.
The country has partnered with international organizations and other nations on development issues, such as strengthening water and sanitation infrastructure with help from UNICEF and corporations like Nestle, aligning with the UN's Sustainable Development Goals.

5.4. Military

The Armed Forces of Côte d'Ivoire (Forces Armées de Côte d'Ivoire_FACI^French) consist of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and the National Gendarmerie, which often plays a role in internal security. The military's estimated personnel strength was around 22,000 as of 2017.
The FACI originated from the colonial forces of French West Africa. After independence in 1960, France assisted in establishing the new national military. Throughout its history, the military has been involved in politics, including coups and the civil wars of the 2000s. Post-conflict, efforts have focused on reform, professionalization, and reintegration of former combatants.
As of 2012, major equipment reported for the Army included T-55 tanks (potentially unserviceable), AMX-13 light tanks, reconnaissance vehicles, BMP-1/2 armored infantry fighting vehicles, wheeled APCs, and artillery pieces. The Air Force in 2012 reportedly had limited operational aircraft, including one Mil Mi-24 attack helicopter and three SA330L Puma transport helicopters (potentially unserviceable). The military has undergone restructuring and re-equipment efforts following the civil wars.
Ivory Coast signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in 2017, reflecting its commitment to international disarmament efforts.
National defense policy focuses on territorial integrity, internal security, and participation in regional peacekeeping efforts. The country has faced challenges with military discipline and cohesion, evidenced by mutinies in 2017 over pay and conditions.

5.5. Administrative Divisions

Since a reorganization in 2011, Ivory Coast has been administratively divided into 12 Districts and two district-level autonomous cities (Abidjan and Yamoussoukro). The districts (excluding the autonomous cities) are further subdivided into 31 Regions. The regions are then divided into 108 Departments, and the departments are divided into 510 Sub-prefectures. In some instances, multiple villages are organized into Communes.
The autonomous districts of Abidjan and Yamoussoukro are not subdivided into regions but do contain departments, sub-prefectures, and communes. Governors for the 12 non-autonomous districts have not been consistently appointed, which has sometimes affected their functionality as governmental entities.

The districts are:
1. **Abidjan** (Autonomous District)
2. **Bas-Sassandra**
3. **Comoé**
4. **Denguélé**
5. **Gôh-Djiboua**
6. **Lacs**
7. **Lagunes**
8. **Montagnes**
9. **Sassandra-Marahoué**
10. **Savanes**
11. **Vallée du Bandama**
12. **Woroba**
13. **Yamoussoukro** (Autonomous District)
14. **Zanzan**

Largest Cities:
The most populous cities play crucial roles as economic, administrative, and cultural centers.

• Abidjan**: The largest city and economic capital, a major port and commercial hub.
• Bouaké**: The second-largest city, located in the center of the country, an important transport and trade center.
• Daloa**: A major trading center in the cocoa-growing belt of the west-central region.
• Yamoussoukro**: The official political capital, birthplace of Félix Houphouët-Boigny.
• San-Pédro**: The country's second port city, important for cocoa and timber exports.
• Korhogo**: The main city in the north, a center for the Senufo people.

6.1. Overview and Structure

Ivory Coast has a relatively high income per capita for the West African region. In 2017, its GDP per capita was 1.66 K USD. It is the largest economy in the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA), accounting for 40% of the monetary union's total GDP. It is also the fourth-largest exporter of general goods in sub-Saharan Africa, following South Africa, Nigeria, and Angola.
Key economic indicators include its Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which was approximately 28.20 B USD in 2013. The economy experienced robust growth from 2012 to 2023, averaging 7.1% per year in real terms, one of the fastest rates in Africa. The main sectors contributing to the economy are agriculture, industry (including mining and manufacturing), and services. The currency used is the West African CFA franc (XOF).

6.2. Key Sectors

The Ivorian economy is structured around several key sectors, with agriculture historically playing a dominant role, complemented by growing industrial and service sectors.

6.2.1. Agriculture

Agriculture is the cornerstone of the Ivorian economy, employing a significant portion of the workforce, largely through smallholder cash-crop production.

• Cocoa**: Ivory Coast is the world's largest producer and exporter of cocoa beans. In 2009, cocoa exports earned 2.53 B USD. The sector is vital for export revenues but faces challenges related to price volatility, sustainable farming practices, and deforestation.
• Coffee**: Another major export crop, though its prominence has varied with global prices and diversification efforts.
• Other Crops**: The country is a significant producer of rubber, palm oil, cotton, pineapples, and bananas. Rubber farming has grown, with 100,000 farmers earning 105.00 M USD in 2012.

Agricultural policies aim to improve productivity and farmer incomes. However, social issues are prevalent, particularly child labor in the cocoa sector, which has drawn international scrutiny and efforts for reform. The livelihoods of farmers are often precarious due to dependence on fluctuating global commodity prices and the impacts of climate change.

6.3. Trade and Investment

Ivory Coast is an open economy heavily reliant on international trade.

• Principal Exports**: Cocoa, coffee, timber, petroleum products, palm oil, cotton, rubber, pineapples, and fish.
• Principal Imports**: Fuel, capital equipment, and foodstuffs.
• Major Trading Partners**: Include European Union countries (especially France and the Netherlands), the United States, Nigeria, and increasingly, Asian countries like China.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) has fluctuated with political stability but has seen renewed interest, particularly in infrastructure, mining, and agriculture. The government actively seeks to attract investment through various reforms and incentives. International economic cooperation with bodies like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank has been crucial for debt relief and development financing.

6.4. Economic Development and Challenges

Ivory Coast's economic history includes the "Ivorian miracle" of high growth in the 1960s and 1970s, followed by an economic crisis in the 1980s due to falling commodity prices and rising debt. The political turmoil from 1999 to 2011 further damaged the economy.
Since 2011, there has been significant economic recovery and high growth rates. The government has focused on infrastructure development, agricultural diversification, and improving the business climate through National Development Plans.
Despite economic progress, significant challenges remain:

• Poverty and Inequality**: A large portion of the population still lives in poverty. According to a 2016 survey, 46.1% of the population was affected by multidimensional poverty. Income inequality between urban and rural areas, and between different regions, is a concern.
• Unemployment**: Youth unemployment is a major social and economic challenge. While self-employment has grown, formal job creation struggles to keep pace with population growth. Unemployment was 9.4% in 2012.
• Social Equity**: Ensuring that the benefits of economic growth are shared more widely and address issues like access to education, healthcare, and basic services is crucial.
• Sustainable Development**: Balancing economic development with environmental protection is a key challenge, particularly regarding deforestation linked to agriculture and resource extraction.
• Debt Management**: While past debt relief initiatives have helped, prudent management of new borrowing is essential for long-term fiscal stability.

Future economic prospects depend on continued political stability, structural reforms, diversification, investment in human capital, and addressing social and environmental challenges.

7.1. Population

The population of Ivory Coast was 29,389,150 according to the 2021 census, a significant increase from 22,671,331 in the 2014 census and 6.7 million in the first national census in 1975. As of 2024, the estimated population is 31.5 million. The country has experienced rapid population growth.
The total fertility rate was 4.3 children per woman in 2021 (3.6 in urban areas, 5.3 in rural areas), down from 5.0 in 2012. The population is youthful, with about 40.9% under the age of 15 in 2010.
Urbanization is increasing, with Abidjan being the largest urban agglomeration. Population density varies across the country. Ivory Coast has also historically been a destination for migrants from neighboring West African countries, contributing to its demographic makeup, although this has also been a source of social and political tension at times.

7.2. Ethnic Groups and Languages

Ivory Coast is home to a rich diversity of ethnic groups, broadly categorized into several macroethnic groupings. These include:

• Akan** (approximately 42.1%): Predominantly in the east and center, including major groups like the Baoulé and Anyi.
• Voltaiques (Gur)** (approximately 17.6%): Mainly in the north, including the Senufo and Lobi.
• Northern Mandé** (approximately 16.5%): In the northwest, including the Dyula (often traders and historically instrumental in spreading Islam) and Maninka.
• Kru** (approximately 11%): In the southwest, including groups like the Bété and Kru proper.
• Southern Mandé** (approximately 10%): In the west, including the Dan (Yacouba) and Guro.

About 77% of the population is considered Ivorian by nationality. Immigrants from neighboring countries like Burkina Faso, Mali, and Guinea constitute a significant portion (around 20%) of the population, historically drawn by economic opportunities, particularly in agriculture.

• Languages**:

An estimated 78 languages are spoken in Ivory Coast.

• French**: The official language, used in government, education, and media. It serves as a lingua franca among the diverse ethnic groups. A local variety known as Nouchi, a French-based creole with words from indigenous languages, has emerged in Abidjan and is popular among youth.
• Indigenous Languages**: Widely spoken in daily life. Some of the most common include:
  • Dyula: A Manding language that serves as an important trade language, especially in the north.
  • Baoulé (Akan group)
  • Bété (Kru group)
  • Dan (Southern Mandé group)
  • Anyin (Akan group)
  • Cebaara Senufo (Gur group)

7.3. Religion

Ivory Coast is a religiously diverse nation with a high degree of religious tolerance.

• Islam**: Adherents (mainly Sunni) represented 42.5% of the population in the 2021 census. Islam is more prevalent in the northern regions.
• Christianity**: Followers (mainly Roman Catholic and various Evangelical denominations) comprised 39.8% in the 2021 census. Christianity is more common in the south. Yamoussoukro is home to the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, one of the largest Christian churches in the world.
• Irreligious**: 12.6% of the population identified as irreligious in 2021.
• Traditional Indigenous Beliefs (Animism)**: Followed by 2.2% of the population in 2021, though these beliefs often coexist or are syncretized with Islam and Christianity.

Historical census data shows shifts in religious adherence: the Muslim population grew by 110% between 1998 and 2021, while the Christian population grew by 150% over the same period. The Animist population saw a significant decline.

7.4. Education

Ivory Coast has made strides in education but faces challenges in access and quality.

• Literacy**: The literacy rate for those aged 15 and over was 89.9% in 2019 (according to The World Factbook), one of the highest in sub-Saharan Africa. However, illiteracy persists, particularly among adult women and in rural areas.
• Structure**: The education system includes primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Primary education (6 years) is officially compulsory, though enrollment is not universal. This is followed by lower secondary (4 years) and upper secondary (3 years) education. Successful completion of secondary education leads to the baccalauréat examination, required for university admission.
• Enrollment**: Many children between 6 and 10 years old are not enrolled in school. Gender disparities exist, with male students often outnumbering females in secondary and higher education.
• Higher Education**: Major universities include the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny (formerly Université de Cocody) in Abidjan and the Université Alassane Ouattara in Bouaké. There are also various specialized higher education institutions and vocational training centers.
• Challenges**: Include inadequate infrastructure, shortage of qualified teachers, regional disparities in access and quality, and ensuring education relevance to job market needs. The civil wars severely disrupted the education system, particularly in the north.

7.5. Health

Key health indicators reflect ongoing challenges despite some improvements.

• Life Expectancy**: In 2004, life expectancy at birth was 42 for males and 47 for females. More recent estimates show improvements, but it remains relatively low.
• Infant and Maternal Mortality**: Infant mortality was 118 per 1,000 live births in 2004. Maternal mortality rates were also high (27th highest in the world in 2010). These remain significant public health concerns.
• Major Diseases**: Malaria, respiratory infections, and diarrheal diseases are common. HIV/AIDS prevalence was estimated at 3.20% among adults aged 15-49 in 2012 (19th highest globally), though rates have seen some decline due to prevention and treatment efforts.
• Healthcare System**: Access to medical services is limited, especially in rural areas. There is a shortage of healthcare professionals (e.g., 12 physicians per 100,000 people in 2004). Public health initiatives focus on vaccination, maternal and child health, and disease control.
• Other Issues**: About a quarter of the population lived below the international poverty line of 1.25 USD a day (older data). Female genital mutilation has affected about 36% of women, though efforts are underway to combat this practice.

7.6. Science and Technology

Investment in science, technology, and innovation is relatively low but recognized as important for national development.

• Investment**: Ivory Coast devotes about 0.13% of its GDP to Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development (GERD). The National Development Plan for 2012-2015 allocated only 1.2% of its wealth creation and social equity budget to scientific research.
• Challenges**: Include inadequate scientific equipment, fragmentation of research organizations, and difficulties in exploiting and protecting research results.
• Global Innovation Index**: Ivory Coast was ranked 112th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, down from 103rd in 2019.
• Research Institutions and Programs**: There are national research programs grouping public and private institutions around common themes corresponding to priority sectors like health, raw materials, agriculture, environment, mining, energy, and technology. Key institutions include universities and specialized research centers.

7.7. Public Safety and Human Rights

The public safety situation has improved since the end of the civil wars but faces ongoing challenges.

• Crime**: Common crimes include robbery, burglary, and, particularly in urban areas, more violent crimes. Road banditry can occur in rural areas. The proliferation of small arms from past conflicts remains a concern.
• Judicial System**: Efforts are underway to strengthen the judicial system and rule of law, but it faces challenges with resources, efficiency, and perceived independence.
• Human Rights**: The human rights situation has seen improvements but remains a concern. Key issues include:
  • Political Freedoms**: Restrictions on freedom of assembly and expression have been reported, particularly during election periods.
  • Freedom of the Press**: While a diverse media landscape exists, journalists can face pressure or intimidation.
  • Accountability**: Impunity for past human rights violations committed during the civil wars remains a significant challenge to national reconciliation.
  • Women's Rights**: Issues include domestic violence, discrimination, and harmful traditional practices like FGM.
  • Children's Rights**: Child labor, particularly in the cocoa and mining sectors, is a major concern, alongside child trafficking.
  • Minority Rights**: Ensuring the rights of ethnic minorities and immigrant populations is crucial for social cohesion.

  Efforts by the government and civil society organizations aim to improve human rights protections, reform the security sector, and promote reconciliation.

7.8. Mass Media

The media landscape in Ivory Coast includes print, broadcast, and online platforms.

• Newspapers**: A variety of daily and weekly newspapers are published, mostly in Abidjan, representing different political viewpoints. Fraternité Matin is a major state-owned daily.
• Radio**: Radio is a key source of information, with state-run stations (e.g., Radio Côte d'Ivoire, Fréquence 2) and numerous private and community radio stations.
• Television**: The state broadcaster, Radiodiffusion Télévision Ivoirienne (RTI), operates two national channels (La Première, TV2). Private television channels also exist.
• Internet**: Internet penetration has been growing, with an increasing number of online news portals and social media use.
• Media Freedom**: While legally protected, media freedom has faced challenges, especially during periods of political tension. Organizations like Reporters Without Borders monitor the situation.

The media plays an important role in Ivorian society, shaping public opinion and political discourse, though it has also been criticized at times for contributing to political polarization.

8.1. Music and Performing Arts

Ivorian music is diverse and dynamic. Traditional music often features strong vocal polyphony and complex polyrhythms. Talking drums are common, particularly among the Nzema people.
Popular contemporary music genres include:

• Zouglou**: A youth-oriented genre that emerged in the 1990s, often with socially conscious or satirical lyrics.
• Coupé-Décalé**: An energetic dance music style that gained international popularity in the 2000s, characterized by its percussive rhythms and ostentatious themes.
• Zoblazo**: Another popular dance genre.

Notable Ivorian musicians who have achieved international recognition include Alpha Blondy (reggae), Magic System (Zouglou/Coupé-Décalé), Meiway (Zoblazo), Tiken Jah Fakoly (reggae), Dobet Gnahoré (world music), and the late DJ Arafat (Coupé-Décalé). Christina Goh, of Ivorian descent, is also a known artist.
Traditional dances are integral to ceremonies and festivals, varying significantly between ethnic groups. The Goli dance of the Baoulé people, involving elaborate masks, is one well-known example. The Zaouli dance of the Guro people is another famous masked dance, recognized by UNESCO.

8.2. Visual Arts and Crafts

Ivory Coast has a rich tradition of visual arts and crafts, particularly known for its intricate wood carvings.

• Masks**: Masks are a prominent art form, with distinct styles associated with various ethnic groups such as the Dan, Baoulé, and Senufo. These masks are often used in rituals and ceremonies, embodying spirits or ancestors. Examples include the Baoulé Kplé Kplé masks and the Senufo Kponyungo (firespitter) masks.
• Statues and Sculptures**: Wood carvings also include figures and statues, often with symbolic or religious significance.
• Textiles**: Traditional textiles, such as the woven cloths of the Baoulé and Senufo, are highly valued. Techniques include resist-dyeing and appliqué.
• Pottery and Other Crafts**: Pottery, basket weaving, and beadwork are also important crafts. Bronze casting, particularly for small figures once used as gold weights by the Akan, is another notable tradition.

These crafts are not only culturally significant but also contribute to the economy through tourism.

8.3. Literature and Cinema

• Literature**:

Ivorian literature is primarily in French and has produced several acclaimed writers.

• Bernard Binlin Dadié** (1916-2019) is considered one of the pioneers of African literature, known for his poetry, plays, novels, and folk tales.
• Ahmadou Kourouma** (1927-2003) gained international fame for his novels that critically examined post-colonial African politics and society, such as The Suns of Independence (Les Soleils des indépendances) and Allah is Not Obliged (Allah n'est pas obligé).

Other notable writers include Jean-Marie Adiaffi, Aké Loba, Véronique Tadjo, and Tanella Boni. Female writers like Simone Kaya have also made significant contributions.

• Cinema**:

Ivorian cinema has seen periods of development, though it faces challenges with funding and distribution. Notable directors and films have emerged over the years. Fadika Kramo-Lanciné and Roger Gnoan M'Bala are among the respected filmmakers. The digital era has opened new avenues for filmmaking, with an increase in local productions.

8.4. Cuisine

Ivorian cuisine shares many characteristics with other West African cuisines, relying heavily on grains, tubers, and flavorful sauces.

• Staple Foods**: Cassava, plantains, yams, maize, and rice are common staples.
• Popular Dishes**:
  • Attiéké**: A side dish made from grated cassava, similar in texture to couscous, often served with grilled fish or chicken.
  • Alloco**: Fried plantain, a popular street food, often served with a spicy pepper sauce and grilled fish or boiled eggs.
  • Kedjenou**: A spicy stew, typically made with chicken or guinea fowl and vegetables, slow-cooked in a sealed pot (traditionally a clay canary pot) to concentrate flavors.
  • Fufu** (or Foutou): A dough-like dish made from pounded yams, plantains, or cassava, served with various soups and stews.
  • Mafé**: A meat (often beef or chicken) stew made with a rich peanut sauce.
• Common Ingredients**: Palm oil, peanuts, chili peppers, onions, tomatoes, ginger, and various local vegetables and spices.
• Beverages**: Local drinks include Bangui (palm wine), bissap (hibiscus drink), and ginger juice.

A unique feature of Ivorian dining is the maquis, small, open-air restaurants typically serving braised chicken, fish, attiéké, and kedjenou.

8.5. Sports

Football (soccer) is by far the most popular sport in Ivory Coast.

• National Team**: The men's national team, nicknamed "Les Éléphants" (The Elephants), has achieved significant success. They have won the Africa Cup of Nations (AFCON) three times: in 1992, 2015, and most recently as hosts in the 2023 edition. They have also participated in three FIFA World Cups (2006, 2010, 2014).
• Famous Players**: Ivory Coast has produced many internationally renowned footballers, including Didier Drogba, Yaya Touré, Kolo Touré, Salomon Kalou, and Gervinho.
• Women's Football**: The women's national team played in the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.

Other popular sports include:

• Basketball**: The national basketball team has had success in African championships, winning the 1985 FIBA Africa Championship and hosting the 2013 tournament.
• Athletics**: Ivorian athletes have competed in international events. Gabriel Tiacoh won a silver medal in the men's 400 meters at the 1984 Summer Olympics. More recently, sprinters like Marie-Josée Ta Lou and Murielle Ahouré have achieved international success.
• Taekwondo**: Ivory Coast is known for its strong taekwondo competitors, including Olympic medalists Cheick Sallah Cissé (gold, 2016) and Ruth Gbagbi (bronze, 2016 and 2020).
• Rugby Union**: Rugby is also played, and the national team qualified for the 1995 Rugby World Cup.

Ivory Coast hosted the 2017 Jeux de la Francophonie.

8.6. World Heritage Sites

Ivory Coast has several sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, recognizing their outstanding cultural or natural value:

• Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve**: (Inscribed 1981, Natural) Shared with Guinea, this site is noted for its rich biodiversity, including many endemic species.
• Taï National Park**: (Inscribed 1982, Natural) One of the last large areas of primary tropical rainforest in West Africa, home to endangered species like the pygmy hippopotamus and chimpanzees.
• Comoé National Park**: (Inscribed 1983, Natural) Characterized by its great plant diversity due to its location in a transition zone between savanna and forest.
• Historic Town of Grand-Bassam**: (Inscribed 2012, Cultural) The first colonial capital of Ivory Coast, it showcases late 19th and early 20th-century colonial architecture and town planning, alongside indigenous N'zima villages.

Additionally, Ivorian cultural practices such as the Gbofe of Afounkaha (music of the Tagbana community) and the Zaouli (popular music and dance of the Guro communities) are recognized on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

8.7. Public Holidays

Public holidays in Ivory Coast include national observances and religious holidays (Christian and Muslim). The dates for religious holidays vary according to lunar calendars.