Canada

3.1. Indigenous peoples

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge, arriving at least 14,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. Indigenous societies in present-day Canada developed diverse cultures characterized by permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and extensive trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations. The Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The Métis are of mixed Indigenous and European descent, originating in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers, subsequently developing their own distinct identity and culture.

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. European colonization led to a devastating decline in the Indigenous population, estimated at forty to eighty percent. This decline was attributed to several factors, including the transfer of European diseases (such as smallpox, measles, and influenza) to which Indigenous peoples had no natural immunity, conflicts over the fur trade, direct conflicts with colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands and resources to settlers, which led to the collapse of many nations' self-sufficiency.

Despite periods of conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were often characterized by cooperation, particularly in the North American fur trade. First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent. However, these early European interactions shifted from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties and forced assimilation. From the late 18th century, European Canadians increasingly forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into Western Canadian society. This settler colonialism reached its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, notably through the Indian residential school system, which aimed to forcibly assimilate Indigenous children, leading to widespread abuse and cultural loss. Other assimilationist policies included the Indian Act, which extended federal control over First Nations' education, governance, and legal rights, and the establishment of Indian reserves, which confined Indigenous peoples to often marginal lands.

A period of redress and reconciliation began more formally with the establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008. This process has included official acknowledgments of cultural genocide, the implementation of the settlement agreements, and efforts to address ongoing racial discrimination issues, such as the crisis of missing and murdered Indigenous women. These steps represent attempts to confront the historical injustices and their continuing impact on Indigenous communities, aiming for improved relationships and social equity.

3.2. European colonization

It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson. In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small, short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland. No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England. In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 33 ft ^{(10 m)} cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I. The early 16th century saw European mariners, using navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese, establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast. Early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes, and competing interests in Scandinavia.

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp. In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608). Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley, and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War, formalized by the Treaty of Paris (1763). This treaty marked a significant shift in colonial power in North America, with France ceding nearly all of its colonies to Britain.

3.3. British North America

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769. To avert conflict in Quebec and to secure the loyalty of the French-speaking population, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. This act expanded Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and the Ohio Valley. More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law in the province, which helped to prevent the growth of an independence movement similar to that in the Thirteen Colonies. However, the Proclamation and the Quebec Act angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country. The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists (United Empire Loyalists), settlers who had fought against American independence or remained loyal to the British Crown. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival significantly changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was subsequently split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city. To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly. This act aimed to provide distinct governance structures for the two linguistic and cultural groups.

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. The war, largely fought on Canadian soil, contributed to a growing sense of Canadian identity and resistance to American expansionism. Peace came in 1815 with no significant boundary changes. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850. New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances. Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.

The desire for responsible government (a government accountable to elected colonial assemblies rather than to the British Crown) resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report, commissioned to investigate the causes of the rebellions, subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada. Responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855. The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858). The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska-Yukon and Alaska-British Columbia border.

3.4. Confederation and expansion

Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 (BNA Act) officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. This act established Canada as a federal dominion, a self-governing colony within the British Empire. Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories. The Métis' grievances in this region ignited the Red River Rebellion and led to the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria, the provincial capital, within 10 years. Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. Between 1871 and 1896, almost one-quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.

To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada, under Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway). It also passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police (later the Royal Canadian Mounted Police) to assert authority over the territory. This period of westward expansion and nation-building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves". This process involved treaty-making that was often coercive and led to significant social dislocation for Indigenous communities, clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements. This expansion caused the collapse of the Plains Bison herds in western Canada, which were vital to Indigenous economies and cultures, and led to the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields that came to dominate the landscape. The Indigenous peoples experienced widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands. The federal government provided emergency relief, but often on the condition that Indigenous peoples moved to the reserves. During this time, Canada also introduced the Indian Act, which extended its control over the First Nations to education, government, and legal rights, and had profound and often detrimental impacts on Indigenous self-governance and cultural practices.

3.5. Early 20th century

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war, contributing to a growing sense of Canadian national identity distinct from Britain. The war also had significant social impacts, including increased industrial production and the greater participation of women in the workforce. However, the Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers, highlighting linguistic and cultural divisions. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain, and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada's legislative independence and greater autonomy in foreign affairs.

The Great Depression during the early 1930s saw a severe economic downturn, leading to widespread hardship, unemployment, and poverty across the country. This period spurred social and political change, including the rise of new political movements. In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s, laying groundwork for Canada's future social programs.

On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. This independent declaration underscored Canada's growing autonomy. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War. Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany. The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy, and an enhanced international standing. The war also brought domestic changes, including further industrialization and increased government involvement in the economy and social welfare.

3.6. Contemporary era

The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor. After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province, completing Canada's modern territorial configuration.

Canada's post-World War II economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity. This was marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf flag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969, and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971. Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare (universal healthcare), the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans. However, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions, highlighting ongoing federal-provincial tensions. This era also saw significant advancements in human rights and social justice.

Another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, severing the final vestiges of legal dependence. Concurrent with this was the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which enshrined fundamental rights and freedoms for all Canadians and became a cornerstone of Canadian law and identity. Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy. In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government, a landmark in Indigenous self-governance.

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970. The sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West. A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history; the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students which sparked national debate on gun control and violence against women; and the Oka Crisis of 1990, the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups over land rights. Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars, and in Somalia, which resulted in the controversial Somalia affair, described as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military". Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 as part of the international coalition, resulting in the largest number of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War.

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s. The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption. In 2021, the discovery of hundreds of unmarked graves of Indigenous children near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools brought renewed attention to the legacy of colonialism and the urgent need for reconciliation. Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to forcibly assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture, leading to profound intergenerational trauma. Ongoing efforts focus on addressing these historical injustices, improving Indigenous rights, and advancing social equity and human rights for all Canadians.

4.1. Climate

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near 5 °F ^{(-15 °C)}, but can drop below -40 °F ^{(-40 °C)} with severe wind chills. In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 77 °F ^{(25 °C)} to 86 °F ^{(30 °C)}, with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 104 °F ^{(40 °C)}.

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada. Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 3.1 °F ^{(1.7 °C)}, with changes ranging from 2.0 °F ^{(1.1 °C)} to 4.1 °F ^{(2.3 °C)} in various regions, since 1948. The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies. In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States-caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions-has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity. Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally, with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022. Environmental challenges include managing its vast natural resources sustainably, mitigating pollution, and adapting to the impacts of climate change, which are particularly pronounced in its Arctic regions.

4.2. Biodiversity

Canada is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones. These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered. Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries, due to human activities, invasive species, and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost. About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure". Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development. The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 1.2 M mile^{2 (3.00 M km2)} undisturbed by roads, cities or industry. Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions.

Significant flora includes vast coniferous forests (spruce, fir, pine), deciduous forests in the south (maple, oak, birch), and tundra vegetation in the Arctic. Notable fauna includes large mammals like moose, caribou, grizzly and black bears, wolves, and beavers (a national symbol), as well as diverse birdlife, including the Canada goose and common loon. Marine life is abundant along its three coastlines.

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas. Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas. Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885, spans 2.6 K mile^{2 (6.64 K km2)}. Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 3.0 K mile^{2 (7.65 K km2)}. Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 3.9 K mile^{2 (10.00 K km2)}. Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area which spans 4.5 K mile^{2 (11.57 K km2)}. These protected areas are crucial for conservation efforts, aiming to preserve Canada's natural heritage and biodiversity from threats such as habitat loss and climate change.

5.1. Law

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; however, a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years. This clause has been a subject of debate concerning the balance between parliamentary supremacy and entrenched rights, underscoring Canada's evolving constitutional democracy.

Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada. The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.

Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces. In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada. Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples. The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982. These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation. The legal system's application to Indigenous peoples is a critical area of human rights concern, with ongoing efforts to address historical injustices and promote reconciliation.

5.2. Provinces and territories

Canada is a federation composed of 10 provinces and three federal territories. These may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have a significant degree of autonomy and legislative power over areas such as healthcare, education, natural resources, and local government, as defined in the Constitution. Territories, while having local governments, derive their powers from the federal Parliament and generally have less autonomy than provinces.

The 10 provinces are: Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan.
The 3 territories are: Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon.

Each province has its own unicameral, elected legislature and a premier as head of government, with a lieutenant governor representing the Crown. Territorial governments are structured similarly, with a premier and legislature, but their commissioners represent the federal government. Provincial and territorial governments are responsible for delivering most social programs, including healthcare, education, and welfare. Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, federal equalization payments are made to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are maintained between richer and poorer provinces, promoting a degree of social equity across the country. The relationship between the federal government and the provinces/territories is a dynamic aspect of Canadian federalism, often involving negotiations over funding and jurisdiction.

5.3. Foreign relations

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs, with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions. Canada's foreign policy principles emphasize international peace and security, development aid, human rights, and free trade. It is known for its commitment to peacekeeping and its role as a mediator in international conflicts.

Canada maintains a close and complex relationship with the United States, its southern neighbor. The two countries share the world's longest undefended border, are each other's largest trading partners, and cooperate extensively on security and defense matters, including through NORAD. However, Canada also strives to maintain an independent foreign policy, sometimes diverging from U.S. positions, as seen in its relations with Cuba and its decision not to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Canada also maintains historic and traditional ties to the United Kingdom and France, along with other former colonies of these countries, through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and La Francophonie_{La Francophonie}^French. Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during the Second World War. Canada has diplomatic and consular offices in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.

Canada is a member of various international organizations and forums. Canada was a founding member of the United Nations (UN) in 1945. The country has membership in the World Trade Organization, the Five Eyes intelligence alliance, the G7, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The country was a founding member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989 and joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990. Canada ratified the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948 and seven principal UN human rights conventions and covenants since then, reflecting its commitment to international law and human rights. Canada's foreign aid programs focus on poverty reduction, gender equality, and sustainable development in developing countries.

5.4. Military and peacekeeping

The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) are responsible for the defence of Canada, the protection of Canadian sovereignty, and contributing to international peace and security. The CAF comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. Alongside many domestic obligations, more than 3,000 CAF personnel are deployed in multiple foreign military operations. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel-with plans to increase to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under the "Strong, Secure, Engaged" defence policy-with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers who provide a military presence in remote, isolated, and coastal communities. In 2022, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately 26.90 B USD, or around 1.2 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP), placing it 14th globally in military expenditure.

Canada has a long and distinguished history of participation in international peacekeeping operations, a role that has significantly shaped its global image and national identity. Canada's role in developing peacekeeping and its participation in major peacekeeping initiatives during the 20th century, notably during the Suez Crisis under Lester B. Pearson, has played a major role in its positive global image. Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and is often cited as a distinguishing feature that sets its foreign policy apart from that of the United States. Canada has historically been reluctant to participate in military operations not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has declined. This decrease is partly a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), rather than directly through the UN. This shift has sometimes involved more militarized and combat-oriented missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties, as seen in its significant involvement in Afghanistan. Canada is a founding member of NATO and contributes to collective defence and security operations. The CAF's primary roles include defending Canadian sovereignty (including Arctic surveillance), assisting civil authorities in emergencies, and participating in international stability operations and humanitarian missions.

6.1. Major industries

Canada's economy is diverse, with key sectors including natural resources, manufacturing, and a large service industry.
The natural resources sector is a cornerstone of the Canadian economy. Canada is a net exporter of energy, with vast offshore deposits of natural gas in Atlantic Canada and the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world, primarily in Alberta's Athabasca oil sands. These reserves give Canada 13% of global oil reserves, making it the world's third- or fourth-largest holder. The extraction and processing of these resources, particularly oil sands, have significant environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions and land disturbance, leading to ongoing debates about sustainable development and climate change mitigation. The mining industry is also significant, with Canada being a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.
Agriculture is another vital primary industry. The Canadian Prairies (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta) are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains. Dairy farming, livestock, and fruit and vegetable production are also important across different regions.
The forestry industry is historically significant, with vast timber resources supporting pulp and paper production, lumber, and other wood products, particularly in British Columbia and Quebec. The sustainability of forestry practices and their impact on biodiversity are key concerns.
The fishing industry remains a key contributor, especially in the Atlantic provinces (cod, lobster, shellfish) and British Columbia (salmon). Overfishing and environmental changes have posed challenges to this sector.
Manufacturing is concentrated in southern Ontario and Quebec. Key manufacturing industries include automotive manufacturing, with major assembly plants for international carmakers, and aerospace, with companies like Bombardier. The social impact includes providing skilled employment, but the sector faces global competition and a need for innovation.
The services sector is the largest component of the Canadian economy, employing about three-quarters of the workforce. This includes retail, healthcare, education, finance, tourism, and technology services. The Toronto financial district is a major North American financial centre. The growth of the tech sector, particularly in cities like Toronto, Waterloo, Vancouver, and Montreal, is a significant trend.
The social and environmental impacts of these industries are varied. Resource extraction can lead to environmental degradation and conflicts with Indigenous land rights, but also provides employment and revenue. Manufacturing can cause pollution but also fosters innovation. The services sector generally has a lower direct environmental footprint but raises issues of labor conditions and wage inequality. Government policies aim to balance economic growth with social and environmental sustainability, reflecting Canada's center-left/social liberalism perspective.

6.2. Science and technology

Canada has a strong record of investment and achievement in science and technology, supported by government funding, research institutions, and a skilled workforce. In 2020, Canada spent approximately 41.90 B CAD on domestic research and development, with supplementary estimates for 2022 at 43.20 B CAD. As of 2023, the country has produced 15 Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine. The country ranks seventh in the worldwide share of articles published in scientific journals, according to the Nature Index, and is home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms. Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total population.

Canada's achievements in science and technology are numerous and impactful. These include the creation of the modern alkaline battery, the discovery of insulin (a life-saving treatment for diabetes), the development of the polio vaccine, and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus. Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex, the development of the electron microscope, advancing the theory of plate tectonics, pioneering work in deep learning (a key area of artificial intelligence), the invention of multi-touch technology, and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1. Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, the T-cell receptor, and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis, and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) runs an active space program focused on deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, along with rockets and satellites. Canada launched its first satellite, Alouette 1, in 1962, making it the third country to design and build its own satellite. The CSA contributes significantly to the International Space Station (ISS) and is renowned for its robotic tools, such as the multiple Canadarms (Canadarm, Canadarm2, and Dextre), which have been crucial for ISS assembly and maintenance, as well as for Space Shuttle missions. Canada has initiated many long-term projects, including the Radarsat satellite series for Earth observation and environmental monitoring, and the Black Brant rocket series for suborbital research. These achievements highlight Canada's role as an innovator in space technology and scientific research, contributing to global knowledge and technological advancement.

6.3. Transportation

Canada's vast geography necessitates an extensive and diverse transportation infrastructure to connect its population centers, support its economy, and facilitate international trade.
Major road networks include the Trans-Canada Highway, one of the world's longest national highways, stretching approximately 4.9 K mile ^{(7.82 K km)} from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. Provincial highway systems supplement this network, facilitating regional and inter-city travel. Trucking is a vital component of freight movement, especially for trade with the United States.
Railway systems play a crucial role in freight transportation, particularly for bulk commodities like grain, coal, and potash. Canadian National Railway (CN) and Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) are the two major freight railway companies, with networks spanning the continent. Passenger rail service is primarily provided by Via Rail, a Crown corporation, offering intercity services, including its flagship transcontinental train, "The Canadian." Commuter rail services also operate in major metropolitan areas like Toronto (GO Transit), Montreal (Exo), and Vancouver (West Coast Express).
Air transport is essential for long-distance domestic and international travel due to Canada's size. Major international airports include Toronto Pearson International Airport, Vancouver International Airport, and Montréal-Trudeau International Airport. Air Canada is the country's largest airline and flag carrier, supplemented by other national and regional carriers like WestJet. Air cargo is also significant for time-sensitive goods.
Canada's extensive coastlines on three oceans and its Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway system support significant ports and shipping activities. Major ports include the Port of Vancouver (Canada's largest and busiest), the Port of Montreal, the Port of Halifax, and ports on the Great Lakes like Hamilton and Thunder Bay. These ports are critical for international trade, handling a wide range of goods. The St. Lawrence Seaway, a system of locks, canals, and channels, allows oceangoing vessels to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes.
The transportation sector is a major contributor to the national economy but also faces challenges related to infrastructure maintenance, environmental impact (emissions), and adapting to climate change, particularly in northern regions where permafrost thaw affects roads and runways.

7.1. Ethnicity

Canada is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, a characteristic shaped significantly by large-scale immigration throughout its history. The 2021 Canadian census recorded respondents self-reporting over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins". The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5%), North American (22.9%), Asian (19.3%), North American Indigenous (6.1%), African (3.8%), Latin, Central and South American (2.5%), Caribbean (2.1%), Oceanian (0.3%), and other (5.9%). Over 60 percent of Canadians reported a single origin, and 36 percent reported having multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.

The country's ten largest self-reported ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), East Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent). The "Canadian" ethnicity is often chosen by those whose families have been in Canada for many generations, particularly of British or French descent.

Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 24.5 million reported being "White", representing 67.4 percent of the population. The Indigenous population represents 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, and grew by 9.4 percent between 2016 and 2021, compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent. One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority. The largest visible minority groups in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent), Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent), Filipinos (960,000; 2.6 percent), Arabs (690,000; 1.9 percent), Latin Americans (580,000; 1.6 percent), Southeast Asians (390,000; 1.1 percent), West Asians (360,000; 1.0 percent), Koreans (220,000; 0.6 percent) and Japanese (99,000; 0.3 percent).

The history of immigration to Canada is complex. Early immigration was primarily from Europe, but since the latter half of the 20th century, immigration policies shifted to a points-based system, leading to increased diversity with more immigrants from Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, and Latin America. The official policy of multiculturalism, adopted in 1971 and enshrined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, promotes the preservation and enhancement of the multicultural heritage of Canadians. This policy has had a profound societal effect, shaping Canada's identity as a tolerant and inclusive nation, though challenges related to integration, discrimination, and systemic racism persist and are subjects of ongoing social and political discourse.

7.2. Languages

Canada has two official languages: English and French. These are the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively, according to the 2021 census. Canada's official bilingualism policies are enshrined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the Official Languages Act. These policies give citizens the right to receive federal government services in either English or French and guarantee official-language minorities their own schools in all provinces and territories.

The practice of bilingualism varies regionally. New Brunswick is the only officially bilingual province. Quebec's 1974 Official Language Act (Bill 101) established French as the sole official language of the province, aiming to protect and promote the French language. While more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick (primarily Acadians), Alberta, Manitoba, and Ontario (which has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec).

Other provinces do not have French as an official language at the provincial level, but French is used as a language of instruction in schools, in courts, and for other government services in some areas, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages in these provinces. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official.

Canada is also home to a multitude of Indigenous languages, grouped into 11 language families, comprising more than 65 distinct languages and dialects. Many of these languages are endangered due to historical assimilationist policies, including the residential school system. Efforts are underway to revitalize and preserve Indigenous languages. Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories. Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in that territory.

As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their first language. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and Tamil (237,890). The presence of these languages reflects Canada's ongoing multicultural immigration. The country is also home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous. American Sign Language (ASL) is widely used, while Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec and other Francophone communities.

7.3. Religion

Canada is a religiously diverse nation, characterized by a wide range of beliefs and customs, reflecting its multicultural makeup. The Constitution of Canada refers to God in its preamble; however, Canada has no official state church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism. Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, guaranteed by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Historically, Christianity played a central role in Canadian culture and daily life. However, rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s. Canada has become an increasingly post-Christian and secular state. While a majority of Canadians may still believe in God, the practice of religion is generally considered a private matter, and the importance of religion in daily life has declined for many.

According to the 2021 census, Christianity remains the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics representing 29.9 percent of the population, making it the largest single denomination. Overall, Christians (including Catholics, United Church, Anglican, Baptist, Orthodox, Pentecostal, and others) represent 53.3 percent of the population.
A significant and growing portion of the population reports irreligion or having no religion, accounting for 34.6 percent in 2021.
Other faiths present in Canada include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), and Judaism (0.9 percent). Indigenous spirituality is practiced by 0.2 percent of the population, though this figure may not capture all adherents as some may also identify with other religions or no religion. Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population in the world, after India. The religious landscape continues to evolve with immigration patterns and changing societal attitudes towards religion.

8.1. Health

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare. This system is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984, which establishes criteria and conditions related to insured health services and extended health care services that provinces and territories must fulfill to receive full federal cash contribution under the Canada Health Transfer. Medicare is universal, meaning it provides access to essential medical services for all citizens and permanent residents regardless of their ability to pay. Universal access to publicly funded health services is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value.

Approximately 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector. This mostly covers services not included or only partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry, optometry, and some aspects of long-term care. About 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance, often obtained through their employers or via secondary social service programs.

Like many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years. Life expectancy is 81.1 years. A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health". However, 80 percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating, or excessive alcohol use. Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among OECD countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes. Four chronic diseases-cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and diabetes-account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada. Approximately 8 million individuals aged 15 and older have one or more disabilities in Canada.

In 2021, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached 308.00 B CAD, or 12.7 percent of Canada's GDP for that year. In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th among health-care systems in the OECD. Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s. However, the Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of 11 developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last, citing weaknesses such as comparatively higher infant mortality rate, prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and lack of comprehensive prescription drug and dental coverage. An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a shortage of healthcare professionals and hospital capacity. Access and equity in healthcare, particularly for Indigenous communities and those in remote areas, remain significant social justice concerns.

8.2. Education

Education in Canada is, for the most part, provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments. Constitutionally, education is a provincial jurisdiction, and a province's curriculum is overseen by its government. Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary and post-secondary education. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada, reflecting the country's bilingualism.

Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded. Established in 1663, Université Laval_{Université Laval}^French is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada. The nation's top-ranking universities include the University of Toronto, McGill, and the University of British Columbia. The largest university is the University of Toronto, with over 85,000 students.

According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world; the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree. Canada spends an average of 5.3 percent of its GDP on education. The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than 20.00 K USD per student). As of 2022, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.

The mandatory education age ranges between 5-7 to 16-18 years, contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent. Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science, with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.
Highlighting access and equity, while Canada's education system performs well overall, disparities exist, particularly for Indigenous students and those in remote or low-income communities. Efforts to improve educational outcomes and ensure equitable access for these groups are ongoing, aligning with Canada's broader social justice values.

8.3. Human Rights and Social Issues

Canada has a strong, though evolving, framework for human rights, primarily enshrined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which is part of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Charter guarantees fundamental freedoms, democratic rights, mobility rights, legal rights, equality rights, and language rights. The Canadian Human Rights Act further prohibits discrimination at the federal level.

Rights of Minority Groups:

• Indigenous Peoples: The rights of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples are recognized and affirmed in the Constitution. However, Indigenous peoples continue to face significant social and economic disparities, historical trauma from colonization and residential schools, and challenges in accessing justice, healthcare, and education. Ongoing Truth and Reconciliation efforts aim to address these systemic issues, including land claims, self-governance, and the overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in the criminal justice system. The discovery of unmarked graves at former residential school sites has intensified calls for accountability and action.
• LGBTQ+ Communities: Canada has made significant strides in LGBTQ+ rights. Same-sex marriage was legalized nationwide in 2005. Gender identity and expression are protected grounds against discrimination under federal human rights law and in many provinces. However, LGBTQ+ individuals, particularly transgender and gender non-conforming people, still face discrimination and violence.
• Racialized Groups: While Canada's official policy of multiculturalism promotes diversity, racialized groups (often referred to as visible minorities) can experience systemic discrimination in employment, housing, policing, and other areas. Anti-racism initiatives and efforts to address systemic inequities are part of ongoing public discourse and policy development.

Social Equity and Anti-Discrimination:
Canada strives to promote social equity and combat discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age, or mental or physical disability. Human rights commissions at federal and provincial levels investigate complaints of discrimination. Pay equity and employment equity legislation aim to address workplace disparities.

Major Social Challenges:

• Poverty and Inequality: Despite being a wealthy nation, poverty and income inequality persist. Certain groups, including single-parent families (often led by women), Indigenous peoples, persons with disabilities, and recent immigrants, are disproportionately affected. Government responses include social assistance programs, child benefits, and affordable housing initiatives, though the adequacy and accessibility of these supports are often debated.
• Regional Disparities: Economic and social conditions can vary significantly between provinces and territories, and between urban and rural areas. Federal equalization payments aim to reduce these disparities to ensure comparable levels of public services.
• Violence Against Women: Gender-based violence, including domestic violence and sexual assault, remains a serious issue.
• Mental Health and Addictions: Access to mental health services is a growing concern, with calls for increased funding and integration with physical healthcare. The opioid crisis has also had a devastating impact in many communities.
• Housing Affordability and Homelessness: Rising housing costs, particularly in major urban centers, have made housing unaffordable for many Canadians, contributing to homelessness and housing insecurity.

Societal and governmental responses to these issues involve a combination of legislation, public policy, community-based programs, and advocacy from civil society organizations. The commitment to addressing these challenges is central to Canada's identity as a socially progressive nation, though progress is often incremental and requires sustained effort.

9.1. Symbols

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism. Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.
The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, on the one-cent piece (penny) (until its discontinuation), and on the Arms of Canada. Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons-green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling. The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version. The national motto, "A mari usque ad mare_{From Sea to Sea}^Latin", is also a prominent symbol.

Other prominent symbols include the beaver (a national animal, symbolizing industry), the Canada goose, the common loon (featured on the one-dollar coin or "loonie"), the Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), the Canadian Rockies, and, more recently, the totem pole and Inuksuk (reflecting Indigenous heritage). Canadian cultural icons also include specific foods and items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, Nanaimo bars, butter tarts, and poutine. Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel. An image of the monarch appears on $20 bank notes and the obverse of coins.

9.2. Literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively. The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration. This progressed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which often tie into the garrison mentality (a theme identified by critic Northrop Frye, suggesting a sense of isolation and preoccupation with survival in a vast and often harsh landscape). In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world, enriching its themes and perspectives. By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.

Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards. Notable figures include novelist, poet, and literary critic Margaret Atwood, who received two Booker Prizes (for The Blind Assassin and The Testaments). Alice Munro, a Nobel laureate, has been called the best living writer of short stories in English. Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje wrote the novel The English Patient, which was adapted into a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture. L. M. Montgomery produced a series of children's novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables, which has achieved enduring global popularity. Other significant authors include Mordecai Richler, Robertson Davies, Carol Shields, Yann Martel, and Rohinton Mistry.

French-language literature from Quebec has its own distinct tradition, with authors like Gabrielle Roy, Michel Tremblay, and Marie-Claire Blais. Indigenous literature has seen a significant surge in prominence and recognition, with authors like Thomas King, Eden Robinson, Richard Wagamese, and Leanne Betasamosake Simpson powerfully addressing themes of identity, colonialism, resilience, and storytelling traditions. Their contributions are increasingly acknowledged as vital to the Canadian literary canon.

9.3. Media

Canada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized. The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada". Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output-particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines-is often overshadowed by imports from the United States. As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC/Radio-Canada), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). These bodies play crucial roles in funding, producing, and regulating Canadian content.

Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations". This concentration of ownership is a subject of ongoing debate regarding media diversity and public discourse. The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC/Radio-Canada). The CBC plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French, providing news, information, and entertainment programming that reflects Canadian perspectives and regional diversity. In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France. In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media and promote Canadian stories and talent, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content (Canadian content or "CanCon" quotas) and public financing through bodies like Telefilm Canada and the Canada Media Fund. Canadian tax laws also limit foreign competition in magazine advertising. The role of media in reflecting and shaping Canadian cultural identity and public discourse is a key consideration, particularly in an era of globalized media and digital platforms.

9.4. Visual arts

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples, whose diverse artistic traditions include Northwest Coast carving and totem poles, Inuit sculpture and printmaking, and Anishinaabe painting. In later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote Canadian nationalism. The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.

Modern painting in Canada has been greatly influenced by several major movements. One of the most prominent is the Group of Seven, founded in 1920, which aimed to capture the rugged Canadian wilderness in their artwork, creating a distinct national style of landscape painting. Key members included Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley. Associated with the group was Emily Carr, known for her powerful landscapes of British Columbia's forests and her portrayals of the Indigenous cultures of the Pacific Northwest Coast.

The mid-20th century saw the rise of abstract art in Canada, with artists like Jean-Paul Riopelle and Paul-Émile Borduas (members of Quebec's Les Automatistes movement) gaining international recognition. The 1960s and 1970s saw the emergence of conceptual art, with artists such as Michael Snow and Ian Carr-Harris. This era also saw the emergence of influential Indigenous artists like Norval Morrisseau (Anishinaabe), who pioneered the Woodland School of Art, combining traditional Indigenous spiritual themes and techniques with modern art styles.

In more recent years, contemporary art in Canada has seen a revival of figurative art and diverse practices, including installation, video, and performance art. Artists such as Jeff Wall, Kent Monkman (Cree, known for his critical reinterpretation of colonial history), and Shuvinai Ashoona (Inuit, renowned for her imaginative drawings) are prominent figures. Canadian art institutions like the National Gallery of Canada and the Art Gallery of Ontario play a vital role in preserving and promoting Canadian visual arts.

9.5. Music

Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes and multicultural influences. Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations, and television music video channels. Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music. As a result of its cultural importance, as well as government initiatives and regulations (like Canadian content rules for broadcasters), the Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians, and ensembles. Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC. The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards. The Canadian Music Hall of Fame honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.

Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812. "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and, for many years, served as an unofficial national anthem. "O Canada" also served as an unofficial national anthem for much of the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.

Canada's diverse music genres include:

• Pop: Artists like Celine Dion, Shania Twain, Justin Bieber, Shawn Mendes, Alessia Cara, and The Weeknd have achieved global stardom.
• Rock: Bands such as Rush, The Tragically Hip, Nickelback, Arcade Fire, and artists like Neil Young and Bryan Adams are internationally recognized.
• Folk: Canada has a strong folk tradition with iconic figures like Joni Mitchell, Leonard Cohen, Gordon Lightfoot, and contemporary artists like Feist.
• Country: Shania Twain, Terri Clark, and k.d. lang are among Canada's successful country artists.
• Classical: Pianist Glenn Gould is one of Canada's most famous classical musicians. Orchestras like the Montreal Symphony Orchestra and the Toronto Symphony Orchestra have international reputations.
• Indigenous music: A rich and diverse range of traditional and contemporary music from First Nations, Inuit, and Métis artists like Buffy Sainte-Marie, Tanya Tagaq, and A Tribe Called Red.
• Hip Hop/R&B: Artists like Drake, The Weeknd, and Kardinal Offishall have significantly impacted the global hip hop and R&B scenes.
• Electronic: Artists like Deadmau5 and Richie Hawtin are prominent in electronic dance music.
• Jazz: Oscar Peterson and Diana Krall are internationally acclaimed Canadian jazz musicians.

The Canadian music scene is characterized by its regional diversity, with distinct sounds emerging from areas like the Maritimes (Celtic-influenced folk), Quebec (Francophone pop and rock), and the Prairies (country and folk).

9.6. Sports

Canada's official national sports are ice hockey (winter) and lacrosse (summer). Other major professional and amateur sports include curling, basketball, baseball, soccer, and Canadian football. Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by numerous "Halls of Fame" and museums, such as Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States. Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League (NHL: Montreal Canadiens, Toronto Maple Leafs, Ottawa Senators, Winnipeg Jets, Edmonton Oilers, Calgary Flames, Vancouver Canucks), three Major League Soccer (MLS) teams (Toronto FC, CF Montreal, Vancouver Whitecaps FC), and one team in each of Major League Baseball (MLB: Toronto Blue Jays) and the National Basketball Association (NBA: Toronto Raptors). Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League (CFL), National Lacrosse League (NLL), the Canadian Premier League (CPL) for soccer, and curling tournaments hosted by Curling Canada.

In terms of participation, swimming was the most commonly reported sport by over one-third (35 percent) of Canadians in 2023. This was closely followed by cycling (33 percent) and running (27 percent). The popularity of specific sports varies; in general, the Canadian-born population was more likely to have participated in winter sports such as ice hockey (the most popular young adult team sport), skating, skiing and snowboarding, compared with immigrants, who were more likely to have played soccer (the most popular youth team sport), tennis or basketball. Sports such as golf, volleyball, badminton, bowling, and martial arts are also widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.

Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics-particularly the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation"-and has hosted high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, and the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto. The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.

9.7. Food culture

Canadian food culture is a rich tapestry reflecting its diverse geography, Indigenous heritage, and multicultural immigration. There is no single "Canadian cuisine" but rather a collection of regional specialties and dishes influenced by various traditions.
Iconic Foods and Beverages:

• Poutine: Originating in Quebec, this dish of French fries and cheese curds topped with brown gravy is arguably Canada's most famous culinary export.
• Maple syrup: Canada is the world's largest producer of maple syrup, a natural sweetener made from the sap of maple trees. It is used in a wide variety of dishes, from pancakes and waffles to glazes for meats.
• Nanaimo bar: A no-bake dessert bar originating from Nanaimo, British Columbia, typically consisting of a crumb base, custard-flavoured icing, and a chocolate topping.
• Butter tarts: A small pastry tart with a buttery, sweet filling, often containing raisins or pecans. Its exact origin is debated but it is a classic Canadian dessert.
• BeaverTails: A fried dough pastry, stretched to resemble a beaver's tail, typically topped with sweet condiments like cinnamon sugar, chocolate, or fruit.
• Canadian Beer and Canadian Whisky (often called rye whisky) are also significant. Ice wine, a dessert wine produced from grapes frozen on the vine, is another Canadian specialty, particularly from the Niagara region.
• Caesar Cocktail: A popular Canadian cocktail made with vodka, Clamato juice (a blend of tomato juice and clam broth), hot sauce, and Worcestershire sauce.

Regional Culinary Specialties:

• Atlantic Canada: Known for its seafood, especially lobster, mussels, cod, and salmon. Dishes like fish and brewis (Newfoundland), rappie pie (Acadian), and seafood chowders are common.
• Quebec: Besides poutine, Quebec cuisine includes tourtière (meat pie), split pea soup, Montreal-style bagels, and Montreal-style smoked meat.
• Ontario: Diverse due to multiculturalism, but also known for its agricultural products like peaches and apples from the Niagara region, and wild blueberries from Northern Ontario.
• Prairies: Known for beef, bison, and grains like wheat and canola. Perogies (Ukrainian influence) and Saskatoon berry pie are regional favorites.
• British Columbia: Features abundant seafood (salmon, halibut, oysters), a strong Asian culinary influence (especially in Vancouver), and a focus on fresh, local ingredients (e.g., from the Okanagan Valley's orchards and vineyards).

Influence of Indigenous Traditions and Multiculturalism:
Indigenous food traditions, based on local flora and fauna (e.g., game meats, fish, berries, wild rice, bannock), have influenced Canadian cuisine and are experiencing a resurgence. Multiculturalism has profoundly shaped Canada's food scene, with a vast array of international cuisines widely available and integrated into daily life. Chinese, Italian, Indian, Caribbean, Vietnamese, and many other culinary traditions are prominent, leading to fusion dishes and a vibrant, diverse food landscape.

9.8. Architecture

Canadian architecture reflects the country's vast geography, diverse climate, historical development, and multicultural influences.
Early Indigenous Architecture: Varied widely by region and culture, including longhouses of the Iroquoian peoples in the East, tipis of the Plains First Nations, pit-houses (Kekuli) in the Interior Plateau of British Columbia, and igloos (temporary winter shelters) and sod houses of the Inuit in the Arctic. These structures were adapted to local materials and environmental conditions.
Colonial Styles (17th-19th centuries):

• French Colonial: Seen primarily in Quebec, characterized by steep roofs (often hipped or mansard), dormer windows, stone or wood construction, and a focus on practicality for harsh winters. Examples include farmhouses in rural Quebec and historic buildings in Quebec City and Montreal.
• British Colonial: Included Georgian and Neoclassical styles, evident in public buildings and residences in Atlantic Canada and Upper Canada (Ontario). Loyalist settlers brought architectural traditions from the American colonies.

Victorian Architecture (mid-to-late 19th century): As Canada urbanized, Victorian styles like Gothic Revival (e.g., Parliament Buildings in Ottawa), Italianate, and Second Empire became popular for institutional, commercial, and residential buildings across the country.
Early 20th Century: Styles included Beaux-Arts (e.g., grand railway stations like Toronto's Union Station), Art Deco, and the emergence of uniquely Canadian approaches. The "Château Style" (or Railway Gothic) used for grand railway hotels like the Fairmont Banff Springs and Château Frontenac is a distinct Canadian architectural expression.
Modernism (mid-20th century): Influenced by international trends, Canadian architects like Arthur Erickson and John C. Parkin embraced Modernism, producing significant public and private buildings. Moshe Safdie's Habitat 67 in Montreal, built for Expo 67, is an iconic example of experimental modern housing.
Contemporary Architecture (late 20th century - present): Characterized by diversity, with architects exploring new materials, sustainable design, and responses to regional contexts. Notable contemporary Canadian architects include Frank Gehry (born in Canada, though much of his work is international), Douglas Cardinal (known for his organic, Indigenous-influenced designs like the Canadian Museum of History), and firms like KPMB Architects and Diamond Schmitt Architects.
Urban Landscapes: Canadian cities showcase a mix of these historical and contemporary styles. Downtown cores often feature modern skyscrapers alongside preserved heritage buildings. Urban planning has also been influenced by climate (e.g., underground pedestrian networks like Montreal's RÉSO and Toronto's PATH), multiculturalism (ethnic enclaves and markets), and a growing emphasis on sustainable urban development.
The impact of climate is evident in features like steeply pitched roofs to shed snow, use of local materials (wood in forested regions, stone where available), and energy-efficient design considerations. Multicultural backgrounds have influenced residential design and community spaces.

9.9. World Heritage

Canada is home to a number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding universal value, encompassing cultural, natural, and mixed properties. These sites reflect Canada's rich history, diverse ecosystems, and significant human achievements. As of early 2024, Canada has 22 World Heritage Sites.
Cultural Sites:

• L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site (Newfoundland and Labrador): The only authenticated Norse site in North America, dating to the 11th century, providing evidence of the first European presence on the continent.
• Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump (Alberta): A site used by Plains Indigenous peoples for over 6,000 years for communal bison hunting, demonstrating a sophisticated understanding of bison behaviour and landscape.
• SGang Gwaay Llanagaay (Anthony Island) (British Columbia): The remains of a Haida village, including totem poles and longhouses, illustrating Haida art and culture.
• Historic District of Old Québec (Quebec): The only fortified colonial city north of Mexico, showcasing European colonial architecture and urban planning from the 17th century onwards.
• Old Town Lunenburg (Nova Scotia): An exceptionally well-preserved example of a British colonial fishing settlement, with its distinctive wooden architecture and grid-pattern layout from the 18th century.
• Rideau Canal (Ontario): A 19th-century canal system, a masterpiece of engineering, built for military purposes but now a recreational waterway.
• Landscape of Grand-Pré (Nova Scotia): A cultural landscape commemorating Acadian settlement and agricultural practices, as well as their deportation (the Grand Dérangement).
• Writing-on-Stone / Áísínai'pi (Alberta): A sacred site for Indigenous peoples, featuring the largest concentration of rock art (petroglyphs and pictographs) on the Great Plains.
• Tr'ondëk-Klondike (Yukon): A cultural landscape reflecting the Klondike Gold Rush and its impact on the Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in First Nation.

Natural Sites:

• Nahanni National Park Reserve (Northwest Territories): Features deep river canyons, huge waterfalls, and unique karst cave systems.
• Dinosaur Provincial Park (Alberta): One of the richest dinosaur fossil locales in the world, with a spectacular badlands landscape.
• Kluane / Wrangell-St. Elias / Glacier Bay / Tatshenshini-Alsek (British Columbia/Yukon, shared with the USA): A vast international park system of glaciers and high mountains, home to diverse wildlife.
• Wood Buffalo National Park (Alberta/Northwest Territories): Canada's largest national park, protecting the world's largest free-roaming herd of wood bison and the nesting grounds of the endangered whooping crane.
• Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks (Alberta/British Columbia): Comprises Banff, Jasper, Kootenay, and Yoho national parks, and Mount Robson, Mount Assiniboine, and Hamber provincial parks, renowned for their mountain scenery, glaciers, lakes, and biodiversity.
• Gros Morne National Park (Newfoundland and Labrador): Offers a rare example of the process of continental drift, where deep ocean crust and rocks of the Earth's mantle lie exposed.
• Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park (Alberta, shared with the USA): The world's first International Peace Park, showcasing prairie, forest, alpine, and glacial features.
• Miguasha National Park (Quebec): A significant paleontological site, containing well-preserved fossils from the Devonian Period ("Age of Fishes").
• Joggins Fossil Cliffs (Nova Scotia): Contains the most complete fossil record of terrestrial life from the Pennsylvanian "Coal Age" (approx. 300 million years ago).
• Mistaken Point (Newfoundland and Labrador): Contains some of the oldest known large, complex multicellular life-forms on Earth, preserved as fossils on ancient sea floors.
• Pimachiowin Aki (Manitoba/Ontario): A vast boreal forest landscape, a mixed site recognized for its cultural importance to Anishinaabeg Indigenous peoples and its biodiversity.
• Anticosti Island (Quebec): Recognized for its exceptional fossil record of the first mass extinction event of animal life.

These sites highlight Canada's commitment to preserving its natural and cultural heritage for future generations and their global significance.

9.10. Public holidays

Canada observes a number of public holidays at the federal, provincial, and territorial levels. Federal statutory holidays are recognized nationwide.
Federal Statutory Holidays:

• New Year's Day: January 1. Celebrates the beginning of the new year.
• Good Friday: The Friday before Easter Sunday (date varies, typically March or April). A Christian holiday commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ.
• Easter Monday: The Monday after Easter Sunday (date varies, typically March or April). While not a federal statutory holiday for all, federal employees have this day off, and it is a public holiday in some provinces like Quebec.
• Victoria Day: The last Monday preceding May 25. Celebrates the birthday of Queen Victoria and is also informally considered the start of the summer season. In Quebec, this holiday is observed as National Patriots' Day (Journée nationale des patriotes).
• Canada Day: July 1. Celebrates Canada's Confederation in 1867. If July 1 falls on a Sunday, the statutory holiday is observed on July 2.
• Labour Day: The first Monday in September. Honours the contributions of workers and the labour movement.
• National Day for Truth and Reconciliation: September 30. Honours the lost children and Survivors of residential schools, their families and communities. Public commemoration of the tragic and painful history and ongoing impacts of residential schools is a vital component of the reconciliation process. This day is a federal statutory holiday. It is also known as Orange Shirt Day.
• Thanksgiving: The second Monday in October. A day to give thanks for the harvest and other blessings of the past year.
• Remembrance Day: November 11. Honours the members of Canada's armed forces who have died in the line of duty. Marked by ceremonies, two minutes of silence at 11:00 AM, and the wearing of poppies. It is a federal statutory holiday, though some provinces have their own observances.
• Christmas Day: December 25. A Christian holiday celebrating the birth of Jesus Christ, widely observed as a secular holiday as well.
• Boxing Day: December 26. While not a federal statutory holiday for all employees, it is a traditional holiday and a popular shopping day. Federal employees generally have this day off.

Provincial and Territorial Holidays:
Many provinces and territories have additional public holidays, such as:

• Family Day: Third Monday in February (in Alberta, British Columbia, New Brunswick, Ontario, Saskatchewan).
• Louis Riel Day: Third Monday in February (Manitoba).
• Islander Day: Third Monday in February (Prince Edward Island).
• Heritage Day: Third Monday in February (Nova Scotia).
• St. Patrick's Day: March 17 (Newfoundland and Labrador, though not a paid public holiday, it's a government holiday).
• National Indigenous Peoples Day: June 21 (Northwest Territories, Yukon). While not a statutory holiday nationwide, it is a day of recognition.
• Civic Holiday: First Monday in August (observed in various forms and under different names in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Ontario, Saskatchewan).
• Discovery Day: Third Monday in August (Yukon).

The observance and naming of some holidays can vary by province or territory, reflecting local traditions and histories.