Togo

2.1. Early Period and European Contact

Archaeological finds indicate that ancient tribes in the region that is now Togo were capable of producing pottery and processing iron. Between the 11th and 16th centuries, various ethnic groups migrated into the area. The Ewe migrated from the west, while the Mina and Gun (related to the Fon) came from the east. Most of these groups settled in the coastal regions.

Portuguese explorers arrived on the coast in the late 15th century. The Atlantic slave trade began in the 16th century, and for the next two hundred years, the coastal region became a major trading center for Europeans seeking enslaved people. This led to Togo and the surrounding region being known as "The Slave Coast." The port of Petit-Popo (present-day Aného) was a significant hub for the slave trade, initially dominated by the Portuguese, and later, from the 17th century onwards, by the French. Unlike some neighboring regions, no large, centralized states emerged to control this trade within Togo's current borders.

2.2. German Togoland (1884-1914)

In 1884, German explorer Gustav Nachtigal signed a treaty with King Mlapa III of Togoville, establishing a German protectorate over a stretch of territory along the coast. This marked the beginning of Togoland as a German colony. Germany gradually extended its control inland, defining the colony's borders through further captures and agreements with France and Britain. By 1905, it was formally administered as a German colony.

Under German rule, the local population was subjected to forced labour. They were compelled to cultivate cash crops such as cotton, coffee, and cocoa, and to pay taxes. The Germans introduced modern cultivation techniques for these crops and developed infrastructure to support the export-oriented economy. This included the construction of railway lines, such as the Lomé-Aného railway, and the port of Lomé. While the Germans aimed to create a "model colony" (Musterkolonie) through efficient administration and economic development, their rule was also characterized by harsh treatment of the indigenous population.

2.3. World War I and Partition (1914-1960)

When World War I began in 1914, German Togoland was quickly invaded by British forces from the Gold Coast (modern Ghana) to the west and French forces from Dahomey (modern Benin) to the east. The Togoland campaign, part of the West African Campaign, was brief. German forces were outnumbered and, after a short resistance, surrendered on 26 August 1914. Following the invasion, Britain and France established an Anglo-French condominium.

On 7 December 1916, the condominium collapsed, and Togoland was formally partitioned into British and French zones. On 20 July 1922, the League of Nations formalized this division by granting mandates to Great Britain to govern the western part (British Togoland) and to France to govern the eastern, larger part (French Togoland). In 1945, the country received the right to send three representatives to the French parliament.

After World War II, these mandates were converted into UN Trust Territories in 1946, with Britain and France remaining as the administering powers. The Ewe people, who were divided by the partition, advocated for reunification, but their demands were not met. In a plebiscite held in 1956 in British Togoland, the majority voted to integrate with the Gold Coast. Consequently, in 1957, British Togoland became part of the newly independent nation of Ghana.

French Togoland, meanwhile, moved towards autonomy. In 1946, a local assembly was established. A 1956 referendum resulted in French Togoland becoming an autonomous republic within the French Union. Key political parties emerged during this period: the Committee of Togolese Unity (CUT), led by Sylvanus Olympio and drawing support from southern Ewe populations, advocated for full independence. The Togolese Party of Progress (PTP), led by Nicolas Grunitzky and also based among the Ewe, was more pro-French. The Union of Chiefs and Peoples of the North (UCPN), led by Antoine Meatchi, represented northern interests. In the 1958 elections, Olympio's CUT won a decisive majority in the assembly. France retained control over defense, foreign relations, and finances until full independence.

2.4. Independence and Post-Colonial Era

Togo's journey to independence and its subsequent political evolution have been marked by significant challenges, including military coups, long-term authoritarian presidencies, and persistent struggles for democratic reform and human rights.

2.4.1. Sylvanus Olympio and the First Republic (1960-1963)

The Togolese Republic was proclaimed on 27 April 1960, with Sylvanus Olympio becoming its first president. In the 1961 presidential elections, Olympio won with 100% of the vote after opposition parties boycotted the polls. On 9 April 1961, the Constitution of the Togolese Republic was adopted, establishing the National Assembly of Togo as the supreme legislative body.

President Olympio's government faced early challenges. In December 1961, leaders of opposition parties were arrested, accused of plotting an anti-government conspiracy, and a decree was issued dissolving these parties, effectively creating a one-party state. Olympio sought to reduce Togo's dependence on France by fostering relations with the United States, the United Kingdom, and West Germany. A critical issue arose from his refusal to integrate French army veterans, demobilized after the Algerian War, into the small Togolese army due to fiscal constraints. This decision, combined with his increasingly authoritarian tendencies and alienation of political opponents, created significant discontent. These factors culminated in Africa's first post-colonial military coup d'état on 13 January 1963. During the coup, President Olympio was assassinated by a group of soldiers led by Sergeant Gnassingbé Eyadéma. A state of emergency was declared.

2.4.3. Gnassingbé Eyadéma's Long Rule (1967-2005)

On 13 January 1967, Gnassingbé Eyadéma, then a Lieutenant Colonel and Army Chief of Staff, overthrew President Grunitzky in a bloodless coup, assuming the presidency himself in April of that year. Eyadéma quickly consolidated power, establishing the Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) in November 1969 as the sole legal political party and banning all other political activities. This marked the beginning of a 38-year authoritarian rule characterized by a single-party state, suppression of dissent, and severe human rights abuses.

Eyadéma was re-elected in non-competitive elections in 1979 and 1986. During the 1970s, rising prices for phosphate, Togo's main export, provided economic resources that helped sustain his regime. However, economic downturns in the 1980s due to falling phosphate prices led to increased social unrest. In 1983, a privatization program was launched.

The early 1990s saw a wave of pro-democracy movements across Africa, and Togo was no exception. Following widespread protests, a National Conference was held in July 1991, which established a transitional government with Joseph Kokou Koffigoh as Prime Minister, stripping Eyadéma of much of his power. However, Eyadéma retained control of the military and gradually reasserted his authority. In December 1991, pro-Eyadéma military forces attacked the Prime Minister's residence, forcing Koffigoh into a power-sharing arrangement that effectively restored Eyadéma's dominance.

Multiparty elections were eventually held, but they were marred by irregularities and boycotts. Eyadéma won the presidential elections in 1993, 1998, and 2003. The European Union (EU) froze aid to Togo in 1993, citing the undemocratic nature of his re-election and the deteriorating human rights situation. Dialogue between the EU and Togo on resuming cooperation occurred in April 2004, but significant concerns remained. At the time of his death on 5 February 2005, Gnassingbé Eyadéma was the "longest-serving leader in modern African history." His long rule left a legacy of political repression, economic stagnation, and deep societal divisions.

2.4.4. Faure Gnassingbé's Presidency (2005-present)

Upon Gnassingbé Eyadéma's death on 5 February 2005, the military immediately installed his son, Faure Gnassingbé, as president, a move widely condemned internationally as a coup d'état. According to the constitution, the President of the Parliament, Fambaré Ouattara Natchaba, should have assumed the presidency pending elections. However, Natchaba was out of the country and was prevented from returning when the military closed Togo's borders. The Parliament, dominated by Eyadéma's RPT party, hastily amended the constitution to legitimize Faure Gnassingbé's succession.

This unconstitutional power grab provoked strong criticism from the African Union (AU), the United Nations, and other international bodies. Some African leaders, such as Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal and Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, initially appeared to support the move, creating rifts within the AU. Intense domestic and international pressure, including sanctions from ECOWAS, forced Faure Gnassingbé to step down on 25 February 2005, and agree to hold elections. Bonfoh Abbass was appointed interim president.

The presidential election held on 24 April 2005 was won by Faure Gnassingbé, but was marred by widespread allegations of fraud and violence. The opposition, led by Emmanuel Bob-Akitani of the Union of Forces for Change (UFC), rejected the results. The ensuing protests and clashes resulted in the deaths of an estimated 400 to 500 people, according to the UN, and around 40,000 Togolese fled to neighboring countries. Despite the contested outcome, Faure Gnassingbé was sworn in on 3 May 2005. The EU maintained its aid suspension due to concerns about the election's legitimacy and the human rights situation.

Faure Gnassingbé was subsequently re-elected in 2010, 2015, and 2020. Each of these elections faced accusations of irregularities and fraud from opposition parties. The Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) was dissolved in 2012 and replaced by the Union for the Republic (UNIR) as the ruling party.

Significant anti-government protests occurred in 2017-2018, demanding presidential term limits and other democratic reforms. The government responded with a crackdown by security forces, which drew condemnation from the UN and other international observers.

In the February 2020 presidential election, Faure Gnassingbé was declared the winner with around 72% of the vote, defeating former prime minister Agbéyomé Kodjo, who received 18%. The opposition again alleged widespread fraud. The Gnassingbé family's rule, spanning over five decades, is Africa's longest-lasting political dynasty. On 4 May 2020, Colonel Bitala Madjoulba, commander of a Togolese military battalion, was found dead in his office shortly after Gnassingbé was sworn in for his fourth term, leading to an investigation involving high-ranking military officials. The continued dominance of the Gnassingbé family and UNIR party raises serious concerns about the state of democracy, political freedoms, and human rights in Togo.

2.5. Joining the Commonwealth (2022)

Togo joined the Commonwealth of Nations in June 2022, alongside Gabon, during the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Kigali, Rwanda. The decision to join was driven by a desire to diversify Togo's international partnerships beyond its traditional Francophone ties. Foreign Minister Robert Dussey stated that Commonwealth membership was expected to provide new export markets, funding for development projects, and opportunities for Togolese citizens to learn English and access new educational and cultural resources. This move was seen as an effort to expand Togo's "diplomatic, political and economic network" and to "forge closer ties with the anglophone world." The admission of Togo, a country with no historical colonial ties to the British Empire, reflects a growing trend of nations seeking broader international engagement and economic opportunities through Commonwealth membership.

3.1. Topography and Coastline

Togo is located in West Africa, bordering the Bight of Benin (part of the Gulf of Guinea) to the south. It shares land borders with Ghana to the west, Benin to the east, and Burkina Faso to the north. The country is relatively small, with a total area of 22 K mile^{2 (56.79 K km2)}. It is a long, narrow country, extending about 342 mile ^{(550 km)} from north to south but with a width that varies from less than 71 mile ^{(115 km)} to about 87 mile ^{(140 km)}.

The country's topography is varied. The southern coastal region is a low-lying plain characterized by lagoons, marshes, and sandy beaches along its 35 mile ^{(56 km)} coastline. North of the coastal plain, the land rises to a savanna and woodland plateau. The central part of Togo is dominated by hills, including the Atakora Mountains (also known as the Togo Mountains) which stretch from the southwest to the northeast. The highest point in Togo is Mont Agou, at 3235 ft ^{(986 m)} above sea level, located in these central hills. The northern region consists of a rolling savanna. The longest river in Togo is the Mono River, which flows for about 249 mile ^{(400 km)} from north to south, forming part of the border with Benin before emptying into the Gulf of Guinea.

3.2. Climate

Togo has a generally tropical climate. Average temperatures range from 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)} on the coast to about 86 °F ^{(30 °C)} in the northernmost regions. The south experiences two rainy seasons: the main one from April to July, and a shorter one from September to November. The central region also has two rainy seasons but receives less rainfall than the south. The north has a single rainy season, typically from June to September.

The overall climate is influenced by seasonal patterns. The Harmattan, a dry, dusty wind from the Sahara Desert, affects the northern regions during the dry season (November to March), bringing cooler nights and lower humidity. The southern coastal region, part of the "Dahomey Gap" (an area of savanna that interrupts the West African forest belt), receives less rainfall than typical equatorial regions, averaging around 31 in ^{(780 mm)} annually in Lomé, while inland hilly areas can receive up to 0.1 K in ^{(1.50 K mm)}.

3.3. Ecology and Wildlife

Togo contains three main terrestrial ecoregions: the Eastern Guinean forests in the southwest, the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic covering much of the country, and the West Sudanian savanna in the far north. The coastal region is characterized by mangroves and marshes.

The country's flora includes various types of savanna grasses, acacia trees, baobabs, and remnants of tropical forests in wetter areas. Wildlife includes elephants, lions, leopards, buffaloes, various antelope species, monkeys, crocodiles, and numerous bird species, such as the Martial eagle. However, wildlife populations have been affected by habitat loss and poaching.

Togo has established several protected areas to conserve its biodiversity. These include national parks such as Fazao Malfakassa National Park and Kéran National Park, as well as faunal reserves like Abdoulaye Faunal Reserve and Fosse aux Lions National Park. Koutammakou, the Land of the Batammariba, in northeastern Togo, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site recognized for its unique vernacular architecture and cultural landscape, which also contributes to the conservation of the surrounding natural environment. Togo had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.88/10, ranking it 92nd globally out of 172 countries.

4.1. Governance Structure

Togo operates as a republic. Historically, under the 1992 constitution (and subsequent amendments), it functioned as a presidential system where the President was the head of state, elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The President appointed the Prime Minister, who served as the head of government. The President was the commander of the Togolese Armed Forces, had the right to initiate legislation, and could dissolve parliament. Executive power was exercised by the President and the government (Prime Minister and ministers).

The legislature was the unicameral National Assembly of Togo (Assemblée Nationale), with its members elected for five-year terms. The judiciary, in theory, is independent, but has faced challenges regarding executive influence and impartiality.

A significant constitutional reform was adopted in 2024, fundamentally altering this structure. This reform aims to transition Togo to a parliamentary system. Under the new system, the President's role becomes largely ceremonial. The head of government is the "President of the Council of Ministers" (effectively a Prime Minister), chosen from the majority party or coalition in the National Assembly. The National Assembly now consists of 113 members, with a term length of six years. A Senate was also established as an upper house.

4.2. Political System and Parties

Togo's political system evolved from a single-party state under Gnassingbé Eyadéma to a multi-party system in the early 1990s. However, the political landscape has been dominated by the ruling party, originally the Rally of the Togolese People (RPT). In 2012, the RPT was dissolved and succeeded by the Union for the Republic (UNIR), which has maintained a strong grip on power under President Faure Gnassingbé.

Opposition parties are permitted, but they face significant challenges, including limited resources, internal divisions, and an electoral playing field often perceived as uneven. Key opposition parties have included the Union of Forces for Change (UFC) and, more recently, coalitions formed to contest elections. The political climate has often been tense, with periods of protest and government crackdowns. The long-standing dominance of the Gnassingbé family and their party has led to concerns about the health of Togo's democracy and the potential for genuine political pluralism. The 2024 constitutional changes, which could allow Faure Gnassingbé to remain in power indefinitely as President of the Council of Ministers, have further fueled these concerns among opposition groups and civil society.

4.3. Elections and Democratic Processes

Togo has a history of presidential and legislative elections since the introduction of a multi-party system in the early 1990s. However, these elections have frequently been marred by controversy, allegations of irregularities, and violence, particularly the 2005 presidential election.

Presidential elections were held in 1993, 1998, 2003 (won by Gnassingbé Eyadéma), and 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020 (won by Faure Gnassingbé). Opposition parties have consistently challenged the fairness and transparency of these polls, citing issues such as voter registration problems, biased media coverage, intimidation, and manipulation of results. International observers have often noted procedural errors and technical problems, though some recent elections have seen improvements in organization.

The 2005 presidential election, following the death of Gnassingbé Eyadéma, was particularly contentious. The military's initial installation of Faure Gnassingbé led to widespread protests and international condemnation. The subsequent election, which Faure Gnassingbé won, resulted in significant violence, with hundreds killed and tens of thousands displaced.

Legislative elections have also been held, but the ruling party (RPT, now UNIR) has consistently maintained a majority in the National Assembly. Proportional representation was used in the 2007 elections, which critics argued favored the less populated north (a stronghold of the ruling party) over the more populated south.

Efforts towards democratic reform have been ongoing but often slow and contested. Protests, such as those in 2012 and 2017-2018, have called for constitutional changes, including the re-establishment of presidential term limits (which were removed in 2002 and then partially reinstated in 2019 before being altered again by the 2024 reforms). Public participation in democratic processes has been affected by political tensions and a lack of trust in electoral institutions.

4.4. 2024 Constitutional Reform

In March 2024, President Faure Gnassingbé's government introduced a new constitution, which was adopted by the Togolese parliament in April and officially promulgated on May 6, 2024. These changes mark a significant shift in Togo's governance structure, moving the country from a presidential system to a parliamentary system.

Key changes include:

• The role of the President becomes largely ceremonial, elected by the parliament in a joint session of the National Assembly and the newly created Senate, for a single six-year term. Previously, the president was directly elected for a five-year term, renewable once (after a 2019 reform).
• Executive power is now primarily vested in a new office: the "President of the Council of Ministers" (Président du Conseil des Ministres_{President of the Council of Ministers}^French). This figure, effectively the Prime Minister, is drawn from the majority party or coalition in the National Assembly and is not subject to term limits.
• The National Assembly's term was extended to six years.
• A Senate was established, with members partly elected by local officials and partly appointed by the president.

The reforms have been highly controversial. Supporters argue they will lead to more stable and inclusive governance. However, opposition parties and civil society groups have strongly criticized the changes, viewing them as a means for President Faure Gnassingbé to extend his rule indefinitely by potentially transitioning to the powerful new post of President of the Council of Ministers after his current presidential term. The reforms were pushed through parliament amidst protests and concerns about the lack of broad consultation and the implications for democratic accountability and the balance of power. The timing of the reforms, just before legislative elections, also drew criticism.

4.5. Rule of Law and Judiciary

The state of the rule of law in Togo faces significant challenges. While the constitution provides for an independent judiciary, in practice, the judicial system has often been perceived as being influenced by the executive branch. This perception has impacted public trust in the courts and the overall administration of justice.

The judicial system is modeled on the French civil law system. It includes lower courts, courts of appeal, and a Supreme Court. There is also a Constitutional Court responsible for reviewing the constitutionality of laws and electoral disputes.

Key challenges related to the rule of law and judiciary include:

• Judicial Independence:** Concerns persist about the de facto independence of judges and prosecutors from political pressure.
• Access to Justice:** Limited resources, geographical distances to courts, and the cost of legal representation can hinder access to justice, particularly for marginalized populations.
• Corruption:** Official corruption remains a problem and can affect the impartiality of judicial processes.
• Pre-trial Detention:** Lengthy pre-trial detention is a common issue, contributing to prison overcrowding and violating the rights of the accused.
• Enforcement of Laws:** Inconsistent application and enforcement of laws can undermine the rule of law.
• Impunity:** There have been instances where security forces or officials accused of human rights abuses have not been held accountable, contributing to a culture of impunity.

Efforts have been made to reform the judicial sector, including capacity building for judicial personnel and improving infrastructure. However, systemic challenges remain in ensuring a fully independent, impartial, and accessible justice system that upholds the rule of law for all citizens.

7.1. Relations with Neighbouring Countries

Togo shares borders with Ghana to the west, Benin to the east, and Burkina Faso to the north. Relations with these neighboring countries are generally peaceful and cooperative, driven by shared economic interests, cultural ties, and cross-border ethnic affinities.

• Ghana:** Relations with Ghana have historically seen periods of tension, particularly concerning the border and the status of the Ewe people who live on both sides. However, in recent decades, diplomatic and economic cooperation has improved.
• Benin:** Togo and Benin share strong cultural and economic links, facilitated by their common border and membership in regional organizations like ECOWAS and the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA). The Mono River forms part of their shared boundary.
• Burkina Faso:** As a landlocked country, Burkina Faso relies on Togolese ports, particularly the Port of Lomé, for international trade. This creates a significant economic interdependence. Security cooperation has also become increasingly important due to regional instability and the threat of extremism spreading from the Sahel.

Cross-border trade, both formal and informal, is substantial with all three neighbors. Togo also collaborates with these countries on regional security initiatives and infrastructure projects.

7.2. Relations with Major Powers and International Organizations

Togo maintains diplomatic relations with numerous countries worldwide.

• France:** As the former colonial power for the larger part of Togoland, France continues to be a significant partner in terms of economic aid, cultural exchange, and political influence.
• Germany:** Germany, the original colonial power of Togoland, also maintains ties, particularly in development cooperation.
• China:** The People's Republic of China has become an increasingly important partner for Togo, involved in infrastructure development and trade. Togo recognizes the PRC.
• Other Powers:** Togo also engages with other countries including the United States, and has re-established relations with Israel in 1987 and recognizes Jerusalem as its capital. It also recognizes North Korea and Cuba.

Togo is an active member of several international and regional organizations:

• United Nations (UN):** Togo participates in various UN agencies and initiatives. In 2017, Togo signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
• African Union (AU):** Togo is a member of the AU and contributes to its objectives of promoting peace, security, and development on the continent.
• Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS):** Togo is a key member of ECOWAS, participating in regional economic integration efforts and security cooperation.
• Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF):** Reflecting its French colonial heritage and the official status of the French language, Togo is an active member of La Francophonie.
• Commonwealth of Nations:** Togo joined the Commonwealth in June 2022, seeking to expand its diplomatic and economic network and forge closer ties with the Anglophone world.
• Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC):** Togo is also a member of the OIC.
• South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone (ZPCAS)**

Togo's foreign policy aims to balance its traditional relationships with new partnerships to foster economic development and enhance its international standing.

9.1. Overview

Togo is classified as a least developed country. Its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and per capita income are low, reflecting its economic vulnerabilities. The economy relies heavily on agriculture, which employs a majority of the workforce, and the export of primary commodities like phosphates, cotton, coffee, and cocoa.

Major economic challenges include:

• Political Instability:** Historical and ongoing political tensions have negatively affected investor confidence and economic development.
• Commodity Price Volatility:** Dependence on a few primary commodities makes the economy susceptible to global price swings.
• Debt Burden:** Togo has faced significant external debt, although it has benefited from some debt relief initiatives.
• Poverty:** Widespread poverty remains a critical issue, particularly in rural areas.
• Infrastructure Deficits:** While improvements have been made, particularly to the Port of Lomé, further investment in infrastructure is needed.

Despite these challenges, Togo serves as a regional commercial and trade center, largely due to the strategic location and relative efficiency of the Port of Lomé. The government has pursued economic reforms with support from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), focusing on privatization, fiscal discipline, and improving the business environment. However, progress has often been stalled by political crises and governance issues. Togo was ranked 117th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

9.2. Agriculture

Agriculture is the backbone of the Togolese economy, employing approximately 49% of the working population (2010) and contributing significantly to GDP (28.2% in 2012). The sector is characterized by both subsistence farming and the cultivation of cash crops for export. Fertile land occupies about 11.3% of the country.

• Food Crops:** The main food crops include cassava, maize (corn), millet, sorghum, yams, and jasmine rice. Togo is largely self-sufficient in food production when harvests are normal, though localized shortages can occur due to factors like drought or inadequate access to irrigation and fertilizers.
• Cash Crops:** Key cash crops for export are cotton, coffee, cocoa, and peanuts (groundnuts). These crops generate a significant portion of Togo's export earnings, roughly 30%. Cotton, in particular, is an important cash crop.
• Livestock:** Livestock production, primarily cattle breeding, also contributes to the agricultural sector.

Challenges in the agricultural sector include limited access to modern farming techniques, irrigation equipment, and fertilizers, which can reduce agricultural output. Price volatility for export crops and issues within the privatization programs for sectors like cotton have also impacted farmers.

9.3. Mining

The mining sector is a crucial contributor to Togo's economy, particularly through its significant phosphate deposits. Togo possesses some of the world's largest high-grade phosphate rock reserves, located near Hahotoé. Phosphates have historically been a major export earner for the country. In 2012, mining contributed about 33.9% of GDP and employed 12% of the population in 2010. Phosphate production has fluctuated over the years due to market conditions and operational challenges, with annual production figures like 2.1 million tons per year cited, though more recent figures show a decline (e.g., 400,000 tons in 2015). Despite declines, phosphates remained a key export in 2016, accounting for 11% of total export value.

Besides phosphates, Togo also has deposits of limestone, marble, and salt. Limestone is used in the local production of cement, which is another important industrial activity and export. Gold production was recorded at 16 metric tons in 2015. The development of the mining sector is seen as vital for economic growth, but it also requires careful management to ensure environmental sustainability and equitable benefit-sharing.

9.4. Manufacturing and Other Industries

Togo's manufacturing sector is relatively small and primarily consists of light industries. These industries often focus on processing agricultural products and meeting local demand.
Key components of the manufacturing and other industrial sectors include:

• Cement Production:** Leveraging local limestone deposits, Togo has a significant cement industry, with cement being one of its export products.
• Textiles:** The textile sector, linked to local cotton production, contributes to manufacturing output.
• Brewery:** The brewery industry caters to both domestic consumption and some regional export.
• Food Processing:** Agro-processing activities involve the transformation of local agricultural produce.
• Tourism:** Togo has potential in the tourism sector, particularly with its coastal areas, cultural heritage (like Koutammakou), and national parks. However, the sector's development has been constrained by political instability and infrastructure limitations.

Overall, industry (including mining and manufacturing) provides a significant portion of Togo's national income (around 20.4% of GDP in some estimates). Challenges include access to reliable energy, skilled labor, and finance for investment in modernizing and expanding industrial capacity.

9.5. Trade

Togo's economy is open, with trade playing a significant role, facilitated by the Port of Lomé, which serves as a key transit hub for neighboring landlocked countries like Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger.

• Main Exports:**

• Main Imports:**

• Key Trading Partners:**
  • Export Partners:** Historically, countries like Burkina Faso, China, the Netherlands, Benin, and Mali have been significant export destinations.
  • Import Partners:** France, the Netherlands, Côte d'Ivoire, Germany, Italy, South Africa, and China have been major sources of imports.

  Togo generally experiences a trade deficit. The devaluation of the CFA franc in 1994 provided some impetus for structural adjustment and aimed to boost export competitiveness. The country is a member of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), which promote regional trade integration. It is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).

9.6. Economic Reforms and Challenges

Togo has undertaken various economic reform programs over the years, often with the support of international financial institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). These reforms have aimed to liberalize the economy, encourage private investment, improve fiscal management, and reduce poverty.

• Key Reform Areas:**
  • Privatization:** Efforts have been made to privatize state-owned enterprises in sectors such as cotton, telecommunications, and water supply, though progress has sometimes stalled.
  • Trade Liberalization:** Measures have been taken to liberalize trade and improve the efficiency of port activities at the Port of Lomé.
  • Fiscal Management:** Focus on improving government financial operations, balancing income and consumption, and managing public debt.
  • Investment Promotion:** Initiatives to attract both domestic and foreign investment.
  • Ongoing Challenges:**
    • Debt Burden:** Togo has historically struggled with a high external debt, though it has benefited from debt relief initiatives.
    • Poverty Reduction:** Despite some progress, poverty remains widespread, particularly in rural areas. Creating sustainable livelihoods and improving access to basic services are critical.
    • Reliance on Foreign Aid:** The economy remains significantly dependent on foreign aid and development assistance.
    • Political Instability and Governance:** Political crises and governance issues have often disrupted economic activities, undermined reform programs, and deterred investment. Corruption is also a concern.
    • Commodity Price Dependence:** The economy's reliance on a few primary commodities makes it vulnerable to price shocks.
    • Infrastructure and Human Capital:** Further investment is needed in infrastructure (energy, transport beyond the main corridors) and human capital (education, health) to support long-term development.
    • Downsizing Armed Forces:** Past considerations for downsizing the armed forces, upon which the regime has historically depended, have been part of reform discussions to reallocate resources to social services.

    The end of political strife in the mid-1990s and periods of relative calm provided windows for renewed structural adjustment. However, sustained progress requires political stability, strong governance, and continued commitment to reforms that promote inclusive growth and social justice.

10.1. Roads

Togo's road network totals approximately 4.7 K mile ^{(7.52 K km)} (as of 2000, with no widely available updated comprehensive data as of 2023). A significant portion of this network remains unpaved.

Key highways include:

• National Highway N1 (Route Nationale N1):** This is Togo's longest highway, extending about 381 mile ^{(613 km)}. It runs from the capital, Lomé, on the coast, northwards through major inland cities to Dapaong near the border with Burkina Faso. From Dapaong, it connects to routes leading into Burkina Faso, and further to Mali and Niger.
• National Highway N2 (Route Nationale N2):** This highway connects Lomé eastward along the coast to Aného and the border with Benin.

Togo is part of the Trans-West African Coastal Highway network. The Togolese segment (an extension of N2) connects it to Benin and Nigeria to the east, and to Ghana and Ivory Coast to the west. Once fully completed across all participating ECOWAS nations, this highway will link several West African capitals.

Other roads consist of regional and local routes, many of which are vital for accessing rural areas and facilitating cross-border movement with neighboring countries. The condition of roads, especially secondary and rural roads, can be challenging, particularly during the rainy season.

10.2. Railways

Togo has a narrow-gauge railway system with a total length of approximately 353 mile ^{(568 km)} (as of 2008). The track gauge is 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)}. The railway operations are managed by the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Togolais_{National Togolese Railway Company}^French (SNCT), which was formed from the restructuring of the former Réseau des Chemins de Fer du Togo^French in 1997-1998.

The main railway lines are:

• Lomé-Blitta railway**: This is the principal line, running from Lomé northwards to Blitta. It is primarily used for transporting goods, including agricultural products and minerals.
• Lomé-Kpalimé railway**: Connects Lomé to Kpalimé in the Plateaux Region, an area known for coffee and cocoa production.
• Lomé-Aného railway**: An older coastal line.

Additionally, the Compagnie Togolaise des Mines du Bénin_{Togolese Benin Mines Company}^French (CTMB) operated a dedicated railway line for transporting phosphate from the mines at Hahotoé to the port of Kpémé. The railway system has faced challenges with aging infrastructure and requires significant investment for modernization and expansion. Its primary role has been freight transport rather than passenger services.

10.3. Air Transport

Togo has a total of eight airports (as of 2012), though most are small airfields. The country's air transport infrastructure is centered around two main airports:

• Lomé-Tokoin International Airport (IATA: LFW, ICAO: DXXX):** Located in the capital, Lomé, this is the country's primary international airport and the hub for the pan-African airline ASKY Airlines. It handles most international passenger and cargo traffic.
• Niamtougou International Airport (IATA: LRL, ICAO: DXNG):** Situated in Niamtougou in the Kara Region of northern Togo. It was developed with the intention of serving the northern part of the country and as an alternative airport, but it primarily handles limited domestic or charter flights and has not seen significant regular international traffic.

Air transport plays a vital role in connecting Togo to other African countries and to Europe.

10.4. Water Transport

Water transport in Togo is dominated by its maritime port and has limited inland waterway navigability.

• Port of Lomé:** This is Togo's only major deep-water port, located in the capital. It is a significant regional trade hub, serving not only Togo but also landlocked neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger. The port has undergone significant expansion and modernization, including the development of container terminals, making it one of the busiest ports in West Africa. It handles a wide range of cargo, including containers, bulk goods (like phosphates), and petroleum products.
• Inland Waterways:** Togo has approximately 31 mile ^{(50 km)} of navigable inland waterways, primarily on the Mono River. However, navigability is largely seasonal and dependent on rainfall. Inland water transport is not extensively developed for commercial purposes.

The Port of Lomé is crucial for Togo's economy, facilitating imports, exports, and transit trade, thereby contributing significantly to the country's revenue.

11.1. Population

The population of Togo was 6,191,155 according to the November 2010 census. This was more than double the 2,719,567 counted in the 1981 census. The 2022 census recorded a population of 8,680,832. The population growth rate is significant; from 1961 (the year after independence) to 2003, the population quintupled. Togo is the 107th largest country by population (based on UN estimates for recent years).

The capital city, Lomé, is the largest urban center. Its population grew from 375,499 in 1981 to 837,437 in 2010. The Lomé Agglomeration, including the surrounding Golfe prefecture, had 1,477,660 residents in 2010. Other major cities (with 2010 census populations) include Sokodé (95,070; 2010 figure was 117,811 in another source), Kara (94,878), Kpalimé (75,084), Atakpamé (69,261), Dapaong (58,071), and Tsévié (54,474).

Most of the population (around 65%) lives in rural villages, primarily engaged in agriculture or pastoral activities. Population density is relatively high for the region, particularly in the southern coastal areas and parts of the north, while the central region is less densely populated.

11.2. Ethnic Groups

Togo is home to approximately 40 different ethnic groups. The largest groups include:

• The **Ewe**, concentrated in the south, constitute about 22-32% of the population. Along the southern coastline specifically, they account for around 21%.
• The **Kabye (or Kabiye)**, primarily residing in the north (around the Kara region), make up about 13-22% of the population. The Gnassingbé family, which has dominated Togolese politics for decades, is of Kabye origin.
• The **Ouatchi (or Waci)** are estimated at 14% of the population and are culturally related to the Ewe; sometimes they are considered together, though colonial French ethnographers distinguished them.
• The **Tem (or Kotokoli)** and **Tchamba** are significant groups in the central region.
• The **Mina** (a Gbe-speaking group closely related to the Ewe and Gen) are prominent in the coastal areas.
• Other groups include the Mossi, Moba, Bassar, and the Tchokossi of Mango (around 8%).

There are also small populations of European (primarily French and German) and Lebanese origin. Ethnic identity can play a role in social and political dynamics, with historical tensions sometimes arising between southern groups like the Ewe and northern groups like the Kabye, particularly during periods of political transition.

11.3. Languages

Togo is a multilingual country with approximately 39 distinct languages spoken, some by communities of fewer than 100,000 members.

• French** is the sole official language, used in formal education, government administration, legislation, media, and commerce.

These national languages are promoted in formal education and used in the media.

• Other significant indigenous languages include Gen (or Mina), Aja, Moba, Ntcham (or Bassar), Dagomba, Gourmanchéma, and Ifè. Tem functions to a limited extent as a trade language in some northern towns.

With Togo's entry into the Commonwealth of Nations, there is an anticipation of increased opportunities for Togolese citizens to learn and use English.

11.4. Religion

Togo is a secular state, and its constitution provides for freedom of religion. Religious affiliation in Togo is diverse:

• Christianity**: This is the largest single religious group. Estimates from 2020-2023 suggest that Christians make up about 42.3% to 47.8% of the population. This includes Roman Catholics (around 28% in some older estimates) and various Protestant denominations (around 9-20%). Christianity began to spread from the mid-15th century with Portuguese Catholic missionaries. Protestantism was introduced by German missionaries (Bremen Missionary Society) in the latter half of the 19th century, leading to the establishment of the Ewe Evangelical Church.
• Indigenous Beliefs**: A significant portion of the population, estimated around 33% to 36.9%, adheres to traditional indigenous beliefs, often referred to as Vodun or Animism. Many Christians and Muslims also incorporate elements of indigenous religious practices into their lives.
• Islam**: Muslims constitute about 14% to 20% of the population, predominantly Sunni.
• Unaffiliated**: Around 6.2% of the population is reported as unaffiliated with any specific religion.
• Other Religions**: Small percentages of the population follow other faiths, such as Hinduism or Judaism.

Religious groups must register as religious associations to receive benefits similar to those of recognized religions (Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism), though this process has reportedly faced long delays. Religious freedom is generally respected in practice.

11.5. Health

The public health situation in Togo faces numerous challenges common to many developing countries, although some progress has been made in specific areas.

• Key Health Indicators:**
  • Life expectancy at birth was approximately 62.3 years for males and 67.7 years for females in 2016.
  • The infant mortality rate was around 43.7 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2016. The under-5 mortality rate is also high.
  • Maternal mortality rate was 368 deaths per 100,000 live births (as of 2015), a decrease from 539.7 in 1990 but still high.
• Healthcare Infrastructure and Access:**
  • There is a shortage of healthcare professionals, with approximately 5 physicians per 100,000 people in 2008.
  • Access to medical services, particularly in rural areas, can be limited due to geographical distance, cost, and lack of facilities.
  • Health expenditure was 5.2% of GDP in 2014.
  • In 2024, a Universal Health Insurance program was launched, aiming to cover 800,000 people within six months, implemented through the National Social Security Fund and the National Health Insurance Institute.
• Prevalent Diseases:**
  • Infectious diseases such as malaria, respiratory infections, and diarrheal diseases are major causes of morbidity and mortality.
  • HIV/AIDS: In 2016, an estimated 100,000 people were living with HIV. Antiretroviral therapy access was around 51% for those living with HIV, and 86% for pregnant women living with HIV to prevent mother-to-child transmission.
• Specific Health Issues:**
  • Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 4% of women in Togo had undergone FGM, a relatively low rate compared to some other countries in the region, reflecting efforts to combat the practice.
• Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI):** HRMI finds that Togo is fulfilling 73.1% of what it should for the right to health based on its income. For children, it achieves 93.8%, but for reproductive health, it fulfills only 37.3%, falling into the "very bad" category.

Efforts are being made to improve health services, including projects like modernizing solid waste management in Lomé to enhance living conditions, supported by organizations like the French Development Agency (AFD).

11.6. Education

Education in Togo is compulsory for six years, typically covering primary education. The education system is structured into primary, secondary (junior and senior high), and higher education levels. French is the language of instruction.

• Enrollment and Literacy:**
  • In 1996, the gross primary enrollment rate was 119.6%, and the net primary enrollment rate was 81.3%.
  • By 2011, the net enrollment rate had improved to 94% for primary education.
  • The literacy rate for the total population (age 15 and over who can read and write) was estimated at 66.5% in 2015.
• Challenges:**
  • Teacher Shortages:** The education system suffers from a lack of qualified teachers, especially in rural areas.
  • Quality of Education:** Educational quality can be lower in rural areas compared to urban centers.
  • Repetition and Dropout Rates:** High rates of grade repetition and student dropout are significant concerns, particularly at the primary and secondary levels.
  • Infrastructure and Resources:** Inadequate school infrastructure, lack of learning materials, and overcrowded classrooms are common problems.
• Higher Education:**
  • Togo has several institutions of higher learning, with the University of Lomé being the primary public university. The University of Kara is another public university. These institutions offer a range of undergraduate and postgraduate programs.

  The government and international partners have undertaken initiatives to improve the education sector, focusing on increasing access, enhancing quality, and addressing teacher shortages. However, substantial investment and reform are still needed to ensure equitable and quality education for all Togolese children and youth.

12.1. Traditional Arts and Practices

Togolese traditional arts are diverse and reflect the distinct cultural expressions of its numerous ethnic groups.

• Sculpture and Carving:**
  • Ewe Statuary:** The Ewe are known for their small wooden statuettes, often associated with the worship of ibeji (twins) and other deities or ancestors.
  • Kloto Wood Carvings:** The wood-carvers of Kloto are famous for their intricate "chains of marriage," where two figures are linked by rings, all carved from a single piece of wood. They also produce other sculptures and utilitarian objects.
• Textiles:**
  • Batik:** The artisanal center of Kloto is renowned for its dyed batik fabrics, which often depict stylized scenes of traditional daily life in vibrant colors.
  • Weaving:** The weavers of Assahoun are known for their ceremonial loincloths and other woven textiles.
• Painting and Visual Arts:**
  • Contemporary Togolese artists like Sokey Edorh draw inspiration from the local environment, such as arid landscapes and traditional motifs.
  • Paul Ahyi (1930-2010) was an internationally recognized Togolese artist, sculptor, and architect. He practiced "zota," a form of pyroengraving, and his monumental works decorate Lomé, including the Independence Monument.
• Architecture:**
  • Taberma Houses:** The Koutammakou region in northeastern Togo, home to the Batammariba (or Taberma) people, is famous for its unique mud tower-houses called takienta. These structures are remarkable examples of vernacular architecture and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. They serve as dwellings, granaries, and spiritual centers.
• Colonial architecture, particularly German and French styles, can be seen in older administrative buildings, cathedrals, and private homes in Lomé and other towns.
• Oral Traditions:** Like many African societies, Togo has a strong tradition of oral literature, including storytelling, proverbs, and epic poems, which are vital for transmitting cultural knowledge and values.

Traditional ceremonies, music, and dance are integral parts of community life, marking events such as births, marriages, deaths, agricultural cycles, and religious festivals.

12.2. Sports

Various sports are practiced in Togo, with football (soccer) being the most popular.

• Football (Soccer):** Football is widely followed and played across the country. The Togo national football team, nicknamed "Les Éperviers" (The Sparrowhawks), achieved its most notable success by qualifying for the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. The top domestic league is the Togolese Championnat National. Emmanuel Adebayor is Togo's most famous footballer, having played for top European clubs like Arsenal, Manchester City, and Real Madrid, and winning the African Footballer of the Year award in 2008.
• Basketball**: Basketball is considered the second most practiced sport in Togo. The country has a national basketball federation and participates in regional competitions.
• Canoeing**: Togo gained international recognition in canoeing when Benjamin Boukpeti won a bronze medal in the men's K-1 slalom event at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. This was Togo's first-ever Olympic medal.
• Other Sports:** Other sports practiced include athletics (track and field), boxing, judo, and volleyball (including beach volleyball, with Togo participating in continental competitions).

The government has made some investments in sports infrastructure, and the country occasionally hosts regional sporting events.

12.3. Mass Media

Togo's media landscape includes print publications, radio, television, and online news sources.

• Print Media:** Several newspapers and magazines are published, primarily in French.
• Radio:** Radio is a very popular medium, with numerous public, private, and community radio stations broadcasting across the country in French and local languages.
• Television:** Togolese Television (Télévision Togolaise - TVT) is the state-owned national broadcaster. There are also private television channels.
• News Agency:** The Agence Togolaise de Presse (ATOP) is the national news agency, established in 1975. It partners with international news agencies like Agence France-Presse (AFP).
• Online Media:** Internet penetration is growing, and online news portals and social media are increasingly important sources of information.

Freedom of the press is constitutionally guaranteed but has faced challenges in practice, with reports of restrictions and intimidation of journalists, particularly those critical of the government. The Union des Journalistes Indépendants du Togo (Union of Independent Journalists of Togo) is a press association headquartered in Lomé.

12.4. World Heritage Sites

Togo has one property inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List:

• Koutammakou, the Land of the Batammariba**: This cultural landscape in northeastern Togo was inscribed in 2004. It is recognized for the unique mud tower-houses (takienta or Tata Somba) of the Batammariba people. These structures are an outstanding example of traditional vernacular architecture, reflecting the community's social organization, spiritual beliefs, and harmonious relationship with the environment. The site is valued for its living cultural traditions and its distinctive architectural style, which has become a symbol of Togo.