Belgium

3.1. Antiquity

The region of present-day Belgium has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era. During the Neolithic period, agriculture and animal husbandry were introduced, likely by migrants from Central Europe. Around the 6th century BCE, Celtic tribes arrived, bringing with them iron-working technology and the practice of cremation. By the time of Roman contact, the area was populated by various Belgic tribes, a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples. Julius Caesar, in his Gallic Wars, described the Belgae as the inhabitants of the northernmost part of Gaul, a region larger than modern Belgium. He considered them particularly warlike and noted their kinship with Germanic tribes east of the Rhine. Notable Belgic tribes in the area of modern Belgium included the Morini, Menapii, Nervii, Germani Cisrhenani, and Aduatuci. The area around Arlon in southern Belgium was part of the territory of the powerful Treveri.

After Caesar's conquest of Gaul (completed by 51 BCE), the region became part of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. Roman cities such as Tongeren (Aduatuca Tungrorum_{Aduatuca Tungrorum}^Latin), Tournai (Turnacum_Turnacum^Latin), and Arlon (Orolaunum_Orolaunum^Latin) were established as administrative and military centers. Under Emperor Augustus, the province was reorganized. Later, Emperor Domitian further divided the region, with areas closer to the lower Rhine frontier, including the eastern part of modern Belgium, becoming part of the frontier province of Germania Inferior.

During the 3rd century CE, Germanic migrations intensified. Franks, a Germanic group, began to settle in the region, often serving in the Roman military. As the Western Roman Empire weakened, Frankish influence grew. By the 5th century, the Roman provinces of Belgica and Germania were inhabited by a mix of Romanized populations and Germanic-speaking Franks who came to dominate the military and political class. The linguistic divide that characterizes modern Belgium began to form during this period, with the northern parts becoming predominantly Germanic-speaking (ancestor of Flemish/Dutch) and the southern parts remaining more Romanized and Latin-speaking (ancestor of Walloon/French). In 358 CE, Emperor Julian formally allowed the Salian Franks to settle in Toxandria, a region largely corresponding to the modern Campine.

3.2. Middle Ages

During the 5th century, the region came under the rule of the Frankish Merovingian kings, with Tournai serving as an early capital under Clovis I. Clovis I united various Frankish tribes and expanded his kingdom significantly, converting to Christianity around 496 CE, which had a profound impact on the region's culture and political alliances. After his death, the Frankish kingdom was divided among his sons, leading to periods of internal conflict and fragmentation.

By the 8th century, the Carolingian dynasty rose to power, with their heartland encompassing much of what is now eastern Belgium and the surrounding areas. Charlemagne, the most famous Carolingian ruler, was crowned Emperor of the Romans in 800 CE, consolidating a vast empire across Western Europe. After his death and the subsequent reign of his son Louis the Pious, the Carolingian Empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. Most of modern Belgium fell within Middle Francia, later known as Lotharingia. The coastal County of Flanders, west of the Scheldt river, became part of West Francia, the precursor to the Kingdom of France.

The Treaty of Meerssen in 870 further divided Lotharingia, and by the Treaty of Ribemont in 880, Lotharingia largely came under the control of East Francia, which evolved into the Holy Roman Empire. However, the County of Flanders remained a powerful fief of the French crown. During the 9th and 10th centuries, the region faced raids from Vikings, which spurred the development of local fortifications and the rise of powerful local lords.

This period saw the emergence of significant feudal states, including the County of Flanders, the Duchy of Brabant, the County of Hainaut, the County of Namur, the County of Loon (later part of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège), and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège itself, which remained an independent ecclesiastical principality within the Holy Roman Empire. Cities like Bruges, Ghent, and Ypres in Flanders grew prosperous through the wool and cloth trade, becoming some of the wealthiest urban centers in Europe. This prosperity led to the development of a strong burgher class and a degree of urban autonomy, with cities forming communes to gain charters and privileges from their feudal lords. The relationship between the increasingly assertive cities and the feudal nobility was often fraught with tension, exemplified by events like the Battle of the Golden Spurs in 1302, where Flemish urban militias famously defeated a French knightly army. However, French royal authority was often reasserted.

3.3. Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands

In the late 14th and 15th centuries, much of the Low Countries, including most of modern-day Belgium, came under the control of the Dukes of Burgundy, a cadet branch of the French royal family. Philip the Bold acquired the County of Flanders through marriage in 1384, and his successors, notably Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, systematically expanded their territories through marriage, inheritance, and conquest, unifying a large part of what is now the Benelux region into the so-called Burgundian Netherlands. This period is often seen as a golden age, characterized by political stability (despite occasional revolts), economic prosperity fueled by trade and industry (especially cloth production), and a remarkable flourishing of arts and culture, including the Early Netherlandish painters like Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden. The Burgundian court was one of the most extravagant in Europe. Common names for this entity included "Burgundy" and "Flanders."

The ambitions of Charles the Bold to create a kingdom ended with his death at the Battle of Nancy in 1477. His daughter and heiress, Mary of Burgundy, married Maximilian of Habsburg, Archduke of Austria (later Holy Roman Emperor). This marriage brought the Burgundian inheritance into the House of Habsburg. The French king, Louis XI, seized Burgundy proper and Picardy, but the Low Countries remained under Habsburg control.

Charles V, born in Ghent in 1500, inherited the Burgundian lands, the Habsburg territories in Austria, and the crowns of Castile and Aragon, becoming one of the most powerful rulers in European history. He consolidated the Burgundian lands into a more unified entity known as the Seventeen Provinces with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, which declared these territories an indivisible unit to be passed to his heirs. He also increased Habsburg influence over the semi-independent Prince-Bishopric of Liège. Antwerp, under Charles V, became a major European financial and commercial hub, replacing Bruges.

3.4. Spanish and Austrian Netherlands

When Charles V abdicated in 1555-56, he divided his vast territories. His son, Philip II of Spain, inherited Spain, its overseas empire, and the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. Philip II's staunch Catholicism and attempts to centralize power and suppress Protestantism led to growing discontent in the Low Countries. This culminated in the Dutch Revolt and the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648).

The war led to a division of the Seventeen Provinces. The seven northern provinces, predominantly Protestant, declared their independence and formed the Dutch Republic (also known historically as Belgica Foederata_{Federated Netherlands}^Latin). The ten southern provinces, including most of modern Belgium and Luxembourg, remained under Spanish Habsburg rule and became known as the Spanish Netherlands (Belgica Regia_{Royal Netherlands}^Latin). The southern provinces were largely Catholic, partly due to successful Spanish military campaigns under commanders like Alexander Farnese and the emigration of many Protestants to the north. The Fall of Antwerp in 1585 marked a turning point, solidifying Spanish control in the south but also leading to the decline of Antwerp as a major port as the Dutch closed off the Scheldt estuary.

The Spanish Netherlands remained a frequent battleground for European powers, particularly France. Conflicts such as the Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678), the Nine Years' War (1688-1697), and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) were fought partly on its soil, leading to territorial losses for the Spanish Netherlands, mainly to France.

Following the War of the Spanish Succession, the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) and the Treaty of Rastatt (1714) transferred the Spanish Netherlands to the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs. The territory then became known as the Austrian Netherlands. Austrian rule was generally more lenient than Spanish rule, but the region continued to be affected by European power struggles, such as the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), during which it was briefly occupied by France. Towards the end of the 18th century, Emperor Joseph II's attempts at radical administrative, legal, and religious reforms led to widespread opposition, culminating in the Brabant Revolution of 1789-1790, which briefly established the United Belgian States. However, Austrian rule was soon restored.

3.5. French Revolution and United Kingdom of the Netherlands

The French Revolution had a profound impact on the Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège. Following the campaigns of 1794, French revolutionary armies conquered the region. In 1795, the Austrian Netherlands and Liège were formally annexed by the French First Republic. This ended centuries of Habsburg rule and incorporated the territories into France for two decades. French revolutionary ideals, administrative reforms (such as the introduction of départements), the Napoleonic Code, and the Concordat of 1801 were implemented, transforming society.

After the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 (fought near Brussels), the Congress of Vienna redrew the map of Europe. The great powers aimed to create a strong buffer state north of France. To achieve this, the former Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège were merged with the former Dutch Republic to form the United Kingdom of the Netherlands under King William I of the House of Orange-Nassau. This new kingdom thus reunited the northern and southern Low Countries for the first time since the 16th century.

However, the union proved unstable. The southern provinces (modern Belgium) had developed a distinct identity over centuries of separate rule. Grievances arose due to William I's policies, including underrepresentation of southerners in government and the military, perceived favoritism towards the north, attempts to impose Dutch as the official language in Flemish areas and in education, and differences in religion (the south was predominantly Catholic, the north largely Protestant). Economic policies also caused friction, as the south was more industrialized while the north was more trade-oriented.

3.6. Independent Belgium

Growing discontent in the southern provinces of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands culminated in the Belgian Revolution of August 1830. Inspired by the July Revolution in France, riots broke out in Brussels and quickly spread. A provisional government declared independence on October 4, 1830. After Dutch military attempts to suppress the revolt failed, largely due to French diplomatic and potential military intervention, the major European powers recognized Belgium's de facto independence at the London Conference of 1830.

Belgium became a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was chosen as the first King of the Belgians, taking the throne as Leopold I on July 21, 1831, a date now celebrated as Belgium's National Day. The Constitution of 1831 was notably liberal for its time, guaranteeing freedoms of religion, association, and the press, and establishing a separation of powers. It was officially French-speaking and neutral. The Treaty of London in 1839 formally recognized Belgium's independence and neutrality, with the Netherlands finally accepting the secession. The treaty also divided Limburg and Luxembourg, with parts of these territories remaining with the Netherlands (modern Dutch Limburg) or becoming a separate Grand Duchy in personal union with the Dutch king (Luxembourg).

The 19th century in Belgium was marked by rapid industrialization, particularly in Wallonia, which became one of the first industrialized regions in continental Europe, rich in coal and iron. This led to significant economic growth but also to social problems and the rise of a strong labor movement. Politically, the era was dominated by the rivalry between the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party, later joined by the Belgian Labour Party towards the end of the century. While the franchise was initially restricted to wealthy property owners, universal manhood suffrage (albeit with plural voting for some) was introduced in 1893 after a general strike, and full universal suffrage for women was achieved in 1949. French was initially the dominant language of government and the elite, but the Flemish Movement gained strength, advocating for the rights and recognition of the Dutch language, which became officially equal in 1898. A Dutch version of the Constitution was accepted in 1967.

Belgium also embarked on colonial expansion under King Leopold II. At the Berlin Conference of 1885, Leopold II was granted personal control over the Congo Free State. His rule was characterized by brutal exploitation of the Congolese population for resources like rubber and ivory, leading to widespread atrocities and a drastic decline in the local population due to violence, famine, and disease. International outcry over these human rights abuses forced Leopold II to cede control of the Congo to the Belgian state in 1908, after which it became the Belgian Congo. A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo's population was half what it had been in 1879, highlighting the devastating humanitarian impact. This colonial legacy remains a deeply troubling and critically examined chapter in Belgian history, emphasizing the severe violations of human rights and the long-lasting negative consequences for the Congolese people.

3.7. 20th Century and Beyond

The 20th century brought profound challenges and transformations to Belgium. It endured two devastating World Wars, underwent decolonization, experienced significant internal linguistic and regional tensions leading to federalization, and became a central player in European integration.

3.7.2. Interwar Period and World War II

The interwar period was marked by economic reconstruction, political instability, and rising tensions in Europe. Belgium initially pursued a policy of alliance with France but reverted to neutrality in 1936, hoping to avoid another conflict. However, on May 10, 1940, Nazi Germany invaded Belgium again as part of its offensive against France. After 18 days of fighting, the Belgian army surrendered, and King Leopold III remained in Belgium as a prisoner of war, a decision that would become controversial and later contribute to the Royal Question, raising concerns about his leadership and its impact on democratic principles during a critical time. The Belgian government fled to London and formed a government-in-exile.

During the German occupation, Belgium suffered greatly. Approximately 40,690 Belgians, including over half of its Jewish population, were killed during the occupation and the Holocaust. There were active resistance movements fighting against the occupation, but also instances of collaboration with the Nazi regime, which remains a point of critical historical analysis. Allied forces, primarily British, Canadian, and American, liberated Belgium between September 1944 and February 1945. The country was again a battleground during the Battle of the Bulge in the Ardennes in the winter of 1944-45.

4.1. Climate

Belgium has a maritime temperate climate (Köppen: Cfb), characterized by moderate temperatures and significant precipitation throughout the year, similar to most of northwest Europe. The North Sea has a significant influence on the climate, moderating temperatures and bringing moisture.

Average temperatures are lowest in January, around 37.4 °F ^{(3 °C)}, and highest in July, around 64.4 °F ^{(18 °C)}. Regional variations exist, with the Ardennes experiencing cooler temperatures and more snowfall in winter due to its higher altitude. Precipitation is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. Average monthly precipitation varies between 2.1 in ^{(54 mm)} in February and April, and 3.1 in ^{(78 mm)} in July. Data from 2000 to 2006 showed average daily minimum temperatures of 44.6 °F ^{(7 °C)} and maximums of 57.2 °F ^{(14 °C)}, with monthly rainfall of 2.9 in ^{(74 mm)}, indicating a slight increase in temperature and precipitation compared to 20th-century averages.

4.2. Environment and Climate Change

Belgium is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, Belgium's territory belongs to two terrestrial ecoregions: the Atlantic mixed forests and the Western European broadleaf forests. The country's Forest Landscape Integrity Index score in 2018 was 1.36/10, ranking it 163rd out of 172 countries, reflecting significant human impact on its forest ecosystems. Forest cover is around 23% of the total land area, equivalent to 689,300 hectares in 2020, an increase from 677,400 hectares in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 251,200 hectares, and planted forest covered 438,200 hectares. In 2015, about 47% of forest area was publicly owned, and 53% was privately owned.

Belgium faces significant environmental challenges, including water and air pollution (particularly from industry and traffic), soil contamination, and habitat loss due to high population density and urbanization. Water quality in rivers was reported as poor in the past, though efforts have been made to improve it. Belgium has a high rate of waste recycling, particularly in Flanders, with around 75% of household waste being reused, recycled, or composted.

Climate change is impacting Belgium with rising temperatures, more frequent and intense heatwaves, increased winter rainfall, and decreased snowfall. Sea levels along the Belgian coast are projected to rise by 24 in ^{(60 cm)} to 35 in ^{(90 cm)} by 2100 under moderate scenarios, with a potential increase of up to 79 in ^{(200 cm)} in worst-case scenarios. The economic costs of climate change, mainly from extreme heat, drought, and flooding, are estimated to reach 9.50 B EUR per year by 2050 (2% of Belgian GDP), while milder winters might bring economic gains of approximately 3.00 B EUR per year (0.65% of GDP). In 2023, Belgium emitted 106.82 million tonnes of greenhouse gases, equivalent to 9.12 tonnes per person. The country has committed to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 as part of EU and national policies for environmental protection and sustainability. From a biological resource perspective, Belgium has a low biocapacity (0.8 global hectares per person in 2016) but a high ecological footprint (6.3 global hectares per person), resulting in a significant biocapacity deficit.

5.1. Federal Government

The Belgian federal government is responsible for matters of national interest. The King of the Belgians (currently Philippe) is the head of state. The King's role is largely ceremonial, though he plays a part in government formation and holds certain reserve powers. He formally appoints ministers, including the Prime Minister, who must have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives.

The federal parliament is bicameral, consisting of:

• The Chamber of Representatives: It has 150 members directly elected through a system of proportional representation from 11 electoral districts for a five-year term. The Chamber is the primary legislative body.
• The Senate: Since reforms in 2014, the Senate is no longer directly elected. It consists of 60 members: 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the Communities and Regions, and 10 co-opted senators chosen by the other 50. Its role is primarily as a forum for reflection and a body representing the federated entities, with limited legislative powers.

The federal government (Council of Ministers) is led by the Prime Minister and is composed of no more than fifteen ministers. Constitutionally, with the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers must have an equal number of Dutch-speaking and French-speaking ministers, reflecting the country's linguistic balance. Governments are typically multi-party coalitions due to the fragmented party system. Compulsory voting is in place in Belgium, contributing to high voter turnout rates.

The judicial system is based on civil law, originating from the Napoleonic Code. The Court of Cassation is the highest court, acting as the court of last resort. Below it are the courts of appeal.

The Federal State's authority includes areas such as justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy, public debt, and significant parts of public health, home affairs, and foreign affairs. It is also responsible for Belgium's obligations to the European Union and NATO.

5.2. Communities, Regions, and Language Areas

Belgium's unique federal structure is built upon a division into three Communities and three Regions, largely designed to manage linguistic and cultural diversity following historical tensions. This structure emerged from a series of state reforms between 1970 and 1993.

The three Communities are based on language and culture:

• The Flemish Community ({{lang|nl|Vlaamse Gemeenschap|}}): Represents the Dutch-speaking population.
• The French Community ({{lang|fr|Communauté française|}}), also officially referred to as the Wallonia-Brussels Federation ({{lang|fr|Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles|}}): Represents the French-speaking population.
• The German-speaking Community ({{lang|de|Deutschsprachige Gemeinschaft|}}): Represents the German-speaking population located in the East Cantons.

The Communities are primarily responsible for person-related matters, including culture (audiovisual media, arts), education, and the use of their respective language. They also have competencies in health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (youth protection, social welfare, immigrant assistance services).

The three Regions are primarily defined geographically and have responsibilities related to economic and territorial matters:

• The Flemish Region (Flanders; {{lang|nl|Vlaams Gewest|}}): Covers the northern, Dutch-speaking part of the country.
• The Walloon Region (Wallonia; {{lang|fr|Région wallonne|}}): Covers the southern, predominantly French-speaking part, but also includes the German-speaking Community's territory.
• The Brussels-Capital Region ({{lang|nl|Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest|}}; {{lang|fr|Région de Bruxelles-Capitale|}}): An officially bilingual (Dutch and French) enclave geographically within Flanders.

The Regions have authority over areas such as economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, environment, town and country planning, and foreign trade related to their competencies. They also supervise the provinces and municipalities.

A key feature is that the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region were merged, meaning there is one Flemish Parliament and Government exercising both Community and Regional powers. The French Community and the Walloon Region, however, remain separate entities, though they cooperate closely (as reflected in the "Wallonia-Brussels Federation" name). The Brussels-Capital Region is served by both the Flemish and French Communities for their respective person-related matters within its territory. The territory of the German-speaking Community lies entirely within the Walloon Region but has its own government and parliament for community-related matters.

Belgium is also divided into four language areas, established in 1962-63, which determine the official language(s) for administrative purposes: the Dutch-speaking area, the French-speaking area, the German-speaking area, and the bilingual Brussels-Capital area. Some municipalities along the linguistic borders have language facilities for speakers of the other language. The Constitutional Court of Belgium resolves conflicts of jurisdiction between these various entities. This complex structure is intended to allow different cultures to coexist peacefully, though it also contributes to intricate governance.

5.3. Provinces

The territory of Belgium is divided into three Regions. Two of these, the Flemish Region and the Walloon Region, are further subdivided into a total of ten provinces. The third Region, the Brussels-Capital Region, is not a province nor is it part of any province; it has its own distinct status. Provinces have administrative roles and are under the supervision of the Regions. Each province has a governor and a provincial council.

The five provinces of the Flemish Region are:

The five provinces of the Walloon Region are:

The Brussels-Capital Region (Area: 63 mile^{2 (162 km2)}; Population (1 January 2024): 1,249,597) comprises 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels, which is the constitutional capital of Belgium.

5.4. Political Culture and Parties

Belgium's political culture is complex and deeply influenced by its linguistic, regional, and, historically, ideological cleavages. Since approximately 1970, the major national political parties have split into distinct Dutch-speaking (Flemish) and French-speaking components, each primarily representing the interests of their respective linguistic communities. This has led to a highly fragmented party system.

The main political families, present in both major linguistic communities (though as separate parties), traditionally include:

• Christian Democrats: (e.g., CD&V in Flanders, Les Engagés (formerly cdH) in Wallonia). Historically very influential, they have moderated over time, focusing on center-right or centrist policies.
• Liberals: (e.g., Open Vld in Flanders, MR in Wallonia). Generally advocating for free-market policies and individual liberties.
• Social Democrats: (e.g., Vooruit (formerly sp.a) in Flanders, PS in Wallonia). Traditionally strong in industrial areas, advocating for workers' rights and social welfare.

Additionally, several other types of parties play significant roles:

• Green parties: (Groen in Flanders, Ecolo in Wallonia).
• Nationalist and Regionalist parties: These are particularly prominent in Flanders, such as the New Flemish Alliance (N-VA), which advocates for greater Flemish autonomy or independence, and the far-right Vlaams Belang, which combines Flemish nationalism with anti-immigration stances. DéFI (Démocrate Fédéraliste Indépendant) represents French-speaker interests, particularly in and around Brussels.
• Far-left parties: Such as the Workers' Party of Belgium (PVDA/PTB), which operates nationally (bilingually).

Coalition politics are the norm in Belgium at all levels of government due to the proportional representation system and party fragmentation. Forming coalition governments can be a lengthy and challenging process, as seen by the record 589 days it took to form a federal government after the 2010 election. These difficulties often stem from differing priorities between parties from different linguistic communities and disagreements over state reform and fiscal transfers between regions.

The evolution of social policies in Belgium has been significant. The country was a pioneer in legalizing same-sex marriage (2003) and has liberal laws on euthanasia, including being the only country with no age restrictions for access to euthanasia under strict conditions. Issues related to human rights, minority protections (especially for linguistic minorities), and democratic participation are central to Belgian political discourse, often intertwined with debates on state structure and community relations. The country has faced periods of political crisis and caretaker governments due to the challenges of bridging regional and linguistic divides in forming stable governing coalitions. The rise of nationalist parties, particularly those advocating for policies that could undermine democratic institutions or human rights, further complicates the political landscape and requires careful critical observation.

5.5. Foreign Relations and International Organizations

Belgium's foreign policy is strongly influenced by its geographical position at the crossroads of Western Europe and its history as a frequent battleground for larger powers. Traditionally, it sought to maintain its independence through a policy of mediation and, for a period, neutrality. However, after being invaded in both World Wars, Belgium became a staunch advocate for collective security and international cooperation.

Belgium is a founding member of numerous international organizations and plays a highly active role within them:

• European Union (EU): As one of the six founding members, Belgium is deeply committed to European integration. Brussels serves as the de facto capital of the EU, hosting the official seats of the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, and one of the two seats of the European Parliament. Many other EU agencies and bodies are also located in Brussels.
• NATO: Belgium is a founding member of NATO, and its headquarters are located in Brussels. This underscores Belgium's commitment to transatlantic security cooperation.
• Benelux: Along with the Netherlands and Luxembourg, Belgium formed this economic union, which predated and served as a model for broader European integration.
• United Nations (UN): Belgium is an active member of the UN and its various agencies.
• Other organizations: Belgium is also a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the Council of Europe, among others.

Brussels' role as a host city for so many international organizations has made it a major hub for international diplomacy. Due to Belgium's federal structure, its Communities and Regions also have the power to conduct their own international relations in areas within their competencies, including signing treaties. For example, the Flemish Community participates in the Dutch Language Union, and the French Community is a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Belgium maintains special, though sometimes complex, relationships with its former colonies: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi, with ongoing attention to human rights impacts from the colonial era and contemporary relations. Its foreign policy generally aligns with EU common positions, emphasizing multilateralism, human rights, democracy, and development aid.

7.1. Economic Structure and Trends

The Belgian economy is characterized by a highly productive workforce, high GNP, and high exports per capita. It is heavily service-oriented, with the services sector accounting for the largest share of GDP and employment. Historically, Belgium was the first country in continental Europe to undergo the Industrial Revolution in the early 19th century. Regions like Liège and Charleroi in Wallonia rapidly developed mining (coal) and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century. However, the decline of these traditional industries from the mid-20th century onwards hit Wallonia hard, leading to a prolonged period of economic adjustment.

In contrast, Flanders experienced significant economic growth in the post-World War II era, particularly in sectors like chemicals (Antwerp), petrochemicals, and advanced manufacturing, as well as services. This has led to an economic divergence between the more prosperous, dynamic Flemish economy and the Walloon economy, which has faced greater challenges in restructuring. The Brussels-Capital Region has a strong service-based economy, heavily influenced by the presence of EU and international organizations, but it also faces challenges such as higher unemployment in certain areas. The economic center of the country has largely shifted northwards towards the "Flemish Diamond" (a network of cities including Antwerp, Ghent, Leuven, and Brussels).

Public finances were a concern in the late 1980s, with government debt reaching about 120% of GDP. Fiscal consolidation efforts have since reduced this ratio, although public debt remains significant. Belgium adopted the Euro in 1999 (coins and banknotes introduced in 2002), replacing the Belgian franc. Employment trends often reflect regional disparities, with unemployment historically higher in Wallonia and Brussels than in Flanders. The country has a strong tradition of social dialogue between employers, trade unions, and the government.

Belgium has a low biocapacity relative to its consumption, meaning it relies on resources from beyond its borders. In 2016, its ecological footprint per person was significantly higher than its domestic biocapacity per person.

7.2. Trade and Industry

Belgium is a major international trade hub, consistently ranking among the world's top trading nations. Its main trading partners are typically its European neighbors, especially Germany, France, and the Netherlands. Key industrial sectors include:

• Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals: This is a leading sector, with major production facilities, particularly around Antwerp. Companies like Solvay and Janssen Pharmaceutica are globally significant.
• Automotive: While Belgium has seen a decline in car assembly plants, it remains an important hub for automotive components and logistics.
• Food Processing: A significant industry, known for products like chocolates, beers, and dairy.
• Metals and Metal Products: While traditional steelmaking has declined, specialized metal manufacturing continues.
• Machinery and Equipment: Belgium exports a variety of machinery and electrical equipment.
• Diamond Industry: Antwerp is one ofthe world's leading centers for the diamond trade, particularly for rough diamonds and diamond cutting.
• Logistics: Due to its central location and excellent transport infrastructure (ports, rail, road), logistics is a vital part of the economy.

Main exports include chemicals, machinery and equipment, finished diamonds, metals and metal products, and foodstuffs. Main imports include raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemicals, raw diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, and oil products.

7.3. Science and Technology

Belgium has a rich history of contributions to science and technology. In the 16th century, figures like Gerardus Mercator (cartography), Andreas Vesalius (modern anatomy), Rembert Dodoens (botany), and Simon Stevin (mathematics and engineering) were highly influential.
The 19th century saw advancements such as the Solvay process for soda ash production, developed by Ernest Solvay, and the Gramme dynamo, an early electric generator, by Zénobe Gramme. Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, an early plastic, in 1907-1909.
Ernest Solvay was also a major philanthropist, founding institutions like the Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry, which hosted the famous Solvay Conferences. These conferences, starting in 1911, brought together leading scientists like Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, and Niels Bohr, and played a crucial role in the development of quantum physics and chemistry. Georges Lemaître, a Belgian priest and physicist, proposed the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927.

Belgium has produced several Nobel Prize laureates in scientific fields, including Jules Bordet (Physiology or Medicine, 1919), Corneille Heymans (Physiology or Medicine, 1938), Albert Claude and Christian de Duve (Physiology or Medicine, 1974, shared), Ilya Prigogine (Chemistry, 1977), and François Englert (Physics, 2013). Belgian mathematicians Pierre Deligne (1978) and Jean Bourgain (1994) have received the Fields Medal.

Contemporary Belgian strengths in science and technology include biotechnology, information technology, materials science, and space research (through participation in the European Space Agency). Key research institutions include universities like KU Leuven, Ghent University, UCLouvain, and Université libre de Bruxelles, as well as specialized research centers like imec (nanoelectronics and digital technologies). Government support for innovation is provided at both federal and regional levels. Belgium ranked 24th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

7.4. Transport

Belgium possesses an extensive and modern transport infrastructure, crucial for its role as a logistics hub in Europe.

• Rail Network: Belgium has one of the densest rail networks in the world. In 1999, its rail density was 71 mile ^{(113.8 km)} per 1,000 0.4 mile^{2 (1 km2)}, the highest in the European Union at the time. The National Railway Company of Belgium (NMBS/SNCB) operates most services, including high-speed connections like Thalys and Eurostar.
• Road Network: The country has a highly developed network of motorways (highways) and other roads. However, this density also contributes to significant traffic congestion, particularly around major cities like Brussels and Antwerp. Commuters in these cities were reported in 2010 to spend 64-65 hours per year in traffic jams.
• Ports: Belgium has major seaports. The Port of Antwerp-Bruges (formed by the merger of the ports of Antwerp and Zeebrugge) is one of the largest and busiest ports in Europe. Antwerp is particularly important for containerized freight and petrochemicals, while Zeebrugge is a key port for roll-on/roll-off traffic and liquefied natural gas. Inland waterways, including an extensive canal system, also play a significant role in freight transport.
• Airports: Brussels Airport (Zaventem) is the main international airport, handling over 80% of the country's air traffic. Other airports include Brussels South Charleroi Airport, Liège Airport (a major cargo hub), and Antwerp Airport.

The strategic location of Belgium, combined with this infrastructure, facilitates its role as a gateway for trade and transport within Europe.

8.1. Ethnic Groups and Immigration

As of January 1, 2024, the total population of Belgium was 11,763,650. The country has a high population density, averaging 383 inhabitants per km² as of January 2024, making it one of the most densely populated countries in Europe and the world. Population density is highest in the province of Antwerp and lowest in the province of Luxembourg (Belgium).

The main native linguistic-cultural groups are the Flemish (Dutch-speakers, primarily in Flanders), Walloons (French-speakers, primarily in Wallonia), and a smaller German-speaking community in the East Cantons. Flanders is the most populous region with approximately 6.82 million inhabitants (58.0% of Belgium's total population in 2024), followed by Wallonia with about 3.69 million (31.4%), and the Brussels-Capital Region with around 1.25 million (10.6%). Major cities include Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi, Liège, Bruges, Namur, and Leuven.

Belgium has a long history of immigration. In 2007, nearly 92% of the population held Belgian citizenship, with other European Union citizens accounting for around 6%. Significant foreign national groups included Italians, French, Dutch, Moroccans, Portuguese, Spanish, Turkish, and Germans. By 2012, people of foreign background and their descendants were estimated to form around 25% of the total population (approximately 2.8 million "new Belgians"). Of these, about 1.2 million were of European ancestry and 1.35 million were from non-Western countries, with Morocco, Turkey, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo being prominent countries of origin. Since the modification of Belgian nationality law in 1984, over 1.3 million migrants have acquired Belgian citizenship. The largest immigrant-origin communities are Italian Belgians and Moroccan Belgians.

According to Statistics Belgium (Statbel) data from 2021, 67.3% of the Belgian population was of Belgian ethnic origin, while 32.7% were of foreign origin or nationality. Of those with foreign origin/nationality, 20.3% originated from neighboring countries (France, Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg). The Brussels-Capital Region is particularly diverse, with 74.5% of its population being of non-Belgian origin in 2021, of whom 13.8% came from neighboring countries.

Issues related to social integration, multiculturalism, anti-discrimination efforts, and the rights of minorities and vulnerable groups are important societal and political topics in Belgium. These are often intertwined with discussions about national identity, linguistic rights, and socio-economic disparities.

8.2. Languages

Belgium has three official languages: Dutch, French, and German. These languages have equal status at the federal level, but their use is geographically delineated by language areas.

• Dutch: Spoken by approximately 59-60% of the population, primarily in the northern region of Flanders. The variety of Dutch spoken in Belgium is often referred to as Flemish, which has minor differences in vocabulary and pronunciation from Standard Dutch spoken in the Netherlands. Many Flemish people also speak local Dutch dialects.
• French: Spoken by about 40% of the population, primarily in the southern region of Wallonia and by a large majority (around 85%) in the Brussels-Capital Region. Belgian French also has some minor variations from Standard French. Walloon, an indigenous Romance language (or group of dialects of French), is now rarely spoken, mostly by older generations. Other related Oïl languages like Picard are also present but not widely used.
• German: Spoken by less than 1% of the population, concentrated in the German-speaking Community in the East Cantons (eastern Wallonia), which were annexed from Germany after World War I.

The Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual (French and Dutch). While historically a Dutch-speaking city, Brussels underwent significant Francization from the 19th century onwards, and French is now the dominant lingua franca and first language for the majority of its inhabitants. However, Dutch retains official status, and public services are provided in both languages.

The linguistic diversity of Belgium has significant socio-political implications. The country is divided into four language areas (Dutch, French, German, and the bilingual Brussels-Capital area) which determine the official language(s) for administration and education. Historical language conflicts, particularly between Dutch and French speakers concerning issues of linguistic rights, education, and political representation, have been a major factor in Belgium's evolution towards a federal state. Language legislation, such as laws governing municipalities with language facilities along linguistic borders, remains a sensitive topic. English is widely spoken as a second or third language, especially in Flanders and Brussels, and in business and international contexts.

8.3. Religion

The Constitution of Belgium guarantees freedom of religion. Historically, Roman Catholicism has been the dominant religion in Belgium and has played a significant role in the country's culture and society, particularly in Flanders. The Belgian state officially recognizes several religions: Christianity (Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodox Christianity, and Anglicanism), Islam, and Judaism. These recognized religions, as well as secular humanist organizations, receive state subsidies. The Belgian Royal Family has traditionally been Roman Catholic.

While Catholicism remains the largest single religious denomination, adherence and practice have declined significantly over recent decades, reflecting broader trends of secularization in Western Europe. Church attendance on Sundays is low; in 2009, it was estimated at 5% for Belgium overall (3% in Brussels, 5.4% in Flanders), a notable decrease from 11% in 1998. Despite this, Catholic identity and traditions continue to influence Belgian culture.

According to a 2015 Eurobarometer survey:

• 60.7% of the Belgian population identified as Christian (52.9% Catholic, 2.1% Protestant, 1.6% Orthodox, 4.1% other Christian).
• 32.0% identified as non-religious (17.1% agnostic, 14.9% atheist).
• 5.2% identified as Muslim.
• 2.1% identified with other religions or did not specify.

A 2008 estimate suggested that approximately 6% of the Belgian population (around 628,751 people) was Muslim. The Muslim population is concentrated in major cities like Brussels, Antwerp, and Charleroi. The largest immigrant groups contributing to the Muslim population are of Moroccan and Turkish origin.

The Jewish community in Belgium numbered around 42,000 in the early 2000s. Antwerp has a notable and historic Jewish community, one of the largest in Europe, where Yiddish is still a primary language for a significant portion. There are over 45 active synagogues in the country, with a majority in Antwerp.

Wallonia is considered one of the most secular regions in Europe, with a high percentage of its population identifying as irreligious. In Flanders, while religious practice has declined, a higher proportion still identify as religious compared to Wallonia.

8.4. Education

Education in Belgium is compulsory from the age of 6 to 18. The system is managed and organized primarily by the three Communities (Flemish, French, and German-speaking), reflecting the country's federal structure and linguistic diversity. This means that curricula, school organization, and educational policies can differ between the Communities.

The education system is generally divided into:

• Fundamental Education**: Comprising preschool (optional, from age 2.5) and primary school (ages 6-12).
• Secondary Education**: For ages 12-18, offering various tracks including general, technical, vocational, and artistic education.
• Higher Education**: Includes universities and university colleges ({{lang|fr|hautes écoles|}} / {{lang|nl|hogescholen|}}). Belgium has several renowned universities, such as KU Leuven, Ghent University, UCLouvain, Université libre de Bruxelles, and the University of Antwerp.

Belgium has a high rate of participation in post-secondary education. In 2002, 42% of 18- to 21-year-olds were enrolled, one of the highest proportions in the OECD. The country performs well in international educational assessments like the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), generally scoring above the OECD average, although there can be performance differences between the Communities, with the Flemish Community often scoring noticeably higher. While literacy rates are very high (estimated at 99%), there are ongoing concerns about functional illiteracy.

A distinctive feature of the Belgian education system is the co-existence of publicly run schools (organized by the Communities, provinces, or municipalities) and privately run (often Catholic) subsidized schools. This "pillarized" system, reflecting historical ideological divides, means that parents have a choice between state schools and "free" (subsidized private) schools, which are predominantly Catholic but also include other pedagogical approaches. Both types of schools receive funding from the Community governments and must adhere to certain standards and curriculum requirements.

8.5. Health

The health status of the Belgian population is generally good. Life expectancy in 2012 was estimated at 79.65 years and has been increasing steadily, in line with European averages. The main causes of death are cardiovascular diseases, neoplasms (cancers), respiratory disorders, and non-natural causes such as accidents and suicide.

Belgium has a universal healthcare system financed through a combination of social security contributions and taxation. Health insurance is compulsory for all residents. Healthcare services are delivered by a mix of public and private providers, including independent medical practitioners, public hospitals, university hospitals, and semi-private hospitals. Patients typically pay for services upfront and are then reimbursed by their health insurance fund ({{lang|nl|mutualiteit|}} / {{lang|fr|mutuelle|}}). For certain services or vulnerable patient categories, a third-party payment system exists where the insurer pays the provider directly.

The federal government and the regional/community governments share responsibilities for healthcare. The federal government sets the overall framework, including social security and health insurance regulations, while the Communities are responsible for health promotion, preventive medicine, and aspects of care delivery.

Belgium has some notable health policies, including a liberal law on euthanasia. It was one of the first countries to legalize euthanasia under strict conditions and is the only country that does not have age restrictions for access to euthanasia for minors, provided they meet stringent criteria of incurable suffering and capacity for discernment. Patient rights are also well-established in Belgian law.

Despite generally good health outcomes, Belgium has one of the highest suicide rates in Western Europe and among developed countries. Public health initiatives address issues such as mental health, chronic diseases, and health inequalities.

9.1. Arts and Architecture

Belgium has a long and distinguished history in the visual arts and architecture.

• Early Netherlandish painting (15th-16th centuries): Artists like Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, Hans Memling, and Hieronymus Bosch were pioneers of oil painting and produced masterpieces of intricate detail and symbolism.
• Flemish Renaissance and Baroque (16th-17th centuries): Pieter Bruegel the Elder is renowned for his landscapes and peasant scenes. The Baroque period was dominated by Peter Paul Rubens, whose dynamic and colorful works had a huge influence, and Anthony van Dyck, famous for his elegant portraits. Jacob Jordaens was another key figure of Flemish Baroque.
• 19th and 20th Century Art: Belgium produced notable artists in various movements. James Ensor was a key figure in Expressionism and Symbolism, associated with the Les XX group. Surrealism was prominent with artists like René Magritte and Paul Delvaux. Fernand Khnopff was a leading Symbolist. The avant-garde CoBrA movement also had Belgian members.
• Contemporary Art: Sculptor Panamarenko, and multidisciplinary artists like Jan Fabre, Wim Delvoye, and painter Luc Tuymans have gained international acclaim.

In architecture, Belgium boasts significant examples from various periods:

• Romanesque and Gothic styles are evident in numerous churches and cathedrals, such as the Cathedral of Antwerp and the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula in Brussels. Town halls and belfries in cities like Bruges, Ghent, and Brussels are also iconic.
• Renaissance and Baroque architecture can be seen in town squares like the Grand-Place in Brussels (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
• Art Nouveau: Belgium, particularly Brussels, was a cradle of the Art Nouveau movement at the turn of the 20th century. Architects like Victor Horta (whose major town houses are UNESCO sites) and Henry van de Velde were leading proponents.

Fashion design has also flourished, with designers like the "Antwerp Six" (including Ann Demeulemeester and Dries Van Noten) and Martin Margiela achieving international recognition.

9.2. Literature and Comics

Belgian literature is expressed in both Dutch and French, each with its own distinct traditions and notable authors.

• French-language literature**: Prominent authors include Nobel laureate Maurice Maeterlinck (poet and playwright), Georges Simenon (creator of the Inspector Maigret detective series), Emile Verhaeren (poet), Suzanne Lilar, and contemporary writer Amélie Nothomb.
• Dutch-language literature (Flemish)**: Key figures include Hendrik Conscience (known for historical novels like De Leeuw van Vlaanderen), Guido Gezelle (poet), Stijn Streuvels, and Hugo Claus (a prolific novelist, poet, and playwright). Robert Goffin was a notable poet and essayist who also wrote in French.

Belgium has an exceptionally renowned tradition of comic strips ({{lang|fr|bande dessinée||Bande dessinée}} or {{lang|nl|stripverhaal||Stripverhaal}}), often referred to as the "Ninth Art." This art form is highly respected and popular. Internationally famous series and creators include:

• The Adventures of Tintin by Hergé (Georges Remi).
• The Smurfs ({{lang|fr|Les Schtroumpfs||Les Schtroumpfs}}) by Peyo (Pierre Culliford).
• Lucky Luke by Morris (Maurice De Bevere).
• Spirou & Fantasio (various artists, notably André Franquin).
• Gaston Lagaffe by André Franquin.
• Blake and Mortimer by Edgar P. Jacobs.
• Suske en Wiske (Spike and Suzy) by Willy Vandersteen.

Other notable authors include Dupa (Cubitus) and Greg (Achille Talon). The Belgian Comic Strip Center in Brussels celebrates this rich heritage.
The fictional detective Hercule Poirot, created by British author Agatha Christie, is famously Belgian.

9.3. Music and Cinema

Belgium's musical heritage is diverse, spanning classical, jazz, and popular genres.

• Classical Music**: The Franco-Flemish school of composers (e.g., Josquin des Prez, Orlande de Lassus) dominated European Renaissance music. In the 19th century, Liège-born César Franck was a major composer (though often associated with French music). Notable violinists include Henri Vieuxtemps and Eugène Ysaÿe, who were central to the Franco-Belgian school of violin playing. The Queen Elisabeth Competition in Brussels is one of the world's most prestigious music competitions. Adolphe Sax, a Belgian instrument maker, invented the saxophone in 1846.
• Jazz**: Belgium has a strong jazz tradition, with internationally acclaimed artists like guitarist Django Reinhardt (of Manouche Romani-Belgian origin) and harmonica player/guitarist Toots Thielemans.
• Popular Music**: Singer-songwriter Jacques Brel is a towering figure in French-language chanson, with global recognition. More recently, Stromae has achieved widespread international success with his unique blend of electronic music, hip hop, and chanson. Other notable Belgian acts in rock, pop, and electronic music include Hooverphonic, dEUS, Soulwax, Front 242, and K's Choice. In heavy metal, bands like Machiavel and Channel Zero have gained a following.

Belgian cinema has produced critically acclaimed films and directors. The Dardenne brothers (Jean-Pierre and Luc) are among the most celebrated, having won the Palme d'Or at Cannes Film Festival twice. Other notable directors include André Delvaux, Stijn Coninx, Jaco Van Dormael, and Félix van Groeningen. Belgian actors who have gained international recognition include Jean-Claude Van Damme and Matthias Schoenaerts. Influential Belgian films include Man Bites Dog ({{lang|fr|C'est arrivé près de chez vous|}}), Rosetta, The Son ({{lang|fr|Le Fils|}}), The Alzheimer Case ({{lang|nl|De Zaak Alzheimer|}}), and Bullhead ({{lang|nl|Rundskop|}}). Belgian films often receive accolades at international film festivals.

9.4. Cuisine

Belgian cuisine is well-regarded, often said to combine French quality with Germanic generosity. It is famous worldwide for several specialties:

• Beer: Belgium has an unparalleled beer culture, with over 1,100 varieties, including pale ales, lambics, Flemish red ales, and strong dark ales. Trappist ales, brewed in monasteries (six of which are in Belgium, like Westvleteren, Chimay, Orval, Rochefort, Westmalle, Achel), are highly esteemed. Many beers are served in their own unique glasses. Anheuser-Busch InBev, the world's largest brewer, is based in Leuven.
• Chocolate: Belgian chocolate is renowned for its high quality. Pralines (filled chocolates) were invented in Belgium. Famous brands include Godiva, Leonidas, Neuhaus, and Côte d'Or, alongside many artisanal chocolatiers.
• Waffles: Two main types are famous: the lighter, crispier Brussels waffle and the denser, sweeter Liège waffle with caramelized sugar.
• Frites (fries): Belgians claim fries as their invention. They are typically served in a paper cone ({{lang|fr|cornet de frites|}}) with a variety of sauces, most famously mayonnaise. Friterie (fry shops) are ubiquitous.

National and iconic dishes include:

• Moules-frites (mussels served with fries).
• Carbonnade flamande / Stoofvlees (a beef and onion stew braised in beer).
• Stoemp (mashed potatoes with vegetables like carrots, leeks, or kale).
• Waterzooi (a creamy stew, traditionally made with chicken or fish and vegetables).
• Gratin de chicons / Gegratineerd witloof (endives wrapped in ham, baked in a béchamel sauce with cheese).
• Speculoos / Speculaas (a spiced shortcrust biscuit).
• Brussels sprouts, often prepared simply or with bacon.
• Paling in 't groen (river eels in a green herb sauce).

Many Belgian restaurants are featured in prestigious guides like the Michelin Guide.

9.5. Folklore and Festivals

Folklore plays a vibrant role in Belgian cultural life, with numerous traditional festivals, processions, carnivals, and local customs, many of which have historical religious or mythological origins. Several of these are recognized by UNESCO as Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

• The Carnival of Binche: Held near Mons just before Lent, this is one of Belgium's most famous carnivals. It features the iconic Gilles, men dressed in elaborate costumes with ostrich-plume hats, who parade through the town throwing oranges. It is a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage event.
• Processional Giants and Dragons: Several cities in Belgium (and France) have traditions of parading large effigies of giants, dragons, and other folkloric figures during annual festivals ({{lang|fr|ducasse|}} or {{lang|nl|ommegang|}}). Those of Ath, Brussels, Dendermonde, Mechelen, and Mons are recognized by UNESCO.
• The Carnival of Aalst: A three-day event in February or March, known for its satirical and sometimes controversial parades.
• Religious Processions: The Procession of the Holy Blood in Bruges (May) is a centuries-old religious procession. The Virga Jesse Procession in Hasselt takes place every seven years. The annual Procession of Hanswijk in Mechelen is another notable event.
• Gentse Feesten (Ghent Festival): An annual music and theatre festival held in Ghent around Belgian National Day (July 21). Originating in 1832 and revived in the 1960s, it has become a major modern tradition attracting large crowds.
• Festivities in Liège on August 15 (Assumption Day) and the Walloon Festival in Namur.
• Saint Nicholas Day ({{lang|nl|Sinterklaas||Sinterklaas}}; {{lang|fr|la Saint-Nicolas||La Saint-Nicolas}}): Celebrated on December 6th, this is a major children's festival, especially in Dutch-speaking regions and also for students in Liège. Children leave out shoes for Saint Nicholas, who is said to bring gifts. This tradition is a precursor to the modern Santa Claus.

Many of these festivals include sporting competitions, markets, and local culinary specialties, falling under the general category of kermesse (fair or fete).

9.6. Sport

Sport is very popular in Belgium, with clubs and federations often organized separately within each language community since the 1970s. The Administration de l'Éducation Physique et du Sport_ADEPS^French (ADEPS) serves the French-speaking community, while Sport Vlaanderen_{Sport Vlaanderen}^Dutch (formerly BLOSO) serves the Dutch-speaking community.

• Football (Soccer): This is the most popular sport in Belgium. The national team, known as the Red Devils, has achieved significant international success, including a third-place finish at the 2018 FIFA World Cup and a runner-up position at UEFA Euro 1980. Belgium co-hosted UEFA Euro 2000 with the Netherlands and hosted UEFA Euro 1972. The domestic league is the Belgian Pro League. Renowned Belgian footballers include Eden Hazard, Kevin De Bruyne, Romelu Lukaku, Thibaut Courtois, and past legends like Paul Van Himst and Jan Ceulemans.
• Cycling: Cycling is a national passion, with a rich history of success in road racing. Belgium has produced numerous world champions and winners of classic races. Eddy Merckx is considered one of the greatest cyclists of all time, with five Tour de France victories among many other achievements. Other famous Belgian cyclists include Rik Van Looy, Roger De Vlaeminck, Johan Museeuw, Tom Boonen, Philippe Gilbert, Remco Evenepoel, and Wout van Aert. Classic cycle races held in Belgium, such as the Tour of Flanders and Liège-Bastogne-Liège, are major international sporting events.
• Tennis: Belgium has produced world-class tennis players, notably Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin, both of whom reached the World No. 1 ranking and won multiple Grand Slam singles titles.
• Other Sports: Judo, swimming, basketball, athletics, and hockey are also popular. The Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps hosts the Formula One Belgian Grand Prix. Belgian driver Jacky Ickx had a successful career in Formula One and endurance racing. Belgium also has a strong tradition in motocross, with multiple world champions like Stefan Everts and Joël Robert.

Belgium hosted the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. The Memorial Van Damme is a prestigious annual athletics competition held in Brussels as part of the Diamond League.

9.7. Media

The media landscape in Belgium largely reflects the country's linguistic and regional divisions. Most major newspapers, television broadcasters, and radio stations cater specifically to either the Dutch-speaking Flemish Community or the French-speaking Community. There is also a smaller German-language media sector.

• Public Broadcasting**: Each linguistic community has its own public broadcaster:
  • VRT for the Flemish Community (Dutch language).
  • RTBF for the French Community (French language).
  • BRF for the German-speaking Community (German language).

  These broadcasters operate multiple television channels and radio stations.

  • Commercial Broadcasting**: There are numerous commercial television and radio stations in both Flanders and Wallonia. Major commercial television groups include DPG Media and Play Media in Flanders, and RTL Belgium in the French-speaking community.
  • Newspapers**: Major Dutch-language newspapers include De Standaard, De Morgen, and Het Laatste Nieuws. Prominent French-language newspapers include Le Soir, La Libre Belgique, and L'Avenir. There are also German-language newspapers like GrenzEcho.
  • News Agencies**: The main national news agency is Belga.

  The media often plays a role in shaping and reflecting public opinion within the distinct linguistic communities, and there is relatively little cross-community media consumption. Issues of media concentration and the impact of digital media are ongoing topics of discussion.