Mauritania

3.1. Early history

The earliest inhabitants of the region now known as Mauritania included Berbers, Niger-Congo speaking peoples, and the Bafour. The Bafour are considered among the first Saharan peoples to transition from a nomadic lifestyle to a predominantly agricultural one. As the Sahara underwent gradual desiccation, the Bafour migrated southwards. Many Berber tribes in the area have historically claimed origins in Yemen and other parts of the Arab world, though concrete evidence for these claims is limited. However, a 2000 DNA study of Yemeni populations suggested a possibility of ancient connections.

The Umayyads were the first Arab Muslims to enter Mauritania. During the Islamic conquests, they made incursions into the region and had established a presence by the end of the 7th century. The arrival of Arabs led many Berber tribes to flee towards the Gao region in present-day Mali.

In the 11th century, several nomadic Berber confederations in the desert regions, including parts of modern Mauritania, united to form the Almoravid movement. The Almoravids expanded significantly, creating an empire that stretched from the Sahara to the Iberian Peninsula. According to a traditionally accepted but debated Arab account, the Almoravids conquered the extensive Ghana Empire around 1076. This conquest, if it occurred as described, would have significantly impacted the socio-political landscape of West Africa.

From 1644 to 1674, the indigenous peoples of the area engaged in the Char Bouba War, their final major attempt to resist the invading Yemeni Maqil Arabs, led by the Beni Hassan tribe. The effort was unsuccessful, and the descendants of the Beni Hassan warriors became the upper stratum of Moorish society. Hassaniya Arabic, a Bedouin Arabic dialect named after the Beni Hassan, became the dominant language among the largely nomadic population, cementing Arab cultural and linguistic influence.

3.2. Colonial period

Beginning in the late 19th century, France asserted its colonial claims over the territories of present-day Mauritania, extending northwards from the Senegal River area. In 1901, Xavier Coppolani was tasked with leading the imperial mission. Through a combination of strategic alliances with Zawaya tribes (scholarly and religious groups) and military pressure on the Hassane warrior nomads, Coppolani succeeded in extending French rule over the Mauritanian emirates. By 1903-1904, French forces had occupied Trarza, Brakna, and Tagant. However, the northern emirate of Adrar resisted longer, supported by the anticolonial rebellion (or jihad) of shaykh Ma al-'Aynayn and insurgents from other occupied regions.

In 1904, France formally organized the territory of Mauritania, which became part of French West Africa, initially as a protectorate and later as a colony. In 1912, French military forces finally subdued Adrar, incorporating it into Mauritanian territory. French colonial rule brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to inter-clan warfare, although the enforcement of anti-slavery measures was often weak and superficial, allowing traditional power structures that perpetuated slavery-like practices to continue. Throughout the colonial period, approximately 90% of the population remained nomadic.

The capital of French West Africa was initially in Saint-Louis, Senegal, and later moved to Dakar in 1902. When Mauritania moved towards independence, Nouakchott, then little more than a fortified village (ksar), was chosen in 1958 as the site for the future capital.

During colonial rule, many individuals from sedentary sub-Saharan African peoples, whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier, began to migrate back into Mauritania. These groups, often educated in French and familiar with French customs, later played roles as clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the emerging state. Simultaneously, the French military suppressed the most resistant Hassane tribes in the north. This French intervention altered existing power balances, contributing to new tensions and conflicts between the southern populations (often referred to as Black Africans) and the Moors (both Bidhan and Haratin). The colonial administration often favored certain groups over others, exacerbating ethnic divisions that would persist into the post-colonial era. The great Sahel droughts of the early 1970s, though occurring post-independence, had roots in environmental and social changes that began or were aggravated during the colonial period, leading to widespread devastation, poverty, and conflict. The legacy of French colonial policies included arbitrary borders that divided ethnic groups, economic exploitation that benefited the metropole, and a socio-political system that often reinforced existing hierarchies or created new ones, posing significant challenges for the independent nation.

3.3. Post-independence era

Mauritania gained independence from France on November 28, 1960. The post-independence era has been characterized by political instability, including numerous coups d'état, periods of military rule, authoritarian governance, and persistent struggles for democratic reform and human rights. Ethnic tensions, particularly between the Arab-Berber Moorish populations and Sub-Saharan African groups, as well as the deeply entrenched issue of slavery, have significantly shaped the nation's trajectory.

3.3.2. Military governments (1978-1984)

Following the 1978 coup, Mauritania entered a period of rule by military juntas. The first of these was the Military Committee for National Recovery (CMRN), led by Colonel Mustafa Ould Salek. The CMRN struggled to establish a stable government or extricate the country from the Western Sahara War. Its inability to manage the political and economic crises led to its quick downfall.

In April 1979, Colonel Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla emerged as the strongman after sidelining Ould Salek, leading the newly formed Military Committee for National Salvation (CMSN). Haidallah's government took a decisive step by signing a peace agreement with the Polisario Front in August 1979, renouncing all Mauritanian claims to Western Sahara. This move improved relations with Algeria, Polisario's main supporter, but strained ties with Morocco and its European ally, France.

Despite ending the costly war, Haidallah's regime faced continued instability, including attempted coups and internal power struggles within the military. His attempts at reform were largely unsuccessful. His rule became increasingly authoritarian, marked by harsh measures against political opponents, many of whom were imprisoned, and some executed. It was during Haidallah's rule, in 1981, that slavery was officially abolished by decree for the second time (the first being under French colonial rule in 1905). However, this abolition lacked effective enforcement mechanisms and failed to dismantle the deeply entrenched system of hereditary slavery, particularly affecting the Haratin community. The lack of genuine commitment to eradicating slavery remained a critical human rights failure.

3.3.4. Political developments since 2005

The period since 2005 in Mauritania has been marked by continued political instability, including military coups, transitional governments, and elections whose legitimacy has often been contested. Efforts towards democratic consolidation have been halting, and persistent challenges related to governance, human rights, and social justice have characterized this era.

On August 3, 2005, a military coup led by Colonel Ely Ould Mohamed Vall overthrew President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya while he was out of the country. The coup leaders, forming the Military Council for Justice and Democracy (CMJD), promised a transition to democratic rule within two years. This transition included a constitutional referendum in June 2006, which approved term limits for the presidency, and parliamentary and presidential elections. The 2007 presidential elections, considered the first fully democratic elections in the country's history, saw Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi elected president. This marked a brief period of civilian rule.

However, this democratic opening was short-lived. On August 6, 2008, General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, then head of the presidential guard and a key figure in the 2005 coup, led another military coup, ousting President Abdallahi. Aziz established a "High Council of State" to govern the country. The coup was widely condemned internationally, leading to sanctions and diplomatic isolation. Domestically, opposition parties protested the takeover. Under internal and international pressure, Aziz agreed to new presidential elections. In April 2009, he resigned from the military to run as a civilian candidate. The 2009 elections resulted in Aziz's victory with 52% of the vote, though opposition groups alleged fraud. Aziz was re-elected in the 2014 elections, which were boycotted by major opposition parties.

Aziz's presidency (2009-2019) was marked by a consolidation of power and continued concerns over human rights and governance. While his government undertook some infrastructure projects and engaged in counter-terrorism efforts in the Sahel region, critics pointed to restrictions on freedom of expression, persecution of anti-slavery activists, and the unresolved issues of ethnic discrimination and land rights for Black Mauritanians. In 2017, a controversial referendum abolished the Senate and changed the national flag, moves seen by opponents as attempts to further centralize power. In late 2018, allegations surfaced that Mauritania had bribed members of the EU parliament in what became part of the Qatargate scandal, aiming to prevent criticism of its human rights record.

In 2019, Mohamed Ould Ghazouani, a close ally of Aziz and former defense minister, won the presidential election. This was lauded by some as Mauritania's first peaceful transfer of power between elected leaders, though the opposition contested the results. Ghazouani's presidency has seen some overtures towards political dialogue and addressing past human rights abuses, including slavery. However, significant challenges remain. Activists continue to face harassment, and the deep-seated problems of discrimination, poverty, and corruption persist. In June 2021, former president Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz was arrested in connection with a corruption probe, and in December 2023, he was sentenced to five years in prison for illicit enrichment. This was seen by some as a positive step against impunity, but by others as politically motivated.

In early 2024, an increase in migrants attempting to reach Europe via the Canary Islands led the EU to strike a 210.00 M EUR deal with Mauritania to curb migration, amid concerns for refugee rights and the conditions of an estimated 150,000 Malian refugees in the country. President Ghazouani was re-elected for a second term in June 2024, in an election that, while largely peaceful, saw opposition complaints about fairness. The ongoing struggle for genuine democratic governance, respect for human rights (especially the eradication of slavery and ethnic discrimination), and equitable development continues to define Mauritania's political landscape.

3.4. Conflict over Western Sahara

Mauritania became involved in the Western Sahara conflict following Spain's decision to decolonize its territory, then known as Spanish Sahara, in the mid-1970s. Under the leadership of President Moktar Ould Daddah, Mauritania, alongside Morocco, asserted historical claims to the territory. The Madrid Accords of November 1975 effectively partitioned Spanish Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania. Mauritania annexed the southern third of the territory, naming it Tiris al-Gharbiyya.

This annexation led to immediate conflict with the Polisario Front, a Sahrawi nationalist movement fighting for the independence of Western Sahara, supported by Algeria. The Mauritanian military, small and ill-equipped, found itself embroiled in a costly and unpopular war. Polisario forces launched effective guerrilla attacks deep into Mauritanian territory, targeting key economic assets like the iron ore mines in Zouérat and the Mauritania Railway, and even raiding the capital, Nouakchott. The war severely strained Mauritania's fragile economy and contributed to growing internal dissent.

The burden of the war was a major factor leading to the 1978 coup that overthrew President Daddah. The subsequent military government, under Colonel Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla, sought to extricate the country from the conflict. In August 1979, Mauritania signed a peace treaty with the Polisario Front in Algiers, renouncing all claims to Western Sahara and withdrawing its troops. Morocco immediately moved to occupy the territory previously held by Mauritania.

Since its withdrawal, Mauritania has officially adopted a stance of strict neutrality in the Western Sahara conflict. It recognizes the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), proclaimed by the Polisario Front, but also maintains relations with Morocco. The Mauritanian government has consistently expressed its wish for a mutually agreeable and lasting solution to the dispute, often emphasizing the need for regional stability.

The conflict had significant humanitarian consequences for Mauritania, including the influx of Sahrawi refugees into its territory, particularly in the border regions. The unresolved status of Western Sahara continues to be a factor in regional geopolitics, affecting Mauritania's relations with its neighbors, Morocco and Algeria. While Mauritania is no longer an active belligerent, the conflict's proximity and the associated issues of regional security, refugee populations, and cross-border movements remain relevant to its foreign policy and internal stability concerns. The International Court of Justice, in an advisory opinion in 1975, acknowledged some historical legal ties of both Morocco and Mauritania to Western Sahara but concluded that these ties were not sufficient to affect the application of the principle of self-determination for the Sahrawi people.

4.1. Topography and climate

Mauritania's topography is dominated by vast, arid plains. Key geographical features include the extensive Sahara Desert which covers most of the north and east. Coastal plains stretch along the Atlantic Ocean. Inland, there are several prominent plateaus, the most notable being the Adrar Plateau in the west-central part of the country, which reaches an elevation of about 1640 ft ^{(500 m)}. Spring-fed oases are found at the foot of some of these scarps, providing crucial water sources.

Isolated peaks, often rich in minerals, rise above the plateaus. Smaller peaks are known as guelbs, and larger ones are called kedias. The Kediet ej Jill, located near the city of Zouérat, is the highest point in Mauritania, with an elevation of 3002 ft ^{(915 m)}. This mountain is composed almost entirely of iron ore. Another striking geological feature is the Richat Structure, also known as the "Eye of the Sahara," a deeply eroded geological dome in the Adrar Plateau, near Ouadane, appearing as a series of concentric circles.

The plateaus generally descend towards the northeast into the barren El Djouf, or "Empty Quarter," a vast region of large sand dunes that merges into the wider Sahara. To the west, between the ocean and the plateaus, are alternating areas of clayey plains (regs) and sand dunes (ergs). These dunes, particularly in the north, can shift due to strong winds.

Mauritania's climate is predominantly hot, arid, and desert-like. Rainfall is scarce and irregular, with most of the country receiving less than 3.9 in ^{(100 mm)} annually. The southern Sahelian zone receives slightly more rainfall, supporting savanna vegetation. Temperatures are high throughout the year, especially in the interior, though coastal areas are moderated by the cool Canary Current. The Harmattan, a dry and dusty trade wind from the northeast, blows during the winter months.

4.2. Wildlife

Mauritania's wildlife is adapted to its predominantly arid desert and Sahelian ecosystems. The country lies at the intersection of two biogeographic realms: the Palearctic realm in the north (extending south from the Sahara to roughly 19° North latitude) and the Afrotropical realm in the south. This geographical positioning influences the diversity of its flora and fauna.

Characteristic fauna of the Saharan and Sahelian regions includes mammals such as the dorcas gazelle, dama gazelle (critically endangered), Barbary sheep, striped hyena, golden jackal, fennec fox, and various rodent species. Reptiles are common, including several species of lizards, snakes, and tortoises.

The coastal zone, particularly the Banc d'Arguin National Park, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site of global importance for migratory birds. It serves as a major breeding and wintering ground for millions of waders from Northern Europe, Siberia, and Greenland. Species found here include flamingos, pelicans, terns, and various sandpipers. The park's rich marine ecosystem, with extensive seagrass beds, also supports diverse marine life, including sea turtles and manatees, and is one of the last refuges for the Mediterranean monk seal. The Diawling National Park, in the delta of the Senegal River, is another important wetland area.

Inland, wetlands are typically ephemeral, depending on seasonal rainfall, but they can support a surprising array of life when present. Vegetation belts correspond to rainfall patterns, ranging from sparse desert flora in the north and center to acacia savanna and grasslands in the Sahelian south along the Senegal River valley, which may include traces of tropical forest.

Several terrestrial ecoregions are found in Mauritania: Sahelian Acacia savanna, West Sudanian savanna, Saharan halophytics, Atlantic coastal desert, North Saharan steppe and woodlands, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands. Conservation efforts face challenges from desertification, drought, and human activities.

4.3. Environmental issues

Mauritania faces significant environmental challenges that profoundly affect its population, economy, and ecosystems. These issues are exacerbated by its arid climate and the fragility of its natural resources.

Desertification is arguably the most pressing environmental problem. Large swathes of the country are part of the Sahara Desert, and this desert is expanding, particularly southwards into the Sahelian zone. Factors contributing to desertification include prolonged and recurrent droughts, overgrazing by livestock, deforestation for fuelwood and construction, and unsustainable agricultural practices. The loss of fertile land reduces agricultural productivity, diminishes grazing areas, and displaces populations, leading to increased poverty and food insecurity. This process also involves the movement of sand dunes, which can engulf villages, roads, and oases.

Recurrent droughts are a chronic issue, linked to climate variability and potentially climate change. These droughts severely impact water availability for human consumption, agriculture, and livestock, leading to crop failures, livestock deaths, and widespread hardship.

Locust infestations periodically plague the country, particularly the desert locust. Large swarms can decimate crops and pastureland, further threatening food security and livelihoods, especially in agricultural regions. The 2004 locust outbreak was particularly severe.

Water scarcity is a fundamental challenge. Mauritania is one of the most water-scarce countries in the world. Surface water is limited, primarily found in the Senegal River along the southern border and in scattered oases. Groundwater resources are often over-exploited and can be non-renewable or saline. Access to safe drinking water is limited for a significant portion of the population, particularly in rural areas.

The impact of these issues on the population includes increased vulnerability to famine, malnutrition, poverty, and displacement, leading to rural-urban migration and increased pressure on urban infrastructure and resources. The economy, heavily reliant on agriculture and livestock, is directly affected by land degradation and water shortages. Environmental degradation also impacts biodiversity and ecosystem resilience.

Addressing these challenges requires integrated approaches, including sustainable land management practices, reforestation efforts, improved water resource management, support for drought-resistant agriculture, and international cooperation to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of climate change. The government has initiated some programs, often with international support, but the scale of the problems demands sustained and comprehensive action.

5.1. Government structure

The government of Mauritania operates under a presidential republic framework, with power notionally divided among three branches: the executive, legislative, and judiciary.

The executive branch is headed by the President, who is the head of state and is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term, renewable once. The President holds significant powers, including appointing the Prime Minister and other cabinet ministers, commanding the armed forces, and overseeing foreign policy. The Prime Minister is the head of government and, along with the Council of Ministers, is responsible for implementing laws and managing the day-to-day affairs of the state.

The legislative branch is currently unicameral, consisting of the National Assembly (الجمعية الوطنية_{Al Jamiya Al Wataniya}^Arabic). It is composed of 176 members who are elected for a five-year term through a mix of single-seat constituencies and proportional representation. The National Assembly is responsible for drafting and passing laws, approving the national budget, and overseeing the actions of the executive branch. Mauritania previously had a bicameral parliament, which included an upper house, the Senate. However, the Senate was abolished following a constitutional referendum in August 2017, a move initiated by then-President Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz and criticized by opponents as a power grab.

The judiciary is, in principle, independent, but it has often faced challenges related to political interference and lack of resources. The judicial system is based on a combination of French civil law and Sharia (Islamic law), particularly in matters of personal status. The highest court is the Supreme Court. There are also lower courts, courts of appeal, and special courts. Ensuring the independence and effectiveness of the judiciary is a key aspect of ongoing efforts towards strengthening the rule of law and democratic governance.

The separation of powers, while constitutionally mandated, has often been skewed in favor of the executive, particularly the presidency. The military has also historically wielded considerable influence over political affairs, staging multiple coups since independence.

5.2. Military

The Armed Forces of Mauritania (الجيش الوطني الموريتاني_{Al-Jaīsh Al-Waṭanī Al-Mūrītānī}^Arabic; Armée Nationale Mauritanienne_{Mauritanian National Army}^French) are responsible for the national defense of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania. The military is composed of several branches:

• The Army (Land Forces) is the largest component.
• The Air Force operates a modest fleet of aircraft for transport, reconnaissance, and limited combat roles.
• The Navy is tasked with patrolling Mauritania's Atlantic coastline and maritime economic zone, focusing on fisheries protection and combating illicit trafficking.
• The National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie Nationale_{National Gendarmerie}^French) is a paramilitary force responsible for internal security in rural areas and border control, functioning under the Ministry of Defense but also performing police duties.
• The Presidential Guard (BASEP - Battalion of Presidential Security) is an elite unit responsible for the security of the President and key government installations.

Other security forces include the National Guard and the national police, which are typically subordinated to the Ministry of the Interior.

The primary roles of the Mauritanian Armed Forces include defending the country's territorial integrity, participating in internal security operations, and contributing to regional stability. Mauritanian forces have been involved in the G5 Sahel Joint Force, an initiative by Sahelian countries (Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger) to combat terrorism, organized crime, and human trafficking in the region. They also participate in international peacekeeping operations under the auspices of the African Union and the United Nations.

The defense budget of Mauritania was reported to constitute 3.9% of the country's GDP as of 2018. The military has historically played a significant role in Mauritanian politics, staging several coups since independence. The current Minister of Defense is Hanena Ould Sidi, and the Chief of the National Army Staff is General Mokhtar Ould Bolla Chaabane (as of recent information).

Despite its relatively small size, the Mauritanian military has been involved in past conflicts, including the Western Sahara War (1975-1979) and the Mauritania-Senegal Border War (1989-1991). In recent years, its focus has been largely on counter-terrorism operations, particularly against extremist groups active in the Sahel. According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Mauritania was ranked 95th out of 163 countries in terms of peacefulness.

6.1. Major cities

Mauritania's urban centers are concentrated primarily in the southern and coastal regions, reflecting the country's arid geography. The principal cities serve as administrative, economic, and cultural hubs.

Nouakchott is the capital and by far the largest city, with a population exceeding one million (1,446,761 in the 2023 census for the three Nouakchott regions combined). Located on the Atlantic coast, it was a small village when chosen as the capital in 1958, just before independence. Rapid urbanization, driven by drought and rural migration, has led to its sprawling growth. Nouakchott is the administrative, political, and economic heart of Mauritania. It hosts the country's main port (Port de l'Amitié), the international airport, and major educational institutions like the University of Nouakchott. Culturally, it is a melting pot of Mauritania's diverse ethnic groups.

Nouadhibou is the second-largest city (population 173,525 in 2023) and the primary economic center, particularly for the fishing and iron ore export industries. Situated on a peninsula on the northern Atlantic coast, close to the border with Western Sahara, Nouadhibou has a deep-water port that handles the export of iron ore transported via the Mauritania Railway from mines in Zouérat. Its rich fishing grounds also make it a crucial hub for the seafood industry. The city has a more industrial character and a significant expatriate population involved in its economic activities.

Kiffa (population 84,101 in 2023) is a major town in southern Mauritania and the capital of the Assaba Region. It serves as an important regional administrative and commercial center, particularly for the surrounding agricultural and pastoral communities. Kiffa is known for its traditional Kiffa beads, a type of powdered glass bead.

Other significant urban centers include:

• Kaédi (population 62,790 in 2023), capital of Gorgol Region, located on the Senegal River, an important agricultural and trading town.
• Zouérat (population 62,380 in 2023), capital of Tiris Zemmour Region in the north, primarily a mining town serving the iron ore industry.
• Rosso (population 61,156 in 2023), capital of Trarza Region, situated on the Senegal River, a key border crossing point with Senegal and an agricultural center.
• Sélibaby (population 44,966 in 2023), capital of Guidimaka Region in the far south, a regional hub for trade and administration.
• Atar (population 35,171 in 2023), capital of Adrar Region, an oasis town and gateway to the Adrar Plateau, historically significant for trans-Saharan trade and tourism.

These cities, while varying in size and function, play vital roles in Mauritania's national life, reflecting its economic activities, administrative structure, and cultural diversity. Rapid urbanization in many of these centers has also brought challenges related to infrastructure, housing, and social services.

7.1. Relations with neighboring countries

Mauritania shares borders with Morocco (including the disputed territory of Western Sahara), Algeria, Mali, and Senegal. Its relationships with these neighbors are complex, shaped by historical ties, economic interdependence, border security concerns, and occasional political tensions.

• Morocco: Relations have been historically complex, largely due to the Western Sahara conflict. Mauritania initially allied with Morocco to partition the territory in 1975 but withdrew in 1979 after costly clashes with the Polisario Front. While Mauritania now maintains neutrality and recognizes the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, it also has significant economic and trade links with Morocco. Border security and control of cross-border movements are ongoing areas of cooperation.

• Algeria: Algeria was a key supporter of the Polisario Front and Mauritania's decision to withdraw from the Western Sahara conflict improved ties. Both countries share concerns about regional security in the Sahel, including terrorism and trafficking. They have engaged in diplomatic cooperation on these issues.

• Mali: Mauritania and Mali share a long, porous border, which presents significant security challenges due to the presence of extremist groups and trafficking networks in northern Mali. Mauritania has hosted a large number of Malian refugees fleeing conflict and instability. Both countries are members of the G5 Sahel initiative aimed at combating regional insecurity, though Mali's participation has been affected by its internal political situation. Economic ties, particularly informal trade and pastoral movements, are also important.

• Senegal: Relations with Senegal are deeply intertwined due to shared ethnic groups (Pulaar, Wolof, Soninke), cultural connections, and economic links, particularly along the Senegal River valley which forms their common border. However, tensions have arisen, most notably during the 1989-1991 Mauritania-Senegal Border War, which erupted over grazing rights and led to intercommunal violence and mass expulsions of Black Mauritanians from Mauritania and Mauritanians from Senegal. While diplomatic relations were later restored, the legacy of this conflict continues to affect communities on both sides. Issues such as fishing rights in shared waters and border management remain pertinent.

Cross-border ethnic and kinship ties are strong with all neighboring countries, influencing social and informal economic interactions. Regional cooperation on security, particularly through the G5 Sahel (though its effectiveness has varied), and economic development are key priorities in Mauritania's engagement with its neighbors.

7.2. Relations with other key countries

Beyond its immediate neighbors, Mauritania maintains significant diplomatic and economic relationships with several other key countries, influenced by historical ties, strategic interests, and development needs.

• France: As the former colonial power, France has maintained a strong and multifaceted relationship with Mauritania. This includes close political ties, significant economic assistance, cultural exchange, and military cooperation, particularly in the context of counter-terrorism efforts in the Sahel region. French is widely spoken in Mauritania and serves as an administrative and educational language, reflecting the deep colonial legacy. However, the relationship is not without complexities, as Mauritania seeks to assert its sovereignty while benefiting from French support.

• United States: The United States has become an important partner for Mauritania, especially in areas of security cooperation and counter-terrorism. The U.S. has provided training and support to the Mauritanian military to combat extremist groups in the Sahel. Economic ties exist, though they are less extensive than with some European or Arab nations. U.S. foreign policy towards Mauritania has also consistently raised concerns about human rights, particularly the issue of slavery and democratic governance, which sometimes creates friction.

• China: China's influence in Mauritania, as in much of Africa, has grown significantly in recent decades. Chinese investment has focused on infrastructure projects, resource extraction (particularly fisheries and mining), and trade. China is a major market for Mauritanian fish products. This relationship is primarily economic and often comes with fewer political conditions than aid from Western countries, which appeals to the Mauritanian government. Notable projects include the construction of a new presidential palace in Nouakchott.

• Arab Nations: As a member of the Arab League, Mauritania maintains close ties with many Arab countries. Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait have been significant sources of development aid and investment. Cultural and religious links are also strong. Mauritania's relationship with Israel has been an anomaly in the Arab world; it was one of few Arab League members to establish formal diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999, though these relations were frozen in 2009 following the Gaza War and later severed. Relations with Libya have varied depending on the political climate in both countries.

• European Union: The EU as a bloc is a major trading partner and development aid provider for Mauritania. Fisheries agreements, allowing EU vessels to fish in Mauritanian waters in exchange for financial compensation, have been a key, and sometimes contentious, aspect of this relationship. The EU also supports governance reforms, human rights initiatives, and development projects in Mauritania. In 2024, the EU pledged significant financial support to Mauritania to help manage migration flows towards Europe.

Mauritania's foreign relations aim to balance its identity as an Arab and African nation, secure development assistance, address pressing security threats, and navigate the complexities of regional and international politics.

8.1. Main industries

Mauritania's economy is dominated by a few key industries, primarily extractive, which contribute significantly to its exports and government revenue, but often with limited impact on widespread poverty reduction or diversified employment.

• Mining: This is the most important sector of the Mauritanian economy.
  • Iron Ore: Mauritania has extensive deposits of high-quality iron ore, which accounts for a substantial portion of its total exports (almost 50% in some years). The main mining operations are centered around Zouérat in the north, with the ore transported to the port of Nouadhibou via the Mauritania Railway. The industry is largely controlled by the state-owned company SNIM (Société Nationale Industrielle et Minière). Fluctuations in global iron ore prices significantly impact Mauritania's export earnings and government revenue.
  • Gold: Gold mining has become increasingly important in recent years, with several international companies operating mines in the interior, such as the Tasiast Gold Mine. Gold is now a major export commodity. In 2015, gold production was 9 metric tons.
  • Copper: Copper deposits are also exploited, contributing to the mining sector's output. Mines like the Guelb Moghrein mine near Akjoujt produce copper and gold.
  • Fisheries: The Mauritanian coast boasts some of the richest fishing grounds in the world, particularly for species like octopus, squid, and various types of fish. The fisheries sector is a major source of foreign exchange and employment, both directly and indirectly. However, it faces challenges from overfishing, often by foreign fleets operating under controversial agreements, and the need for better management to ensure sustainability and maximize benefits for the local population.
  • Agriculture: Despite the arid climate, agriculture remains a vital source of livelihood for a large part of the population, particularly in the southern regions along the Senegal River valley and in oases. Subsistence farming predominates, with crops including millet, sorghum, rice, dates, and vegetables. The sector is highly vulnerable to drought and desertification.
  • Livestock Rearing: Traditionally a cornerstone of Mauritanian society and economy, livestock (camels, cattle, sheep, and goats) rearing is widespread, especially among nomadic and semi-nomadic communities. It provides food, income, and a store of wealth. This sector is also severely affected by drought and degradation of pastureland.

  While these industries are central to the economy, there is a critical need for diversification, development of value-added processing (especially in fisheries and potentially mining), and policies that ensure the benefits of resource wealth are more equitably distributed and contribute to sustainable development and poverty reduction for all segments of society, particularly marginalized communities.

8.2. Natural resources

Mauritania is endowed with significant natural resources, the exploitation of which forms the backbone of its economy. However, the management and impact of these resources on national development and environmental sustainability are critical issues.

• Iron Ore: This is Mauritania's most significant mineral resource. The country possesses vast reserves of high-grade iron ore, primarily located in the Zouérat region in the north. The state-owned company SNIM (Société Nationale Industrielle et Minière) is the main operator. Iron ore accounts for a large percentage of Mauritania's export earnings. The extraction and transport of iron ore (via the Mauritania Railway to the port of Nouadhibou) are major industrial activities. The economic impact is substantial, but the benefits have not always translated into widespread poverty reduction, and the industry is vulnerable to global price fluctuations.

• Petroleum and Natural Gas: Oil was discovered offshore in 2001 in the Chinguetti field, leading to Mauritania becoming a small-scale oil producer in 2006. While initially met with high expectations, production from Chinguetti has declined. More recently, significant offshore natural gas discoveries, particularly the Greater Tortue Ahmeyim (GTA) field straddling the maritime border with Senegal, hold considerable promise for future revenue. The development of these gas resources is underway, with potential major impacts on the economy, but also raises concerns about revenue management, environmental protection, and ensuring equitable benefits. There may also be onshore oil reserves in the Taoudeni Basin, but extraction in the harsh desert environment would be costly.

• Gold: Gold has become an increasingly important resource. Several large-scale gold mines are operated by international companies, notably in the Tasiast region. Gold is now a major export, contributing significantly to foreign exchange earnings. Artisanal gold mining has also emerged, providing livelihoods but also posing environmental and social challenges.

• Copper: Copper is another commercially exploited mineral. The Guelb Moghrein mine near Akjoujt produces copper concentrates, often alongside gold.

• Fisheries: Mauritania's Atlantic waters are among the richest fishing grounds globally, supporting a diverse range of fish species, cephalopods (octopus, squid), and crustaceans. This resource is vital for export revenue, employment, and food security. However, it faces threats from overfishing, illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, and the impacts of climate change. Sustainable management of fisheries is crucial.

• Other Minerals: Deposits of phosphates, gypsum, and other minerals exist, though their exploitation may be less developed than iron ore or gold.

The exploitation of these natural resources presents both opportunities and challenges. While they can generate significant revenue, there are concerns about the "resource curse" - where resource wealth does not lead to broad-based development and can be associated with corruption and inequality. Environmental impacts of mining and oil/gas extraction, such as habitat disruption, water use, and pollution, also need careful management. A key challenge for Mauritania is to ensure that the wealth generated from its natural resources is managed transparently and contributes to sustainable and equitable development for all its citizens, including investment in human capital, infrastructure, and economic diversification.

8.3. Transport

Mauritania's transportation infrastructure is relatively underdeveloped, reflecting the country's vast size, sparse population, and challenging desert environment. Key components include roads, a single railway line primarily for iron ore, ports, and airports.

• Roads: The road network is limited, with paved roads connecting major urban centers, particularly in the south and along the coast. The main artery is the highway linking Nouakchott to Nouadhibou in the north and Rosso (on the Senegalese border) in the south. Many rural areas are accessible only by dirt tracks, which can become impassable during certain seasons. Road transport is the primary means of moving goods and people domestically. Right-hand traffic is observed. Road safety is a concern due to poor road conditions in some areas, vehicle maintenance issues, and non-adherence to traffic rules. Animal-drawn carts, known as charrettes, are common for local transport, especially in urban areas.

• Mauritania Railway: This is a single-track, 437 mile ^{(704 km)} railway line that runs from the iron ore mines at Zouérat in the north to the port of Nouadhibou on the Atlantic coast. Opened in 1963, its primary purpose is the transport of iron ore, and it is known for operating some of the longest and heaviest trains in the world, sometimes exceeding 1.6 mile ^{(2.5 km)} in length. The railway also carries passengers and other freight, providing a vital link for communities along its route.

• Ports: Mauritania has two main commercial ports:
  • The Port of Nouakchott (Port de l'Amitié, or Friendship Port), opened in 1986, is the country's primary general cargo port, handling imports and exports, including containerized goods. It also has facilities for petroleum products.
  • The Port of Nouadhibou is crucial for the export of iron ore and also serves as a major fishing port.
  • Airports: Nouakchott-Oumtounsy International Airport (opened in 2016, replacing the older Nouakchott International Airport) is the main international gateway. Nouadhibou International Airport also handles some international flights. Several other towns have smaller airports or airstrips, primarily serving domestic routes. Air transport is important given the vast distances within the country.

  Developing and maintaining transportation infrastructure is a significant challenge due to the harsh climate and limited financial resources. Improved transport links are essential for economic development, regional integration, and providing access to services for remote populations.

9.1. Ethnic groups

Mauritanian society is multiethnic, a factor that profoundly shapes its social, political, and cultural landscape. The main ethnic groups can be broadly categorized as follows, though proportions are often estimates and subject to political sensitivities:

• Bidhan (also known as "White Moors"): This group constitutes an estimated 30% of the population. They are of Arab-Berber descent and traditionally speak Hassaniya Arabic. Historically, the Bidhan have formed the dominant social and political elite in Mauritania. Their culture is strongly influenced by Arab and Berber traditions, often with a nomadic pastoralist heritage.

• Haratin (also known as "Black Moors"): Comprising an estimated 40% of the population, the Haratin are culturally similar to the Bidhan, speaking Hassaniya Arabic and sharing many customs. However, they are of darker complexion and are largely descendants of enslaved populations. Despite the official abolition of slavery, the Haratin have historically occupied, and often continue to occupy, a subordinate social status, facing significant discrimination and marginalization. The legacy of slavery deeply affects their socio-economic opportunities and human rights. They are considered descendants of the original inhabitants of the Tassili n'Ajjer and Acacus Mountain sites during the Epipalaeolithic era.

• Sub-Saharan African Groups: These groups make up the remaining approximately 30% of the population and are predominantly found in the southern regions of the country, particularly along the Senegal River valley. They include:
  • Pulaar (also known as Fulani or Halpulaar): A significant pastoralist and agricultural group.
  • Soninke: Historically known for their role in trans-Saharan trade and the Ghana Empire.
  • Wolof: Primarily concentrated near the Senegalese border, sharing strong cultural ties with Wolof communities in Senegal.
  • Bambara are also present.

  These Sub-Saharan African groups have distinct languages, cultures, and traditions, differing from the Moorish groups. They have historically faced discrimination and political marginalization, particularly during periods of heightened Arabization policies and ethnic conflict, such as the events of 1989-1991 which saw mass expulsions and violence against Black Mauritanians.
  
  Inter-ethnic relations are a sensitive and often contentious issue in Mauritania. Social stratification is often linked to ethnicity and ancestry, with the Bidhan traditionally at the top of the hierarchy, followed by the Haratin, and then Sub-Saharan African groups. This hierarchy has implications for access to resources, political power, and social justice. Addressing these ethnic disparities and promoting national unity based on equality and respect for diversity are crucial challenges for Mauritania's development and stability. The persistent issue of slavery and its legacy is inextricably linked to these ethnic dynamics.

9.2. Languages

The linguistic landscape of Mauritania reflects its diverse ethnic composition and historical influences.

• Arabic is the official language. The locally spoken variety is Hassaniya Arabic (حسانية_{Ḥassānīya}^Arabic), a Maghrebi Arabic dialect that incorporates many Berber words and differs significantly from Modern Standard Arabic. Hassaniya is the mother tongue of the Bidhan and Haratin communities and serves as a lingua franca for many. Modern Standard Arabic is used for official communications, in education, and in the media.

• French holds no official status but is widely used as an administrative language, in higher education, business, and the media. It is a legacy of the colonial period and is spoken by educated segments of the population. There have been debates and policy shifts regarding the role of French versus Arabic in education and public life, sometimes reflecting broader cultural and political orientations. In 2022, a law was adopted concerning the use of national languages in schooling, which generated some controversy.

• National Languages: Several languages spoken by Sub-Saharan African ethnic groups are recognized as national languages. These include:
  • Pulaar (also known as Fulfulde or Fulani)
  • Soninke
  • Wolof

  These languages are primarily spoken in the southern regions of the country.

  • Berber: While Hassaniya Arabic has largely supplanted Berber languages among the Moorish population, some Berber linguistic influence remains within Hassaniya. A very small number of people, estimated at a few hundred, still speak Zenaga, an indigenous Berber language.
  • Other languages: Immigrant communities may speak other languages. The use of English is reportedly increasing, particularly among younger generations and in certain professional sectors.

  The interplay of these languages reflects Mauritania's position at the crossroads of Arab-Berber North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. Language policy, particularly in education, has been a sensitive issue, often linked to ethnic identity and concerns about cultural dominance or marginalization.

9.3. Religion

Islam is the overwhelmingly dominant religion in Mauritania and plays a central role in the country's society, culture, and legal system.

The state religion of Mauritania is Islam, and the constitution stipulates that the President must be Muslim. Virtually 100% of Mauritanian citizens are Muslim, with the vast majority adhering to the Sunni denomination of the Maliki school of jurisprudence. Sufism also has a significant presence, with Sufi orders (tariqas) like the Tijaniyyah and Qadiriyya having considerable influence across the country and the wider West African region. Islamic practices and values deeply permeate daily life, social customs, and public discourse.

The legal system incorporates Sharia (Islamic law), particularly in matters of personal status (family law, inheritance) and in certain aspects of criminal law. In 2018, the National Assembly passed a law making the death penalty mandatory for anyone convicted of "blasphemous speech" and acts deemed "sacrilegious," eliminating the possibility of repentance leading to a lesser sentence for certain apostasy-related crimes. The law also prescribes prison sentences and fines for "offending public indecency and Islamic values."

While the population is almost entirely Muslim, there is a very small Christian minority, estimated at around 10,000 people in 2020 (less than 0.1%), primarily consisting of foreign residents, mostly from West African countries or Europe. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Nouakchott, established in 1965, serves this community.

Freedom of religion is severely restricted. Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal. Apostasy from Islam is a capital offense, and Mauritania is one of the few countries in the world where atheism can be punished by death. Public expression of non-Islamic faiths is limited. These restrictions reflect the deeply conservative religious environment and the state's official commitment to Islam.

9.4. Education

Mauritania's education system faces significant challenges related to access, quality, resources, and relevance, particularly in a context of poverty, vast geographical distances, and diverse linguistic needs. Since 1999, official policy dictates that all teaching in the first year of primary school is in Modern Standard Arabic. French is introduced in the second year and is traditionally used to teach scientific subjects, though there have been ongoing debates and reforms regarding language of instruction. The use of English is reportedly increasing.

The education system is generally structured into:

• Primary Education**: Typically for children aged 6 to 12. While primary education is nominally compulsory and free, enrollment rates, especially for girls and in rural areas, can be affected by socio-economic factors, cultural practices, and the availability of schools and teachers.
• Secondary Education**: This follows primary education and is divided into lower secondary and upper secondary levels. Access to and completion of secondary education are more limited than primary.
• Higher Education**: Mauritania has the University of Nouakchott Al Aasriya (formerly the University of Nouakchott), which is the main public university, and other institutions of higher learning, including technical and vocational training centers. However, a significant number of highly educated Mauritanians have pursued their studies abroad, often in France, other Arab countries, or more recently, other international destinations.

Key challenges facing the educational sector include:

• Literacy Rates**: Despite efforts, literacy rates remain relatively low, particularly among women and in rural areas. The overall literacy rate for individuals aged 15 and above was estimated at 51.2% in 2003 (though more recent figures may vary).
• Access and Equity**: Disparities in access to education exist based on geographic location (urban vs. rural), gender, and socio-economic status. Children from nomadic communities and marginalized ethnic groups, including the Haratin, often face greater barriers.
• Quality of Education**: Issues include overcrowded classrooms, a shortage of qualified teachers, inadequate learning materials and infrastructure, and curricula that may not always align with the country's development needs.
• Language of Instruction**: The policy on languages in education has been a subject of debate, with implications for learning outcomes and social cohesion.
• Resource Allocation**: Public expenditure on education, while a significant portion of the government budget (around 10.1% of government expenditure between 2000-2007), may still be insufficient to address the scale of the challenges.

The Global Innovation Index in 2024 ranked Mauritania 126th out of 139 countries, indicating challenges in fostering an environment conducive to innovation, which is often linked to the strength of the education system. Efforts to improve the education system are crucial for Mauritania's human development, economic progress, and social justice.

9.5. Health

Mauritania faces significant public health challenges, reflected in key health indicators and the accessibility and quality of its healthcare services. As of 2011, life expectancy at birth was approximately 61.14 years. Infant mortality rates remain high, estimated at 60.42 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2011.

Per capita expenditure on health was low, around 43 USD (PPP) in 2004. Public expenditure on health constituted about 2% of GDP in 2004, with private expenditure at 0.9% of GDP. The availability of healthcare professionals is limited; in the early 21st century, there were approximately 11 physicians per 100,000 people.

Access to healthcare services is a major issue, particularly in rural and remote desert areas. Infrastructure is often inadequate, and there can be shortages of essential medicines and medical supplies. Prevalent diseases include infectious diseases common in developing countries, such as malaria, respiratory infections, and diarrheal diseases, especially among children. Malnutrition is also a significant public health concern, exacerbated by poverty and recurrent food insecurity due to drought.

One notable traditional practice with severe health implications is leblouh (also known by the French term gavage), the force-feeding of young girls. This practice, rooted in traditional beauty standards where obesity was historically seen as a sign of wealth and attractiveness, aims to fatten girls to make them more marriageable. Leblouh involves coercing girls to consume large quantities of high-calorie foods like camel milk and couscous. This practice can lead to serious health problems, including obesity-related illnesses such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, joint problems, and complications during childbirth. While awareness of its harmful effects is growing and the practice is reportedly declining, particularly in urban areas, it persists in some communities and represents a significant violation of children's rights and a serious public health issue.

Efforts to improve the health sector focus on strengthening primary healthcare, improving maternal and child health services, combating infectious diseases, and addressing malnutrition. However, these efforts are constrained by limited resources, infrastructural deficits, and socio-cultural factors.

10.1. Modern slavery

Modern slavery persists as a deeply entrenched and devastating human rights crisis in Mauritania, despite multiple legal abolitions and government denials. This practice is primarily a system of descent-based or chattel slavery, disproportionately affecting the Haratin (Black Moors), who are often enslaved by lighter-skinned Bidhan (White Moors). However, slavery-like practices also exist among Sub-Saharan Mauritanian populations in the south.

Historical Roots and Nature: The system has historical roots in traditional caste hierarchies and trans-Saharan slave trades. Enslaved individuals and their descendants are considered the property of their masters, forced to work without pay, often as domestic servants or herders. They are subjected to physical, sexual, and psychological abuse, denied education, freedom of movement, and basic human dignity. Children born to enslaved mothers automatically become slaves themselves, perpetuating the cycle across generations.

Legal Framework and Enforcement Challenges:

• Slavery was first declared ended by the French colonial administration in 1905, but this had little practical effect.
• Mauritania was the last country in the world to officially abolish slavery, which it did by presidential decree in 1981.
• However, it was not until 2007 that a law was passed criminalizing the act of owning slaves, making it punishable by up to 10 years in prison. This law was further strengthened in 2015, categorizing slavery as a crime against humanity and increasing penalties.

Despite these legal measures, enforcement has been extremely weak and largely ineffective. Prosecutions of slave owners are rare, and convictions even rarer. The US State Department's 2010 Human Rights Report noted that no cases had been successfully prosecuted under the 2007 anti-slavery law at that time, despite the de facto existence of slavery. The government has often downplayed or denied the extent of slavery, and anti-slavery activists face harassment, arrest, and imprisonment. For example, prominent anti-slavery activist Biram Dah Abeid has been repeatedly arrested.

Prevalence: Estimates of the number of people enslaved vary, but are consistently high.

• In 2012, a CNN documentary suggested that 10% to 20% of the population (between 340,000 and 680,000 people) lived in slavery, though some academics considered this an overestimation.
• The Global Slavery Index by the Walk Free Foundation estimated in 2018 that around 90,000 people were living in conditions of modern slavery in Mauritania, equivalent to about 2.1% of the population. This was still one of the highest per capita rates in the world.

Obstacles to Eradication:

• Deeply ingrained social norms and beliefs**: Slavery is often justified by misinterpretations of religious texts or seen as part of the natural social order by some.
• Economic dependency**: Poverty limits opportunities for freed slaves to support themselves, sometimes leading them to remain with or return to their former masters.
• Lack of political will**: Insufficient government commitment to genuinely tackle the issue, protect victims, and prosecute perpetrators.
• Weak judicial system**: The justice system often fails to apply anti-slavery laws effectively.
• Vast desert terrain**: Makes it difficult to enforce laws in remote areas.

Domestic and international human rights organizations, such as SOS Esclaves and the Initiative for the Resurgence of the Abolitionist Movement (IRA-Mauritania), continue to work tirelessly to expose slavery, support victims, and advocate for its complete eradication. Addressing modern slavery in Mauritania requires not only stronger legal enforcement but also comprehensive societal changes, including education, economic empowerment for former slaves and vulnerable communities, and a genuine commitment from the authorities to dismantle the structures that perpetuate this practice.

11.1. Traditions and lifestyle

Traditional Mauritanian social customs are diverse, reflecting the country's ethnic makeup. Hospitality is highly valued across all communities. Family structures are often extended, playing a central role in social life.

Attire is distinctive. Moorish men often wear the daraa, a flowing wide-sleeved robe, typically blue or white, often worn with a turban. Moorish women traditionally wear the Melhfa, a large piece of colorful cloth wrapped around the body and head. Sub-Saharan African groups have their own traditional clothing styles, often vibrant and intricately designed.

Housing varies from traditional nomadic tents (khaimas) used by some Bidhan and Haratin communities, adapted to the desert environment, to mud-brick or concrete houses in sedentary villages and urban areas.

The interplay of nomadic and sedentary lifestyles has historically shaped Mauritanian society. While urbanization and droughts have led many to settle, nomadic pastoralism, particularly with camels and livestock, remains a significant cultural and economic activity for some, especially in the vast desert regions. Social hierarchies, often based on ethnicity and lineage, continue to influence social interactions and opportunities, with ongoing challenges related to the legacy of slavery and discrimination.

11.2. Cuisine

Mauritanian cuisine reflects its diverse cultural influences, blending Arab-Berber, Sub-Saharan African, and nomadic traditions, with ingredients adapted to the arid environment. Staples often include grains, meat (camel, goat, sheep, chicken), milk, dates, and, along the coast, fish. Pork is not consumed due to Islamic dietary laws.

Characteristic dishes include:

• Couscous: A staple throughout North Africa, often served with meat (typically lamb or chicken) and vegetable stew. Camel meat couscous is a local specialty.
• Thieboudienne (Cheb-u-jen): A fish and rice dish popular in Senegal and also widely eaten in Mauritania, especially in the south. It typically involves fish cooked in a tomato-based sauce with various vegetables, served over rice.
• Mahfe: A meat (often lamb or goat) and rice dish cooked in a peanut sauce.
• Dates: A crucial food source in desert regions, consumed fresh or dried.
• Camel Milk: A traditional beverage and important source of nutrition, especially for nomadic communities.
• Mechoui: Slow-roasted whole lamb or goat, often prepared for special occasions.
• Fish Dishes: Along the coast, grilled or dried fish is common. Seafood is abundant in Mauritanian waters.
• Tagine: Slow-cooked stews, similar to those found in other Maghreb countries.
• Bread: Various types of flatbread are common. French-style baguettes are also available in urban areas.

Atai (Mauritanian tea) is central to social life. It is a strong green tea, prepared in a meticulous ritual, typically by men, and served in small glasses in three rounds. The tea is brewed with mint and a large amount of sugar, becoming progressively sweeter with each round. The tea ceremony is a symbol of hospitality and can last for hours.

Vegetables are less common due to the arid climate, though onions, tomatoes, carrots, and sweet potatoes are used. Spices are generally milder than in some other regional cuisines. The cuisine highlights resourcefulness in using locally available ingredients.

11.3. Music and arts

Mauritanian music and arts are rich and diverse, reflecting the country's blend of Arab-Berber and Sub-Saharan African cultural traditions.

Traditional Moorish music is highly sophisticated, with a modal system similar to Arab classical music. It is often performed by hereditary musician castes known as iggawen (singular: iggiw). Key instruments include:

• The Tidinit: A four-stringed lute played by men, considered the primary instrument in Moorish classical music.
• The Ardin: A harp-like instrument with 10-14 strings, traditionally played by women.
• The Tbal: A kettle drum.

Lyrics often draw from classical Arabic poetry or Hassaniya folk poetry, covering themes of love, praise, satire, and history.

Sub-Saharan African ethnic groups, such as the Pulaar, Soninke, and Wolof, have their own distinct musical traditions, featuring different instruments (e.g., drums, koras, balafons), rhythms, and vocal styles, often linked to social events, ceremonies, and storytelling.

Dance is an integral part of many cultural expressions, varying by ethnic group and occasion.

Oral literature is a strong tradition, especially among nomadic communities. This includes poetry, proverbs, and epic tales. The T'heydinn is a significant Moorish epic poem, part of the oral tradition, recognized by UNESCO for its cultural importance. It recounts historical events, heroic deeds, and social values.

Crafts include:

• Silversmithing: Tuareg and Moorish silversmiths create intricate traditional jewelry, often adorned with geometric patterns and semi-precious stones. These include necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and amulets. Pyramidal elements are typical in Mauritanian jewelry.
• Leatherwork: Skilled artisans produce leather goods such as bags, cushions, saddles, and sandals, often decorated with traditional motifs.
• Wood carving and pottery are also practiced.
• Textiles: Weaving of mats, blankets, and tent materials is common. The melhfa, the traditional women's outer garment, often features vibrant colors and patterns.

These artistic expressions are vital for cultural identity, social cohesion, and the transmission of heritage in Mauritania.

11.4. Sports

Sports in Mauritania are influenced by its desert terrain, Atlantic coastline, and cultural traditions. The most popular sport by a significant margin is football (soccer).

The Mauritania national football team, nicknamed the "Mourabitounes," has gained more prominence in recent years. Despite being ranked among the lower-tier teams globally for many years (e.g., fourth-worst in the world in 2012), the national team achieved a historic qualification for the Africa Cup of Nations (AFCON) for the first time in 2019. They have since participated in subsequent AFCON tournaments, showing improvement and making headlines, such as defeating Sudan in the qualifiers for the 2023 AFCON. Domestic football is organized through the Super D1 league. Football stadiums exist in several cities, including the Stade Municipal de Nouadhibou.

Other sports practiced in Mauritania include athletics and basketball, though they have a lower profile than football. Traditional sports, such as camel racing and wrestling, may also be popular in certain regions and among specific communities, reflecting the country's cultural heritage.

Investment in sports infrastructure has received some international support. For instance, Morocco has committed to assisting in building sports complexes in Mauritania. The development of sports can play a role in national pride, youth engagement, and promoting a healthy lifestyle, though resources for sports development are often limited.

11.5. World Heritage Sites

Mauritania is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding cultural and natural significance:

1. Ancient Ksour of Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt and Oualata (Inscribed in 1996): This cultural site comprises four ancient desert towns (ksour) founded in the 11th and 12th centuries. These towns were vital caravan centers for trans-Saharan trade, linking North Africa with Sub-Saharan Africa. They also became important centers of Islamic learning and culture, with numerous mosques, libraries housing ancient manuscripts, and distinctive vernacular architecture adapted to the desert environment.

• Ouadane and Chinguetti are located in the Adrar region and were major trading posts and scholarly centers. Chinguetti, in particular, is often considered the seventh holy city of Islam and was a gathering point for pilgrims en route to Mecca.
• Tichitt and Oualata are situated further east and south, also playing crucial roles in trade routes for salt, gold, and dates. Their well-preserved historic urban fabric showcases unique examples of Saharan architecture and town planning.

These Ksour represent a remarkable testimony to a traditional way of life centered on trade and Islamic culture in the Sahara.

2. Banc d'Arguin National Park (Inscribed in 1989): This natural site is located on the Atlantic coast of Mauritania. It is one of the world's most important areas for migratory waterbirds. The park's vast expanses of mudflats, shallow coastal waters, sandbanks, and small islands provide crucial breeding, wintering, and passage grounds for millions of birds, primarily waders, from Northern Europe, Siberia, and Greenland. Notable species include flamingos, pelicans, terns, and numerous species of sandpipers and plovers.
The park's rich marine biodiversity is supported by nutrient-rich upwellings. It also provides habitat for diverse fish populations, sea turtles, and marine mammals, including one of the world's last remaining colonies of the Mediterranean monk seal. The stark contrast between the arid desert landscape and the vibrant coastal ecosystem makes Banc d'Arguin a site of exceptional natural beauty and ecological importance.

These World Heritage Sites highlight Mauritania's rich historical legacy and its significant contributions to global natural biodiversity. Their preservation faces challenges from environmental factors like desertification and climate change, as well as socio-economic pressures.

11.6. Public holidays

Mauritania observes both national and Islamic religious public holidays. Islamic holidays are based on the lunar calendar, so their dates on the Gregorian calendar vary each year.

• National Public Holidays (Fixed Dates):**

• Islamic Public Holidays (Variable Dates):**

The exact dates for Islamic holidays are determined by local moon sightings. Government offices and many businesses close on these public holidays.