Taiwan

2.1. Names for the island

One of the earliest names associated with Taiwan, or a part of it near Penghu, is "Liuqiu" (流求_Liúqiú^Chinese), which Wang Dayuan used in his Daoyi Zhilüe (1349). This name, however, was also used to refer to the Ryukyu Islands in general or Okinawa Island specifically, with Ryūkyū being the Japanese form of Liúqiú. The name appears in earlier works like the Book of Sui (636), but scholars debate whether these references pertain to the Ryukyus, Taiwan, or even Luzon.

The name "Formosa" (福爾摩沙_{Fú'ěrmóshā}^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}) dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the island and noted it on their maps as Ilha Formosa, meaning "beautiful island" in Portuguese. This name gained prominence in European literature and was commonly used by English speakers well into the 20th century, eventually replacing other European appellations.

The name "Taiwan" itself has Chinese origins. In 1603, a Chinese expedition fleet anchored at a place on the island called Dayuan, a variant of "Taiwan." In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a commercial post at Fort Zeelandia (modern-day Anping, Tainan) on a coastal sandbar known as "Tayouan." This name was derived from the ethnonym of a nearby Taiwanese aboriginal tribe, possibly the Taivoan people. The name "Tayouan" was adopted into Chinese vernacular (e.g., 大員_Dàyuán^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}, 大圓_Dàyuán^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}, 大灣_Dàwān^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}, 臺員_Táiyuán^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}, 臺圓_Táiyuán^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}, or 臺窩灣_Táiwōwān^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}) and referred to the sandbar and the surrounding area, which developed into the modern city of Tainan. This settlement became the island's most important trading center and served as its capital until 1887. The use of the current Chinese name for the island, 臺灣_Táiwān^{Chinese (Chinese characters)} or 台灣_Táiwān^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}, became official as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture under Qing dynasty rule. Through its rapid development, the entire main island eventually became known as "Taiwan."

2.2. Names of the state

The official name of the country in English is the "Republic of China" (ROC) (中華民國_{Zhōnghuá Mínguó (Mandarin Pinyin)}^Chinese; Tiong-hôa Bîn-kok_{Tiong-hôa Bîn-kok (Taiwanese Hokkien Peh-ōe-jī)}^nan; Chûng-fà Mìn-koet_{Chûng-fà Mìn-koet (Hakka Phak-fa-sṳ)}^hak). Shortly after its establishment on mainland China in 1912, the government used the short form "China" (中國_Zhōngguó^Chinese) to refer to itself. The term Zhōngguó derives from zhōng ("central" or "middle") and guó ("state" or "nation-state"), historically referring to the royal demesne of the Zhou dynasty and later the Central Plain, before becoming an occasional synonym for the state during the Qing era. The name "Republic of China" (中華民國_{Zhōnghuá Mínguó}^Chinese) was proposed by revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen, stemming from the Tongmenghui's 1905 manifesto, which aimed "to expel the Manchu rulers, to revive Zhōnghuá, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people."

After the ROC government retreated to Taiwan in 1949, during the 1950s and 1960s, it was commonly referred to as "Nationalist China" or "Free China" to distinguish it from the "People's Republic of China" (PRC) or "Red China" on the mainland. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become commonly known as "Taiwan," after its main island. To avoid confusion with the PRC, the ROC government in Taiwan began adding "Taiwan" next to its official name in official contexts in 2005. Government publications may use "Republic of China (Taiwan)", "Republic of China/Taiwan", or "Taiwan (ROC)".

The term "Taiwan Area" (臺灣地區_{Táiwān Dìqū}^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}) is legally defined to mean the territories under the ROC's effective control, including Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other controlled islands. This contrasts with the "Mainland Area" (大陸地區_{Dàlù Dìqū}^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}), which refers to ROC territory outside the Taiwan Area and under PRC control.

In many international forums and organizations, such as the Olympic Games and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the ROC participates under the name "Chinese Taipei" (中華臺北_{Zhōnghuá Táiběi}^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}) as a compromise due to political pressure from the PRC. The PRC sometimes uses the term "Taiwan authorities" to refer to the ROC government.

3.1. Prehistory and indigenous peoples

Taiwan was connected to the Asian mainland during the Late Pleistocene epoch, until rising sea levels separated it around 10,000 years ago. Fragmented human remains and Paleolithic artifacts dating back 20,000 to 30,000 years have been discovered on the island. Studies of these remains suggest they belonged to Australo-Papuan individuals, similar to Negrito populations in the Philippines. Paleolithic Taiwanese likely settled the Ryukyu Islands approximately 30,000 years ago. Slash-and-burn agriculture practices began on Taiwan at least 11,000 years ago.

Stone tools from the Changbin culture have been found in Taitung County and Eluanbi. Archaeological evidence indicates these people were initially hunter-gatherers who gradually transitioned to intensive fishing. The distinct Wangxing culture, found in Miaoli County, started as gatherers and later shifted to hunting.

Around 6,000 years ago, farmers of the Dapenkeng culture, likely originating from what is now southeastern China, settled in Taiwan. These cultures are considered the ancestors of modern Taiwanese indigenous peoples and the originators of the Austronesian language family. Trade with the Philippines persisted from the early 2nd millennium BCE, including the use of Taiwanese jade in the Philippine jade culture.

The Dapenkeng culture was succeeded by various cultures across the island, such as the Tahu culture and Yingpu culture; the Yuanshan culture was characterized by rice harvesting. Iron tools appeared in cultures like the Niaosung culture, influenced by trade with China and Maritime Southeast Asia. The Plains indigenous peoples primarily lived in permanent walled villages, sustaining themselves through agriculture, fishing, and hunting. They traditionally had matriarchal societies.

3.2. Early European colonization and Chinese settlement

The Penghu Islands were inhabited by Han Chinese fishermen by 1171. In 1225, Penghu was attached to Jinjiang. The Yuan dynasty officially incorporated Penghu under the jurisdiction of Tong'an County in 1281. However, Penghu was evacuated in the 15th century by the Ming dynasty as part of their maritime ban policy, which lasted until the late 16th century. In 1349, Wang Dayuan provided the first written account of a visit to the main island of Taiwan. By the 1590s, a small number of Chinese from Fujian had begun cultivating land in southwestern Taiwan. By the early 17th century, approximately 1,500 to 2,000 Chinese lived or stayed temporarily on Taiwan's southern coast, mainly for seasonal fishing but also for subsistence farming and trading. In 1603, Chen Di visited Taiwan during an anti-wokou (pirate) expedition and recorded an account of the Taiwanese Indigenous people.

In 1591, Japan sent envoys with a letter requesting tribute relations with Taiwan, but they found no leader to deliver it to and returned. An expedition in 1609 to survey Taiwan was attacked by Indigenous people, resulting in some prisoners being taken back to Japan. In 1616, a Japanese fleet of 13 ships was sent, but due to a storm, only one ship reached Taiwan and is presumed to have returned.

In 1624, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established Fort Zeelandia on the coastal islet of Tayouan (in modern Tainan). The lowland areas were occupied by 11 Indigenous chiefdoms, some of which, like the Kingdom of Middag, came under Dutch control. When the Dutch arrived, southwestern Taiwan already had a transient Chinese population of nearly 1,500. The VOC encouraged Chinese farmers to immigrate and cultivate lands under Dutch control. By the 1660s, an estimated 30,000 to 50,000 Chinese were living on the island. Most farmed rice for local consumption and sugar for export, while some engaged in deer hunting for export.

In 1626, the Spanish Empire occupied northern Taiwan, establishing a trading base first at Keelung and then building Fort Santo Domingo at Tamsui in 1628. This Spanish colony lasted until 1642 when their last fortress fell to Dutch forces. The Dutch then subdued hundreds of villages in the western plains.

Following the fall of the Ming dynasty in Beijing in 1644, Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong), a Ming loyalist, attacked the Qing dynasty along China's southeastern coast. Under increasing Qing pressure, he moved his forces from Xiamen to Taiwan in 1661, expelling the Dutch the following year. The Dutch briefly retook their northern fortress at Keelung in 1664 but abandoned the island in 1668 due to indigenous resistance.

The Zheng regime, known as the Kingdom of Tungning, proclaimed loyalty to the overthrown Ming dynasty but ruled independently. However, Koxinga's son, Zheng Jing, involved the kingdom in the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in mainland China, which ultimately weakened Tungning and paved the way for a Qing invasion and occupation of Taiwan in 1683.

3.3. Qing dynasty rule (1683-1895)

After defeating Koxinga's grandson in 1683, the Qing dynasty formally annexed Taiwan in May 1684, making it a prefecture of Fujian province, with its administrative seat (now Tainan) remaining the capital. The Qing government generally restricted migration to Taiwan, believing the island could not sustain a large population without conflict. Despite initial evacuations that reduced the official population to 50,000 (including 10,000 troops), officials solicited settlers, leading to tens of thousands arriving annually by 1711. A permit system, officially recorded in 1712 but likely existing since 1684, restricted entry to those with property on the mainland, family in Taiwan, and unaccompanied by wives or children. Many male migrants married local Indigenous women. Restrictions were relaxed over the 18th century; families were allowed to move in 1732, and by 1811, over two million Han settlers lived in Taiwan, engaging in profitable sugar and rice production for export to the mainland. In 1875, all entry restrictions were repealed.

Three counties nominally covered the western plains, but actual Qing control was limited. A government permit was needed to go beyond the Dajia River. Qing administration expanded across the western plains throughout the 18th century due to continued illegal settlement. The Taiwanese Indigenous peoples were categorized into "acculturated aborigines" (those who adopted Han culture) and "non-acculturated aborigines." The Qing initially did little to administer or subjugate them. By the early Qianlong period, there were 93 acculturated and 61 non-acculturated villages paying taxes. In response to the Zhu Yigui settler rebellion in 1722, separation of aboriginals and settlers became official policy, marked by 54 stelae. This boundary was changed four times in the latter 18th century due to settler encroachment. Two aboriginal affairs sub-prefects were appointed in 1766.

During Qing rule, Plains Indigenous peoples rarely rebelled, and mountain Indigenous peoples were largely left alone until the last 20 years of Qing administration. Most of the over 100 rebellions, such as the Lin Shuangwen rebellion, were by Han settlers, leading to the saying "every three years an uprising, every five years a rebellion," particularly referencing the period between 1820 and 1850.

Many officials advocated for active colonization throughout the 19th century. In 1788, Prefect Yang Tingli supported Wu Sha's efforts to claim land from the Kavalan people. In 1797, Wu Sha recruited settlers with government support but couldn't officially register the land. In the early 1800s, local officials convinced the emperor to incorporate the area by highlighting piracy risks if left unsettled. An attempt by settlers in 1814 to colonize central Taiwan by fabricating land lease rights was thwarted by government troops two years later.

The Qing adopted a more active colonization policy after Japan's invasion of southern Taiwan in 1874, which forced the Qing to pay an indemnity. Taiwan's administration was expanded with new prefectures and counties, and mountain roads were built. Entry restrictions ended in 1875, and recruitment agencies for settlers were established on the mainland, though these efforts soon ceased. In 1884, during the Sino-French War, Keelung was occupied by French forces, but they failed to advance further inland; their victory at Penghu in 1885 led to disease and retreat as the war ended. Colonization efforts were renewed under Liu Mingchuan. In 1887, Taiwan was upgraded to a province, with Taipei becoming the permanent capital in 1893. Liu's efforts to increase revenue were hampered by foreign pressure against raising levies. A land reform increased revenue but fell short of expectations. Modern technologies like electric lighting, railways, telegraph lines, and industrial machinery were introduced, but some projects had mixed results. A campaign to subjugate Indigenous peoples ended with heavy losses after fierce resistance. Liu resigned in 1891 due to criticism of these costly projects.

By the end of Qing rule, the western plains were fully developed farmland with about 2.5 million Chinese settlers. Mountainous areas remained largely autonomous under Indigenous control. Indigenous land loss occurred relatively slowly due to the absence of state-sponsored land deprivation for most of the Qing period.

3.4. Japanese rule (1895-1945)

Following the Qing dynasty's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), Taiwan, its associated islands, and the Penghu archipelago were ceded to the Empire of Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Inhabitants wishing to remain Qing subjects had a two-year grace period to move to mainland China, an option few found feasible. An estimated 4,000 to 6,000 people departed before the deadline, with 200,000 to 300,000 following during the subsequent disorder. On May 25, 1895, pro-Qing officials proclaimed the Republic of Formosa to resist Japanese rule. Japanese forces entered the capital at Tainan and quelled this resistance by October 21, 1895. Initial fighting resulted in about 6,000 Taiwanese deaths, with another 14,000 dying in the first year of Japanese rule. An additional 12,000 "bandit-rebels" were killed between 1898 and 1902. Subsequent uprisings, including the Beipu uprising (1907), the Tapani incident (1915), and the Musha Incident (1930), though unsuccessful, demonstrated continued opposition to Japanese colonial rule.

The colonial period was instrumental in Taiwan's industrialization, featuring the expansion of railways and other transport networks, the construction of an extensive sanitation system, and the establishment of a formal education system. The practice of headhunting among indigenous groups was also largely brought to an end. Taiwan's resources were exploited to aid Japan's development. The production of cash crops like sugar increased significantly, diverting large areas from rice cultivation. By 1939, Taiwan was the seventh-largest sugar producer in the world.

Han Taiwanese and Indigenous populations were classified as second- and third-class citizens, respectively, with many prestigious government and business positions closed to them. After suppressing Han guerrillas in the first decade, Japanese authorities engaged in violent campaigns against Indigenous peoples in mountainous regions, culminating in the Musha Incident. Intellectuals and laborers involved in left-wing movements, such as Chiang Wei-shui and Masanosuke Watanabe, were also arrested or killed.

Around 1935, the Japanese initiated an island-wide assimilation project known as the Kōminka Undō (Japanization movement). Chinese-language newspapers and curricula were abolished, and Taiwanese music and theater were outlawed. A national Shinto religion was promoted, suppressing traditional Taiwanese beliefs. From 1940, families were required to adopt Japanese surnames, though only 2% had done so by 1943. By 1938, 309,000 Japanese resided in Taiwan.

During World War II, Taiwan was developed into a naval and air base, while its agriculture, industry, and commerce suffered. Air attacks and the invasion of the Philippines were launched from Taiwan. The Imperial Japanese Navy operated heavily from Taiwanese ports, and its "South Strike Group" think tank was based at Taihoku Imperial University. Military bases and industrial centers like Kaohsiung and Keelung became targets of heavy Allied bombings, destroying much of the infrastructure built by the Japanese. In October 1944, the Formosa Air Battle was fought between American carriers and Japanese forces. Over 200,000 Taiwanese served in the Japanese military, with over 30,000 casualties. Over 2,000 women, euphemistically called "comfort women", were forced into sexual slavery for Imperial Japanese troops. After Japan's surrender, most Japanese residents were expelled.

3.5. Republic of China rule (1945-present)

This period marks Taiwan's transition from Japanese colonial rule to governance by the Republic of China (ROC), encompassing the ROC's retreat from mainland China, a long era of martial law, and a subsequent, though challenging, path to multi-party democracy.

3.5.1. Post-World War II and retreat to Taiwan

While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China (ROC) was founded on mainland China on January 1, 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution. Central authority varied due to warlordism, Japanese invasion (1937-1945), and the Chinese Civil War (1927-1949), with the Kuomintang (KMT) exercising strongest control during the Nanjing decade (1927-1937). During World War II, the 1943 Cairo Declaration specified that Formosa and the Pescadores (Penghu) be returned to the ROC by Japan. These terms were reiterated in the 1945 Potsdam Declaration, which Japan agreed to in its instrument of surrender. On October 25, 1945, Japan surrendered Taiwan to the ROC. In the Treaty of San Francisco (1951), Japan formally renounced its claims to the islands, though without specifying to whom they were surrendered. The Treaty of Taipei (1952) between Japan and the ROC further addressed post-war arrangements. Interpretations vary on whether sovereignty was definitively transferred to the ROC, as Taiwan was initially placed under ROC control on behalf of the Allies.

The initial enthusiasm for the return of Chinese administration quickly soured among the local Taiwanese population (often referred to as benshengren, or "native province people"). They faced exclusion from higher positions, postponement of local elections despite the enactment of the ROC Constitution on the mainland, smuggling of valuables off the island, expropriation of businesses into government monopolies, and severe hyperinflation between 1945 and 1949. The corrupt and mismanaged administration under Governor-General Chen Yi exacerbated tensions.

The shooting of a civilian on February 28, 1947, by agents of the Tobacco Monopoly Bureau ignited island-wide protests and unrest, known as the February 28 Incident. The KMT government responded with a brutal military crackdown, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 18,000 to 30,000 people, many of whom were local elites, intellectuals, and activists. This event created a deep and lasting scar on Taiwanese society, fostering resentment against the KMT and becoming a pivotal moment in the development of a distinct Taiwanese identity and a catalyst for the later Taiwan independence movement. Chen Yi was later replaced by Wei Tao-ming, who attempted to mitigate some of the damage through more inclusive policies.

Meanwhile, the Chinese Civil War resumed on the mainland. A series of Communist offensives in 1949 led to the capture of the ROC capital, Nanjing, and the subsequent defeat of the KMT forces. On October 1, 1949, the Communist Party of China (CCP) established the People's Republic of China (PRC). On December 7, 1949, Chiang Kai-shek evacuated his KMT government, along with approximately 2 million people (mainly soldiers, KMT members, and elites, who became known as waishengren or "mainland province people"), to Taiwan, making Taipei the temporary capital of the ROC. The ROC government also brought many national treasures and much of China's gold and foreign currency reserves to Taiwan. This retreat solidified the political division of China and set the stage for decades of cross-strait confrontation. The ROC's effective jurisdiction was thereafter limited to Taiwan, Penghu, and smaller islands like Kinmen and Matsu.

3.5.2. Martial law era (1949-1987)

Following the retreat to Taiwan, the KMT government, under Chiang Kai-shek, imposed martial law in May 1949, which remained in effect for 38 years until 1987. This extended period was characterized by one-party rule and was justified by the ongoing state of war with the PRC and the perceived threat of communist infiltration. This era is also known as the White Terror, during which an estimated 140,000 people were imprisoned or executed for being perceived as anti-KMT or pro-communist. Many Taiwanese intellectuals, social elites, and suspected dissidents were arrested, tortured, imprisoned, or executed, decimating a generation of potential leaders and severely curtailing civil liberties, political rights, and freedom of speech. The KMT government maintained its claim as the sole legitimate government of all of China and focused on "retaking the mainland."

The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 led the United States to dispatch the United States Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent hostilities between the ROC and PRC, effectively placing Taiwan under American military protection. The US also provided substantial foreign aid and signed the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty (1954), which helped stabilize Taiwan's economy and security. The KMT government implemented land reforms (such as the "land to the tiller" program) and economic policies that spurred rapid industrialization and growth, known as the "Taiwan Miracle." This involved a shift from an agriculture-based economy to import substitution industrialization and later to export-oriented industrialization, focusing on textiles, electronics, and eventually high-tech manufacturing. Infrastructure projects like the Sun Yat-sen Freeway and Taoyuan International Airport were launched.

Despite economic success, political life was tightly controlled. The KMT's Dang Guo (party-state) system allowed no opposition parties, and elections were largely symbolic at the national level. Taiwanese Hokkien and other local languages were suppressed in public life and media in favor of Mandarin Chinese to promote a unified Chinese identity. The education system also emphasized pan-Chinese history and culture, often at the expense of local Taiwanese history and identity. The human rights situation was dire, with critics of the government facing severe repercussions. However, this period also saw the seeds of a democratic opposition movement, known as the Tangwai (literally "outside the party"), begin to take root, particularly among the benshengren population who felt marginalized by the waishengren-dominated KMT.

3.5.3. Democratic transition (1987-present)

The transition to democracy in Taiwan began in the late 1980s under President Chiang Ching-kuo, son of Chiang Kai-shek. Facing internal pressure from the burgeoning Tangwai movement and changing international dynamics, Chiang Ching-kuo initiated reforms. In 1986, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) was formed as the first opposition party, technically illegally at the time. Chiang Ching-kuo lifted martial law on the main island of Taiwan on July 15, 1987 (though it remained in place on Kinmen and Matsu until 1992), a landmark decision that paved the way for broader political liberalization.

After Chiang Ching-kuo's death in 1988, Vice President Lee Teng-hui, a benshengren, became president. Lee accelerated democratic reforms. Key developments included:

• The abolition of the Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion in 1991, which had granted the president extensive emergency powers.
• The introduction of the Additional Articles of the Constitution, which effectively adapted the 1947 ROC Constitution (originally designed for all of China) to the reality of ROC governance limited to the Taiwan Area.
• Full, multi-party elections for the Legislative Yuan and the National Assembly (which was later abolished in 2005).
• The first direct presidential election in 1996, which Lee Teng-hui won. This election was notable for the PRC's attempt to intimidate voters through missile tests in the Taiwan Strait, an event known as the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis, which inadvertently bolstered support for Lee.

Lee Teng-hui's administration also saw a process of Taiwanization or bentuhua, promoting Taiwanese culture, history, and identity, and replacing assimilationist policies with support for multiculturalism. This included lifting restrictions on local languages in media and education. However, Lee's era was also marked by "black gold" politics, referring to corruption and the influence of organized crime in politics.

In the 2000 presidential election, Chen Shui-bian of the DPP won, marking the first peaceful transfer of power to an opposition party and ending over five decades of KMT rule. Chen's presidency (2000-2008) focused on asserting Taiwan's distinct identity, promoting terms like "One Country on Each Side" and pushing for referendums on issues like UN membership. State-run companies began dropping "China" from their names. However, his administration faced legislative gridlock due to a KMT-led Pan-Blue Coalition majority in the Legislative Yuan and was later marred by corruption scandals.

Ma Ying-jeou of the KMT won the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections, advocating for closer economic ties with the PRC under the "1992 Consensus" and a policy of "mutual non-denial." This period saw the opening of direct flights and cargo shipments with mainland China and an increase in cross-strait exchanges. However, concerns about growing economic dependence on the PRC and potential political consequences led to public backlash, notably the Sunflower Student Movement in 2014, where students occupied the Legislative Yuan to block a trade agreement with China. This movement spurred youth activism and the rise of new political parties.

In the 2016 presidential election, Tsai Ing-wen of the DPP became Taiwan's first female president, and the DPP won a legislative majority for the first time. Tsai's administration has emphasized Taiwan's sovereignty, democratic values, and human rights, while navigating complex cross-strait relations and increasing pressure from the PRC. She was re-elected in the 2020 election. Key social justice achievements during her tenure include the legalization of same-sex marriage in 2019, making Taiwan the first in Asia to do so.

In January 2024, Lai Ching-te of the DPP won the presidential election, marking an unprecedented third consecutive presidential term for the party. However, no party secured a majority in the simultaneous legislative election, leading to a divided government.

Ongoing challenges for Taiwan include managing relations with the PRC, which continues to claim sovereignty over the island and has increased military and diplomatic pressure; addressing evolving questions of national identity; promoting social justice and economic equity; and further consolidating its democratic institutions against external and internal pressures.

4.1. Topography

The main island of Taiwan is a tilted fault block, characterized by a striking contrast between its eastern and western regions. The eastern two-thirds of the island are dominated by five rugged mountain ranges that run parallel to the east coast. These ranges include the Central Mountain Range, the Xueshan Range, the Yushan Range, the Alishan Range, and the Coastal Mountain Range. This mountainous terrain contains several peaks exceeding 11 K ft ^{(3.50 K m)} in elevation. The highest point is Yu Shan (Jade Mountain) at 13 K ft ^{(3.95 K m)}, making Taiwan the world's fourth-highest island.

In contrast, the western third of the island consists of flat to gently rolling plains, which are fertile and densely populated. This is where the majority of Taiwan's agricultural activity and urban centers are located. The coastal features vary, with sandy beaches, rocky shores, and lagoons. The Penghu Islands are primarily flat, composed of basalt, while Kinmen and Matsu are hilly, granitic islands.

4.2. Climate

Taiwan lies on the Tropic of Cancer, giving it a general marine tropical climate. The northern and central regions experience a subtropical climate, while the south is tropical. The mountainous regions have a more temperate climate due to altitude.

The average annual rainfall for the main island is approximately 0.1 K in ^{(2.60 K mm)}. The East Asian rainy season, often called the "plum rain" season, occurs in May and June, coinciding with the onset of the summer East Asian Monsoon. The entire island experiences hot and humid weather from June through September.

Taiwan is frequently affected by typhoons, particularly between July and September. These storms can bring strong winds, heavy rainfall, and cause significant disruption and damage. During the winter months, from November to March, the northeastern part of Taiwan experiences steady rain due to the northeast monsoon, while the central and southern parts of the island are generally sunnier and drier.

Climate change is impacting Taiwan. The average temperature has risen by approximately 2.5 °F ^{(1.4 °C)} over the last 100 years, which is twice the global average temperature increase. The Taiwanese government has set goals to reduce carbon emissions by 20% by 2030 and 50% by 2050, compared to 2005 levels. However, carbon emissions increased by 0.92% between 2005 and 2016.

4.3. Geology

The island of Taiwan is situated in a complex tectonic area, at the convergent boundary between the Yangtze Plate (part of the Eurasian Plate) to the west and north, the Okinawa Plate to the northeast, and the Philippine Sea Plate to the east and south. The island itself is primarily a product of the ongoing collision between the Luzon Volcanic Arc (on the Philippine Sea Plate) and the continental margin of the Eurasian Plate. This collision began about 4 to 5 million years ago and continues to shape the island's landscape.

The upper crust of Taiwan is largely composed of a series of terranes-fragments of crustal material, mostly old island arcs-that have been accreted and forced together by this tectonic collision. These geological structures have been further uplifted due to the detachment of a portion of the Eurasian Plate as it was subducted beneath remnants of the Philippine Sea Plate. This process has made the crust under Taiwan more buoyant, contributing to its mountainous topography.

The major seismic faults in Taiwan, such as the Chelungpu Fault, correspond to the various suture zones between these accreted terranes. The active tectonic setting means that Taiwan experiences frequent earthquakes. A notable example is the 1999 Jiji earthquake (also known as the Chi-Chi earthquake), a magnitude 7.3 quake that caused over 2,400 fatalities and widespread damage. The seismic hazard map for Taiwan produced by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) indicates that nine-tenths of the island is at the highest hazard rating.

In addition to seismic activity, Taiwan's geology includes numerous active submarine volcanoes in the Taiwan Strait and near its northeastern coast. The island also possesses geothermal resources, a result of its volcanic and tectonic activity.

4.4. Ecology and environment

Taiwan boasts rich biodiversity and diverse ecosystems, a result of its varied topography, climate, and geographical location at the junction of several biogeographical regions. The island is home to four main terrestrial ecoregions: the Jian Nan subtropical evergreen forests, South China Sea Islands (covering ROC-controlled islands like Pratas and Taiping), South Taiwan monsoon rain forests, and Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests.

The eastern mountains are heavily forested and support a wide array of wildlife, including many endemic species. Notable endemic fauna include the Formosan black bear (Taiwan's national animal), the Formosan sika deer, the Formosan landlocked salmon (a freshwater salmonid), and numerous bird species like the Taiwan blue magpie (national bird) and Mikado pheasant. The island's isolation has fostered a high degree of endemism.

To protect its natural heritage, Taiwan has established numerous national parks and protected areas. These include Kenting National Park (known for its coral reefs and tropical forests), Yushan National Park (home to Taiwan's highest peak), Taroko National Park (famous for its marble gorges), and Yangmingshan National Park (known for its volcanic landscapes and hot springs). These areas are crucial for conservation efforts, biodiversity research, and ecotourism.

Despite conservation efforts, Taiwan faces significant environmental challenges. Rapid industrialization and urbanization, particularly in the western plains, have led to issues such as air pollution, water pollution, and habitat loss. Waste management and the impacts of climate change, including rising sea levels and increased frequency of extreme weather events like typhoons, are also pressing concerns. The Taiwanese government and various NGOs are actively involved in addressing these environmental issues through policy-making, research, and public awareness campaigns, aiming to balance economic development with environmental sustainability. Taiwan had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.38/10, ranking it 76th globally out of 172 countries.

5.1. Government

The government of the Republic of China is unique in its structure, based on a five-branch system (Yuan) as outlined in the Constitution:

1. **Executive Yuan**: This is the executive branch, equivalent to the cabinet. It is headed by the Premier (officially the President of the Executive Yuan), who is appointed by the President without requiring legislative approval. The Executive Yuan is responsible for proposing legislation, budgets, and implementing laws and policies.
2. **Legislative Yuan**: This is the unicameral parliament and the main law-making body. It consists of 113 members elected for four-year terms through a mixed-member majoritarian system (single-member districts, party-list proportional representation, and aboriginal reserved seats). The Legislative Yuan reviews and passes legislation, approves the budget, and can interpellate government officials.
3. **Judicial Yuan**: This is the judicial branch, responsible for interpreting the Constitution and laws, and adjudicating civil, criminal, and administrative cases. It oversees all levels of courts, including the Supreme Court, high courts, and district courts. The Judicial Yuan also includes the Constitutional Court (formerly the Council of Grand Justices), which handles constitutional interpretations and disputes.
4. **Control Yuan**: This is an investigatory and auditory agency responsible for impeaching, censuring, and auditing government officials and agencies. It acts as a watchdog to ensure government accountability and prevent corruption. It is also responsible for the National Human Rights Commission.
5. **Examination Yuan**: This branch is responsible for the civil service system, including the recruitment, examination, qualification screening, training, and pension management of public officials. Its origins lie in the imperial examination system of dynastic China. There have been calls for its reform or abolition in recent years.

The President is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The President is directly elected by popular vote for a four-year term and can serve a maximum of two terms. The President appoints the Premier, has the power to issue emergency decrees, and represents the country in foreign relations. While the Premier is the head of government, the President holds significant executive powers, particularly in defense, foreign affairs, and cross-strait policy, reflecting a historical legacy of strong presidential leadership.

5.2. Constitution

The Constitution of the Republic of China was adopted on December 25, 1947, while the ROC government was still on mainland China, and officially came into effect on December 25, 1947. It was drafted by the Kuomintang (KMT) and based on Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People.

After the ROC government relocated to Taiwan in 1949, the constitution remained in effect, but its provisions designed for governing all of China became increasingly disconnected from the reality of ROC jurisdiction limited to the Taiwan Area. During the martial law era (1949-1987), many constitutional rights and democratic processes were suspended under the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion.

Beginning in the late 1980s and accelerating in the 1990s, Taiwan underwent a significant democratic transition. This led to a series of constitutional amendments known as the Additional Articles of the Constitution. These amendments, enacted between 1991 and 2005, have fundamentally reshaped the ROC's governmental structure and political system to suit Taiwan's current context. Key changes introduced by the Additional Articles include:

• Direct election of the President and Vice President.
• Reforms to the Legislative Yuan, including changes in its composition and election methods.
• Abolition of the National Assembly as a standing body, with its powers (like constitutional amendment and presidential recall) transferred to the Legislative Yuan and the electorate through referendums.
• Streamlining of provincial government functions, effectively making Taiwan Province and Fujian Province nominal entities.
• Explicit protection of fundamental human rights and provisions for national security.

The Additional Articles have enabled the ROC Constitution to function as the basis for a multi-party democracy in Taiwan. However, the constitution's original territorial claims over mainland China remain a sensitive issue, though mainstream political discourse in Taiwan has largely shifted to focus on the ROC's effective jurisdiction over the Taiwan Area. Debates about further constitutional reform, including those related to national identity and governmental structure, continue to be part of Taiwan's political discourse. The Constitutional Court plays a crucial role in interpreting the constitution and resolving disputes related to its application.

5.3. Major political parties and camps

Taiwan's political landscape is predominantly characterized by a two-major-party system, although several smaller parties also exist and occasionally play influential roles. The political spectrum is largely defined by differing stances on national identity and cross-strait relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC). This has led to the formation of two main political camps:

1. **Pan-Green Coalition**:

• Leading Party**: Democratic Progressive Party (DPP; 民主進步黨_{Mínzhǔ Jìnbù Dǎng}^Chinese).
• Core Ideology**: Generally emphasizes Taiwanese identity, sovereignty, and self-determination. Many members and supporters advocate for Taiwan as a distinct nation separate from China. While the DPP's official platform has evolved, it typically leans towards maintaining Taiwan's de facto independence and is wary of closer ties with the PRC that could compromise Taiwan's autonomy. The coalition also includes smaller parties like the Taiwan Statebuilding Party (TSP) and the Green Party Taiwan.
• Policy Differences**: Tends to favor strengthening international recognition of Taiwan, enhancing national defense, and promoting a Taiwanese cultural identity. On social issues, the DPP is generally considered more progressive, for example, supporting LGBT rights and environmental protection.

2. **Pan-Blue Coalition**:

• Leading Party**: Kuomintang (KMT; 中國國民黨_{Zhōngguó Guómíndǎng}^Chinese).
• Core Ideology**: Historically, the KMT advocated for the ROC as the sole legitimate government of all of China and eventual unification under the ROC. In contemporary Taiwan, its stance has moderated. The KMT generally supports closer ties with the PRC, based on the "1992 Consensus" (interpreted by the KMT as "One China, respective interpretations"), and emphasizes shared cultural and historical links with mainland China. It typically favors maintaining the status quo in cross-strait relations while opposing formal Taiwanese independence. The coalition also includes smaller parties like the People First Party (PFP) and the New Party.
• Policy Differences**: Tends to prioritize economic cooperation with the PRC and stability in cross-strait relations. On national identity, it often promotes a Chinese identity alongside a Taiwanese one. Socially, the KMT is generally considered more conservative than the DPP.

Beyond these two major camps, other parties like the Taiwan People's Party (TPP), founded by former Taipei Mayor Ko Wen-je, have emerged, often positioning themselves as a third force focusing on pragmatic governance and transcending the traditional Blue-Green divide.

Key policy differences between the camps revolve around:

• National Identity**: Whether Taiwan should primarily identify as "Taiwanese," "Chinese," or "Chinese in Taiwan."
• Cross-Strait Relations**: The nature of engagement with the PRC, including economic ties, political dialogue, and the interpretation of the "1992 Consensus."
• Defense Policy**: Approaches to national security and military preparedness in the face of potential threats from the PRC.
• Economic Policy**: Strategies for economic development, including trade agreements, industrial policy, and social welfare.
• Social Issues**: Stances on topics such as energy policy (especially nuclear power), environmental protection, labor rights, and social reforms.

Elections in Taiwan are highly competitive, and shifts in public opinion can lead to changes in government control, reflecting a dynamic and evolving democratic process.

5.4. National identity and public opinion

National identity in Taiwan is a complex and evolving issue, deeply intertwined with the island's history, political status, and relationship with mainland China. Public opinion on this matter is a significant factor in Taiwanese politics and society.

The primary distinction in national identity revolves around identifying as "Taiwanese," "Chinese," or "both Taiwanese and Chinese."

• Taiwanese Identity**: This identity emphasizes the distinct history, culture, and experiences of the people living in Taiwan. It often highlights Taiwan's democratic achievements, Austronesian heritage, and unique development separate from mainland China, particularly after 1949. Support for a primarily Taiwanese identity has grown significantly since the democratization of the 1990s.
• Chinese Identity**: This identity emphasizes shared cultural, linguistic, and historical roots with mainland China. It often aligns with the ROC's constitutional framework as the legitimate government of China, or a broader sense of belonging to a Chinese civilization. This identity was more dominant during the martial law era under the KMT but has seen a decline in recent decades.
• Both Taiwanese and Chinese**: Many people in Taiwan identify with both aspects, acknowledging their Chinese cultural heritage while also embracing their distinct Taiwanese experience and political reality.

Surveys consistently show a strong trend towards a Taiwanese identity. For example, long-term polling by National Chengchi University indicates that the percentage of people identifying solely as Taiwanese has risen from 17.6% in 1992 to 63.3% in June 2021. Conversely, those identifying solely as Chinese dropped from 25.5% to 2.6% in the same period, while those identifying as both Taiwanese and Chinese also saw a reduction from 46.4% to 31.4%.

Public opinion regarding Taiwan's political status is also multifaceted:

• Status Quo**: A significant portion of the population prefers maintaining the current status quo - de facto independence without a formal declaration that could provoke conflict with the PRC. This can mean maintaining the ROC constitutional framework while operating as a sovereign entity.
• Independence**: Support for formal Taiwan independence, establishing a Republic of Taiwan distinct from the ROC, has grown, particularly among younger generations. This view often aligns with a strong Taiwanese identity.
• Unification**: Support for unification with mainland China, under either the ROC or PRC framework, is a minority view, though it exists within certain segments of the population.

The PRC's "One-China principle" and its military threats significantly influence public opinion, often reinforcing a desire for self-determination and a distinct Taiwanese identity. Domestic political discourse, education, and cultural expressions also play crucial roles in shaping these evolving identities. The complexities of national identity are central to Taiwan's ongoing efforts to define its place in the world and its future relationship with mainland China.

5.5. Human rights

Taiwan has made significant strides in human rights, particularly since its democratic transition in the late 1980s, and is now considered one of the most progressive societies in Asia regarding civil liberties and political freedoms. However, its human rights record also reflects a history of authoritarian rule and ongoing challenges.

• Progress and Protections**:
  • Civil Liberties**: The Constitution of the Republic of China, particularly its Additional Articles, guarantees fundamental rights such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of religion. Taiwan consistently ranks highly in global freedom indices.
  • Political Rights**: Taiwan has a vibrant multi-party democracy with regular, free, and fair elections for the presidency and legislature. Citizens have the right to form political parties and participate in political activities.
  • Rule of Law**: An independent judiciary, including a Constitutional Court, upholds the rule of law and protects constitutional rights.
  • Transitional Justice**: Efforts have been made to address past human rights abuses committed during the martial law era (White Terror), including apologies, compensation for victims, and the establishment of institutions like the National Human Rights Commission (established under the Control Yuan) and the Transitional Justice Commission. This includes investigations into events like the February 28 Incident.
  • LGBT Rights**:

• Challenges and Concerns**:
  • Indigenous Rights**: While there has been increased attention to the rights of Taiwanese indigenous peoples, issues such as land rights, cultural preservation, and socio-economic disparities persist. President Tsai Ing-wen issued a formal apology to indigenous peoples in 2016.
  • Migrant Workers' Rights**: The rights and working conditions of migrant workers, primarily from Southeast Asia, have been a concern, with reports of exploitation and inadequate protections.
  • Death Penalty**: Taiwan retains the death penalty, although its use has become less frequent and there is ongoing public and political debate about its abolition.
  • Freedom of Speech and Disinformation**: While freedom of speech is robust, challenges related to disinformation campaigns, often linked to external actors, and their impact on democratic processes are a growing concern.
  • Historical Injustices**: Fully addressing the legacy of the White Terror and ensuring accountability for past abuses remains an ongoing process.

  Overall, Taiwan's commitment to democratic values has fostered a strong human rights environment. The society is generally open and tolerant, and civil society organizations play an active role in advocating for further human rights protections and reforms.

6.1. Major cities and counties

The Republic of China's administrative structure is centered on its effectively controlled territories. The six special municipalities (Taipei, New Taipei, Taoyuan, Taichung, Tainan, and Kaohsiung) are the most populous and economically significant divisions, functioning at a level comparable to provinces. Taiwan Province nominally includes several counties and provincial cities, though its governmental functions have been largely transferred to the central government. Similarly, Fujian Province (ROC) consists of Kinmen and Lienchiang (Matsu) counties, located off the coast of mainland China, and its provincial government is also nominal. Major counties, such as Changhua and Pingtung, play crucial roles in agriculture and regional development, while cities like Hsinchu (both the provincial city and the county) are vital for Taiwan's technology industry. Keelung serves as an important northern port, and Chiayi City is a regional center in the southwest.

Major Cities and Counties by Population (Estimates as of March 2019)

Rank	Name	Division Type	Population	Image	Caption
1	New Taipei	Special Municipality	4,000,164		Fu Jen Catholic University Hospital in New Taipei City.
2	Taichung	Special Municipality	2,809,004		Skyline of Taichung City.
3	Kaohsiung	Special Municipality	2,773,229		Skyline of Kaohsiung City.
4	Taipei	Special Municipality	2,661,317		Skyline of Taipei City, the capital.
5	Taoyuan	Special Municipality	2,230,653		Taoyuan City is a major industrial hub and location of Taiwan's primary international airport.
6	Tainan	Special Municipality	1,883,078		Tainan City, known for its rich history and cultural heritage.
7	Changhua County	County	1,277,824		Changhua County is known for its agriculture and traditional industries.
8	Pingtung County	County	825,426		Pingtung County, located at the southern tip of Taiwan, famous for Kenting National Park.
9	Yunlin County	County	686,039		Yunlin County is a significant agricultural region in western Taiwan.
10	Hsinchu County	County	560,203		Hsinchu County, adjacent to Hsinchu City, part of Taiwan's technology corridor.

7.1. Political status

The political status of Taiwan is a highly contentious issue. The People's Republic of China (PRC) claims Taiwan as its 23rd province and asserts that it is the sole legitimate government of China, a position known as the "One-China principle". The PRC refuses diplomatic relations with any country that officially recognizes the ROC. Conversely, the Republic of China (ROC) government, which currently administers Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu, maintains its own constitution and democratically elected government. While historically the ROC also claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of China, contemporary discourse in Taiwan largely focuses on maintaining its de facto independence and sovereignty over the territories it controls.

Most countries in the world, including major powers like the United States, officially adhere to a "One-China policy," which acknowledges the PRC's position but often allows for unofficial relations with Taiwan. The precise interpretation of this policy varies among countries. For instance, the United States acknowledges the PRC's position that Taiwan is part of China but does not explicitly endorse this claim, and through the Taiwan Relations Act, maintains robust unofficial relations and commitments to Taiwan's defense.

This contested status results in significant challenges for Taiwan's international participation, often limiting its membership in international organizations and requiring it to participate under names like "Chinese Taipei". The ambiguity and tension surrounding Taiwan's political status are central to cross-strait relations and a key factor in East Asian geopolitics. Public opinion in Taiwan largely favors maintaining the status quo, though views on eventual independence or unification vary.

7.2. Relations with the People's Republic of China

Relations between the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan and the People's Republic of China (PRC) are multifaceted and fraught with tension, rooted in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War and the ensuing political division. The PRC views Taiwan as a renegade province that must eventually be unified with the mainland, by force if necessary, under its "One-China principle". The ROC, while historically claiming sovereignty over all of China, now largely emphasizes its de facto independence and democratic system.

Key aspects of cross-strait relations include:

• Political and Sovereignty Disputes**: The core issue is the unresolved sovereignty dispute. The PRC's insistence on "one country, two systems" as a model for unification is rejected by mainstream political parties and the public in Taiwan, who value their democratic freedoms and self-governance.
• Economic Interdependence**: Despite political tensions, economic ties have grown significantly since the late 1980s. Taiwan has substantial investments in the PRC, and mainland China is a major trading partner for Taiwan. This economic interdependence creates both opportunities for cooperation and concerns in Taiwan about over-reliance and potential PRC leverage.
• Military Posturing and Security Concerns**: The PRC maintains a significant military presence opposite Taiwan and has not renounced the use of force to achieve unification. This includes regular military exercises, air and naval patrols near Taiwan, and a build-up of missile capabilities. Taiwan, in response, focuses on its self-defense capabilities, often with military support and arms sales from the United States.
• Dialogue Mechanisms and Consensus**: Efforts at dialogue have been sporadic. The "1992 Consensus" (interpreted differently by the KMT and PRC, and not accepted by the DPP) has been a basis for past talks. Official channels like Taiwan's Mainland Affairs Council (MAC) and the PRC's Taiwan Affairs Office (TAO), along with semi-official bodies like the Straits Exchange Foundation (SEF) and the Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits (ARATS), facilitate limited communication.
• Social and Cultural Exchanges**: People-to-people exchanges, including tourism, academic collaboration, and cultural activities, have occurred, though they are often influenced by the political climate.
• International Arena**: The PRC actively works to isolate Taiwan internationally, pressuring countries and organizations to adhere to its "One-China principle."

The overarching goal for many in the international community is the peaceful resolution of cross-strait differences, avoiding conflict that could destabilize the region. Taiwan's democratic development and distinct identity are increasingly seen as crucial factors in the complex dynamics of these relations.

7.3. Participation in international organizations

Taiwan's participation in international organizations is significantly constrained by the political pressure exerted by the People's Republic of China (PRC) under its "One-China principle". Despite these challenges, the Republic of China (ROC) actively seeks to engage with the global community and contribute to international affairs.

• United Nations (UN)**: The ROC was a founding member of the UN and held China's seat, including a permanent seat on the Security Council, until 1971. UN General Assembly Resolution 2758 recognized the PRC as the sole legitimate representative of China in the UN, leading to the ROC's expulsion. Since then, Taiwan's bids to rejoin the UN or participate as an observer have been consistently blocked by the PRC.
• World Health Organization (WHO)**: Taiwan participated as an observer in the World Health Assembly (WHA), the WHO's decision-making body, under the name "Chinese Taipei" from 2009 to 2016. However, due to PRC pressure, it has been excluded since 2017, a situation that drew increased international attention during the COVID-19 pandemic due to Taiwan's successful early response.
• World Trade Organization (WTO)**: Taiwan is a full member of the WTO, having joined in 2002 under the name "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei)". This membership allows Taiwan to participate in global trade negotiations and dispute settlement mechanisms.
• Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)**: Taiwan is a member economy of APEC, participating under the name "Chinese Taipei" since 1991. APEC provides an important platform for Taiwan to engage with regional economic leaders.
• Olympic Games and Other Sporting Events**: Taiwanese athletes compete in the Olympic Games and other international sporting events as "Chinese Taipei," using a specially designed flag and anthem, as per the Nagoya Resolution agreed with the International Olympic Committee in 1979.
• Other Organizations**: Taiwan participates in various other international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) and some intergovernmental organizations where PRC membership is not a barrier or where specific arrangements can be made. It is a member of the Asian Development Bank under the name "Taipei,China".

Taiwan often emphasizes its willingness to contribute to global challenges such as public health, humanitarian aid, and disaster relief, seeking to demonstrate its value as a responsible member of the international community despite its limited formal diplomatic recognition. The effort to expand its international space remains a key objective of Taiwan's foreign policy.

7.4. Relations with other states

Beyond its complex relationship with the People's Republic of China and its limited official diplomatic allies, the Republic of China (Taiwan) maintains substantive unofficial relations with a wide array of countries worldwide, particularly major democratic and industrialized nations. These relationships are crucial for Taiwan's economic prosperity, security, and international engagement.

• Official Diplomatic Allies**: As of early 2024, Taiwan maintains formal diplomatic relations with 11 UN member states and the Holy See. These are primarily smaller nations in Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, along with Eswatini in Africa. These alliances provide Taiwan with formal recognition on the international stage, though their number has dwindled due to diplomatic pressure and incentives from the PRC.

• Unofficial Relations with Major Powers**:
  • United States**: Relations with the United States are the cornerstone of Taiwan's foreign policy. While the U.S. switched diplomatic recognition from the ROC to the PRC in 1979, it maintains robust unofficial ties through the American Institute in Taiwan (AIT). The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) of 1979 obligates the U.S. to provide Taiwan with defensive arms and affirms the U.S. commitment to Taiwan's security. Cooperation spans political, economic, security, and cultural domains. High-level visits and interactions, though unofficial, occur regularly.
  • Japan**: Relations with Japan are also strong, characterized by close economic ties, cultural exchange, and shared democratic values. Japan, like the U.S., switched recognition to the PRC (in 1972) but maintains substantive relations through the Japan-Taiwan Exchange Association. There is significant public goodwill between the two, and cooperation on regional security issues has increased.
  • European Union and European Nations**: Taiwan has significant economic and cultural ties with many European countries and the EU. Representative offices facilitate these interactions. Several European nations have expressed support for Taiwan's participation in international organizations and concern over cross-strait stability.
  • Other Democratic Nations**: Taiwan actively cultivates relationships with other democracies, such as Australia, Canada, and India, focusing on shared values, economic partnerships, and cooperation on global issues.
  • Mechanisms for Unofficial Relations**: Due to the PRC's "One-China principle," most countries interact with Taiwan through Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Offices (TECROs) or similar institutions, which function as de facto embassies and consulates. These offices handle visa services, trade promotion, cultural exchange, and political dialogue.
  • New Southbound Policy**: Initiated in 2016, this policy aims to strengthen Taiwan's ties with countries in Southeast Asia, South Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, diversifying its economic and political partnerships beyond mainland China.

  Taiwan's foreign relations are characterized by a pragmatic approach, leveraging its economic strength, democratic credentials, and "soft power" to navigate its challenging international environment and secure its interests.

9.1. Economic history and development

After World War II, Taiwan's economy was predominantly agricultural. The ROC government, after relocating to Taiwan in 1949, implemented crucial land reforms, including the "land to the tiller" program, which redistributed land to farmers and boosted agricultural productivity. This agricultural surplus provided capital for early industrialization.

During the 1950s and 1960s, Taiwan pursued an import substitution industrialization strategy, developing domestic industries to produce goods that were previously imported. American aid during this period also played a vital role in stabilizing the economy and funding infrastructure projects.

From the 1960s onwards, Taiwan shifted towards an export-oriented industrialization strategy. Key government policies, including tax rebates for exports, the establishment of export processing zones, and a focus on light industries (such as textiles and plastics) and later heavy industries (petrochemicals, steel, shipbuilding), fueled rapid economic growth. This period, lasting through the 1980s, constituted the "Taiwan Miracle," with average annual GDP growth often exceeding 10%. Taiwan, along with Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea, became known as one of the Four Asian Tigers.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the economy began to transition towards technology-intensive industries. The government actively promoted the development of the electronics and information technology sectors, leading to the rise of globally competitive companies. Privatization of some large government-owned banks and industrial firms also occurred.

Cross-strait economic ties with mainland China began to develop extensively from the early 1990s. By 2002, China had surpassed the United States to become Taiwan's largest export market. While these ties brought economic benefits, they also raised concerns about economic dependence. Taiwan's total trade in 2022 reached 907.00 B USD, with exports at 479.52 B USD and imports at 427.60 B USD. China, the United States, and Japan remain its top three trading partners.

9.2. Major industries

Taiwan's economy is characterized by a strong and diversified industrial base, with a particular global prominence in high-technology manufacturing.

• Semiconductor Industry**: This is arguably Taiwan's most critical and world-leading sector.
  • Foundries**: Taiwan dominates the global semiconductor foundry market. TSMC (Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company) is the world's largest dedicated independent semiconductor foundry, producing advanced chips for major global tech companies. United Microelectronics Corporation (UMC) is another significant player.
  • IC Design and Packaging**: Taiwan also has a strong ecosystem for IC (Integrated Circuit) design, testing, and packaging.

  The social impact includes high-skilled job creation and significant contribution to GDP, but also concerns about "brain drain" to mainland China. Environmentally, semiconductor manufacturing is water and energy-intensive, posing challenges for sustainability.

  • Electronics Manufacturing and ICT**: Beyond semiconductors, Taiwan is a major hub for the manufacturing of a wide range of electronic components and finished products.
    • ODM/OEM: Companies like Foxconn (Hon Hai Precision Industry) are the world's largest contract electronics manufacturers, assembling products for global brands like Apple. Other major firms include Pegatron and Quanta Computer.
    • Branded Products: Taiwanese brands like Acer (computers), ASUS (computers and components), and HTC (formerly mobile phones, now focusing on VR) have a global presence.
    • Components: Production of motherboards, LCD panels (by companies like AU Optronics and Innolux), memory modules, and other computer peripherals is substantial.

    This sector is vital for global electronics supply chains. Social impacts include large-scale employment, while environmental concerns relate to e-waste and manufacturing processes.

    • Machinery**: Taiwan produces a diverse range of industrial machinery, machine tools, and precision equipment, exporting to global markets. This sector supports various other manufacturing industries.
    • Petrochemicals**: The petrochemical industry is a significant part of Taiwan's economy, with companies like Formosa Plastics Group being major global players. This sector produces raw materials for plastics, synthetic fibers, and other chemical products. Environmental concerns regarding pollution and safety are prominent in this industry.
    • Other Industries**:
      • Steel and Metals**: Taiwan has a notable steel industry.
      • Textiles**: Once a dominant industry, textiles remain important, though increasingly focused on specialized and high-value products.
      • Automotive Components**: Taiwan is a significant supplier of automotive parts and components.
      • Bicycles**: High-end bicycle manufacturing, with brands like Giant and Merida, is globally recognized.

      The social impact of these industries includes providing widespread employment and contributing to a high standard of living. However, there are ongoing discussions about labor conditions, wage stagnation in some sectors, and the environmental footprint of manufacturing activities. Government policies aim to upgrade these industries towards higher value-added production and greater environmental sustainability.

9.3. Science and technology

Taiwan has established itself as a global leader in science and technology, particularly in the fields of information and communication technology (ICT) and semiconductor manufacturing. This achievement is the result of strategic government policies, investment in research and development (R&D), a skilled workforce, and a dynamic private sector.

• Research and Development (R&D)**: Taiwan invests significantly in R&D, both through government initiatives and private sector spending. Government research institutions like the Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) and Academia Sinica play a crucial role in pioneering new technologies and transferring them to the industry.
• Science Parks**: The establishment of science parks has been a key strategy for fostering high-tech clusters.
  • Hsinchu Science Park**: Established in 1980, it is one of the world's most successful science parks and a major hub for semiconductor and ICT industries, home to giants like TSMC and UMC.
  • Southern Taiwan Science Park** (Tainan and Kaohsiung) and **Central Taiwan Science Park** (Taichung) have further expanded Taiwan's high-tech manufacturing and R&D capabilities, often focusing on optoelectronics, precision machinery, and biotechnology.
• Semiconductor Dominance**: As detailed previously, Taiwan's semiconductor industry is a world leader, critical to global electronics supply chains.
• Information and Communication Technology (ICT)**: Taiwan is a major producer of computers, peripherals, mobile devices, and networking equipment. Companies like Acer, ASUS, Foxconn, and HTC are globally recognized.
• Optoelectronics**: Taiwan is a significant player in the production of LCD panels, LED lighting, and other optoelectronic components.
• Biotechnology**: The government has identified biotechnology as a strategic industry for future growth, investing in R&D for new drugs, medical devices, and agricultural biotech.
• Green Energy and Sustainability Tech**: With growing concerns about climate change and energy security, Taiwan is increasing its focus on renewable energy technologies (such as solar and wind power) and sustainable solutions.
• Innovation Ecosystem**: Taiwan has a vibrant startup culture and a supportive ecosystem for innovation, including venture capital, incubators, and university-industry collaboration programs.

• Societal Implications of Technological Progress**:
  • Economic Growth**: Technological advancements have been a primary driver of Taiwan's economic prosperity and high standard of living.
  • Skilled Workforce**: The demand for skilled engineers, researchers, and technicians has led to a strong emphasis on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education.
  • Global Interconnectedness**: Taiwan's role in global tech supply chains makes its economy highly interconnected with international markets and technological trends.
  • Challenges**: Issues such as talent retention ("brain drain"), intellectual property protection, and the environmental impact of high-tech manufacturing are ongoing concerns. There is also a societal debate about ensuring that the benefits of technological progress are equitably shared.

  Taiwan's continued success in science and technology will depend on its ability to foster innovation, adapt to new technological paradigms, and address the associated societal and environmental challenges.

9.4. Tourism

Tourism is a significant and growing sector of Taiwan's economy, contributing to foreign exchange earnings, employment, and cultural exchange. The island offers a diverse range of attractions, from bustling modern cities and rich cultural heritage to stunning natural landscapes.

• Major Attractions**:
  • Natural Attractions**:
    • Taroko National Park: Famous for its spectacular marble gorges.
    • Sun Moon Lake: Taiwan's largest lake, known for its scenic beauty and indigenous Thao culture.
    • Alishan: Popular for its mountain scenery, tea plantations, sunrises, and "sea of clouds."
    • Kenting National Park: Located at the southern tip, offering beaches, coral reefs, and tropical landscapes.
    • Yushan National Park: Home to Yu Shan, Northeast Asia's highest peak.
    • Outlying islands like Penghu (beaches, traditional architecture), Green Island (diving, hot springs), and Orchid Island (Yami indigenous culture).
  • Cultural and Historical Attractions**:
    • National Palace Museum (Taipei): Houses an extensive collection of Chinese imperial art and artifacts.
    • Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall and Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall (Taipei): Iconic landmarks.
    • Historic towns like Jiufen and Lukang.
    • Numerous temples, including Lungshan Temple of Manka (Taipei) and Fo Guang Shan Monastery (Kaohsiung).
  • Urban Attractions**:
    • Taipei 101: Formerly the world's tallest building, offering panoramic city views.
    • Vibrant night markets (e.g., Shilin, Raohe in Taipei; Feng Chia in Taichung): Famous for street food and shopping.
    • Modern shopping districts, museums, and performing arts venues in major cities.
    • Trends in Tourism**:
      • Taiwan has seen a significant increase in international tourists, particularly from neighboring Asian countries (Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Southeast Asia). Mainland Chinese tourists were a major source market, though numbers fluctuate with cross-strait relations.
      • Domestic tourism is also very active.
      • Special interest tourism, such as cycling tours, hot spring tourism, ecotourism, and culinary tourism, is growing.
      • Government Promotion Efforts**:
        • The Taiwan Tourism Administration (formerly Tourism Bureau) actively promotes Taiwan internationally through marketing campaigns, participation in travel fairs, and by improving tourism infrastructure and services.
        • Visa-waiver programs for citizens of many countries have been implemented to facilitate easier travel.
        • Efforts are made to improve multilingual signage and information for international visitors.
        • Economic and Cultural Impact**:
          • Tourism provides significant revenue and employment opportunities.
          • It fosters cultural understanding and exchange between Taiwanese people and visitors from around the world.
          • The development of tourism can also put pressure on natural and cultural resources, necessitating sustainable tourism practices.

          The COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted Taiwan's tourism industry, but efforts are underway to revive it as global travel resumes. The island's reputation for safety, friendly people, diverse attractions, and unique cuisine continues to make it an appealing destination.

10.1. Road transport

Road transport is the most common mode of transportation in Taiwan, characterized by a high density of vehicles, especially motorcycles and scooters.

• Highways and Expressways**: Taiwan has a well-developed network of national freeways (controlled-access highways) and provincial expressways.
  • Sun Yat-sen Freeway (National Freeway No. 1)**: The first major north-south freeway.
  • Formosa Freeway (National Freeway No. 3)**: Another major north-south freeway, running largely parallel to Freeway No. 1 but further inland in some sections.
• Other freeways connect major urban areas and run east-west.
• Provincial and County Roads**: An extensive network of provincial, county, and local roads connects cities, towns, and rural areas.
• Modes of Personal Transport**:
  • Motorcycles and Scooters**: Extremely popular for their convenience and affordability, particularly in urban areas. Taiwan has one of the highest scooter densities in the world.
  • Cars**: Private car ownership is also common.
  • Buses**: Public bus services are widely available in cities and for intercity travel, operated by various private and public companies.
• Cycling**: Cycling for recreation and commuting has gained popularity, with an increasing number of dedicated bike paths, especially in urban areas and scenic spots.

Traffic congestion can be an issue in major metropolitan areas, and road safety, particularly concerning scooters, is an ongoing focus for authorities.

10.2. Rail transport

Rail transport is a vital component of Taiwan's transportation system, offering efficient intercity and urban travel.

• Taiwan Railways Administration (TRA)**: Operates the conventional railway network, which forms a loop around the main island. TRA provides various services, including:
  • Intercity express trains (e.g., Tze-chiang, Puyuma Express, Taroko Express)
  • Local and commuter trains.

  The eastern line, in particular, offers scenic views and is crucial for transport to the less developed east coast.

  • Taiwan High Speed Rail (THSR)**: Inaugurated in 2007, THSR connects major cities along the populous western corridor, from Taipei in the north to Kaohsiung in the south. Using Japanese Shinkansen-based technology, THSR offers speeds of up to 186 mph ^{(300 km/h)}, significantly reducing travel times.
  • Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Systems**: Several metropolitan areas have MRT systems:
    • Taipei Metro**: The oldest and most extensive MRT system, serving Taipei and New Taipei City.
    • Kaohsiung Metro**: Serves the southern city of Kaohsiung.
    • Taoyuan Metro**: Connects Taipei, Taoyuan City, and Taoyuan International Airport.
    • Taichung Metro**: Began operations in Taichung.
    • New Taipei Metro**: Includes light rail lines within New Taipei City.

    These MRT systems are crucial for alleviating urban traffic congestion and providing efficient public transport.

10.3. Air transport

Air transport connects Taiwan globally and provides services to its outlying islands.

• International Airports**:
  • Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport (TPE)**: Located near Taipei, it is Taiwan's largest and busiest airport, serving as a major international gateway and hub.
  • Kaohsiung International Airport (KHH)**: Serves southern Taiwan with international and domestic flights.
  • Taipei Songshan Airport (TSA)**: Located within Taipei City, handles mostly domestic flights and some regional international flights to destinations like Tokyo, Seoul, and Shanghai.
  • Taichung International Airport (RMQ)**: Serves central Taiwan with domestic and regional international flights.
• Domestic Airports**: Several smaller airports facilitate travel between the main island and outlying islands like Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu, as well as between cities on the main island.
• National Airlines**:
  • China Airlines (CAL)**: The flag carrier of the ROC.
  • EVA Air**: A major privately-owned airline.

  Both airlines operate extensive international networks. Other smaller airlines focus on domestic and regional routes.

10.4. Maritime transport

Maritime transport is essential for Taiwan's international trade and also serves outlying islands.

• International Seaports**: Taiwan has several major international seaports:
  • Port of Kaohsiung**: The largest port in Taiwan and one of the busiest container ports in the world, crucial for international trade.
  • Port of Keelung**: Serves northern Taiwan, near Taipei.
  • Port of Taichung**: Serves central Taiwan.
  • Port of Taipei**: A newer port near Taipei, developed to handle overflow from Keelung and for specific cargo types.
• Other ports include Hualien and Su'ao on the east coast. These ports handle bulk cargo, containers, and play a role in regional trade.
• Ferry Services**: Regular ferry services connect the main island of Taiwan to outlying islands such as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, Green Island, and Orchid Island. International ferry services are limited.

Overall, Taiwan's integrated transportation system is a key factor in its economic competitiveness and quality of life. Ongoing investments focus on upgrading existing infrastructure, expanding high-speed rail and MRT networks, and promoting sustainable transport solutions.

11.1. Population

• Total Population**: Around 23.9 million.
• Population Density**: Taiwan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with an average density of over 650 people per square kilometer. This density is much higher in urban areas like Taipei, New Taipei, and Kaohsiung.
• Growth Rate**: Taiwan has experienced a declining birth rate and an aging population, leading to a low, and in some recent years, negative, natural population growth rate. The total fertility rate is among the lowest in the world.
• Age Structure**: The population is aging rapidly, with an increasing proportion of elderly citizens (65 and over) and a decreasing proportion of young people. This presents challenges for social welfare, healthcare, and the labor force.
• Life Expectancy**: Life expectancy is high, comparable to other developed countries, at around 81 years (approximately 78 for males and 84 for females, varying slightly by year).
• Urbanization**: Taiwan is highly urbanized, with the vast majority of the population living in cities and metropolitan areas, primarily along the western coastal plain. The largest metropolitan area is Taipei-Keelung.
• Distribution**: Most of the population resides on the main island of Taiwan. Smaller populations live on the Penghu Islands (approx. 100,000), Kinmen (approx. 130,000), and Matsu (approx. 13,000).

11.2. Ethnic groups

The ethnic composition of Taiwan is diverse, reflecting waves of migration and historical interactions:

• Han Chinese**: Constitute the vast majority (over 95%) of the population. They are primarily descendants of migrants from mainland China, mainly Fujian and Guangdong provinces, who arrived from the 17th century onwards. Han Taiwanese are often further categorized based on their ancestral origins and language:
  • Hoklo (Hō-ló)**: The largest Han subgroup, comprising about 70% of the population. Their ancestors primarily came from southern Fujian province. They speak Taiwanese Hokkien.
  • Hakka (Hak-kâ)**: Comprise about 15-20% of the population. Their ancestors primarily came from eastern Guangdong and parts of Fujian. They speak Hakka Chinese.
  • Waishengren** (外省人_{Wàishěngrén}^Chinese, literally "people from outside provinces"): Comprise about 10-15% of the population. This group consists of people who migrated from mainland China with the ROC government after 1945 (particularly around 1949) and their descendants. They speak Mandarin and various other Chinese dialects.
• Taiwanese indigenous peoples**: Constitute about 2.4% of the population (around 580,000 people). They are Austronesian peoples and are the original inhabitants of Taiwan. The government officially recognizes 16 distinct indigenous groups, each with its own language and culture. Major groups include the Amis, Atayal, Bunun, and Paiwan. They predominantly reside in the mountainous eastern regions and on Orchid Island. There has been a growing movement for indigenous rights, cultural revitalization, and historical recognition.
• New Immigrants**: In recent decades, Taiwan has seen an influx of immigrants, primarily from Southeast Asia (e.g., Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand - many as spouses of Taiwanese citizens or as migrant workers) and mainland China (spouses). These "new immigrants" and their children are increasingly contributing to Taiwan's cultural diversity.

Inter-ethnic relations have evolved, particularly since democratization, with greater emphasis on multiculturalism and addressing historical grievances, such as those related to the February 28 Incident and the treatment of indigenous peoples.

11.3. Languages

The Republic of China does not have a legally designated single official language. Mandarin Chinese (國語_Guóyǔ^Chinese or 華語_Huáyǔ^Chinese) serves as the de facto national language, used in government, education, and media, and is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Traditional Chinese characters are used as the standard writing system.

The linguistic landscape of Taiwan is diverse:

• Mandarin Chinese** (國語_Guóyǔ^Chinese or 華語_Huáyǔ^Chinese): The primary language of instruction and public discourse. While based on Beijing Mandarin, Taiwanese Mandarin has its own distinct accent, vocabulary, and some grammatical features.
• Taiwanese Hokkien** (臺灣話_{Tâi-oân-oē}^nan or 閩南語_{Bân-lâm-gú}^nan): Spoken by about 70% of the population, particularly by the Hoklo ethnic group. It is a variety of the Min Nan dialect group originating from southern Fujian. It was suppressed during the martial law era but has seen a revival in public use and media.
• Hakka** (客家話_Hak-kâ-fa^hak): Spoken by the Hakka ethnic group (about 15-20% of the population). There are several Hakka dialects in Taiwan. Efforts are underway to promote and preserve Hakka language and culture.
• Formosan languages**: These are the languages of the Taiwanese indigenous peoples. They belong to the Austronesian language family and are distinct from Chinese languages. There are numerous Formosan languages, many of which are endangered. The government has recognized 16 indigenous languages as national languages and is promoting revitalization efforts. These languages are typically written using a Latin-based script.
• Taiwan Sign Language**: Recognized as a national language, used by the deaf community.
• Other Chinese Dialects**: Speakers of various other Chinese dialects (e.g., Cantonese, Teochew) also exist, primarily among waishengren families.
• Foreign Languages**: English is widely taught as a foreign language in schools and is increasingly used in business and tourism. Japanese is also spoken by some older individuals who lived through the Japanese colonial era and is a popular foreign language to learn.

Language policy in Taiwan has shifted from the Mandarin-centric approach of the martial law era to one that promotes multilingualism and the preservation of local and indigenous languages, reflecting a greater emphasis on Taiwan's diverse cultural heritage. The National Languages Development Act, passed in 2018, designates all native languages of Taiwan's various ethnic groups as national languages, aiming to ensure their equality and development.

11.4. Religion

The Constitution of the Republic of China guarantees freedom of religion. Taiwan has a diverse religious landscape, characterized by a blend of traditional Chinese beliefs, Buddhism, Taoism, and various other faiths. Religious tolerance is high, and many individuals practice a syncretic form of belief, combining elements from different traditions. According to 2020 estimates, the religious composition of Taiwan is diverse. Chinese folk religions, including Taoism and Confucian practices, constitute the largest group at approximately 43.8%. Buddhism is followed by about 21.2% of the population. Around 13.7% of the population identifies as unaffiliated or having no religion. Christianity accounts for about 5.8%. Other religions, including Yiguandao, make up about 15.5%, and Islam is practiced by less than 1% of the population. These figures may vary by source.

• Chinese folk religions**: This is a broad category encompassing a wide range of traditional beliefs and practices, including the worship of local deities, ancestors, and figures from Chinese mythology and history. These practices are often intertwined with Taoism and popular Buddhism. Many temples across Taiwan are dedicated to folk deities.
• Buddhism**: A major religion in Taiwan, with a significant number of adherents and prominent Buddhist organizations such as Fo Guang Shan, Tzu Chi, Dharma Drum Mountain, and Chung Tai Shan. Mahayana Buddhism is the predominant form.
• Taoism**: Also a major religion, with numerous temples dedicated to Taoist deities like Mazu (Goddess of the Sea, particularly popular in Taiwan), Guandi (God of War and Righteousness), and the Jade Emperor. Taoist philosophy and practices are deeply ingrained in Taiwanese culture.
• Confucian Values**: While not a religion in the traditional sense for many, Confucian principles related to ethics, family, social harmony, and education strongly influence Taiwanese society and are often integrated with other religious beliefs.
• Christianity**: A minority religion, but with a significant presence. It includes various Protestant denominations (such as Presbyterians, Baptists, Methodists) and the Roman Catholic Church. Christianity has a notable following among some indigenous communities.
• Yiguandao** (一貫道_{Yīguàn Dào}^Chinese): A syncretic religion originating in China that combines elements of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and sometimes Christianity and Islam. It has a substantial number of followers in Taiwan.
• Other Religions**: Smaller religious communities include Islam (primarily among descendants of Hui people and recent immigrants), Baháʼí, Hinduism, and various new religious movements.
• Unaffiliated/No Religion**: A growing segment of the population identifies as having no specific religious affiliation, though they may still hold certain spiritual beliefs or participate in traditional cultural practices.

Taiwan is known for its vibrant religious life, with numerous temples, churches, and other places of worship. Religious festivals and ceremonies are important cultural events. The government generally respects religious freedom, and there is a high degree of religious harmony in society. In 2019, there were 15,175 registered religious buildings in Taiwan.

11.5. Education

Taiwan's education system is highly regarded for its academic rigor and has played a crucial role in the nation's economic development by producing a skilled workforce. The system reflects a strong cultural emphasis on education, influenced by Confucian values. The Ministry of Education oversees the education system.

• Structure**:
  • Basic Education**: Nine years of compulsory education are mandated, consisting of:
    • Six years of elementary school (國民小學_{Guómín Xiǎoxué}^Chinese).
    • Three years of junior high school (國民中學_{Guómín Zhōngxué}^Chinese).
  • Senior Secondary Education**: After junior high, students typically proceed to:
    • Senior high school (高級中學_{Gāojí Zhōngxué}^Chinese): Three years, primarily academic and preparatory for university.
    • Vocational senior high school (高級職業學校_{Gāojí Zhíyè Xuéxiào}^Chinese): Three years, providing vocational and technical training.
    • Junior colleges (five-year programs).
• Higher Education**:
  • Taiwan has a large number of universities, colleges, and institutes of technology, both public and private.
  • Admission to university is highly competitive, traditionally based on a national joint entrance examination, though reforms have introduced more diverse admission pathways.
  • Major comprehensive universities include National Taiwan University (NTU), National Tsing Hua University (NTHU), National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University (NYCU), and National Cheng Kung University (NCKU). There are also specialized universities and colleges focusing on technology, education, arts, etc.
• Curriculum and Emphasis**:
  • There is a strong emphasis on academic achievement, particularly in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) subjects, reflecting the needs of Taiwan's high-tech economy.
  • Efforts have been made to incorporate more diverse subjects, including local history, culture, and indigenous languages, following democratization.
  • English language education is widely implemented from an early age.
• Challenges and Reforms**:
  • Academic Pressure**: The system has been criticized for placing excessive pressure on students due to the high stakes of examinations.
  • Creativity and Critical Thinking**: There are ongoing efforts to shift from rote memorization to fostering creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.
  • Overeducation and Skills Mismatch**: A high university enrollment rate has sometimes led to concerns about "overeducation" and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labor market demands.
  • Declining Birth Rate**: The falling birth rate is leading to challenges for universities in terms of student recruitment and financial sustainability.
• Educational reforms aim to address these issues by diversifying learning pathways, promoting lifelong learning, and enhancing the quality and relevance of education.
• Cram Schools (Buxiban)**: Many students attend private cram schools (補習班_bǔxíbān^Chinese) after regular school hours to receive additional tutoring and prepare for examinations.
• Literacy Rate**: Taiwan has a very high literacy rate, around 99.03% as of 2020.

Academia Sinica is the national academy of Taiwan, supporting research across a wide range of disciplines in sciences and humanities. Taiwan consistently performs well in international student assessments like PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment).

11.6. Healthcare

Taiwan's healthcare system is renowned for providing universal, accessible, and high-quality medical services to its citizens. The cornerstone of the system is the National Health Insurance (NHI) program.

• National Health Insurance (NHI)**:
  • Launched in 1995, the NHI is a single-payer compulsory social insurance program that provides universal health coverage to all ROC citizens and eligible foreign residents.
  • It is managed by the National Health Insurance Administration, under the Ministry of Health and Welfare.
  • Coverage is comprehensive, including outpatient visits, inpatient care, dental services, traditional Chinese medicine, prescription drugs, and preventive care.
  • Financing is primarily through premiums (payroll-based for employees, with contributions from employers and the government) and some co-payments for services. Premiums for the unemployed, elderly, or low-income individuals are often subsidized or waived.
• Healthcare Delivery**:
  • A mix of public and private hospitals and clinics deliver healthcare services.
  • Patients have a high degree of freedom to choose their doctors and hospitals.
  • Taiwan has a high density of medical facilities and well-trained healthcare professionals.
• Quality and Efficiency**:
  • The NHI system is known for its efficiency, relatively low administrative costs, and high public satisfaction rates.
  • The use of smart card technology for NHI cards facilitates easy access to medical records and billing.
  • Taiwan consistently ranks highly in global healthcare indices for quality and accessibility.
• Public Health**:
  • The Taiwan Centers for Disease Control (CDC) is responsible for disease prevention, surveillance, and response.
  • Taiwan has a strong public health infrastructure, which was demonstrated during outbreaks like SARS in 2003 and the COVID-19 pandemic. The Central Epidemic Command Center (CECC) plays a key role in coordinating responses to public health emergencies.
• Health Indicators**:
  • Life expectancy in Taiwan is high (around 81 years).
  • Infant mortality rates are low.
  • Major health challenges include an aging population and the associated increase in chronic diseases, as well as lifestyle-related health issues.
• Challenges**:
  • Financial Sustainability**: The NHI system faces ongoing challenges related to financial sustainability due to an aging population, rising healthcare costs, and the introduction of new medical technologies. Regular adjustments to premiums and co-payments are made to address this.
  • Workforce Issues**: Ensuring an adequate supply and equitable distribution of healthcare professionals, particularly in rural areas and certain specialties, is a concern.
  • Long-term Care**: With a rapidly aging population, the provision of long-term care services is a growing priority.

  Overall, Taiwan's healthcare system is considered a major achievement, providing affordable and comprehensive care to nearly all its residents.

11.7. Social welfare

Taiwan has a well-developed social welfare system designed to provide support and protection to its citizens across various stages of life and in times of need. The system has expanded significantly since the democratic transition, reflecting a societal commitment to social equity and well-being. Key components include:

• Social Insurance**:
  • National Health Insurance (NHI)**: Provides universal health coverage (detailed in the Healthcare section).
  • Labor Insurance**: Offers benefits for workers, including injury, disability, old-age pensions, maternity, and unemployment.
  • National Pension Insurance**: Launched in 2008, it covers citizens aged 25-65 not covered by other social insurance pension schemes (e.g., unemployed, homemakers), providing old-age, disability, and survivor benefits.
  • Farmers' Health Insurance**: Provides coverage for farmers.
  • Civil Servant and Teacher Insurance**: Specific insurance and pension schemes for public sector employees.
• Social Assistance and Relief**:
  • Low-Income Households Support**: Provides financial assistance, subsidies for living expenses (rent, utilities), and in-kind benefits to families living below the poverty line.
  • Disaster Relief**: Emergency aid and support for individuals and communities affected by natural disasters (e.g., typhoons, earthquakes).
• Welfare Services for Specific Groups**:
  • Elderly Care**: With a rapidly aging population, services for seniors are a priority. This includes community care centers, home care services, subsidies for long-term care, and residential care facilities. The Long-Term Care Services Act aims to establish a comprehensive system.
  • Child Welfare**: Includes childcare subsidies, support for disadvantaged children, child protection services, and early intervention programs.
  • Disability Services**: Provides support for individuals with disabilities, including financial assistance, vocational training, assistive devices, accessible facilities, and anti-discrimination measures.
  • Women's Welfare**: Programs addressing gender equality, support for single mothers, prevention of domestic violence, and empowerment initiatives.
• Employment Services and Vocational Training**:
  • The government provides job placement services, unemployment benefits (under Labor Insurance), and vocational training programs to help individuals enter or re-enter the workforce.
• Public Housing**: Efforts are made to provide affordable public housing options, particularly for low-income families and vulnerable groups, though housing affordability remains a challenge in major urban areas.

The social welfare system is funded through a combination of social insurance contributions, government budgets, and in some cases, private donations. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) also play a significant role in delivering social services and advocating for vulnerable populations. Challenges include ensuring the financial sustainability of social insurance programs, addressing the needs of an aging population, and reducing socio-economic inequalities.

12.1. Arts and literature

Taiwan's arts and literature reflect its complex cultural heritage and contemporary dynamism.

• Traditional Arts**:
  • Chinese Ink Painting and Calligraphy**: These classical art forms continue to be practiced and valued.
  • Ceramics and Pottery**: Taiwan has a rich tradition of ceramic art, from historical pieces to contemporary creations.
  • Taiwanese opera (Gezaixi)**: A form of traditional Chinese opera sung in Taiwanese Hokkien, popular for its vibrant storytelling and music.
  • Glove puppetry (Budaixi; 布袋戲_{Bùdài xì}^Chinese)**: A highly skilled and popular form of puppetry, known for its intricate puppets, dramatic plots, and martial arts sequences. It has both traditional and modern televised forms (e.g., Pili).
  • Temple Arts**: The intricate carvings, paintings, and decorations found in Taiwan's numerous temples are a significant artistic heritage.
• Contemporary Arts**:
  • Taiwan has a thriving contemporary art scene, with artists exploring diverse mediums including painting, sculpture, installation art, video art, and performance art.
  • Numerous galleries, museums (like the Taipei Fine Arts Museum and the National Taiwan Museum of Fine Arts in Taichung), and art festivals showcase contemporary works.
  • Artists often engage with themes of identity, history, social issues, and globalization.
• Literature**:
  • Early Taiwanese literature includes oral traditions of indigenous peoples and classical Chinese works.
  • During Japanese rule, writers began to explore Taiwanese identity and experiences, sometimes in Japanese.
  • Post-WWII literature under the KMT was initially dominated by anti-communist and nostalgic mainland themes. However, a "Nativist" (鄉土文學_{Xiāngtǔ Wénxué}^Chinese) literary movement emerged, focusing on the lives and concerns of local Taiwanese people.
  • Since democratization, Taiwanese literature has flourished, with writers exploring a wide range of themes, including historical trauma (e.g., the February 28 Incident, White Terror), indigenous stories, LGBT experiences, urban life, and Taiwan's place in the world. Notable authors include Huang Chun-ming, Pai Hsien-yung, Li Ang, and younger generations of writers.
• Performing Arts**:
  • Beyond traditional opera and puppetry, Taiwan has modern theater groups, dance companies (like Cloud Gate Dance Theater), and orchestras that perform both Western classical music and works by Taiwanese composers.

  The lifting of martial law in 1987 was a turning point, allowing for greater freedom of expression and the exploration of previously sensitive topics, leading to a diversification and invigoration of Taiwan's arts and literary scenes. The government and cultural institutions actively support artistic and literary development through grants, awards, and international exchange programs.

12.2. Popular culture

Taiwanese popular culture is dynamic and influential, not only domestically but also across East and Southeast Asia. It encompasses a wide range of entertainment forms, blending local traditions with global trends.

• Film (Taiwanese Cinema)**:
  • The **Taiwanese New Wave cinema** of the 1980s and 1990s, led by directors like Hou Hsiao-hsien and Edward Yang, gained international acclaim for its realistic portrayals of Taiwanese life, history, and social change.
  • Directors like Ang Lee (Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, Life of Pi) have achieved global success.
  • Contemporary Taiwanese cinema continues to produce a diverse range of films, from art-house productions to commercial hits. The Golden Horse Film Festival and Awards is a prestigious event in the Chinese-language film world.
• Television Dramas**:
  • Taiwanese TV dramas, particularly idol dramas and Hokkien-language series, have been popular domestically and in other Asian countries. They often explore themes of romance, youth culture, and family life.
• Music (Mandopop and other genres)**:
  • Taiwan has long been a major center for **Mandopop** (Mandarin popular music). Many influential Mandopop artists, such as Teresa Teng, A-Mei, Jay Chou, and Jolin Tsai, hail from Taiwan or launched their careers there.
    • Hokkien pop** (Taiyu pop) also has a strong following.
  • Independent music scenes, including rock, indie pop, and electronic music, are vibrant. Chthonic, a heavy metal band led by Freddy Lim, has gained international recognition.
• Animation and Comics (Manhua)**: While heavily influenced by Japanese anime and manga, Taiwan has its own animation studios and comic artists, with a growing local industry.
• Karaoke (KTV)**: Karaoke is an extremely popular leisure activity in Taiwan. KTV establishments are ubiquitous, ranging from small rooms to large, luxurious venues, often offering food and drink services. It's a common social activity for friends, families, and colleagues.
• Night Markets**: A quintessential part of Taiwanese popular culture, night markets are bustling hubs of activity offering a vast array of street food (xiaochi), local snacks, games, and shopping. They are popular with both locals and tourists.
• Convenience Stores**: Taiwan has a very high density of 24-hour convenience stores (e.g., 7-Eleven, FamilyMart), which offer a wide range of services beyond retail, including bill payments, ticket purchases, package pick-up, and even laundry services in some locations, making them integral to daily life.
• Bubble tea**: Originating in Taiwan in the 1980s, bubble tea (also known as pearl milk tea or boba) has become a global phenomenon, a significant Taiwanese cultural export.

Taiwanese popular culture reflects a society that is open to external influences while also cultivating its unique local flavors and creative expressions.

12.3. Cuisine

Taiwanese cuisine is celebrated for its diversity, fresh ingredients, and the skillful blending of flavors from various Chinese regional traditions, indigenous culinary practices, and Japanese influences. It is particularly famous for its abundant street food and vibrant night market scene.

Key characteristics and famous dishes include:

• Emphasis on Freshness**: Due to its island geography, seafood is a prominent feature. Fresh vegetables and fruits are also widely used.
• Balanced Flavors**: Taiwanese cooking often balances salty, sweet, sour, and savory flavors. Techniques like braising, stir-frying, steaming, and deep-frying are common.
• Street Food (Xiaochi; 小吃_xiǎochī^Chinese)**: Small, affordable, and delicious snacks are a hallmark of Taiwanese cuisine. These are readily available at street stalls and night markets.
  • Beef Noodle Soup** (牛肉麵_{Niúròu Miàn}^Chinese): A rich and savory broth with tender beef and noodles, considered by many a national dish.
  • Stinky tofu** (臭豆腐_{Chòu Dòufu}^Chinese): Fermented tofu, often deep-fried and served with pickled cabbage and chili sauce; known for its pungent aroma and unique taste.
  • Oyster omelette** (蚵仔煎_ô-á-chian^nan): An omelette made with small oysters, eggs, and a starchy batter, typically topped with a sweet and savory sauce.
  • Gua bao** (刈包_Guàbāo^Chinese): Steamed buns filled with braised pork belly, pickled mustard greens, cilantro, and powdered peanuts; often called a "Taiwanese hamburger."
  • Zongzi** (粽子_zòngzi^Chinese): Glutinous rice dumplings wrapped in bamboo or reed leaves, with various fillings (e.g., pork, mushrooms, salted egg yolk), especially popular during the Dragon Boat Festival.
  • Braised Pork Rice** (爌肉飯_{Khòng-bah-png}^Chinese or 滷肉飯_{Lǔròu Fàn}^Chinese): Minced or cubed pork belly braised in soy sauce and spices, served over rice. A staple comfort food.
  • Taiwanese Fried Chicken** (鹹酥雞_{Xiánsū Jī}^Chinese): Bite-sized pieces of chicken (and other ingredients like squid, vegetables) deep-fried and seasoned with salt, pepper, and often basil.
  • Oyster vermicelli** (蚵仔麵線_{ô-á mī-sòaⁿ}^nan): A thick soup with fine rice vermicelli and oysters (or sometimes pork intestines).
  • Sanbeiji** (三杯雞_{Sānbēi Jī}^Chinese, "Three Cup Chicken"): Chicken cooked in a cup each of soy sauce, rice wine, and sesame oil, with ginger and basil.
  • Aiyu jelly** (愛玉冰_{Àiyù Bīng}^Chinese): A refreshing jelly dessert made from the seeds of a fig variety, often served with lemon juice and honey.
• Beverages**:
  • Bubble tea** (珍珠奶茶_{Zhēnzhū Nǎichá}^Chinese): Originating in Taiwan, this iconic drink consists of sweetened tea (often milk tea) with chewy tapioca pearls.
• High-quality oolong teas, particularly from mountainous regions like Alishan and Lishan.
• Night Markets**: These are central to Taiwanese food culture, offering an incredible variety of xiaochi and a lively atmosphere. Famous night markets include Shilin and Raohe in Taipei, Feng Chia in Taichung, and Liuhe in Kaohsiung.
• Indigenous Cuisine**: Features unique ingredients like wild greens, millet, and game, often prepared using traditional methods like grilling over an open fire or cooking in bamboo tubes.
• Japanese Influence**: Dishes like sashimi, sushi, tempura, and ramen are popular and widely available, often adapted with local twists.

Taiwanese food is a major draw for tourists and a source of national pride. The Michelin Guide began reviewing restaurants in Taiwan in 2018, further highlighting its culinary excellence.

12.4. Sports

Sports play an important role in Taiwanese society, both for recreation and national pride in international competitions.

• Baseball**: Widely considered Taiwan's national sport. It has a long history on the island and is very popular as a spectator sport and for participation.
  • The **Chinese Professional Baseball League** (CPBL), founded in 1989, is the top-tier professional baseball league. As of 2024, it has six teams and attracts significant fan attendance.
  • The national team has achieved success in international competitions, including medals at various age levels (U-12, U-15, U-18, U-23) and in Baseball5.
  • Many Taiwanese players have gone on to play in professional leagues abroad, including Major League Baseball (MLB) in the United States and Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) in Japan. Notable MLB players include pitchers Chien-Ming Wang and Wei-Yin Chen.
• Basketball**: The second most popular team sport in Taiwan.
  • Taiwan has multiple professional basketball leagues, including the P. League+ (P.LEAGUE+) and the T1 League. The semi-professional Super Basketball League (SBL) has been in operation since 2003.
• Taekwondo**: A successful combat sport in Taiwan, introduced for military training in 1966. Taiwan has won Olympic gold medals in taekwondo, with Chen Shih-hsin and Chu Mu-yen being the first Taiwanese athletes to achieve this at the 2004 Athens Olympics.
• Individual Sports**: Taiwanese athletes have excelled in various individual sports:
  • Badminton**: Tai Tzu-ying is a world-renowned badminton player who has held the world No. 1 ranking in women's singles for the longest period in BWF history.
  • Tennis**: Hsieh Su-wei is Taiwan's most successful female tennis player, achieving high rankings in both singles and doubles (former world No. 1 in doubles).
  • Table Tennis**: Taiwan has a strong tradition in table tennis, with players like Chuang Chih-yuan having long and successful international careers.
  • Golf**: Yani Tseng was a dominant force in women's golf, becoming the youngest player to win five major championships and holding the world No. 1 ranking for 109 consecutive weeks.
  • Weightlifting** and **Archery** are other sports where Taiwanese athletes have won Olympic medals.
• Other Team Sports**: Volleyball, football (soccer), and korfball are also played.
• International Participation ("Chinese Taipei")**: Due to its political status, Taiwan participates in most international sporting events, including the Olympic Games, Asian Games, and World University Games, under the name "**Chinese Taipei**" (中華臺北_{Zhōnghuá Táiběi}^{Chinese (Chinese characters)}). This arrangement, known as the Nagoya Resolution, allows Taiwanese athletes to compete while navigating diplomatic complexities. A special flag and anthem are used for these events.
• Hosting International Events**: Taiwan has successfully hosted several major international multi-sport events, including the 2009 World Games in Kaohsiung, the 2009 Summer Deaflympics in Taipei, and the 2017 Summer Universiade in Taipei. Taipei and New Taipei City are scheduled to host the 2025 Summer World Masters Games.

The government supports sports development through funding, infrastructure, and training programs, recognizing its importance for public health, social cohesion, and national visibility.

12.5. Festivals and calendar

Taiwan follows a dual calendar system and celebrates a variety of public holidays and traditional festivals that reflect its rich cultural heritage.

• Calendars**:
  • Gregorian calendar**: Used for most official, business, and daily purposes, consistent with international standards.
  • Minguo calendar** (民國紀元_{Mínguó Jìyuán}^Chinese): This official era system is often used in government documents and for some official dating purposes. It counts years from the founding of the Republic of China in 1912. For example, the year 2024 in the Gregorian calendar is Minguo year 113 (民國113年).
  • Lunisolar Chinese calendar**: This traditional calendar determines the dates of many important festivals and is still used for cultural and religious observances, as well as by some for traditional birthday calculations and auspicious date selection.
• Public Holidays and Major Festivals**:
  • Lunar New Year (Spring Festival)** (農曆新年_{Nónglì Xīnnián}^Chinese or 春節_Chūnjié^Chinese): The most important traditional holiday, typically falling in January or February. It is a multi-day celebration involving family reunions, feasts, red envelopes (hongbao), dragon and lion dances, and fireworks.
  • Lantern Festival** (元宵節_{Yuánxiāo Jié}^Chinese): Celebrated on the 15th day of the first lunar month, marking the end of the Lunar New Year festivities. It is known for lantern displays, eating tangyuan (sweet glutinous rice balls), and riddle solving.
  • Tomb Sweeping Day (Qingming Festival)** (清明節_{Qīngmíng Jié}^Chinese): Usually in early April (Gregorian calendar). Families visit ancestral graves to clean them and make offerings.
  • Dragon Boat Festival** (端午節_{Duānwǔ Jié}^Chinese): Celebrated on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month. Traditions include dragon boat racing and eating zongzi (glutinous rice dumplings).
  • Ghost Festival** (中元節_{Zhōngyuán Jié}^Chinese or 盂蘭盆節_{Yúlánpén Jié}^Chinese): Celebrated throughout the seventh lunar month, with the main observances on the 15th day. It is a time to honor deceased ancestors and appease wandering spirits.
  • Mid-Autumn Festival (Moon Festival)** (中秋節_{Zhōngqiū Jié}^Chinese): Celebrated on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month. Families gather to admire the full moon, eat mooncakes, and often have barbecues.
  • National Day (Double Ten Day)** (國慶日_{Guóqìng Rì}^Chinese or 雙十節_{Shuāngshí Jié}^Chinese): Celebrated on October 10th, commemorating the start of the Wuchang Uprising in 1911, which led to the founding of the ROC. It features official ceremonies, parades, and fireworks.
  • Peace Memorial Day** (和平紀念日_{Hépíng Jìniàn Rì}^Chinese): Observed on February 28th to commemorate the February 28 Incident of 1947. It is a day for remembrance and reflection on Taiwan's history and democratic development.

  Other public holidays include New Year's Day (January 1, Gregorian), Children's Day (April 4), and various labor holidays. Many local communities and temples also host their own specific festivals and celebrations throughout the year, adding to the richness of Taiwan's cultural calendar.