Iran

3.1. Prehistory and Ancient Empires

This section covers early settlements, the Elamite civilization, the arrival of Iranian peoples, and the rise and fall of major ancient empires including the Medes, Achaemenids, Seleucids, Parthians, and Sasanians, focusing on their societal structures, achievements, and regional impact.

Early human presence in Iran dates back to the Lower Palaeolithic. The Elamite civilization, flourishing from around 3200 BC in southwestern Iran, with its capital at Susa, was one of the earliest urban societies, contemporaneous with Mesopotamia. They developed a unique writing system, known as Proto-Elamite, and later adopted cuneiform. The ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil stands as a testament to their architectural and religious sophistication.

Around the late 2nd millennium BC, various Iranian peoples, including the Medes and Persians, migrated onto the Iranian plateau from Central Asia or via the Caucasus. The Medes established the first major Iranian empire, centered in Ecbatana (modern Hamadan), around 678 BC. They played a crucial role in the downfall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

In 550 BC, Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenids, a Persian, overthrew the Median king Astyages and founded the Achaemenid Empire. This empire became the largest the world had yet seen, stretching from the Balkans and Egypt in the west to the Indus Valley in the east. The Achaemenids were known for their centralized administration, efficient bureaucracy (including the use of Aramaic as a lingua franca), the Royal Road, a standardized system of coinage, and a policy of religious and cultural tolerance, famously exemplified by Cyrus's Edict allowing the Jews to return to Jerusalem. Zoroastrianism became influential during this period. Major Achaemenid capitals included Pasargadae, Susa, Ecbatana, and the ceremonial capital of Persepolis. The empire fell to Alexander the Great of Macedon after a series of battles culminating in 330 BC.

Following Alexander's death, his empire was divided among his generals (the Diadochi), and Iran came under the rule of the Seleucid Empire (312 BC - 63 BC), founded by Seleucus I Nicator. Hellenistic culture was introduced, but Iranian traditions persisted, particularly in the eastern regions.

Around 247 BC, the Parthians (Arsacids), an Iranian people from northeastern Iran, successfully rebelled against Seleucid rule and gradually established their own empire. The Parthians were renowned for their heavy cavalry (cataphracts) and their ability to resist Roman expansion in the east, engaging in centuries of conflict with Rome. Their culture represented a revival of Iranian traditions blended with Hellenistic influences. Their capital was Ctesiphon on the Tigris River.

In 224 AD, Ardashir I, a local Persian ruler from Pars (Persis), overthrew the last Parthian king, Artabanus IV, and founded the Sasanian Empire (224 AD - 651 AD). The Sasanians, claiming descent from the Achaemenids, aimed to restore Iranian glory. Zoroastrianism was firmly established as the state religion, with a highly organized clergy. The Sasanian era is considered a golden age of Iranian civilization, marked by significant achievements in art, architecture (e.g., the palaces at Ctesiphon and Bishapur, and intricate stucco work), music, literature (including the codification of the Avesta), and science. They developed a complex social hierarchy and a powerful centralized state. The Sasanians were in constant conflict with the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, for control of the Near East and Caucasus. These long wars, along with internal strife, eventually weakened the empire, paving the way for the Arab Islamic conquest.

3.2. Middle Ages

This section details the Arab Islamic conquest, the Islamization of Iran, the contributions to the Islamic Golden Age, the rule of various Iranian and Turkic dynasties, and the impact of the Mongol and Timurid invasions.

The weakened Sasanian Empire fell to the invading Arab Muslim armies of the Rashidun Caliphate following decisive battles such as the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah (636 AD) and the Battle of Nihavand (642 AD). The last Sasanian Shah, Yazdegerd III, was killed in 651 AD, marking the end of ancient Iranian imperial rule. The Islamic conquest led to a profound transformation of Iranian society. While the conquest itself was relatively swift, the Islamization of the population was a gradual process spanning several centuries. Many Iranians converted to Islam, initially predominantly Sunni, though Zoroastrianism and other pre-Islamic faiths persisted in pockets for a long time.

Despite the Arab conquest, Persian culture and language endured and significantly influenced the developing Islamic civilization. Iranians played a crucial role in the administration of the Umayyad Caliphate and, more prominently, the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 AD). During the Islamic Golden Age, Persian scholars, scientists, poets, and artists made immense contributions. Figures like Avicenna (Ibn Sina) in medicine and philosophy, Al-Khwarizmi in mathematics (whose name gave us "algorithm" and "algebra"), Omar Khayyam (poet and mathematician), and Ferdowsi (author of the epic Shahnameh) are testaments to this era. Persian re-emerged as a major literary and administrative language, written in a modified Arabic script.

By the 9th century, local Iranian dynasties began to assert autonomy in various parts of Iran, marking the "Iranian Intermezzo". These included the Tahirids in Khorasan, the Saffarids in Sistan, the Samanids centered in Bukhara and Samarkand (who greatly patronized Persian literature and culture), and the Buyids, a Shi'a dynasty from Daylam who conquered Baghdad in 945 and controlled the Abbasid Caliphs for over a century.

From the 11th century, Iran experienced invasions by Turkic groups from Central Asia. The Seljuks, a Sunni Turkic dynasty, conquered Iran, Mesopotamia, and much of Anatolia, establishing a vast empire. Under Seljuk rule, Persian culture and administration continued to flourish; figures like Nizam al-Mulk, the Seljuk vizier, were patrons of arts and sciences, and Sunni Islam was promoted. The Khwarzamians, another Turkic dynasty, succeeded the Seljuks in the east but were soon overwhelmed by the Mongol invasions.

In the early 13th century, Iran suffered devastating Mongol invasions led by Genghis Khan and his successors. Cities were razed, populations massacred, and agricultural infrastructure was severely damaged. Iran became part of the Ilkhanate, a Mongol successor state founded by Hulagu Khan. Despite the initial destruction, the Ilkhanid rulers eventually converted to Islam and patronized Persian culture. Figures like the historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani flourished under their rule.

The decline of the Ilkhanate led to a period of fragmentation until the rise of Timur (Tamerlane) in the late 14th century. Timur, of Turco-Mongol descent, conquered Iran and established the Timurid Empire, with its capital at Samarkand. While Timur's conquests were also marked by brutality, the Timurid era saw a renaissance in arts, architecture, and science, particularly under rulers like Shah Rukh and Ulugh Beg. Herat became a major cultural center. The Timurid Empire eventually fragmented, paving the way for new powers to emerge.

3.3. Early Modern Period

This section focuses on the Safavid Empire's establishment of Shia Islam as the state religion and its cultural zenith, followed by the Afsharid, Zand, and Qajar dynasties, examining political changes, socio-economic conditions, and interactions with emerging European powers.

In 1501, Ismail I founded the Safavid Empire (1501-1736), marking a pivotal moment in Iranian history. The Safavids, of mixed Kurdish and Azeri origin with claims of Sayyid descent, established Twelver Shi'ism as the state religion of Iran. This decision had profound and lasting consequences, differentiating Iran from its Sunni Muslim neighbors (notably the Ottoman Empire and the Uzbek khanates) and contributing to a distinct Iranian national and religious identity. The forced conversion to Shi'ism was sometimes brutal, but it unified the country under a single religious banner.

The Safavid era, particularly under Shah Abbas I (1588-1629), is considered a golden age of Iranian art, architecture, and culture. Shah Abbas moved the capital to Isfahan, which he transformed into one of the world's most beautiful cities with magnificent mosques (like the Imam Mosque), palaces (like Ali Qapu), and public squares (like Naqsh-e Jahan Square). Persian carpets, ceramics, miniature painting, and textiles reached new heights of artistic excellence. The Safavids also reformed the army, centralized administration, and engaged in extensive diplomatic and trade relations with European powers, including England and the Dutch Republic. However, conflicts with the Ottoman Empire to the west and the Uzbeks to the northeast were recurrent.

After the death of Shah Abbas I, the Safavid Empire gradually declined due to weak rulers, internal strife, and external pressures. In 1722, Afghan rebels of the Hotaki tribe captured Isfahan, effectively ending Safavid rule, though nominal Safavid shahs continued for a few more years.

The ensuing chaos was ended by Nader Shah, a brilliant military commander of Afsharid Turkic background, who expelled the Afghans and restored Iranian unity. He founded the Afsharid dynasty (1736-1796). Nader Shah was a formidable conqueror, launching successful campaigns into the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Central Asia, and famously, Mughal India, where he sacked Delhi in 1739. His military prowess briefly made Iran a dominant power. However, his rule became increasingly tyrannical, and his assassination in 1747 plunged the country into another period of civil war.

Out of this turmoil, Karim Khan Zand emerged as the ruler, founding the Zand dynasty (1751-1794). He did not take the title of Shah, preferring "Vakil ar-Ra'aya" (Regent of the People). Karim Khan ruled from Shiraz, which he beautified with many architectural projects. His reign is generally remembered as a period of relative peace, stability, and justice. However, after his death, infighting among Zand princes weakened the dynasty.

The Zands were eventually overthrown by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the founder of the Qajar dynasty (1785-1925). Agha Mohammad Khan brutally reunified Iran and established Tehran as the capital. The Qajar period was marked by increasing encroachment from European imperial powers, particularly Russia and Great Britain. Iran lost significant territories in the Caucasus (including modern-day Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) to Russia through the Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) and (1826-1828), formalized in the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) and Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828). Britain expanded its influence in the Persian Gulf and Afghanistan. Internally, the Qajar shahs often faced challenges to their authority, and the country experienced socio-economic stagnation and corruption. Foreign powers gained significant economic concessions, such as the Reuter Concession and the tobacco concession, the latter sparking widespread protests. These interactions with Europe also introduced new ideas, leading to movements for reform and constitutionalism.

3.4. Modern and Contemporary Period

This section covers the Pahlavi dynasty, modernization efforts, the nationalization of the oil industry, the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the establishment of the Islamic Republic, the Iran-Iraq War, and subsequent political, social, and economic developments, including relations with the international community.

Growing discontent with Qajar rule and foreign interference culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911). This revolution led to the establishment of a constitution and a parliament (Majlis), limiting the Shah's absolute powers. However, the constitutional movement was fraught with internal divisions and faced opposition from conservative clergy and foreign powers, particularly Russia and Britain, who divided Iran into spheres of influence in the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907.

World War I further destabilized Iran, with Ottoman, Russian, and British forces operating on its territory despite Iran's declared neutrality. In 1921, Reza Khan, a military officer, staged a coup d'état and became the dominant political figure. In 1925, he deposed the last Qajar Shah, Ahmad Shah Qajar, and was proclaimed Shah, founding the Pahlavi dynasty (1925-1979). Reza Shah embarked on an ambitious program of modernization, secularization, and nation-building. His reforms included centralizing the state, building a modern army and bureaucracy, developing infrastructure (such as the Trans-Iranian Railway), expanding education, and promoting Western dress and customs (including banning the veil for women). However, his rule was authoritarian, suppressing dissent and political freedoms. During World War II, Reza Shah's perceived pro-German sympathies led to the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941. He was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

After World War II, Iran became a key player in the Cold War. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's reign saw continued modernization and economic growth, particularly fueled by oil revenues. However, political tensions remained high. In the early 1950s, Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh gained immense popularity by nationalizing the British-owned Anglo-Persian Oil Company. This move was met with a Western boycott of Iranian oil and, in 1953, an Anglo-American-backed coup (Operation Ajax) that overthrew Mosaddegh and restored the Shah's full authority.

Following the coup, the Shah consolidated his power, becoming a staunch Western ally. He launched the White Revolution in 1963, a series of far-reaching social and economic reforms including land reform, women's suffrage, and literacy campaigns. While these reforms brought some progress, they also disrupted traditional social structures and were implemented in an autocratic manner. The Shah's regime became increasingly repressive, using the secret police, SAVAK, to crush opposition. Discontent grew among various segments of society, including secular intellectuals, students, and, crucially, the Shi'a clergy, led by the exiled Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.

Years of mounting opposition, fueled by socio-economic grievances, political repression, and religious fervor, culminated in the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Mass protests and strikes paralyzed the country, forcing the Shah to flee Iran in January 1979. Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile in February and became the leader of the revolution. On April 1, 1979, following a referendum, Iran was declared an Islamic Republic, and a new constitution based on Khomeini's principle of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist) was adopted. This established a theocracy with the Supreme Leader as the ultimate political and religious authority.

The early years of the Islamic Republic were marked by internal purges, the US embassy hostage crisis (1979-1981) which severely damaged relations with the United States, and the devastating Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988). Iraq, under Saddam Hussein, invaded Iran in September 1980, hoping to take advantage of post-revolutionary turmoil. The war, which ended in a stalemate with a UN-brokered ceasefire, resulted in hundreds of thousands of casualties on both sides and immense economic damage.

Following Khomeini's death in 1989, Ali Khamenei became the new Supreme Leader. The post-war period saw efforts at reconstruction and some economic liberalization. However, Iran faced international isolation, economic sanctions (particularly related to its nuclear program), and ongoing political tensions between reformist and conservative factions within the ruling establishment.

4.1. Topography

Details the major landforms of Iran, including the Iranian Plateau, prominent mountain ranges such as the Alborz (including Mount Damavand) and Zagros, vast deserts like Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut, and coastal plains.

Iran's topography is dominated by the vast central Iranian Plateau, which is ringed by several major mountain ranges. The country is one of the world's most mountainous. The most populous western part is the most mountainous, featuring the Zagros Mountains, a long and wide range stretching from the northwest to the southeast, forming a significant barrier. In the north, the Alborz mountain range runs along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. The Alborz range includes Iran's highest peak, Mount Damavand, a dormant stratovolcano reaching an elevation of 18 K ft ^{(5.61 K m)}, which is also the highest volcano in Asia and a significant symbol in Persian mythology. Other notable ranges include the Kopet Dag in the northeast.

These mountain ranges enclose several large basins or plateaus that form the Iranian Plateau. The eastern part of the country consists largely of desert basins. The Dasht-e Kavir (Great Salt Desert) is a vast desert located in the middle of the Iranian Plateau, characterized by salt marshes (kavirs). To its southeast lies the Dasht-e Lut (Emptiness Desert), one of the hottest and driest places on Earth, known for its dramatic yardang formations. The Lut Desert recorded one of the highest surface temperatures on Earth, reaching 159.26000000000002 °F ^{(70.7 °C)} in 2005.

The only extensive coastal plains are found along the southern shores of the Caspian Sea in the north and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab (Arvand Rud) river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are also found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman. These mountains have significantly impacted Iran's political and economic history for centuries.

4.2. Climate

Explains the diverse climatic zones across Iran, from arid and semi-arid interiors to subtropical coastal regions, including regional variations in temperature, precipitation, and seasonal patterns, as well as the impacts of climate change.

Iran's climate is highly diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid in the vast interior and eastern parts, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and the northern forests.

The northern edge of the country, along the Caspian coast, experiences a mild and humid subtropical climate. Temperatures here rarely fall below freezing in winter, and summer temperatures seldom exceed 84.2 °F ^{(29 °C)}. This region receives the highest precipitation in Iran, with annual rainfall being 27 in ^{(680 mm)} in the eastern part of the plain and more than 0.1 K in ^{(1.70 K mm)} in the western part, particularly in Gilan Province.

To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures and severe winters with average daily temperatures often below freezing and heavy snowfall. Summers in these mountainous regions are typically mild.

The eastern and central basins, which form a large part of the country, have an arid or desert climate. These areas receive less than 7.9 in ^{(200 mm)} of rain annually and feature extensive deserts. Average summer temperatures in these regions frequently exceed 100.4 °F ^{(38 °C)}. The Dasht-e Lut desert is particularly known for extreme heat.

The southern coastal plains along the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman have mild winters and very hot, humid summers. Annual precipitation in this region ranges from 5.3 in ^{(135 mm)} to 14 in ^{(355 mm)}.

Climate change is an increasing concern for Iran, with projections indicating rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts and floods, which exacerbate existing challenges like water scarcity.

4.3. Biodiversity and Environment

Outlines Iran's flora and fauna, forest cover, national parks, protected areas, and significant environmental challenges such as water scarcity and pollution, as well as conservation efforts. This section will consider the social and economic impacts of environmental issues.

Iran possesses a rich biodiversity, reflecting its varied topography and climate. More than one-tenth of the country is forested. About 120 million hectares of forests and fields are government-owned for national exploitation. Iran's forests can be divided into five main vegetation regions:

• The Hyrcanian region forms a green belt along the northern slopes of the Alborz Mountains and the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. These lush, temperate deciduous forests are biologically diverse and include species like beech, oak, maple, and hornbeam.
• The Turanian region includes scattered woodlands and shrublands mainly in central and eastern Iran.
• The Zagros region in western Iran is characterized by oak forests and other deciduous trees adapted to a semi-arid mountainous environment.
• The Persian Gulf region in the south features subtropical and arid vegetation, including mangrove forests along the coast.
• The Arasbaran region in the northwest is known for its rare and unique species.

Iran is home to over 8,200 plant species. The land covered by natural flora is four times that of Europe.

The country's fauna is also diverse. Mammals include 34 species of bats, the Indian grey mongoose, small Indian mongoose, golden jackal, Indian wolf, various fox species, striped hyena, Persian leopard (a flagship species), Eurasian lynx, brown bear, and Asian black bear. Ungulate species include wild boar, urial, Armenian mouflon, red deer, and goitered gazelle. One of the most famous and critically endangered animals is the Asiatic cheetah, which now survives only in Iran. The Asiatic lion and the Caspian tiger became extinct in Iran by the early 20th century. Domestic ungulates are represented by sheep, goats, cattle, horses, water buffalo, donkeys, and camels. Bird species native to Iran include pheasants, partridges, storks, eagles, and falcons.

Iran has established over 200 protected areas, including more than 30 national parks, to preserve its biodiversity and wildlife.

However, Iran faces significant environmental challenges. Water scarcity is arguably the most severe, exacerbated by climate change, inefficient agricultural practices, and dam construction. This has led to the drying of lakes (like Lake Urmia) and rivers, desertification, and social tensions. Other challenges include air and water pollution (especially in large cities like Tehran), deforestation, soil erosion, and desertification. The social and economic impacts of these environmental issues are considerable, affecting agriculture, public health, and livelihoods. Conservation efforts are underway but face difficulties due to economic pressures and institutional limitations.

4.4. Major Islands

Describes key Iranian islands in the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea, such as Kish, Qeshm, Abu Musa, and the Tunbs, noting their geographical, economic, strategic, and ecological significance, including any territorial disputes and their human impact.

Iran possesses several islands, primarily located in the Persian Gulf, with a few in the Caspian Sea and the Gulf of Oman. Some islands are also found within inland bodies of water like Lake Urmia (historically over 100, though many have been affected by the lake's desiccation) and the Aras River.

In the Persian Gulf, key Iranian islands include:

• Qeshm: The largest island in the Persian Gulf and in Iran. It is a UNESCO Global Geopark since 2016, recognized for its unique geological formations, including the Namakdan salt cave, one of the world's longest salt caves. Qeshm has significant ecological value, diverse wildlife, and a growing tourism industry. It is also a free-trade zone.
• Kish: Another major Iranian island in the Persian Gulf, known as a free-trade zone and a popular tourist destination. It features resorts, shopping malls, and recreational facilities, attracting around 12 million tourists annually before certain global disruptions.
• Hormuz Island: Located in the strategic Strait of Hormuz, known for its colorful, mineral-rich soil and unique landscapes. It has historical significance as a trading post.
• Abu Musa, Greater Tunb, and Lesser Tunb: These three islands are situated in the eastern Persian Gulf near the Strait of Hormuz. Iran took control of these islands in 1971. While small and with limited natural resources or population, their strategic location at the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz, a critical oil transit chokepoint, makes them highly valuable. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) also claims sovereignty over these islands, leading to an ongoing territorial dispute. Iran maintains full administrative control and has established military presence and civilian infrastructure on Abu Musa. The dispute occasionally surfaces in regional diplomatic discussions, with Iran consistently asserting its historical and legal rights to the islands. The local population on Abu Musa is affected by this geopolitical situation, living under Iranian administration amidst the unresolved claims.

In the Caspian Sea:

• Ashurada Island: Located off the eastern end of the Miankaleh Peninsula in the Caspian Sea, it is Iran's only island in this body of water. It has ecological importance, particularly for birdlife.

Many smaller islands are used for military purposes or wildlife protection, with restricted access. These islands contribute to Iran's strategic posture, economic activities (like fishing and tourism), and ecological diversity.

5.1. Supreme Leader

The Supreme Leader (رهبر انقلاب_{Rahbar-e Enqelāb}^Persian, "Leader of the Revolution", or مقام رهبری_{Maqam-e Rahbari}^Persian, "Supreme Leadership Authority") is the head of state and the highest-ranking political and religious authority in Iran. This position holds ultimate power and makes final decisions on all major state policies. The Supreme Leader is responsible for the supervision of the general policies of the Islamic Republic.

Powers and Responsibilities:
The Supreme Leader's powers are extensive and include:

• Delineating the general policies of the Islamic Republic.
• Supervising the proper execution of these policies.
• Commander-in-chief of the armed forces, controlling military intelligence and security operations.
• Sole power to declare war or peace.
• Appointing and dismissing the heads of the judiciary, the state radio and television network, the chief of staff of the armed forces, the commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), and commanders of the different branches of the armed forces.
• Appointing six of the twelve members of the Guardian Council.
• Appointing the members of the Expediency Discernment Council.
• Resolving disputes between the three branches of government when ordinary methods fail.
• Signing the decree formalizing the election of the President.
• Dismissing the President if deemed in the interest of the country by the Supreme Court or after a vote of no-confidence by the Majlis.
• Granting amnesty or reducing sentences of convicts, within the framework of Islamic criteria.

Key ministers, particularly for Defense, Intelligence, and Foreign Affairs, are selected with the Supreme Leader's implicit or explicit agreement. Regional policy is also heavily influenced, if not directly controlled, by the Supreme Leader's office, with the Quds Force (an IRGC branch responsible for extraterritorial operations) reporting directly to the Supreme Leader. The Supreme Leader can also order laws passed by the Majlis to be amended or overturned.

The office of the Supreme Leader controls significant economic assets, such as Setad Ejraiye Farmane Emam (Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order), an economic conglomerate whose holdings were estimated by Reuters in 2013 to be worth around 95.00 B USD. The accounts of such organizations are often opaque, even to the Iranian parliament.

Selection and Tenure:
The Supreme Leader is chosen by the Assembly of Experts, a body of 88 Islamic scholars elected by popular vote. The Assembly is also theoretically responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional power to dismiss him if he is deemed incapable of fulfilling his duties or no longer meets the qualifications. However, in practice, the Assembly of Experts has not historically challenged the Supreme Leader's decisions or authority. Ruhollah Khomeini was the first Supreme Leader, serving from 1979 until his death in 1989. He was succeeded by Ali Khamenei, who has held the position since. The Supreme Leader holds the office for life.

The institution of the Supreme Leader, rooted in the concept of Velayat-e Faqih, ensures that an Islamic jurist oversees the state to prevent deviation from Islamic principles. This concentration of power has led to criticism regarding the democratic deficit and lack of accountability within the Iranian political system, impacting human rights and civil liberties.

5.2. President

The President is the head of government and the highest popularly elected official in Iran, second in authority only to the Supreme Leader. The President is elected by universal suffrage for a four-year term and can be re-elected for only one consecutive term.

Election Process:
Presidential candidates must be vetted and approved by the Guardian Council before they can run for office. This vetting process ensures that candidates are deemed sufficiently loyal to the principles of the Islamic Republic and Islamic law. The Supreme Leader also has the power to approve or disapprove candidates, effectively having the final say, and can dismiss an elected president.

Functions and Powers:
The President is responsible for:

• Implementing the Constitution and laws passed by the Majlis.
• Exercising executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader.
• Heading the executive branch of government.
• Appointing and dismissing cabinet ministers, subject to the approval of the Majlis.
• Signing treaties and agreements with foreign countries, after approval from relevant bodies.
• Administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs.
• Chairing the Supreme National Security Council.
• Serving as the deputy commander-in-chief of the armed forces (though supreme command rests with the Supreme Leader).
• Appointing provincial governors and ambassadors, typically in consultation with other state bodies.
• Receiving credentials of foreign ambassadors.

The President supervises the Council of Ministers (Cabinet), coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be presented to the legislature. The President is assisted by several Vice Presidents, the most senior being the First Vice President, who may lead cabinet meetings in the President's absence. There are typically around eight Vice Presidents and a cabinet of approximately 22 ministers.

Relationship with the Supreme Leader:
While the President is the head of the executive branch, their power is significantly circumscribed by the Supreme Leader, who has the final say on all major state policies, including foreign affairs, defense, and key domestic issues. The President and cabinet ministers must operate within the guidelines set by the Supreme Leader. The Supreme Leader can also dismiss the President if deemed necessary, either through the Supreme Court or following a Majlis vote of no-confidence, effectively underlining the President's subordinate role in the power hierarchy. This dynamic often creates tension between the elected government, seeking to implement its mandate, and the unelected institutions loyal to the Supreme Leader, impacting governance and the potential for reform.

5.3. Legislature (Majlis)

The Islamic Consultative Assembly (مجلس شورای اسلامی_{Majles-e Showrā-ye Eslāmi}^Persian), also known as the Majlis or Iranian Parliament, is the unicameral national legislature of Iran. It is composed of 290 members who are elected by direct popular vote for four-year terms.

Functions and Powers:
The Majlis is responsible for:

• Drafting and passing legislation in accordance with the Constitution and Islamic principles.
• Ratifying international treaties and agreements.
• Approving the national budget proposed by the government.
• Investigating and questioning government ministers and the President.
• Approving or rejecting cabinet ministers nominated by the President.
• Voting of no-confidence in individual ministers or the President (which can lead to their dismissal, though presidential dismissal also requires Supreme Leader's endorsement or Supreme Court action).
• Approving loans and grants from or to foreign entities.

Legislative Process and Oversight:
All legislation passed by the Majlis must be reviewed and approved by the Guardian Council to ensure its compatibility with the Constitution and Islamic law (Sharia). The Guardian Council has the power to veto any legislation it deems un-Islamic or unconstitutional. This oversight significantly influences the legislative output of the Majlis.
Parliamentary candidates must also be vetted and approved by the Guardian Council before they can run for election. This screening process has often been a point of contention, as it can lead to the disqualification of candidates, particularly those with reformist or dissenting views, thereby shaping the political composition of the Majlis. The Guardian Council also has the power to dismiss elected members of parliament under certain circumstances.

The Majlis has 207 constituencies. Of the 290 seats, five are reserved for representatives of recognized religious minorities: Zoroastrians, Jews, Assyrian and Chaldean Christians each have one seat, and Armenian Christians have two seats (one for Armenians of the north and one for Armenians of the south). The remaining 285 members represent territorial constituencies, each covering one or more of Iran's counties.

The Majlis plays a role in representing constituencies and shaping laws within the framework of the Islamic Republic. However, its power is significantly balanced and often overridden by unelected bodies like the Guardian Council and the ultimate authority of the Supreme Leader. If disputes arise between the Majlis and the Guardian Council over legislation, the Expediency Discernment Council can intervene to mediate and make a final decision.

Specialized commissions within the parliament, such as the National Security and Foreign Policy Commission or the Economic Affairs Commission, play a crucial role in scrutinizing legislation and government performance in their respective areas. The Supreme Audit Court of Iran and the Majlis Research Center provide research and auditing support to the legislature.

5.4. Judiciary

The judicial system of the Islamic Republic of Iran is based on Sharia (Islamic law) with elements of civil law. The system's structure and principles are outlined in the Constitution and are intended to uphold Islamic justice. However, the judiciary has been widely criticized by international human rights organizations for its lack of independence, due process violations, harsh punishments, and its role in suppressing dissent and political opposition, thereby having significant human rights implications.

Structure and Hierarchy:

• Chief Justice (Head of the Judiciary)**: Appointed by the Supreme Leader for a five-year term (renewable). The Chief Justice is the highest judicial authority and is responsible for establishing the organizational structure of the judiciary, drafting judicial bills for parliament, and appointing and dismissing judges.
• Supreme Court**: The highest court of appeal, responsible for ensuring the correct application of laws by lower courts and for standardizing judicial procedures. The head of the Supreme Court is appointed by the Chief Justice in consultation with the Supreme Court judges.
• Attorney-General (Public Prosecutor General)**: Also appointed by the Chief Justice.

The court system includes several types of courts:

• Public Courts (General Courts)**: Deal with most civil and criminal cases.
• Revolutionary Courts**: Established after the 1979 revolution, these courts handle cases deemed to be against national security, including political offenses, drug trafficking, and "corruption on earth." Their procedures often lack due process, and their rulings, which can include severe punishments like the death penalty, are often final or have limited avenues for appeal. Critics argue these courts are used to suppress political dissent and target human rights defenders.
• Special Clerical Court**: Tries cases involving members of the clergy for alleged offenses. It operates independently of the regular judicial framework and is directly accountable to the Supreme Leader. Its rulings are also typically final and cannot be appealed.
• Specialized Courts**: These include family courts, juvenile courts, administrative justice courts, and military courts.

Application of Islamic Law:
The judiciary applies Islamic legal principles derived primarily from Shi'a jurisprudence. Laws passed by the Majlis must conform to Sharia as interpreted by the Guardian Council. Penalties under Iranian law can include qisas (retribution in kind), hudud (fixed punishments for offenses against God, such as amputation or flogging), diyya (blood money or compensation), and ta'zir (discretionary punishments). The use of capital punishment is frequent, including for offenses not considered capital crimes under international law, and sometimes involves public executions. Stoning, although less common, remains a legal form of punishment for adultery.

Human rights concerns related to the judiciary include:

• Lack of judicial independence from political influence, particularly from security and intelligence agencies.
• Vague laws, especially concerning national security, that are used to criminalize peaceful expression and activism.
• Restrictions on access to legal counsel, particularly in politically sensitive cases.
• Use of confessions obtained under duress or torture.
• Discrimination against women and religious and ethnic minorities within the legal system.
• Harsh sentences, including long prison terms and the death penalty, for political prisoners, journalists, and human rights defenders.

The impact of the judiciary on the lives of Iranians is profound, shaping not only legal outcomes but also broader social and political norms, often in a manner that curtails individual freedoms and democratic aspirations.

5.5. Guardian Council

The Guardian Council (شورای نگهبان قانون اساسی_{Showrā-ye Negahbān-e Qānun-e Asāsi}^Persian) is one of the most powerful and influential bodies in the Iranian political system. Its primary functions are to ensure the compatibility of legislation with Islamic law (Sharia) and the Constitution, and to supervise elections.

Composition:
The Guardian Council consists of twelve members:

• Six Islamic jurists (faqihs): These members are specialists in Islamic law and are directly appointed by the Supreme Leader. They are chosen for their expertise in Shi'a jurisprudence.
• Six jurists (lawyers): These members are specialists in various branches of law. They are nominated by the Head of the Judiciary (who is himself appointed by the Supreme Leader) and must be approved by the Majlis (parliament).

Members serve six-year terms, with half of the members changing every three years to ensure continuity.

Functions and Powers:
1. **Vetting Legislation**: All bills passed by the Majlis must be submitted to the Guardian Council for review. The Council has the authority to veto any legislation it deems contrary to Islamic principles (Sharia) or the Constitution. If a bill is vetoed, it is sent back to the Majlis for amendment. This power allows the Guardian Council to significantly shape the legal landscape of Iran.
2. **Supervising Elections (Candidate Vetting)**: The Guardian Council is responsible for supervising all major elections in Iran, including presidential, parliamentary (Majlis), and Assembly of Experts elections. A crucial aspect of this supervision is the vetting (or screening) of all candidates. The Council determines the eligibility of individuals wishing to run for office based on criteria such as loyalty to the Islamic Republic, belief in Velayat-e Faqih, and adherence to Islamic principles. This vetting process has been a major source of political contention, as it has often resulted in the disqualification of reformist or moderate candidates, thereby influencing the outcome of elections and limiting the range of political choices available to voters. The Council's decisions on candidate eligibility are final.
3. **Interpreting the Constitution**: The Guardian Council has the authority to interpret the Constitution. This power, similar to that of a constitutional court in other countries, allows it to clarify constitutional ambiguities and ensure that all state actions align with constitutional provisions.
4. **Oversight of Referendums**: The Council also oversees national referendums.

Impact on Political Landscape and Democratic Processes:
The Guardian Council plays a critical role in maintaining the Islamic character of the state and acts as a check on the elected Majlis. Its power to vet candidates and legislation effectively makes it a gatekeeper of the political system. Critics argue that this concentration of power in an unelected body (half of whose members are directly appointed by the Supreme Leader and the other half indirectly influenced by him) undermines democratic processes by restricting political competition and limiting the scope of legislative action. The Council's decisions have often been seen as favoring conservative factions and hindering reforms aimed at greater political and social freedoms. The dynamic between the Majlis and the Guardian Council can lead to legislative deadlock, which is then typically resolved by the Expediency Discernment Council.

5.6. Expediency Discernment Council

The Expediency Discernment Council of the System (مجمع تشخیص مصلحت نظام_{Majma' Tashkhīs Maslahat Nezām}^Persian), often referred to as the Expediency Council, is an administrative assembly appointed by the Supreme Leader. It was originally established during the Iran-Iraq War to resolve legislative deadlocks between the Majlis (parliament) and the Guardian Council, and its role was formalized in the 1989 constitutional revision.

Composition:
The members of the Expediency Council are appointed by the Supreme Leader and typically include prominent political, religious, and military figures, often representing various factions within the establishment. The President, the Speaker of the Majlis, and the Head of the Judiciary are ex-officio members, as are the six clerical members of the Guardian Council relevant to the specific dispute being considered. The council has historically been chaired by influential figures like Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and later Sadeq Larijani.

Functions and Powers:
1. **Mediating Legislative Disputes**: The primary constitutional role of the Expediency Council is to arbitrate when the Majlis and the Guardian Council cannot agree on a piece of legislation. If the Majlis passes a bill that the Guardian Council rejects (either as un-Islamic or unconstitutional), and the Majlis is unable or unwilling to amend it to the Guardian Council's satisfaction, the bill can be referred to the Expediency Council. The Council then makes a final decision on whether the bill should become law, considering the "expediency" or "interest" of the system. This power allows the Council to override both the Majlis and, in effect, the Guardian Council's objections if it deems a law necessary for the state.
2. **Advisory Role to the Supreme Leader**: The Expediency Council serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader on matters of national policy. The Supreme Leader can refer major policy issues to the Council for deliberation and advice. This function makes it one of the most influential bodies in the country, shaping long-term strategies and policies.
3. **Formulating General Policies**: In some instances, the Council has been tasked with drafting or outlining general policies of the Islamic Republic, subject to the Supreme Leader's approval.
4. **Proposing Solutions for Systemic Problems**: The Supreme Leader may also delegate to the Council the responsibility of finding solutions to complex national problems or challenges facing the regime.

The Expediency Council's decisions in legislative disputes are final and cannot be appealed. Its role in balancing the interests of different state institutions and providing strategic advice to the Supreme Leader makes it a key player in Iran's complex political structure, often acting as a mechanism for maintaining regime stability and consensus among the ruling elite.

5.7. Supreme National Security Council

The Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) (شورای عالی امنیت ملی_{Showrā-ye Āli-ye Amniyat-e Mellī}^Persian) is Iran's primary body for formulating defense and national security policies. It operates under the guidance of the Supreme Leader, who has the ultimate authority over all security matters. The council was formed during the 1989 constitutional revision.

Composition:
The SNSC is chaired by the President of Iran. Its members typically include:

• The President.
• The Speaker of the Majlis (Parliament).
• The Head of the Judiciary.
• The Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces.
• The Minister of Foreign Affairs.
• The Minister of Interior.
• The Minister of Intelligence.
• The head of the Plan and Budget Organization.
• Two representatives appointed by the Supreme Leader.
• The commanders-in-chief of the Army and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC).
• The minister relevant to the topic under discussion, if applicable.

The Secretary of the SNSC is a key position, appointed by the President in consultation with the Supreme Leader, and serves as the council's chief administrator and spokesperson. Historically, the Secretary has played a crucial role in sensitive negotiations, such as those concerning Iran's nuclear program.

Responsibilities and Functions:
According to Article 176 of the Constitution, the responsibilities of the SNSC include:

• Determining the defense and national security policies of the country within the framework of general policies set by the Supreme Leader.
• Coordinating political, intelligence, social, cultural, and economic activities related to defense and national security policies.
• Exploiting national material and intellectual resources for confronting internal and external threats.

The decisions of the SNSC become effective after confirmation by the Supreme Leader. The council plays a central role in managing crises, formulating responses to external threats, and coordinating the activities of various government agencies involved in national security. It has been particularly prominent in shaping Iran's nuclear policy and its regional foreign policy. While chaired by the President, the SNSC's policies and decisions must align with the directives of the Supreme Leader, who retains ultimate control over all strategic matters.

5.8. Administrative Divisions

Iran is a unitary state with a system of administrative divisions that organizes the country into several hierarchical levels for governance and public administration.

The primary administrative unit is the province (استان_ostān^Persian). As of the early 2020s, Iran is subdivided into 31 provinces. Each province is governed from a local center, usually the largest local city, which is designated as the provincial capital (مرکز_markaz^Persian). The provincial authority is headed by a Governor-General (استاندار_ostāndār^Persian), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to the approval of the Cabinet. Governors-General are responsible for implementing national policies at the provincial level, coordinating local government activities, and overseeing security and development within their province.

The provinces are further subdivided into:

• Counties (شهرستان_shahrestān^Persian): Each province consists of several counties. A county is administered by a governor (فرماندار_farmāndār^Persian).
• Districts (بخش_bakhsh^Persian): Each county is typically divided into one or more districts. A district is headed by a bakhshdār.
• Rural Districts (دهستان_dehestān^Persian) and Cities (شهر_shahr^Persian): Districts are composed of rural districts (groupings of villages) and cities. Cities have municipalities headed by mayors, while villages have village councils.

Local Governance:
Since 1999, Iran has held elections for City and Village Councils (شوراهای اسلامی شهر و روستا_{Showrāhā-ye Eslāmī-ye Shahr va Rūstā}^Persian). These councils are elected by local residents and are responsible for overseeing local affairs, electing mayors (in cities), and addressing local development and service provision issues. While these councils represent a degree of local participation, their powers are often limited by the authority of centrally appointed officials like governors and by budgetary constraints.

The administrative divisions are subject to change; new provinces have been created by splitting existing ones (e.g., Alborz province was separated from Tehran province in 2010). This system of administrative divisions facilitates the implementation of national policies and the management of public services across Iran's geographically diverse and populous territory.

The provinces of Iran are (in alphabetical order): Alborz, Ardabil, Azerbaijan, East, Azerbaijan, West, Bushehr, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Fars, Gilan, Golestan, Hamadan, Hormozgan, Ilam, Isfahan, Kerman, Kermanshah, Khorasan, North, Khorasan, Razavi, Khorasan, South, Khuzestan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Kurdistan, Lorestan, Markazi, Mazandaran, Qazvin, Qom, Semnan, Sistan and Baluchestan, Tehran, Yazd, and Zanjan.

6.1. Relations with Key Countries and Regions

Details Iran's bilateral relations with major global powers (e.g., United States, Russia, China, European Union), neighboring countries in the Middle East, and other significant nations, focusing on historical ties, current cooperation, areas of conflict, and diplomatic stances, including humanitarian impacts.

• United States**: Relations have been deeply adversarial since the 1979 Revolution and the Iran hostage crisis. Decades of mutual mistrust, US sanctions (particularly concerning Iran's nuclear program and alleged support for terrorism), and geopolitical rivalry in the Middle East define this relationship. The US derecognized Iran in 1979. There are no formal diplomatic ties; Switzerland acts as a protecting power. The US withdrawal from the JCPOA in 2018 and the assassination of Iranian General Qasem Soleimani in 2020 further heightened tensions. The humanitarian impact of US sanctions on the Iranian populace is a significant concern for human rights advocates.
• European Union (EU)**: Relations with EU countries have been mixed. European nations were key partners in the JCPOA and have generally sought diplomatic engagement with Iran. However, concerns over Iran's nuclear program, human rights record (including the use of capital punishment and suppression of dissent), and regional activities (such as missile development and support for proxies) have led to periodic EU sanctions and strained ties. Trade and cultural exchange exist but are often overshadowed by political disagreements.
• China**: Iran and China have cultivated a strategic partnership, strengthened by shared interests in countering US influence and economic cooperation. China is a major buyer of Iranian oil (often circumventing US sanctions) and a significant investor in Iranian infrastructure. In 2021, they signed a 25-year cooperation agreement encompassing political, strategic, and economic components, signaling deepening ties. This relationship dates back to ancient Silk Road connections.
• Russia**: Relations with Russia have become increasingly close, particularly in the military and strategic spheres. Both countries are subject to Western sanctions and share an interest in challenging the US-led global order. Russia has been a key partner in Iran's nuclear program (e.g., construction of the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant) and has provided military hardware. Iran's support for Russia in its invasion of Ukraine, including drone supplies, has further solidified their alignment but also drawn international criticism. Iran has been invited to join the Russia-led Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) as an observer.
• Saudi Arabia**: As the leading Shi'a and Sunni powers in the region, respectively, Iran and Saudi Arabia have a deeply adversarial relationship characterized by geopolitical rivalry, sectarian tensions, and proxy conflicts in countries like Yemen, Syria, and Lebanon. Diplomatic ties were severed in 2016 but restored in 2023 through Chinese mediation, though underlying tensions remain. The rivalry impacts regional stability and has had severe humanitarian consequences in conflict zones.
• Turkey**: Relations are complex, involving both cooperation and competition. They share economic ties and some common interests (e.g., concerns about Kurdish separatism), but have also backed opposing sides in regional conflicts like Syria and Libya, and compete for influence in the South Caucasus.
• Iraq**: Following the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in 2003, Iran has gained significant political, economic, and security influence in Iraq, particularly among Shi'a political groups and militias. This influence is a legacy of historical ties, shared religious heritage, and Iranian support against ISIS. Economic relations are strong, with Iran being a major trading partner.
• Syria**: Syria, under the Assad regime, has been Iran's closest Arab ally for decades. Iran has provided crucial military, economic, and political support to Bashar al-Assad during the Syrian civil war, helping to preserve his rule. This alliance provides Iran with a strategic foothold in the Levant and access to groups like Hezbollah. The fall of the Assad regime in December 2024 marked a significant setback for Iran's regional influence.
• Lebanon**: Iran wields significant influence in Lebanon primarily through its strong backing of Hezbollah, a powerful Shi'a political and militant organization. This support includes funding, training, and weaponry, enabling Hezbollah to be a major force in Lebanese politics and a key component of Iran's "axis of resistance" against Israel.
• Israel**: Iran does not recognize the state of Israel and considers it an illegitimate entity. Relations are openly hostile, marked by a shadow war involving covert operations, cyber-attacks, and support for anti-Israel militant groups like Hezbollah and Hamas. Israel views Iran's nuclear program and regional influence as existential threats. Iran's rhetoric often includes calls for Israel's destruction, which is widely condemned internationally. This conflict has significant humanitarian and security implications for the region.
• Afghanistan and Pakistan**: Relations with its eastern neighbors are complex, involving issues of border security, refugees (Iran hosts a large Afghan refugee population), water rights, and trade. Iran has sought to maintain influence with various factions in Afghanistan and has engaged with Pakistan on regional security and economic cooperation, though relations can be strained by cross-border militant activities.
• Tajikistan**: Iran shares close linguistic and cultural ties with Tajikistan and has fostered strong diplomatic and economic relations.
• North Korea and South Korea**: Iran maintains diplomatic relations with both Koreas. Its relationship with North Korea has included cooperation on missile technology, raising international concerns. Relations with South Korea have primarily focused on trade, though often complicated by international sanctions on Iran.

6.2. International Organizations and Alliances

Iran is a founding member of the United Nations (UN), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO).
It is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
In recent years, Iran has sought to strengthen ties with non-Western blocs and organizations. It became a full member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) in 2023 and joined the BRICS group of emerging economies in 2024.
Iran has observer status at the World Trade Organization (WTO) but its accession has been a lengthy process.
Iran participates in various UN agencies and international bodies, including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which plays a key role in monitoring its nuclear activities. Iran's engagement in multilateral diplomacy is often focused on issues such as nuclear non-proliferation (from its perspective), regional security, and challenging what it perceives as unilateralism by major powers. However, its human rights record and regional policies frequently lead to criticism and resolutions against it in international forums like the UN Human Rights Council.

7.1. Structure and Organization

Details the composition of the regular military (Artesh: Ground Forces, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense) and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC: Ground Forces, Aerospace Force, Navy, Quds Force, Basij militia), including their respective roles and command structures.

• Artesh (Regular Military)**: The Artesh is responsible for conventional warfare and defending Iran's territorial integrity and borders. It comprises four main branches:
  • Ground Forces: The largest branch, equipped with tanks, armored personnel carriers, and artillery.
  • Navy: Operates primarily in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and the Caspian Sea, with capabilities including frigates, submarines, and missile boats.
  • Air Force (IRIAF): Operates a mix of aircraft, including older Western-supplied planes from before the revolution and more recent Russian and domestically produced aircraft.
  • Air Defense Force: Responsible for protecting Iranian airspace, equipped with radar systems, surface-to-air missiles, and anti-aircraft artillery.
  • Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)**: Established after the 1979 Revolution, the IRGC is tasked with safeguarding the Islamic Republic system and its revolutionary values, both internally and externally. It has become a powerful military, political, and economic force. Its branches include:
    • Ground Forces: Focuses on internal security, border control, and unconventional warfare.
    • Aerospace Force: Controls Iran's ballistic missile program, drone fleet, and has some air combat capabilities. It also runs Iran's space program, including satellite launches.
    • Navy: Operates a large number of fast attack craft and focuses on asymmetric naval warfare in the Persian Gulf, particularly in the Strait of Hormuz.
    • Quds Force: An elite special forces unit responsible for extraterritorial operations, including intelligence gathering, supporting allied militias and governments (e.g., Hezbollah, Hamas, Iraqi Shi'a militias, Houthi rebels), and projecting Iranian influence abroad. It reports directly to the Supreme Leader.
    • Basij: A large volunteer paramilitary militia, with millions of registered members (though active numbers are lower, estimated at around 600,000 available for immediate call-up and 300,000 reservists). The Basij is involved in internal security, law enforcement, social services, and moral policing. It can be mobilized in times of crisis or war.
    • Law Enforcement Command (Faraja)**: Formerly known as NAJA, this is the uniformed police force of Iran, responsible for general law enforcement, traffic control, border protection (in some areas), and counter-narcotics operations. It has over 260,000 active personnel and functions analogously to a gendarmerie.

    While the Artesh and IRGC have distinct roles, there is some overlap and occasional rivalry, but they also coordinate under the General Staff. The IRGC often has access to more advanced weaponry and greater political influence.

7.2. Defense Industry and Capabilities

Since the 1979 Revolution and facing international arms embargoes, Iran has significantly developed its domestic defense industry to achieve greater self-sufficiency. It is now capable of producing a wide range of armaments.

• Missile Program**: This is a cornerstone of Iran's defense capabilities. Iran possesses the largest and most diverse ballistic missile arsenal in the Middle East, including short-range, medium-range, and some longer-range missiles capable of reaching targets across the region. Examples include the Shahab, Sejjil, Ghadr, Emad, Khorramshahr, and Fattah (claimed to be a hypersonic missile). Iran is considered the world's 6th missile power by some assessments and one of only five countries with acknowledged hypersonic missile technology.
• Drone (UAV) Program**: Iran has become a major producer and exporter of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Its drone fleet includes surveillance, reconnaissance, and combat drones (UCAVs) like the Shahed, Mohajer, and Kaman series. Iranian drones have been used by its forces and supplied to allied groups and countries, notably Russia for use in the Ukraine conflict. Iran is considered a global leader in drone warfare and technology.
• Naval Capabilities**: Iran produces various naval vessels, including small submarines, frigates (like the Jamaran class), missile boats, and fast attack craft, suited for asymmetric warfare in the Persian Gulf.
• Armored Vehicles and Artillery**: The domestic industry manufactures tanks (e.g., Karrar, an upgraded T-72), armored personnel carriers, and various artillery systems.
• Aircraft**: While heavily reliant on pre-revolution Western aircraft and some Russian imports, Iran has made efforts to produce indigenous fighter aircraft (e.g., HESA Kowsar, HESA Saeqeh, based on older designs) and helicopters. It also overhauls and upgrades existing airframes. In November 2023, arrangements were reportedly finalized to acquire Russian Sukhoi Su-35 fighter jets and Mil Mi-28 attack helicopters.
• Air Defense Systems**: Iran has developed its own air defense systems, such as the Bavar-373 and Khordad series, alongside imported systems like the Russian S-300.
• Cyberwarfare Capabilities**: Iran is recognized as having significant cyberwarfare capabilities and is considered one of the most active players in the international cyber arena, engaging in both offensive and defensive cyber operations.
• Weapons of Mass Destruction**: Iran is a signatory to the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Biological Weapons Convention. While it maintains a civilian nuclear program, it denies aspirations for nuclear weapons. (See Nuclear Program section).

Iran has been an arms exporter since the 2000s, particularly of drones and missiles. Its defense industry is largely state-controlled, with significant involvement from the IRGC and the Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces Logistics. Military spending increased in 2021 to approximately 24.60 B USD, about 2.3% of GDP, with a substantial portion allocated to the IRGC.

7.3. Nuclear Program

Iran's nuclear program has been a subject of international concern and diplomacy for decades. Officially, Iran maintains that its program is for peaceful purposes, primarily electricity generation and medical isotopes. However, many countries, particularly Western nations and Israel, have suspected that Iran harbors ambitions to develop nuclear weapons.

• Early History**: The program began in the 1950s under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi with assistance from the United States as part of the "Atoms for Peace" program. Plans for several nuclear power plants were developed.
• Post-Revolution Revival**: After the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the program was initially halted but later revived in the 1980s during the Iran-Iraq War.
• Revelations and IAEA Scrutiny**: In 2002, an Iranian opposition group revealed the existence of undeclared nuclear facilities at Natanz (uranium enrichment) and Arak (heavy water production), leading to intensified inspections by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The IAEA found Iran in non-compliance with its safeguards agreement at various times.
• International Negotiations and Sanctions**: Concerns over potential weaponization led to years of diplomatic negotiations and the imposition of multiple rounds of United Nations Security Council sanctions, as well as unilateral sanctions by the US and EU. These sanctions significantly impacted Iran's economy.
• Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)**: In 2015, Iran and the P5+1 (China, France, Russia, UK, US + Germany) and the EU reached the JCPOA. Under this deal, Iran agreed to significant restrictions on its nuclear activities, including limits on uranium enrichment levels and stockpiles, and enhanced IAEA monitoring, in exchange for the lifting of nuclear-related international sanctions.
• US Withdrawal and Iran's Reduced Compliance**: In 2018, the United States under the Trump administration unilaterally withdrew from the JCPOA and re-imposed sanctions. In response, Iran began to incrementally reduce its compliance with the deal starting in 2019, increasing its stockpile of enriched uranium, enriching uranium to higher fissile purity levels (up to 60%, close to weapons-grade, which is typically around 90%), and restricting IAEA access to some sites.
• Current Status and Implications**: As of the early 2020s, negotiations to revive the JCPOA have stalled. Iran has advanced its nuclear program significantly, leading to concerns that it has reached "nuclear threshold status" or is very close to being able to produce enough fissile material for a nuclear weapon in a short timeframe if it chose to do so. The IAEA continues to monitor Iran's declared nuclear activities but has expressed concerns about the completeness of Iran's declarations and limitations on access. Iran's nuclear ambitions remain a major point of tension in international relations, with significant implications for regional and global security. Some analysts regard Iran as a de facto nuclear power or on the cusp of becoming one.

7.4. Regional Influence and Operations

Iran wields considerable military and strategic influence in the Middle East, often characterized as striving to establish a "Shia Crescent" or leading an "Axis of Resistance" against US and Israeli interests. This influence is primarily projected through a network of allied state and non-state actors, supported and often directed by the IRGC's Quds Force. These activities have significant humanitarian and political consequences, contributing to regional instability and proxy conflicts while also being framed by Iran as support for oppressed groups and resistance against foreign interference.

• Hezbollah (Lebanon)**: Since its formation in the early 1980s, Hezbollah has been Iran's most prominent and capable proxy. Iran provides extensive financial, military (training and weaponry, including advanced missiles), and political support. Hezbollah is a major political force in Lebanon and a formidable military actor, frequently clashing with Israel. This alliance gives Iran a strategic presence on Israel's northern border and access to the Mediterranean.
• Syria**: The Assad regime in Syria has been a long-standing strategic ally. During the Syrian civil war (starting 2011), Iran provided crucial military (Quds Force advisors, IRGC-backed militias like Liwa Fatemiyoun composed of Afghan Shi'as, and Liwa Zainebiyoun composed of Pakistani Shi'as), financial, and logistical support to Bashar al-Assad, playing a key role in his regime's survival. This intervention has secured Iranian lines of communication to Hezbollah and maintained a friendly government in a key Arab state, but at a tremendous humanitarian cost to the Syrian people. The fall of the Assad regime in December 2024 dealt a significant blow to this aspect of Iran's regional influence.
• Iraq**: Following the 2003 US invasion and the fall of Saddam Hussein, Iran's influence in Iraq has grown substantially, particularly among Shi'a political parties and paramilitary groups (Hashd al-Shaabi). Iran has provided training, funding, and arms to these militias, some ofwhich fought against US forces and later against ISIS. This has given Iran significant leverage over Iraqi politics and security, though it has also fueled sectarian tensions and concerns about Iraqi sovereignty. Economic ties, including Iranian exports of gas and electricity to Iraq, are also strong, with trade expected to reach 20.00 B USD.
• Houthis (Ansar Allah) (Yemen)**: Iran has provided increasing support (including weapons, training, and financial aid) to the Houthi movement in Yemen, which controls significant parts of the country, including the capital Sana'a, and has been engaged in a prolonged civil war against the internationally recognized government (backed by a Saudi-led coalition). Houthi attacks on shipping in the Red Sea have further highlighted Iran's ability to project influence through proxies, causing significant disruption to global trade and drawing international military responses.
• Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (Palestinian Territories)**: Iran provides financial, material, and political support to Palestinian militant groups like Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad, which oppose Israel and the Palestinian Authority. This support aligns with Iran's anti-Israel stance and its efforts to position itself as a champion of the Palestinian cause, though the relationship with Hamas (a Sunni group) has had ups and downs.
• Afghanistan and Pakistan**: Iran has historical, cultural, and economic ties with both countries. It has engaged with various factions in Afghanistan, including historically supporting the Northern Alliance against the Taliban, and later engaging with the Taliban as well. It has also utilized Afghan Shi'a refugees for militia groups like Liwa Fatemiyoun. With Pakistan, relations involve trade and security cooperation, but also tensions related to cross-border militancy.
• North Africa**: Iran has sought to extend its influence in North Africa, including alleged support for anti-Israel fronts in countries like Algeria and Tunisia.

These regional operations and alliances are central to Iran's foreign policy and security doctrine. While Iran views them as defensive measures and support for legitimate resistance movements, many regional and international actors see them as destabilizing, contributing to sectarianism, and undermining state sovereignty in neighboring countries. The humanitarian impact of conflicts where Iran and its allies are involved (Syria, Yemen, Iraq) has been immense, leading to widespread displacement, civilian casualties, and exacerbation of crises. US intelligence has suggested that Iran does not always have full operational control over all its proxy groups, though its support is critical to their capabilities.

8.1. Structure and Performance

The Iranian economy is characterized by a large public sector, with the government and quasi-governmental foundations (bonyads) controlling significant portions of economic activity, particularly in oil, gas, and heavy industries. Services contribute the largest percentage to the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture.
The country's GDP has experienced fluctuations due to oil price volatility and the impact of sanctions. Inflation has been a persistent problem, often reaching double digits, eroding purchasing power and impacting social welfare. Unemployment, especially among youth and women, is another significant challenge, estimated around 9% in 2022. Income distribution remains a concern, despite government subsidies on essential goods and services.
International economic sanctions have severely hampered Iran's ability to trade, access foreign investment, and integrate into the global financial system. These sanctions have particularly targeted its oil exports and banking sector. In response, Iran has pursued policies of economic self-reliance, import substitution, and developing non-oil exports.
Budget deficits have been a chronic issue, partly due to large state subsidies on items like fuel and foodstuffs, which amounted to an estimated 100.00 B USD for energy alone in 2022. Efforts to reform these subsidies and replace them with targeted social assistance have had mixed success. The Central Bank of Iran manages the national currency, which has experienced significant devaluation.
Tehran is the economic powerhouse of Iran, hosting about 30% of Iran's public-sector workforce and 45% of its large industrial firms. The Tehran Stock Exchange plays a vital role, with over 40 industries directly involved.

8.2. Major Sectors

Details the key industries in Iran, including oil and gas, petrochemicals, manufacturing (automotive, construction materials, etc.), agriculture, and services, examining their contribution to the economy, employment, and development challenges. This section should consider labor rights and environmental impacts associated with these industries.

• Oil and Gas**: This is the dominant sector. Iran holds some ofthe world's largest proven oil reserves (estimated 3rd or 4th largest) and natural gas reserves (estimated 2nd largest). The National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) oversees exploration, production, and export. This sector is crucial for export earnings and government revenue, but its performance is heavily influenced by global oil prices and international sanctions. Environmental concerns related to oil and gas extraction and processing are significant.
• Petrochemicals**: Iran has a large and expanding petrochemical industry, utilizing its abundant hydrocarbon resources to produce a wide range of products for domestic use and export.
• Manufacturing**:
  • Automotive**: Iran has a significant domestic automotive industry, with companies like Iran Khodro (IKCO) and SAIPA being major producers. It is the largest automotive manufacturer in the Middle East and has ranked among the top 20 globally by production volume (e.g., 16th largest in 2023 with 1.188 million cars). However, the industry relies on some imported components and has faced challenges due to sanctions.
  • Construction Materials**: Production of cement, steel, and other construction materials is substantial, supporting domestic infrastructure development and some exports.
  • Other Manufacturing**: Includes home appliances, food processing, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. Iran has made strides in developing its domestic pharmaceutical industry.
• Agriculture**: Roughly one-third of Iran's total surface area is suited for farmland, but only about 12% is under cultivation, with a significant portion relying on irrigation. Key products include wheat, barley, rice, fruits (pistachios, dates, figs, pomegranates, melons, apricots, cherries, quinces, walnuts, kiwis - Iran is a top global producer for many of these), vegetables, sugar beets, and cotton. The sector employs a significant portion of the workforce but faces challenges like water scarcity, traditional farming methods, and land fragmentation. Food security is a key policy objective. The fishery sector, with access to the Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Gulf of Oman, is also important, with Iran being a notable producer of caviar. Labor rights in agriculture, particularly for seasonal workers, and the environmental impact of water use and pesticides are ongoing concerns.
• Mining and Metals**: Besides oil and gas, Iran has rich mineral reserves, including copper, iron ore, zinc, lead, and chromite. It is among the top 15 mineral-rich countries globally.
• Services**: This sector is the largest contributor to GDP and includes retail, banking and finance, telecommunications, and tourism. The retail industry is a mix of traditional bazaars, cooperatives, and modern shopping centers. Banking is largely state-influenced and operates under Islamic finance principles.
• Defense Industry**: Iran has developed a significant domestic defense industry, producing missiles, drones, naval vessels, and other military equipment (see Military section).

Labor rights are a concern across many sectors, with independent trade unions facing restrictions and workers often experiencing issues with wages, job security, and working conditions. Environmental impacts, such as pollution from industrial activities and resource depletion in agriculture and mining, are significant development challenges.

8.3. Tourism

Tourism in Iran has significant potential due to the country's rich historical heritage, diverse cultural attractions, and varied natural landscapes. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic and increased geopolitical tensions, the sector was experiencing growth, with nearly 9 million foreign visitors in 2019, making it one of the world's fastest-growing tourism destinations at that time. In 2022, tourism's contribution to the economy was estimated at around 5%. In 2023, Iran saw a 43% growth in tourism, attracting approximately 6 million foreign visitors.

Major attractions include:

• Historical and Archaeological Sites**: Iran boasts 27 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including ancient cities like Persepolis and Pasargadae, the ziggurat of Chogha Zanbil, historic squares like Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan, and ancient cities like Yazd and Bam.
• Cultural Tourism**: Cities like Isfahan, Shiraz, and Yazd are renowned for their Islamic architecture, bazaars, gardens, and traditional houses. Persian poetry and philosophy also draw cultural tourists.
• Natural Attractions**: These range from the Alborz and Zagros mountains (offering hiking and skiing), the deserts of Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut, to the lush Hyrcanian forests along the Caspian coast (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
• Religious Tourism**: Mashhad, home to the Imam Reza Shrine, is a major pilgrimage site for Shi'a Muslims, attracting millions of domestic and international pilgrims annually. Qom is another important religious center.
• Medical Tourism**: Iran has been emerging as a destination for medical tourism, offering various treatments at competitive prices, particularly for visitors from neighboring countries.

The Iranian government has made efforts to promote tourism, including easing visa requirements for many nationalities (e.g., ending visa requirements for 60 countries in 2023) and investing in tourism infrastructure. About 98% of visits are for leisure, while 2% are for business. The majority of foreign tourists have historically come from neighboring countries and the wider Middle East, as well as Europe and Asia. Domestic tourism is also very significant, with Iranians spending an estimated 33.00 B USD on domestic travel in 2021.

Challenges to the tourism sector include international sanctions (affecting financial transactions and air travel), political instability in the region, and Iran's international image. Social and cultural restrictions, such as dress codes and limitations on certain activities, can also be a factor for some international tourists. Despite these, the government projects significant investment in the tourism sector, aiming for $32 billion by 2026.

8.4. Transport

Iran has a developing transportation infrastructure that plays a crucial role in its domestic economy and international trade connectivity, given its strategic location. Over a million people work in the transport sector, accounting for about 9% of GDP.

• Roads**: Iran has an extensive road network. As of 2011, it had approximately 107 K mile ^{(173.00 K km)} of roads, of which about 73% were paved. Major highways connect large cities and provincial capitals. The road network is the primary mode for freight and passenger transport within the country. In 2008, there were nearly 100 passenger cars for every 1,000 inhabitants.
• Railways**: The Islamic Republic of Iran Railways operates the national rail network, which spans over 6.9 K mile ^{(11.11 K km)} of track. Rail transport is used for both passenger and freight services. Key routes connect major industrial and population centers, as well as ports. There are efforts to expand and modernize the rail network, including high-speed rail projects and connections to neighboring countries as part of international transport corridors (e.g., the International North-South Transport Corridor).
• Air Transport**: Iran has numerous airports serving domestic and international flights. The main international gateway is Imam Khomeini International Airport in Tehran. Mehrabad International Airport, also in Tehran, handles most domestic flights. Iran Air is the national flag carrier. Other airlines include Mahan Air, Kish Air, and Aseman Airlines. The aviation sector has faced challenges due to international sanctions, which have made it difficult to acquire new aircraft and spare parts, leading to an aging fleet.
• Maritime Ports**: Iran has important ports on the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and the Caspian Sea.
  • The country's major port of entry is Bandar Abbas on the Strait of Hormuz, which handles a significant portion of Iran's international trade. It is connected by road and rail to the interior.
  • Other key Persian Gulf ports include Shahid Rajaee Port (near Bandar Abbas, a major container port), Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni, and Khorramshahr.
  • On the Caspian Sea, ports like Bandar-e Anzali and Amirabad facilitate trade with Russia and other Caspian littoral states.
  • Chabahar Port on the Gulf of Oman is being developed as a strategic deep-water port with Indian investment, aiming to provide an alternative trade route to Afghanistan and Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan.
• Urban Transport**: Major cities like Tehran, Mashhad, Isfahan, Shiraz, and Tabriz have mass transit systems, including bus networks. The Tehran Metro is the largest metro system in the Middle East, carrying over 3 million passengers daily and recording 820 million trips in 2018. Several other cities are also developing or expanding their metro systems.

The development of Iran's transport infrastructure is crucial for its economic growth, facilitating domestic trade, supporting non-oil exports, and enhancing its role as a regional transit hub. However, investment and modernization efforts are sometimes hampered by economic challenges and sanctions.

8.5. Energy

Iran is an energy superpower with vast reserves of oil and natural gas, which form the backbone of its economy and are critical for export revenue and foreign currency.

• Oil Reserves and Production**: Iran holds some of the world's largest proven crude oil reserves, ranking among the top four globally. As of 2023, it produced approximately 4% of the world's crude oil (around 3.6 million oil barrels (approximately 749 K yd^{3 (572.40 K m3)}) per day), generating an estimated 36.00 B USD in export revenue annually. It is typically OPEC's second or third largest producer. The National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) manages the country's oil sector. Iran discovered a southern oil field with an estimated 50 billion barrels in 2019 and announced the discovery of 10 giant shale oil deposits totaling 2.6 billion barrels in April 2024. Iran plans to invest 500.00 B USD in its oil sector by 2025.
• Natural Gas Reserves and Production**: Iran possesses the world's second-largest proven natural gas reserves, after Russia. The South Pars gas field in the Persian Gulf, shared with Qatar (where it is known as the North Dome field), is the world's largest natural gas field, holding approximately 8% of global gas reserves. Iran is also the third-largest natural gas producer globally. Natural gas is increasingly used for domestic energy consumption, electricity generation, and petrochemical feedstock, as well as for export (primarily via pipeline to neighboring countries like Turkey and Iraq). Iran is one of only three countries to have developed Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) technology.
• Electricity Generation**: Iran's installed electricity generation capacity was around 33 GW as of the early 2000s and has grown since. The generation mix is dominated by natural gas (about 75%), followed by oil (about 18%), and hydroelectric power (about 7%). Demographic trends and industrialization have led to an electricity demand growth of about 8% per year. The government aims to increase installed capacity significantly.
• Renewable Energy**: Iran has been making efforts to develop renewable energy sources. Its first wind-powered and geothermal plants were opened in 2004, and the first solar thermal plant began operations in 2009. However, renewables still constitute a small portion of the overall energy mix.
• Nuclear Energy**: Iran's first nuclear power plant, the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant, built with Russian assistance, went online in 2011. The development of nuclear energy is part of Iran's long-term energy strategy, though its broader nuclear program has been a source of international controversy (see Military section).

Iran manufactures 60-70% of its industrial equipment domestically, including turbines, pumps, catalysts, refineries, oil tankers, drilling rigs, offshore platforms, towers, pipes, and exploration instruments. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations have increased installed capacity.
The country's energy sector faces challenges from international sanctions, which have hindered investment and access to technology, as well as high domestic energy consumption rates due to subsidies.

9.1. Research and Development

Iran has focused its R&D efforts in several key areas:

• Biotechnology and Pharmaceuticals**: Iran has a growing biotechnology sector and has achieved self-sufficiency in producing many common medicines. Research in stem cells is notable, with Iran ranking among the top 10 countries globally in this field. The Royan Institute is a prominent center for stem cell research and cloning; Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep at Royan in 2006. The Pasteur Institute of Iran is also a key institution.
• Nanotechnology**: This is a high-priority area for Iran, with significant government investment. Iran ranks among the top 15 countries globally in terms of scientific publications and advancements in nanotechnology.
• Nuclear Science and Technology**: Beyond its controversial nuclear program, Iran conducts research in various applications of nuclear technology, including for energy, medicine, and agriculture.
• Chemistry and Physics**: Iranian researchers are active in these fundamental sciences, with numerous publications in international journals.
• Aerospace Engineering**: Linked to its space program and defense industry, Iran has developed capabilities in rocket and satellite technology.
• Computer Science and Information Technology**: While facing challenges with internet infrastructure and censorship, Iran has a growing IT sector and a large number of computer science graduates.
• Robotics**: Iranian universities and research centers have developed various robots, including humanoid robots like Surena. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has recognized Iranian contributions in this field.

Iran's scientific publication output increased significantly from the late 1990s. According to a 2012 study by SCImago, if trends continued, Iran was projected to rank highly in global research output. The Global Innovation Index ranked Iran 64th in 2024.
The Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics at the University of Tehran has a UNESCO chair in biology.

Iranian scientists working abroad have also made significant contributions:

• Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser in 1960.
• Lotfi A. Zadeh introduced fuzzy set theory.
• Cardiologist Tofy Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, a precursor to the artificial heart.
• Samuel Rahbar discovered HbA1c, important in diabetes research.
• In 2014, Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman and the first Iranian to receive the Fields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics.

Challenges to Iran's science and technology sector include brain drain, limited funding in some areas, and restricted access to international collaborations and advanced equipment due to sanctions.

9.2. Space Program

Iran has an active space program managed primarily by the Iranian Space Agency (ISA), established in 2004, and the Aerospace Force of the IRGC. The program focuses on satellite development, launch capabilities, and has stated aspirations for human spaceflight in the long term.

• Launch Capabilities**: Iran became an orbital-launch-capable nation in 2009 when it successfully launched its first domestically built satellite, Omid (Hope), using its own Safir launch vehicle. This made Iran the ninth country capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestic launcher.
  • The Safir rocket is a two-stage expendable launch vehicle.
  • The Simorgh rocket, a larger successor to the Safir, was first launched in 2016 and is designed to place heavier satellites into higher orbits.
  • The IRGC has also developed its own line of satellite launchers, including the Qased and Qaem 100 rockets, which are solid-fueled and have been used for military satellite launches.
• Satellite Development**: Iran has developed and launched several domestic satellites for various purposes, including remote sensing, communications, and research.
  • Omid (2009): A research and telecommunications satellite.
  • Rasad 1 (2011): An imaging satellite.
  • Navid-e Elm-o Sanat (2012): An observation satellite.
  • Fajr (2015): An imaging satellite with an experimental cold-gas thruster system.
  • Noor (2020, 2022): Military reconnaissance satellites launched by the IRGC.
  • Khayyam (2022): A high-resolution remote sensing satellite launched by a Russian Soyuz rocket, but stated by Iran to be under its full control.
  • Soraya (January 2024): Launched by the Qaem 100 rocket into a 750 km orbit, a new altitude milestone for Iran.
  • Mahda, Kayhan-2, Hatef-1 (January 2024): Three small satellites launched simultaneously by a Simorgh rocket, designed for testing advanced satellite subsystems and space-based positioning technology.
  • Pars-1 (February 2024): An imaging satellite launched from Russia.
• Space Research Centers**: The Iranian Space Research Center is involved in designing and manufacturing satellites and space systems.
• International Cooperation and Concerns**: Iran is a founding member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). However, its satellite launch program, particularly the development of launch vehicles, has raised concerns among Western countries, who fear that the technology could be used for ballistic missile development due to similarities in rocket technology. Iran denies these claims, asserting its space program is for peaceful scientific and technological advancement.

Iran's space program is a point of national pride and is seen as a demonstration of its technological capabilities despite international sanctions.

9.3. Information and Communications Technology (ICT)

Iran's Information and Communications Technology (ICT) sector has seen significant growth, but also faces challenges related to infrastructure, government control, and international sanctions.

• Telecommunications Infrastructure**: The primary telecommunications provider is the state-owned Telecommunication Company of Iran (TCI). Mobile communications are widespread, with several operators including MCI (Hamrahe Aval), Irancell, and Rightel. As of 2020, an estimated 70 million Iranians were using high-speed mobile internet. Iran's telecommunications development has been recognized for providing services to rural areas. Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) is a state-owned conglomerate involved in electronics and communications technology.
• Internet Penetration and Usage**: Internet penetration has increased significantly. As of 2017, around 69.1% of the population were internet users, making Iran one of the countries with the largest number of internet users in the Middle East (ranking around 17th globally by user numbers). Google Search is the most widely used search engine, and Instagram has been the most popular social networking service. Digikala is a major Iranian e-commerce platform, accounting for a large share of online retail.
• Censorship and Access Issues**: The Iranian government exercises strict control over internet content and access. Many international websites and social media platforms, including Facebook (since 2009), Twitter, YouTube, Telegram, and WhatsApp, have been blocked or heavily restricted, particularly during times of political unrest. Citizens often use VPNs and other circumvention tools to access blocked content. The government has also pursued initiatives to develop a "national internet" or "National Information Network" (NIN), which critics fear could further isolate Iranian users and enhance state surveillance and control. Internet speeds in Iran have been reported to be relatively low compared to regional and global averages (e.g., ranking 75th globally for mobile speed and 153rd for fixed internet speed in early 2024).
• ICT Development**: Despite challenges, Iran has a domestic ICT industry and a large pool of IT graduates. The government has promoted the development of local software, applications, and digital services. Iran is recognized as having cyberwarfare capabilities.

The ICT sector in Iran operates in a complex environment, balancing technological advancement and user demand with state control, censorship, and the impact of international sanctions that can limit access to hardware, software, and international platforms.

10.1. Demographics

Iran's population grew rapidly in the latter half of the 20th century, from about 19 million in 1956 to approximately 85 million by 2023, and an estimated 85.96 million by 2024. However, the fertility rate has seen a dramatic decline, from around 6.5 children per woman in the post-revolutionary period to about 1.7 in recent years. This has led to a slowing population growth rate, estimated at around 1.39% as of 2018. Projections suggest the population may stabilize around 105 million by 2050.
The country has a relatively young population, though the proportion of young people is decreasing due to falling fertility rates. Life expectancy has significantly increased. Urbanization is a major trend, with the urban proportion of the population increasing from 27% in 1950 to over 75% in recent estimates.
The population is concentrated in the western half of the country, especially in the north, northwest, and west.
Major cities include:

• Tehran**: The capital and largest city, with a population of around 9.4 million in the city proper and a larger metropolitan area.
• Mashhad**: The second-largest city (around 3.4 million), a major religious pilgrimage site.
• Isfahan**: The third-largest city (around 2.2 million), known for its historical architecture and cultural significance.

Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations globally, with almost one million registered refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq. The Iranian government provides certain social security benefits, including retirement, unemployment, and health services, funded by taxes and public contributions.

10.2. Ethnic Groups

Iran is a multi-ethnic country with a rich tapestry of cultures. The exact percentages of different ethnic groups are subject to some debate as official state censuses do not typically categorize by ethnicity. However, general estimates are:

• Persians**: The largest ethnic group, constituting around 61% of the population. This group includes speakers of Persian (Farsi) and closely related linguistic groups such as Mazanderanis and Gilaks who live in the Caspian region. Persians have historically been dominant in Iranian culture and politics.
• Azerbaijanis (Azeris)**: The second-largest ethnic group, making up around 16% of the population. They primarily reside in the northwestern provinces of East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Ardabil, and Zanjan, but also have a significant presence in Tehran and other cities. They speak Azerbaijani, a Turkic language.
• Kurds**: Constituting about 10% of the population, Kurds mainly inhabit the western provinces, an area often referred to as Iranian Kurdistan (including Kurdistan Province, Kermanshah Province, and parts of West Azerbaijan and Ilam). They speak various Kurdish dialects.
• Lurs**: Making up around 6% of the population, Lurs primarily live in the western and southwestern mountainous regions, particularly in Lorestan, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, and Khuzestan. They speak the Luri language.
• Arabs**: Comprising about 2% of the population, Iranian Arabs are concentrated mainly in the southwestern province of Khuzestan and along the Persian Gulf coast. They speak dialects of Arabic.
• Balochis**: Accounting for around 2% of the population, the Baloch people primarily live in the southeastern province of Sistan and Baluchestan, bordering Pakistan. They speak the Balochi language.
• Turkmens** and other Turkic tribes (like Qashqai): These groups make up about 2% of the population. Turkmens are concentrated in the northeastern provinces bordering Turkmenistan (e.g., Golestan).
• Smaller Minorities**: Other ethnic groups include Armenians, Georgians, Circassians, Assyrians, and Talysh, collectively making up about 1%.

While Persian culture and language are dominant, the Iranian government officially recognizes the cultural diversity of the country. However, ethnic minorities have sometimes raised concerns about linguistic rights, economic development in their regions, and political representation. The state promotes a unified national identity while also allowing for some degree of cultural expression by minority groups, though activism related to minority rights can be suppressed if perceived as a threat to national unity or security.

10.3. Languages

The linguistic landscape of Iran is diverse, reflecting its multi-ethnic composition.

• Persian (Farsi)**: The official and national language of Iran, spoken as a first language by the majority of the population (around 53-61% according to various estimates) and as a second language by most other Iranians. It is an Indo-European language belonging to the Iranian branch. Persian is used in government, education, media, and literature.
• Azerbaijani**: The most widely spoken minority language, spoken by about 16% of the population, primarily in the northwestern provinces. It is a Turkic language.
• Kurdish**: Spoken by about 10% of the population in western Iran. It consists of several dialects, such as Kurmanji, Sorani, and Southern Kurdish.
• Luri**: Spoken by about 6-7% of the population in western and southwestern Iran.
• Mazanderani and Gilaki**: These are Caspian languages closely related to Persian, spoken by about 7% of the population along the Caspian Sea coast.
• Balochi**: Spoken by about 2% of the population in southeastern Iran.
• Arabic**: Spoken by about 2% of the population, mainly Khuzestani Arabic in Khuzestan province and other dialects along the Persian Gulf coast. Classical Arabic is also the language of the Quran and religious texts.
• Turkmen**: Spoken by about 2% of the population in northeastern Iran.
• Other Languages**: Smaller minority languages include Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic (spoken by Assyrians), Talysh, and Circassian (though Circassian is now spoken by very few due to assimilation).

The Iranian Constitution (Article 15) states that Persian is the official language and script of Iran, and official documents, correspondence, and textbooks must be in this language. However, it also permits the use of regional and tribal languages in the press and mass media, as well as for teaching their literature in schools, alongside Persian. In practice, the extent to which minority languages are used in education and public life can be limited, and there have been calls from minority groups for greater linguistic rights and support for their languages. Literacy in Persian is high due to its central role in education.

10.4. Religion

Iran is an Islamic Republic, and Islam plays a central role in its society and governance. Official census data from 2011 provides a snapshot of religious adherence (see table below), though some independent surveys suggest variations, particularly concerning non-religion or adherence to pre-Islamic faiths.

• Shi'a Islam (Twelver)**: This is the state religion of Iran, as stipulated in the Constitution. An estimated 90-95% of the Iranian population adheres to Twelver Shi'ism. Iran is the global center of Twelver Shi'ism and home to important pilgrimage sites like Mashhad and Qom.
• Sunni Islam**: Sunni Muslims constitute about 5-10% of the population. They are primarily concentrated among ethnic minorities such as Kurds, Balochis, Turkmens, and some Arabs. While Sunnism is an officially recognized branch of Islam, Sunni Muslims have reported experiencing discrimination in employment, political representation, and religious practice.
• Christianity**: Christians make up the largest non-Muslim religious minority, estimated at around 250,000 to 370,000 adherents (though the 2011 census reported about 117,704). The majority are ethnic Armenians belonging to the Armenian Apostolic Church. There are also Assyrian Christians (members of the Assyrian Church of the East and Chaldean Catholic Church). Christianity is one of the three recognized minority religions under the Constitution, and Christians are allocated reserved seats in the Majlis. However, evangelical and Protestant groups, particularly those involving converts from Islam, face persecution. The government has supported the rebuilding and renovation of some Armenian churches, and several Armenian monastic ensembles are UNESCO World Heritage sites.
• Judaism**: Iran is home to the largest Jewish community in the Muslim world outside of Israel, though its numbers have significantly declined since the 1979 Revolution. Estimates range from 8,756 (2011 census) to around 20,000. Judaism is also a constitutionally recognized religion with a reserved seat in the Majlis. Despite official anti-Israel rhetoric from the government, the Jewish community in Iran is generally allowed to practice its faith, though they may face some restrictions and scrutiny.
• Zoroastrianism**: The ancient pre-Islamic religion of Iran, Zoroastrianism, is also constitutionally recognized with a reserved parliamentary seat. The community numbers around 25,000 (2011 census). Zoroastrians maintain their temples (fire temples) and distinct cultural traditions.
• Baháʼí Faith**: The Baháʼí Faith, which originated in Iran in the 19th century, is the largest non-Muslim religious minority, with an estimated 300,000 to 350,000 adherents. However, it is not recognized by the Iranian government and is considered an "unprotected apostasy." Baháʼís face systematic persecution, including denial of access to higher education and government employment, arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, confiscation of property, and desecration of their cemeteries. This persecution has been widely condemned by international human rights organizations and the UN.
• Yarsanism**: An indigenous syncretic faith practiced primarily among Kurds, particularly in western Iran. Its followers are estimated to number between half a million to one million. While not officially recognized, it is tolerated to some extent, though its adherents may face discrimination.
• Irreligion and Other Beliefs**: Atheism and agnosticism are not officially recognized and can carry severe social and legal consequences if openly expressed. Some surveys conducted outside Iran suggest a growing trend of secularism or interest in pre-Islamic Iranian faiths, but obtaining accurate data from within the country is difficult.

The Constitution guarantees freedom of belief for recognized minorities, but religious freedom is significantly restricted in practice. Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal, and conversion from Islam to another religion is considered apostasy and can be punishable by death. The state actively promotes Shi'a Islam and integrates its principles into law and public life.

10.5. Education

Education in Iran is highly centralized, with the Ministry of Education overseeing K-12 education and the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology supervising higher education. The Ministry of Health and Medical Education oversees medical schools.

• Literacy**: Iran has achieved a high literacy rate. As of 2016, the literacy rate for people aged 15 and older was approximately 86% (90% for men and 81% for women). Government expenditure on education is around 4-5% of GDP.
• Structure of the Education System**:
  • Primary Education (Dabestân)**: Compulsory, typically starting at age 6 and lasting for 6 years (formerly 5).
  • Lower Secondary Education (Râhnamâyi)**: Lasts for 3 years. This stage guides students towards different educational tracks.
  • Upper Secondary Education (Dabirestân)**: Lasts for 3 years, followed by a one-year pre-university course (Pish-dâneshgâhi) for students intending to enter university. Students specialize in theoretical streams (e.g., humanities, experimental sciences, mathematics/physics) or vocational/technical streams.
• Higher Education**: Entry into higher education requires a high school diploma, completion of the pre-university course, and passing the highly competitive national university entrance examination known as the Konkour.
  • Iran has a large number of public and private universities and higher education institutions. Prominent universities include the University of Tehran, Sharif University of Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology, and Isfahan University of Technology. The Islamic Azad University is a large private university system with branches across the country.
  • Degrees offered include Associate (Kārdāni - 2 years), Bachelor's (Kārshenāsi - 4 years), Master's (Kārshenāsi-ye Arshad - 2 years), and Doctorate (Doktorā - PhD).
• Curriculum**: The curriculum, particularly in humanities and social sciences, is influenced by Islamic and revolutionary ideologies. Religious education is a component of the school curriculum.
• Challenges**:
  • Equitable Access**: While literacy and enrollment rates are high, disparities in educational quality and access persist between urban and rural areas, and between different socio-economic groups.
  • Quality and Relevance**: Ensuring the quality of education and its relevance to the job market remains a challenge.
  • Brain Drain**: A significant number of highly educated Iranians seek opportunities abroad due to economic and social conditions.
  • Restrictions**: Ideological restrictions can affect academic freedom, particularly in certain fields. The vetting of students and faculty for political loyalty can also occur. Religious minorities, particularly Baháʼís, face systematic denial of access to higher education.

  Despite these challenges, Iran has a strong tradition of education and produces a large number of graduates in science, engineering, and medicine. Women constitute a majority of university students in many fields.

10.6. Health

Iran has made significant strides in improving its healthcare system and public health indicators since the 1979 Revolution, though challenges related to access, quality, and funding persist, exacerbated at times by international sanctions.

• Healthcare System Structure**: Healthcare is provided through a mixed system of public (governmental) providers, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The Ministry of Health and Medical Education is responsible for overseeing the healthcare system, including policy-making, regulation, and the provision of public health services.
• Primary Healthcare Network**: Iran has established an extensive Primary Health Care (PHC) network, particularly in rural and underserved areas. This network, utilizing community health workers (behvarz), has been crucial in improving access to basic health services, vaccinations, maternal and child health, and health education.
• Health Indicators**:
  • Life expectancy at birth has significantly increased.
  • Infant and maternal mortality rates have fallen dramatically.
  • Immunization coverage is high.
• Health Insurance**: A large majority of Iranians (around 90%) have some form of health insurance, primarily through public insurance schemes like the Social Security Organization (SSO) and the Iran Health Insurance Organization (IHIO). However, out-of-pocket expenses can still be substantial for certain treatments and medications.
• Medical Services and Facilities**: Iran has a considerable number of hospitals, clinics, and medical professionals. It has developed capabilities in various specialized medical fields and is a regional leader in some areas, such as organ transplantation. Iran is the only country in the world with a legal, regulated market for kidney sales, which has helped reduce waiting lists but also raised ethical concerns.
• Medical Tourism**: Iran is an emerging destination for medical tourism, attracting patients from neighboring countries and beyond for various treatments due to relatively lower costs and available expertise.
• Pharmaceuticals**: Iran has a domestic pharmaceutical industry that produces a significant portion of its required medicines. However, access to some specialized or advanced medications can be affected by international sanctions, impacting their availability and cost.
• Public Health Challenges**:
  • Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer are major causes of mortality and morbidity.
  • Air pollution in large cities poses a significant public health risk.
  • Water scarcity and quality issues can impact health.
  • Regional disparities in access to quality healthcare services persist.
  • The healthcare system faces challenges related to funding, resource allocation, and the impact of economic sanctions on importing medical equipment and supplies.
  • An anticipated increase in the population growth rate will increase the need for public health infrastructures and services.

  Iran's medical knowledge is ranked 17th globally and 1st in the Middle East and North Africa by some metrics. In terms of medical science production (research output), Iran ranks 16th in the world.

11.1. Human Rights Concerns and Issues

Addresses specific human rights challenges in Iran, including limitations on freedom of speech, assembly, and press; the status of women's rights; treatment of ethnic and religious minorities (particularly the Baháʼí community); LGBT rights; use of capital punishment; and issues related to due process and political prisoners.

• Freedom of Expression, Assembly, and Association**: Severe restrictions are imposed on these freedoms. Criticism of the government, the Supreme Leader, or Islamic principles can lead to arrest, imprisonment, and harsh sentences. Independent journalism is heavily curtailed, and many journalists have been imprisoned. Peaceful assemblies and protests are often met with excessive force, arrests, and internet shutdowns to prevent mobilization and information dissemination, as seen during the 2009 Green Movement, the 2017-2018 protests, the 2019-2020 protests, and the 2022-2023 "Woman, Life, Freedom" protests. Independent NGOs and trade unions face significant obstacles and repression.
• Women's Rights**: Women face legal and social discrimination in various areas, including marriage, divorce, inheritance, child custody, and employment. The compulsory hijab (headscarf) and Islamic dress code are strictly enforced by the "morality police" (Guidance Patrol), and women who challenge these rules face harassment, arrest, and prosecution. Testimonies of women in court are often valued less than those of men. While women have access to education (constituting a majority of university students) and participate in the workforce, they are underrepresented in political and decision-making positions. Activists advocating for women's rights are frequently targeted.
• Rights of Religious Minorities**: While the Constitution recognizes Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism, and allocates parliamentary seats to these groups, their members still face discrimination and restrictions. Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal, and conversion from Islam (apostasy) is a capital offense. The Baháʼí community, Iran's largest non-Muslim religious minority, faces systematic persecution as an "unprotected apostasy." This includes denial of access to higher education and public sector employment, arbitrary arrests, property confiscation, and desecration of cemeteries. Sunni Muslims also report discrimination and restrictions on building mosques and practicing their faith in some areas.
• LGBTQ+ Rights**: Homosexual acts are criminalized and punishable by penalties ranging from flogging to death. Transgender individuals may undergo gender reassignment surgery with legal recognition, but LGBTQ+ individuals face severe discrimination, social stigma, and violence. There is no legal recognition of same-sex relationships or protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity.
• Use of Capital Punishment**: Iran has one of the highest rates of execution per capita in the world. The death penalty is applied for a wide range of offenses, including drug trafficking, murder, espionage, "corruption on earth" (a vaguely defined charge), and offenses not considered capital crimes under international law. Public executions occur, and juvenile offenders have been sentenced to death and executed, in violation of international conventions.
• Due Process and Fair Trial Rights**: Defendants, particularly in politically sensitive cases and those before Revolutionary Courts, are often denied fair trial rights. This includes restricted access to legal counsel (especially of their choice), use of confessions obtained under torture or duress, lack of independent judicial review, and closed-door trials. Political prisoners, human rights defenders, lawyers, and journalists are frequently subjected to arbitrary detention and long prison sentences on vaguely worded national security charges.
• Rights of Ethnic Minorities**: Ethnic minorities such as Kurds, Arabs, Balochis, and Azerbaijanis have reported political and economic discrimination, as well as suppression of their cultural and linguistic rights. Activism related to ethnic minority rights is often met with harsh state responses, including arrests and accusations of separatism or terrorism.
• Torture and Ill-Treatment**: Reports of torture and other ill-treatment of detainees in prisons and detention centers are common and often go uninvestigated and unpunished. Conditions in many prisons are harsh.

The Iranian government generally denies systematic human rights violations, often attributing criticism to politically motivated interference by foreign powers. However, UN Special Rapporteurs on the situation of human rights in Iran and numerous international NGOs continue to document and report widespread abuses. These human rights issues significantly undermine democratic aspirations and social justice within the country.

11.2. Censorship

The Iranian government imposes extensive censorship across all forms of media, including print, broadcast, and the internet, significantly impacting freedom of information and expression. Iran consistently ranks among the countries with the least press freedom globally.

• Print Media**: Newspapers, magazines, and books are subject to pre-publication review and licensing by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance. Publications can be banned, and journalists and writers face arrest and prosecution for content deemed critical of the government, the Supreme Leader, or Islamic values, or for allegedly harming national security. Many newspapers, particularly reformist or independent ones, have been shut down over the years.
• Broadcast Media**: All radio and television broadcasting is controlled by the state-owned Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB). IRIB's content closely reflects official government narratives and often excludes dissenting viewpoints. Access to foreign satellite television channels is officially prohibited, though many Iranians use illegal satellite dishes.
• Internet Censorship**: The government employs sophisticated filtering and blocking mechanisms to control internet access. Many international news websites, social media platforms (such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Telegram, and WhatsApp), and applications are regularly blocked or restricted, especially during periods of political sensitivity or protest. The government has developed a "National Information Network" (NIN), or national intranet, which critics fear aims to further isolate Iranian internet users and enhance state surveillance and control. During major protests, authorities have resorted to widespread internet shutdowns to disrupt communication and organization among demonstrators.
• Film, Music, and Arts**: Artistic expression is also subject to censorship. Films require government permits for production and screening, and content must align with Islamic and revolutionary values. Music, particularly genres deemed "Western" or "un-Islamic," faces restrictions, and female singers are generally prohibited from performing solo for mixed audiences.
• Surveillance**: The government engages in extensive surveillance of online activities and communications. Bloggers, online activists, and social media users have been arrested and prosecuted for their online expression.
• Self-Censorship**: The pervasive threat of reprisal leads to widespread self-censorship among journalists, writers, artists, and ordinary citizens.

Citizens employ various methods to bypass internet censorship, such as using VPNs and proxy servers. However, the government actively works to block these circumvention tools. The overall impact of censorship is a severely restricted information environment, limiting public access to diverse perspectives and hindering open debate and democratic discourse. This has a detrimental effect on social justice and the ability of citizens to hold their government accountable.

12.1. Art

Iranian art has a continuous tradition that is one ofthe richest in world history, encompassing many media including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking, and sculpture.

• Ancient Persian Art**: The art of ancient Iran, from the Elamite period through the Achaemenids (e.g., the reliefs at Persepolis), Parthians, and Sasanians (e.g., rock reliefs at Naqsh-e Rustam and Bishapur, silverware, and textiles), is characterized by its grandeur, intricate detail, and symbolism.
• Islamic Period Art**: After the Islamic conquest, Persian art continued to flourish, integrating Islamic themes while retaining distinct Iranian characteristics. Key forms include:
  • Miniature Painting**: Reaching its zenith during the Timurid and Safavid eras, Persian miniatures are renowned for their delicate brushwork, vibrant colors, and depiction of epic, romantic, and mystical themes, often illustrating literary works like the Shahnameh.
  • Calligraphy**: Persian calligraphy, particularly styles like Nasta'liq, is a highly esteemed art form, used for transcribing poetry, religious texts, and in architectural decoration.
  • Pottery and Ceramics**: Iran has a long tradition of pottery, with notable developments in lusterware, mina'i ware, and blue-and-white ceramics.
  • Metalwork**: Intricate metalwork, including bronze, silver, and gold objects, often adorned with calligraphy and figurative designs, has been produced for centuries.
• Modern and Contemporary Art**: The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the emergence of a vibrant modern and contemporary art scene in Iran. Artists like Kamal-ol-Molk bridged traditional and modern European styles. Post-World War II, movements influenced by Western modernism emerged, and artists like Marcos Grigorian gained prominence. Contemporary Iranian artists often explore themes of identity, tradition, modernity, and social issues, using a variety of media. The Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art houses an important collection of Iranian and Western modern art.

The Safavid era (16th-18th centuries) is often considered a golden age for Iranian art, with significant developments in architecture, painting, and textiles, influencing neighboring regions like the Ottoman Empire and Mughal India.

12.2. Architecture

Iranian architecture boasts a continuous history from at least 5,000 BC to the present, with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area. Iranian architecture makes early use of mathematics, geometry, and astronomy.

• Ancient Architecture**: Examples include the Elamite ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil, the monumental structures of Persepolis and Pasargadae from the Achaemenid period, and Sasanian palaces and fire temples like Takht-e Soleyman.
• Islamic Architecture**: Characterized by intricate tilework (especially blue tiles), geometric patterns, muqarnas (stalactite vaulting), domes, minarets, and iwans (vaulted halls). Famous examples include the mosques of Isfahan (e.g., Imam Mosque, Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque), the Jameh Mosque of Yazd, and mausoleums like the Gonbad-e Qabus.
• Persian Gardens (Bagh-e Irani)**: A distinct style of garden design, often featuring water channels, fountains, and pavilions, designed to create a paradise on earth. Nine Persian gardens are collectively listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Examples include Fin Garden in Kashan and Eram Garden in Shiraz.
• Traditional Urban Architecture**: Includes bazaars (covered marketplaces), caravanserais (roadside inns), ice houses (yakhchal), and windcatchers (badgir) for natural ventilation in desert climates.
• Modern Architecture**: The 20th century saw the introduction of modern architectural styles, alongside efforts to integrate traditional elements. Contemporary Iranian architecture explores new forms and materials while sometimes referencing historical precedents.

The guiding motif in Iranian architecture is often its cosmic symbolism. The rapid growth of cities like Tehran has brought a wave of modern construction.

12.3. World Heritage Sites

Iran is home to a significant number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, reflecting its rich cultural and natural heritage. As of early 2024, Iran has 27 cultural and 2 natural sites inscribed on the World Heritage List, making it one of the leading countries in the Middle East and Asia in terms of recognized heritage. It also has numerous sites on the tentative list.

Some of the most prominent World Heritage Sites include:

• Persepolis**: The ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire.
• Naqsh-e Jahan Square (Meidan Emam), Isfahan**: A vast public square surrounded by magnificent Safavid-era mosques, palaces, and the bazaar.
• Chogha Zanbil**: An ancient Elamite ziggurat and religious complex.
• Pasargadae**: The first capital of the Achaemenid Empire, containing the tomb of Cyrus the Great.
• Bam and its Cultural Landscape**: An ancient desert city built largely of mud bricks, severely damaged by an earthquake in 2003 but undergoing restoration.
• Takht-e Soleyman**: An archaeological site with remains from the Sasanian and Ilkhanid periods, including a Zoroastrian fire temple.
• Bisotun**: A multilingual inscription and rock relief ordered by Darius the Great.
• Shahr-e Sukhteh (Burnt City)**: A Bronze Age archaeological site in southeastern Iran.
• Golestan Palace**, Tehran: A Qajar-era palace complex.
• Sheikh Safi al-din Khanegah and Shrine Ensemble in Ardabil**: A Safavid-era spiritual retreat and mausoleum.
• Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex**: One of the oldest and largest covered bazaars in the Middle East.
• The Persian Garden**: A serial nomination of nine representative Persian gardens across Iran.
• Susa**: An ancient city, one of the oldest continuously inhabited in the world.
• Cultural Landscape of Maymand**: A semi-nomadic cultural landscape with cave dwellings.
• Hyrcanian Forests**: Ancient broad-leaved forests along the Caspian Sea coast (Natural Heritage).
• Lut Desert**: A vast desert landscape known for extreme temperatures and unique geological formations (Natural Heritage).
• Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran**: Three ancient Armenian monasteries.
• Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System**: An ancient and complex irrigation system.
• Gonbad-e Qābus**: A monumental 11th-century tomb tower.
• Masjed-e Jāmé of Isfahan (Jameh Mosque of Isfahan)**: A grand congregational mosque representing centuries of Islamic architectural development.
• Sasanian Archaeological Landscape of Fars Region**: Eight Sasanian-era sites in Fars province.
• Cultural Landscape of Hawraman/Uramanat**: A traditional cultural landscape in the Zagros Mountains.
• Trans-Iranian Railway**: A significant engineering achievement of the early 20th century.
• The Persian Qanat**: An ancient underground water management system.

Iran also has numerous properties inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, including Nowruz (Persian New Year), traditional skills of carpet weaving, Ta'zieh (passion plays), Radif of Iranian music, and Chogān (polo). As of December 2023, Iran ranked 5th worldwide for its number of UNESCO-listed intangible treasures.

12.4. Weaving (Persian Carpets)

The art and craft of Persian carpet weaving is one of Iran's most renowned cultural achievements and a significant part of its artistic heritage, with origins tracing back to the Bronze Age. Persian rugs are celebrated worldwide for their intricate designs, rich colors, and high-quality craftsmanship.

• History**: Archaeological evidence, such as the Pazyryk carpet (c. 5th century BC) discovered in Siberia but believed to be of Persian origin or heavily influenced by Achaemenid designs, points to a long history of carpet weaving. The tradition was further developed through subsequent periods, reaching a peak of artistic expression during the Safavid dynasty (16th-18th centuries), when royal manufactories produced exceptionally fine carpets for the court and for export.
• Regional Styles and Designs**: Persian carpets are diverse, with distinct styles, patterns, and weaving techniques associated with different regions, cities, and nomadic tribes. Major carpet-weaving centers include Tabriz, Kerman, Ravar, Neyshabour, Mashhad, Kashan, Isfahan, Nain, and Qom. Nomadic tribes like the Qashqai, Lurs, and Baloch also produce distinctive carpets with traditional motifs. Designs range from formal medallion patterns and intricate floral arabesques to geometric tribal motifs and pictorial scenes.
• Techniques**: Most Persian carpets are hand-knotted using wool, silk, or cotton. The density of knots per square inch is a key indicator of quality. Dyes were traditionally derived from natural sources (plants and insects), contributing to the rich and lasting colors, though synthetic dyes are also used today. Besides pile-woven carpets, Iran also produces flat-woven textiles like Kilim and Soumak, and embroidered textiles like Suzani.
• Cultural and Economic Importance**: Carpet weaving is deeply embedded in Iranian culture, often a family tradition passed down through generations. Carpets serve both utilitarian and decorative purposes, adorning homes, mosques, and palaces. They are also a significant export commodity, representing Iranian art and craftsmanship on the global market. Iran produces approximately three-quarters of the world's handmade carpets and has historically held a major share of the export market.
• UNESCO Recognition**: The "traditional skills of carpet weaving" in Fars Province and Kashan were inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists in 2010, highlighting their cultural significance.

Persian carpets are prized for their beauty, durability, and artistic value, often considered investments and heirlooms.

12.5. Literature

Persian literature is one ofthe world's oldest and most celebrated literary traditions, spanning over two and a half millennia. It has profoundly influenced the literatures of neighboring regions, including Ottoman Turkey, Muslim India, and Central Asia.

• Ancient Period**: The earliest Iranian literary tradition is found in the Avesta, the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in Avestan, an Old Iranian language. Old Persian inscriptions from the Achaemenid period, such as the Behistun Inscription, also form part of this early heritage. Middle Persian (Pahlavi) literature flourished during the Sasanian era, including religious texts, wisdom literature, and historical chronicles.
• Classical Period (Islamic Era)**: Following the Islamic conquest, Persian literature experienced a major renaissance, adopting the Arabic script but retaining its distinct linguistic and cultural identity. This period produced some of the world's greatest poets:
  • Ferdowsi** (c. 940-1020): Author of the Shahnameh (Book of Kings), the national epic of Iran, which recounts the mythical and historical past of the country. It is a cornerstone of Persian language and identity.
  • Omar Khayyam** (1048-1131): A renowned mathematician and astronomer, also famous for his Rubaiyat (quatrains), which gained international fame through Edward FitzGerald's translation.
  • Nizami Ganjavi** (c. 1141-1209): A master of romantic epic poetry, known for works like Layla and Majnun and the Khamsa (Quintet).
  • Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi** (1207-1273): One of the world's most beloved mystical poets, whose Sufi-inspired works, particularly the Masnavi, explore themes of love, divinity, and spiritual longing.
  • Saadi** (c. 1210 - 1291/92): Celebrated for his eloquent prose and poetry, notably in the Bustan (The Orchard) and Gulistan (The Rose Garden), which combine moral wisdom with lyrical beauty.
  • Hafez** (c. 1325-1390): Considered by many to be the pinnacle of Persian lyric poetry. His Divan (collection of poems), primarily ghazals, is admired for its mystical depth, romantic themes, and linguistic perfection. His tomb in Shiraz is a major pilgrimage site.
• Modern Period**: From the 19th century onwards, Persian literature began to engage with modern themes and Western literary forms. The Constitutional Revolution period saw a rise in political and social commentary in literature.
  • Notable modern prose writers include Sadegh Hedayat (a pioneer of modernist Persian fiction, known for works like The Blind Owl), Mohammad-Ali Jamalzadeh, Bozorg Alavi, and Simin Daneshvar.
  • Modern poetry saw the emergence of figures like Nima Yooshij (father of modern Persian poetry or She'r-e Nimaa'i), Ahmad Shamlou, Forough Farrokhzad (an influential female poet), and Sohrab Sepehri.

  Persian literature is characterized by its lyrical quality, mystical themes (particularly influenced by Sufism), rich imagery, and enduring focus on themes of love, justice, and the human condition. It continues to be a vibrant and evolving tradition.

12.6. Philosophy

Iranian philosophy has a long and rich history, with roots in ancient Indo-Iranian traditions and developing through interactions with Greek philosophy and Islamic thought.

• Ancient Iranian Philosophy**: Early philosophical ideas are found in Zoroastrian texts like the Gathas (attributed to Zoroaster), which explore dualistic concepts of good and evil (Ahura Mazda vs. Ahriman), free will, and eschatology. Manichaeism and Mazdakism, which emerged in the Sasanian period, also presented distinct philosophical and cosmological systems. The Cyrus Cylinder is seen by some as reflecting early thoughts on just rule and human rights.
• Islamic Period Philosophy**: After the Arab conquest, Iranian thinkers played a pivotal role in the development of Islamic philosophy, often synthesizing Greek (particularly Aristotelian and Neoplatonic) thought with Islamic theology and Iranian mystical traditions.
  • Early Islamic Philosophers**: Figures like Al-Farabi (though not Persian, influential in Persia), Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (c. 980-1037), a Persian polymath, made monumental contributions to philosophy (particularly metaphysics and logic) and medicine. His work, like The Book of Healing, deeply influenced subsequent Islamic and European scholastic thought.
  • Illuminationist School (Ishraqi)**: Founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1154-1191), this school blended Peripatetic philosophy with ancient Iranian wisdom (particularly Zoroastrian ideas of light and darkness) and Neoplatonism, emphasizing mystical intuition and illumination as paths to knowledge.
  • Sufi Philosophy**: Mystical thinkers like Rumi, Attar, and Al-Ghazali (who, while critical of some philosophical trends, incorporated Sufi elements into mainstream Islamic thought) explored metaphysical concepts of unity (Wahdat al-Wujud), divine love, and the spiritual journey.
  • Transcendent Theosophy (Hikmat al-Muta'aliyah)**: Developed by Mulla Sadra (c. 1571-1640) during the Safavid era, this influential school of Shi'a philosophy integrated Aristotelianism, Avicennism, Illuminationism, Sufism, and Shi'a theology. Key concepts include the "transubstantial motion" (harakat al-jawhariyya) and the "primacy of existence" (asalat al-wujud).
• Modern and Contemporary Philosophy**: In the 19th and 20th centuries, Iranian thinkers engaged with Western philosophical ideas, leading to new currents of thought. Figures like Allameh Tabatabaei and Morteza Motahhari were influential in contemporary Islamic philosophy. However, post-revolutionary Iran has seen limitations on philosophical discourse, particularly for ideas deemed contrary to official interpretations of Islam, leading to intellectual repression in certain areas. Philosophical debate continues, often within theological seminaries and academic circles.

Iranian philosophy is characterized by its enduring engagement with metaphysical questions, epistemology, ethics, and the relationship between reason, revelation, and mystical experience.

12.7. Mythology and Folklore

Persian mythology comprises the ancient myths and legendary tales of the Iranian peoples, reflecting their cosmology, religious beliefs, and cultural values. It is a rich tapestry of gods, goddesses, heroes, demons, and fantastical creatures, often exploring themes of the struggle between good and evil, the divine order, and the exploits of heroic figures.

• Sources**: The primary source for much of Persian mythology is the Shahnameh (Book of Kings), the national epic of Iran, compiled by the poet Ferdowsi around 1000 AD. The Shahnameh draws upon earlier oral traditions and written texts, including the Middle Persian Khwaday-Namag (Book of Lords), as well as Zoroastrian scriptures like the Avesta and later Pahlavi texts such as the Bundahishn and Denkard.
• Cosmology and Deities**: Ancient Iranian cosmology, heavily influenced by Zoroastrianism, posits a cosmic struggle between Ahura Mazda (Ohrmazd), the creator and embodiment of good, and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), the spirit of destruction and evil. Other important deities and supernatural beings from pre-Zoroastrian and Zoroastrian traditions include Mithra (god of light, covenants, and contracts), Anahita (goddess of waters, fertility, and wisdom), Tishtrya (rain-bringing deity), and various yazatas (adorable ones) and daevas (demons).
• Legendary Kings and Heroes**: The Shahnameh chronicles the reigns of mythical and legendary kings, from the creation of the world to the Arab conquest. Key figures include:
  • Gayomart**: The first human in Zoroastrian tradition.
  • Jamshid**: A legendary king associated with a golden age, who introduced many arts and crafts but eventually fell due to pride.
  • Zahhak**: A tyrannical king with serpents growing from his shoulders, overthrown by the hero Fereydun.
  • Rostam**: The most celebrated hero of Iranian mythology, known for his immense strength, bravery, and his loyal steed Rakhsh. His tragic battle with his son Sohrab is a famous episode.
• Other heroes include Siyâvash, Kay Khosrow, and Garshasp.
• Mythical Creatures**: Persian mythology features a variety of mythical creatures, such as the Simurgh (a benevolent, wise bird), dragons (azhdaha), divs (demons or ogres), and peris (fairies).
• Folklore and Storytelling**: Beyond the grand epics, Iran has a rich tradition of folklore, including folk tales, legends, proverbs, and riddles, which vary by region and ethnic group. Storytelling (Naqqāli) has historically been an important form of entertainment and cultural transmission, with storytellers reciting epic poems and tales in coffeehouses and public gatherings. Naqqāli is recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage. Traditional puppet shows (kheimeh shab-bazi) and comedic performances also form part of Iranian folklore.

Persian mythology and folklore continue to be an integral part of Iranian cultural identity, influencing literature, art, and popular culture. Modern scholars study these myths to understand the religious, social, and political institutions of ancient Iran and the broader Persianate world. The Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts (MCHTH), established in 1985 (though its predecessors existed earlier), plays a role in preserving and promoting Iranian folklore and cultural traditions.

12.8. Music and Dance

The music and dance traditions of Iran have a rich and ancient history, evolving through various cultural and historical periods.

• Music**:
  • Ancient Roots**: Iran is considered a possible birthplace of some of the earliest complex musical instruments, with evidence dating back to the third millennium BC. Elamite reliefs depict musicians and instruments like angular harps. Ancient Greek writers like Xenophon mentioned singing women at the Achaemenid court. During the Parthian Empire, minstrels known as gōsān played a prominent role.
  • Sasanian Period**: Music flourished at the Sasanian court, with famous musicians like Barbad, Bamshad, and Nagisa. Musical theory and practice were developed during this era.
  • Traditional Persian Music (Classical Music)**: This sophisticated art form is based on a system of melodic modes known as the Dastgah system. The Radif is a collection of traditional melodies that form the core repertoire, passed down through oral tradition from master to student. Performances often involve improvisation. Key instruments include:
    • String instruments: tar (long-necked lute), setar (smaller long-necked lute), santur (hammered dulcimer), kamancheh (bowed spike fiddle), oud (short-necked lute, also known as barbat), qanun (zither), chang (harp, now mostly historical).
    • Wind instruments: ney (end-blown flute), sorna (oboe-like instrument), karnay (long trumpet).
    • Percussion instruments: tombak (goblet drum), daf (large frame drum), dayereh (smaller frame drum), naqareh (kettle drums).
  • Folk Music**: Iran has diverse regional folk music traditions, varying among different ethnic groups (Kurds, Lurs, Azerbaijanis, Balochis, Turkmens, etc.), each with unique instruments, melodies, and rhythms.
  • Pop Music and Rock**: Persian pop music emerged in the Qajar era and developed significantly in the mid-20th century, blending Iranian melodies with Western instruments and styles. Rock music appeared in the 1960s. After the 1979 Revolution, pop and rock music faced severe restrictions, with many artists going into exile. However, an underground music scene persisted, and in recent decades, there has been some official tolerance for certain genres. Hip hop also emerged in the 2000s.
  • Symphonic Music**: The Tehran Symphony Orchestra, Iran's first symphony orchestra, was founded in 1933. Ruhollah Khaleqi established the School of National Music in 1949.
  • Dance**:
    • Ancient Origins**: Evidence of dance in Iran dates back to at least the 6th millennium BC, with depictions found on ancient artifacts. Dances were performed for rituals, celebrations, and entertainment.
    • Classical Persian Dance**: A refined courtly dance style developed over centuries, characterized by graceful movements, intricate hand gestures, and expressive facial expressions. It often accompanied classical Persian music.
    • Folk Dances**: Iran has a rich variety of folk dances, specific to different regions and ethnic groups. These dances are often performed at social gatherings, festivals, and celebrations, and reflect local traditions and stories. Examples include Kurdish, Azeri, Lur, and Balochi folk dances.
    • Ritual and Spiritual Dances**: Some forms of dance are associated with spiritual practices, such as the whirling dances of some Sufi orders.
    • Social and Cultural Context**: After the 1979 Revolution, public dance performances, especially by women or mixed groups, faced severe restrictions due to conservative interpretations of Islamic law. While folk dances are sometimes performed in controlled settings or private gatherings, public dance as entertainment is largely curtailed.

    Music and dance remain vital aspects of Iranian culture, though their public expression is often subject to governmental and religious oversight. Traditional music continues to be taught and performed, and new generations of musicians are exploring both traditional and contemporary forms.

12.9. Cinema, Animation, and Theatre

Iran has a rich history in visual storytelling, theatre, and a globally acclaimed contemporary cinema.

• Cinema**:
  • Early History**: The first Iranian filmmaker was Mirza Ebrahim Khan Akkas Bashi, court photographer to Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, who filmed the Shah's visit to Europe around 1900. The first public cinema opened in Tehran in 1904 by Mirza Ebrahim Khan Sahhafbashi. The first Iranian feature film, Abi and Rabi (a silent comedy), was directed by Ovanes Ohanian in 1930. The first sound film, Lor Girl, was produced by Ardeshir Irani and Abdolhossein Sepanta in 1932.
  • Pre-Revolutionary Cinema**: The Pahlavi era saw the development of a commercial film industry, as well as the emergence of an art-house movement known as the Iranian New Wave in the 1960s and 1970s. Films like The Cow (1969) by Dariush Mehrjui, Qeysar (1969) by Masoud Kimiai, and Downpour (1972) by Bahram Beyzai gained critical acclaim.
  • Post-Revolutionary Cinema**: After the 1979 Revolution, the film industry underwent significant changes, with stricter censorship and ideological guidelines. However, it also led to a new wave of internationally recognized filmmakers who often used allegorical and realist styles to explore social and humanistic themes. Directors like Abbas Kiarostami (e.g., Taste of Cherry, Palme d'Or winner 1997), Mohsen Makhmalbaf (e.g., Gabbeh), Jafar Panahi, and Majid Majidi brought Iranian cinema to global prominence.
  • Contemporary Cinema**: Iranian cinema continues to produce critically acclaimed films. Asghar Farhadi is a leading contemporary director, having won two Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film for A Separation (2011) and The Salesman (2016). Iranian films are frequently featured at major international film festivals like Cannes, Venice, and Berlin.
• Animation**:
  • Iran has a long history of visual storytelling, with a 3rd millennium BC goblet from Shahr-e Sukhteh potentially depicting the world's oldest animation.
  • The modern animation industry began in the 1950s. The Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults (Kanoon), established in 1965, played a crucial role in fostering Iranian animation and children's cinema.
  • Contemporary Iranian animation has gained international recognition, with films like Ashkan Rahgozar's The Last Fiction (2019) being the first Iranian animated feature to qualify for the Academy Awards in the Best Animated Feature and Best Picture categories. The Tehran International Animation Festival is a notable event.
• Theatre**:
  • Traditional Forms**: Iran has several traditional theatrical forms, including:
    • Ta'zieh: Religious passion plays depicting the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage.
    • Naqqāli: Dramatic storytelling, often recounting epic tales from the Shahnameh.
    • Kheimeh Shab Bazi: Traditional puppet theatre.
    • Siah-Bazi: A form of comedic folk theatre featuring a black-faced clown character.
    • Ru Howzi (or Takht Howzi): Comedic performances often staged on a platform over a courtyard pool.
  • Modern Theatre**: Western-style theatre was introduced in the 19th century. The 20th century saw the development of modern Iranian playwriting and stagecraft. The Roudaki Hall (renamed Vahdat Hall) in Tehran has been a major venue for theatrical and musical performances.

  Despite censorship and restrictions, Iranian cinema, animation, and theatre continue to be vibrant fields, often addressing complex social and cultural issues with artistic ingenuity.

12.10. Media

The media landscape in Iran is heavily influenced and controlled by the state, with significant restrictions on freedom of the press and expression. The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance is responsible for formulating cultural policy and overseeing media activities, including granting licenses and censoring content.

• Print Media**:
  • Numerous newspapers and magazines are published in Iran, mostly in Persian. Major daily newspapers based in Tehran include Etemad, Ettela'at, Kayhan, Hamshahri (published by Tehran Municipality), Resalat, and Shargh.
  • English-language newspapers include Tehran Times, Iran Daily, and Financial Tribune.
  • All print publications are subject to government licensing and censorship. Newspapers that are critical of the government or address sensitive topics risk suspension or closure, and journalists can face arrest and prosecution.
• Broadcast Media**:
  • Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) is the state-controlled media corporation and holds a monopoly on domestic radio and television broadcasting. IRIB's programming reflects official government viewpoints and policies.
  • Access to foreign satellite television channels is officially restricted, though many Iranians use illegal satellite dishes to watch international news and entertainment.
• Internet and Social Media**:
  • Internet penetration is high in Iran, with a large number of users. Google Search is widely used, and Instagram has been a very popular social media platform.
  • However, the internet is heavily censored. Many international websites, social media platforms (like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Telegram), and messaging apps are regularly blocked or filtered, especially during times of political unrest.
  • The government has developed a "National Information Network" (NIN), a domestic intranet, which critics fear is aimed at further controlling information flow and isolating Iranian users.
  • Despite restrictions, Iranians actively use social media, often employing VPNs and other circumvention tools. Social media has played a significant role in information dissemination and mobilization during protests.
  • The government also uses the internet for its own messaging and monitors online activity. Online activists and bloggers have faced arrest and prosecution.
• News Agencies**: The official news agency is the Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA). Other semi-official news agencies like Fars News Agency and Tasnim News Agency are affiliated with conservative institutions.
• E-commerce**: Iran has a growing e-commerce sector, with platforms like Digikala being prominent online retailers.

Overall, the media environment in Iran is characterized by a lack of press freedom and significant state control over information. Reporters Without Borders consistently ranks Iran very low in its World Press Freedom Index. This constrained media landscape limits public access to diverse viewpoints and critical reporting, impacting democratic discourse and accountability.

12.11. Cuisine

Iranian cuisine, also known as Persian cuisine, is diverse, aromatic, and ancient. It features a wide range of dishes that reflect the country's varied geography, rich history, and cultural influences. Key characteristics include the subtle use of herbs and spices, the combination of fruits with meats, and the importance of rice.

• Staples**:
  • Rice (برنج_berenj^Persian)**: A cornerstone of Iranian cuisine. Rice is often prepared as Chelow (steamed white rice, often with a crispy golden crust called tahdig) or polo (pilaf-style rice cooked with other ingredients like vegetables, meats, nuts, or fruits). Saffron is commonly used to color and flavor rice.
  • Bread (نان_nān^Persian)**: Various types of flatbread are eaten daily, such as Lavash, barbari, Sangak, and taftoon.
• Main Dishes**:
  • Kebab**: Grilled meats (lamb, chicken, beef) are very popular. Chelow kabab (rice with kebab) is considered a national dish. Variations include koobideh (ground meat kebab), barg (fillet mignon kebab), and joojeh (chicken kebab).
  • Khoresh (Stews)**: Slow-cooked stews served with rice. Famous khoresh include:
    • Ghormeh sabzi: A herb stew with kidney beans and lamb or beef.
    • Fesenjān: A rich stew made with pomegranate molasses, ground walnuts, and poultry (usually chicken or duck).
    • Gheimeh: A split pea stew with lamb or beef, often topped with fried potatoes.
  • Āsh**: Hearty thick soups or pottages, often containing grains, legumes, herbs, and sometimes meat. Ash reshteh (noodle āsh) is a well-known variety.
• Other dishes include various types of omelettes (kuku), rice dishes like Adas polo (lentil rice) and Albaloo polo (sour cherry rice), and fish dishes, especially in coastal regions.
• Flavorings and Ingredients**:
  • Herbs: Parsley, cilantro, dill, mint, tarragon, fenugreek.
  • Spices: Saffron (a prized Iranian export), turmeric, cinnamon, cardamom, cumin.
  • Fruits: Pomegranates, plums, apricots, quince, raisins, sour cherries, and dried lime (limoo amani) are often used in savory dishes.
  • Nuts: Walnuts, almonds, pistachios.
  • Dairy: Yogurt (mast) is a common accompaniment, often served plain or with cucumber (mast-o-khiar). Kashk (whey) is also used.
• Side Dishes and Appetizers**:
  • Sabzi khordan: A platter of fresh herbs, radishes, and feta cheese.
  • Salad Shirazi: A simple salad of chopped cucumbers, tomatoes, and onions with lime juice.
  • Torshi: Pickled vegetables.
  • Appetizers like Kashk e bademjan (eggplant and kashk dip) and Mirza Ghassemi (smoked eggplant and tomato dip).
• Desserts and Sweets**:
  • Faloodeh: A sorbet-like dessert made with thin vermicelli noodles, rose water, and lime juice.
  • Bastani Sonnati: Traditional Persian saffron ice cream, often flavored with rose water and pistachios. Sometimes served with carrot juice (ab havij bastani).
  • Various pastries, cookies (shirini), and sweets like sohan (saffron brittle) and gaz (nougat with pistachios or almonds).
• Beverages**:
  • Tea (چای_chāi^Persian)**: Black tea is the national beverage, widely consumed throughout the day, often served strong and with sugar cubes. Iran is the world's seventh-largest tea producer.
• Doogh: A savory yogurt drink, often carbonated and flavored with mint.
  • Sharbat: Sweet fruit or flower-based cordials.

  Iranian cuisine is known for its balanced flavors, aromatic spices, and emphasis on fresh ingredients. It has influenced, and been influenced by, the cuisines of neighboring regions throughout history. Iran is also famous for its high-quality caviar.

12.12. Sports

Sports play an important role in Iranian society, with a mix of traditional and modern athletic pursuits.

• Wrestling**: Traditionally considered the national sport of Iran. Iranian wrestlers, particularly in freestyle wrestling, have achieved significant success at the international level, winning numerous Olympic medals and world championships. Traditional Iranian wrestling, known as koshti-e pahlevāni (heroic wrestling), which incorporates calisthenics and ethical principles in a traditional gymnasium called a zoorkhāneh, is recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage.
• Football (Soccer)**: The most popular sport in Iran. The men's national team has won the AFC Asian Cup three times (1968, 1972, 1976) and has qualified for the FIFA World Cup multiple times (1978, 1998, 2006, 2014, 2018, 2022). The Persian Gulf Pro League is the top professional football league. The Azadi Stadium in Tehran is the country's largest stadium.
• Volleyball**: The second most popular sport. The men's national volleyball team has become a major force in Asia and internationally, winning multiple Asian Championships and competing strongly in world leagues and championships. As of early 2024, they ranked among the top teams in Asia and 15th in the FIVB World Rankings.
• Basketball**: Also popular, with the men's national team having won three FIBA Asia Championships since 2007.
• Weightlifting**: Iran has a strong tradition in Olympic weightlifting, producing numerous Olympic and world champions.
• Polo (Chogān)**: Iran is considered a likely birthplace of polo, locally known as chogān. Its earliest records are attributed to the ancient Medes. It is also a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.
• Skiing and Snowboarding**: As a mountainous country, Iran offers opportunities for winter sports. Famous ski resorts include Tochal, Dizin (the largest, authorized by the FIS for international competitions), and Shemshak, all located near Tehran.
• Martial Arts**: Various martial arts, including Taekwondo, Karate, and Wushu, are practiced.
• Athletics**: Iranian athletes compete in various track and field events.
• Other Sports**: Other popular sports include futsal (Iran has a very strong national futsal team), chess, hiking, rock climbing, and mountaineering.

The National Olympic Committee of the Islamic Republic of Iran was founded in 1947. Iran first participated in the Olympic Games in 1900 (one fencer) and has participated more regularly since 1948. In 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the Asian Games (in Tehran).

• Women in Sports**: After the 1979 Revolution, women's participation in sports faced restrictions, including requirements for Islamic dress and gender segregation in some sports. However, Iranian women athletes compete in various international events, including the Olympics and Paralympics, particularly in sports like taekwondo, shooting, and archery, often wearing Islamic-compliant sportswear.

12.13. Observances and Public Holidays

Iran observes a variety of festivals and public holidays, reflecting its ancient traditions, Islamic faith, and national history. With 26 public holidays, Iran has one of the highest numbers in the world, and by some measures, ranks first globally for paid leave days (around 52 when including weekends and other leave). The official calendar is the Solar Hijri calendar, which begins on the vernal equinox. The Lunar Hijri calendar is used for Islamic events, and the Gregorian calendar for international events.

• Nowruz (Persian New Year)**: The most important Iranian festival, celebrating the vernal equinox and the arrival of spring. It usually falls on March 20th or 21st. Nowruz has ancient Zoroastrian roots and involves extensive preparations, including spring cleaning (khāne-takānī), setting up a Haft-Seen table (with seven symbolic items starting with the letter 'S'), visiting family and friends, and exchanging gifts. Celebrations last for 13 days, culminating in Sizdah Be-dar (Day Thirteen), when people traditionally spend the day outdoors picnicking. Nowruz is recognized as UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. (Solar Hijri: Farvardin 1-4 are public holidays; Sizdah Be-dar on Farvardin 13).
• Chaharshanbe Suri (Festival of Fire)**: Celebrated on the eve of the last Wednesday before Nowruz. People jump over bonfires and light fireworks, symbolizing purification and bidding farewell to the old year.
• Yaldā Night (Shab-e Yaldā)**: An ancient festival celebrated on the longest night of the year (winter solstice, usually December 20th or 21st). Families gather to stay up late, eat fruits (especially watermelon and pomegranate), read poetry (often Hafez), and tell stories, symbolizing the triumph of light over darkness.
• Tirgan**: A midsummer festival historically associated with water, celebrated in some regions (like Mazandaran and Markazi) around Tir 13 (July 2nd or 3rd).
• Sadeh**: An ancient Zoroastrian mid-winter festival celebrating the discovery of fire, traditionally held 50 days before Nowruz.
• Mehregan**: An ancient Zoroastrian festival dedicated to Mithra, the yazata of covenant and autumnal abundance.

• Islamic Observances (Lunar Hijri Calendar - dates vary annually on the Gregorian calendar)**:
  • Ramadan**: The Islamic month of fasting.
  • Eid al-Fitr (Eid-e Fetr)**: Festival marking the end of Ramadan (Shawwal 1-2 are public holidays).
  • Eid al-Adha (Eid-e Ghorbān)**: Festival of Sacrifice (Zulhijja 10 is a public holiday).
  • Eid-e Ghadir**: Shi'a festival commemorating the Prophet Muhammad's designation of Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor (Zulhijja 18 is a public holiday).
  • Birthday of Prophet Muhammad** and Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (Rabi' al-awwal 17 is a public holiday).
  • Ashura (Ruz-e Āshurā)** and **Tasu'a**: Shi'a days of mourning for the martyrdom of Imam Hussein ibn Ali (Muharram 9 and 10 are public holidays).
  • Arba'een**: Fortieth day after Ashura (Safar 20 is a public holiday).
  • Death of Prophet Muhammad** and Martyrdom of Imam Hassan Mojtaba (Safar 28 is a public holiday).
  • Martyrdom of Imam Reza** (Safar 29 or 30 is a public holiday).
  • Martyrdom of Fatimah Zahra** (Jumada al-Thani 3 is a public holiday).
  • Birthday of Imam Ali** (Rajab 13 is a public holiday).
  • Mab'as (Prophet Muhammad's first revelation)** (Rajab 27 is a public holiday).
  • Birthday of Imam Mahdi** (Sha'ban 15 is a public holiday).
  • Martyrdom of Imam Ali** (Ramadan 21 is a public holiday).
  • Martyrdom of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq** (Shawwal 25 is a public holiday).
  • Birthday of Imam Reza** (Dhu al-Qa'dah 11).
  • National Commemorative Days (Solar Hijri Calendar)**:
    • Islamic Republic Day**: Anniversary of the 1979 referendum establishing the Islamic Republic (Farvardin 12; April 1st).
    • Anniversary of the Islamic Revolution**: (Bahman 22; February 10th or 11th).
    • Oil Nationalization Day**: (Esfand 29; March 20th).
    • Death of Ayatollah Khomeini**: (Khordad 14; June 4th).
    • Anniversary of the Khordad 15 Uprising**: Commemorates the 1963 protests against the Shah (Khordad 15; June 5th).

    Christian communities observe Christmas and Easter; Jewish communities observe Hanukkah and Passover; and Zoroastrians observe their specific festivals. These are generally not public holidays for the entire nation.