Iraq

3.1. Ancient Mesopotamia

The land of Sumer, located in what is now southern Iraq, emerged between 6000 and 5000 BC during the Neolithic Ubaid period. Sumer is widely recognized as the world's earliest civilization, marking the advent of urban development, written language (cuneiform), monumental architecture, and complex societal structures. Innovations from this era include early forms of mathematics, timekeeping (the Babylonian calendar), astrology, the wheel, the sailboat, and some of the first known law codes, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu. These advancements laid foundational elements for subsequent civilizations worldwide.

Iraq's territory also encompasses the heartlands of the Akkadian Empire, the Third Dynasty of Ur (Neo-Sumerian), Babylonia, the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and the Neo-Babylonian Empire. These empires dominated Mesopotamia and much of the Ancient Near East during the Bronze Age and Iron Age. Their societal structures often involved hierarchical systems with powerful rulers and priestly classes, while their economies were largely based on agriculture, facilitated by sophisticated irrigation systems. The cultural achievements of these civilizations, including epic literature like the Epic of Gilgamesh, intricate art, and advancements in Babylonian astronomy and Babylonian mathematics, had a lasting impact on human history. The development of law, exemplified by the Code of Hammurabi, introduced concepts of justice and retribution that influenced legal thought for millennia. The region also became home to one ofthe world's first Jewish diaspora communities, which emerged during the Babylonian exile.

The Shanidar Cave in northern Iraq has yielded Neanderthal remains dating from around 65,000-35,000 years ago, providing insights into early human life and burial practices in the region.

3.2. Classical Antiquity and Persian Empires

Indigenous Mesopotamian rule ended in 539 BC when the Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great. Cyrus declared himself "King of Babylon," and the ancient city became one of the key capitals of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Achaemenid governance often involved a degree of local autonomy but within a centralized imperial structure. This period saw significant cultural interplay, with Persian influences blending with existing Mesopotamian traditions. The Achaemenids freed the enslaved Jews from Babylonian captivity, though many chose to remain, contributing to the growth of the Jewish community in the region.

Over the following centuries, the regions constituting modern Iraq came under the control of several major empires. After Alexander the Great's conquest in the 4th century BC, the Seleucid Empire (Greek) ruled, establishing new Hellenistic centers like Seleucia on the Tigris. This was followed by the Parthian Empire, an Iranian dynasty, which contested Roman expansion in the East. The Romans themselves briefly controlled parts of Mesopotamia. New cities like Ctesiphon (near modern Baghdad) rose to prominence as imperial capitals.

By the 3rd century AD, the region fell under the control of another Persian dynasty, the Sasanian Empire. Sasanian rule lasted for several centuries and saw the flourishing of Zoroastrianism, as well as significant Christian and Jewish communities. During this time, Arab tribes from South Arabia migrated into Lower Mesopotamia, leading to the formation of the Sasanian-aligned Lakhmid Kingdom. The cultural landscape remained diverse, with Aramaic being a common language alongside Persian and Arabic. The Sasanian administrative system was sophisticated, but the empire was often engaged in prolonged wars with the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, which impacted the stability and prosperity of the region and its diverse populations.

3.3. Middle Ages and Islamic Caliphates

The Sasanian Empire was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, following the decisive Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636 AD, which brought Iraq under Islamic rule. The city of Kufa, founded shortly thereafter, became an important administrative and religious center for the Rashidun Caliphs. Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Caliph and a key figure in Shia Islam, made Kufa his capital. The Battle of Karbala in 680 AD, where Ali's son Husayn ibn Ali was martyred, became a foundational event for Shia identity, and Karbala became one of its holiest cities. The Umayyad Caliphate, ruling from Damascus, subsequently took control of Iraq in 661 after the First Fitna.

With the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate in the mid-8th century (750 AD), Iraq once again became the center of a vast empire. The Abbasids founded Baghdad in 762 AD as their new capital. During the Islamic Golden Age, Baghdad flourished as a global center for culture, science, commerce, and intellectualism. Institutions like the House of Wisdom (بيت الحكمة_{Bayt al-Ḥikmah}^Arabic) attracted scholars from various backgrounds, fostering advancements in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, and literature. This era saw significant translation movements, preserving and expanding upon Greek, Persian, and Indian knowledge. However, the Caliphate's power gradually declined. The Buyids (Persian Shia) and later the Seljuk Turks (Sunni) exerted control over Baghdad from the 10th century onwards, reducing the Caliphs to largely ceremonial figures.

The prosperity of Baghdad and Iraq suffered a devastating blow with the Mongol invasion led by Hulagu Khan in 1258. The city was sacked, its libraries and grand buildings destroyed, and a vast number of its inhabitants massacred. This event marked a significant turning point, leading to a period of political fragmentation and economic decline for the region. Iraq subsequently came under the rule of various Mongol successor states, including the Ilkhanate, and later the Timurid Empire. These conquests often brought further destruction and instability, profoundly impacting the region's society and development. The infrastructure, particularly the ancient irrigation systems vital for agriculture, fell into disrepair, contributing to long-term decline.

3.4. Ottoman Era

In the 16th century, Iraq became a contested territory between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire of Persia. The Ottomans, under Suleiman the Magnificent, captured Baghdad from the Safavids in 1534, though control over the region, particularly strategic cities like Baghdad and Basra, would shift between the two empires several times in the subsequent centuries. Ottoman rule was finally solidified in 1638.

Under the Ottomans, Iraq was typically divided into three administrative provinces (vilayets): Mosul in the north, Baghdad in the center, and Basra in the south. Ottoman administration varied in its effectiveness and directness over the centuries. From 1747 to 1831, Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin. These Mamluk governors, while nominally subject to the Ottoman Sultan, achieved a significant degree of autonomy, managing local affairs and at times engaging in their own foreign policy. They focused on maintaining order, fostering trade, and undertaking some public works. However, their rule was often marked by internal power struggles. In 1831, the Ottomans reasserted direct control, overthrowing the Mamluk regime as part of broader imperial reforms (the Tanzimat).

Throughout the Ottoman era, social changes were gradual. The diverse ethnic and religious communities of Iraq-including Arabs (both Sunni and Shia), Kurds, Christians (Assyrians, Chaldeans, Armenians), Jews, Yazidis, and Mandaeans-largely continued their traditional ways of life, though they were subject to Ottoman laws and taxation. Shia communities, particularly in the south and around the holy cities of Najaf and Karbala, often maintained distinct religious and social structures, and their relationship with the Sunni Ottoman authorities could be complex. The tribal structures among both Arab and Kurdish populations remained significant social and political forces. European economic and political influence began to grow in the region, especially in the 19th century, as the Ottoman Empire weakened. This period set the stage for the dramatic changes that would occur with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I.

3.5. British Mandate and Kingdom of Iraq

Following the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the territories of present-day Iraq came under British control. The British Empire had made promises of independence to Arab leaders, such as Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, in exchange for their support against the Ottomans during the Arab Revolt. However, secret agreements like the Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France had already divided the Middle East into spheres of influence. Faisal, Hussein's son, briefly declared the Kingdom of Syria in 1920, but it was quickly suppressed by France.

In Iraq, British control faced significant local resistance, culminating in the 1920 Iraqi Revolt. In response, and to consolidate their influence while appearing to grant some autonomy, the British convened the Cairo Conference in 1921. Led by figures like Winston Churchill and T. E. Lawrence, the conference decided to install Faisal I as the king of a newly created entity, Mandatory Iraq, under a League of Nations mandate administered by Britain. King Faisal I, coronated on August 23, 1921 (a date symbolically chosen to coincide with the Shia festival of Eid al-Ghadir), worked to unify the three former Ottoman vilayets of Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra into a coherent nation-state. He sought the support of Iraq's diverse population, including both Sunni and Shia Arabs, as well as Kurds and other minorities, though the state structure often favored Sunni Arab elites. His educational reforms included founding Ahl al-Bayt University in Baghdad and encouraging Syrian exiles to contribute as educators and doctors. He also envisioned infrastructure projects to link Iraq with neighboring Arab states.

The Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930 paved the way for formal independence, which was achieved in 1932 when Iraq joined the League of Nations. However, Britain retained significant military and economic influence, particularly over Iraq's nascent oil industry through the Iraq Petroleum Company. The nation-building process was fraught with challenges. The arbitrary drawing of borders, the diverse ethnic and religious composition, and the legacy of colonial interests created inherent tensions. Minority groups, particularly the Assyrians (who faced the Simele massacre in 1933) and the Kurds (who sought greater autonomy or independence), experienced suppression of their rights and aspirations. King Faisal I died in 1933, and was succeeded by his son, King Ghazi of Iraq. Ghazi's reign was marked by political instability and several coup attempts. He died in a car accident in 1939, and his young son, Faisal II, ascended the throne with his uncle, 'Abd al-Ilah, as regent.

During World War II, a pro-Axis coup led by Rashid Ali al-Gaylani briefly seized power, prompting a British military intervention (Anglo-Iraqi War) to secure oil supplies and strategic interests. The Hashemite monarchy was restored. The post-war period saw continued political maneuvering, social unrest, and the growing influence of pan-Arab nationalism and anti-colonial sentiment, impacting democratic development and human rights within the kingdom.

3.6. Republic and Political Instability

On July 14, 1958, the Hashemite monarchy was overthrown in a bloody military coup known as the 14 July Revolution, led by Brigadier General Abd al-Karim Qasim. King Faisal II, Crown Prince 'Abd al-Ilah, and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said were killed, and the Republic of Iraq was proclaimed. Qasim's regime initially enjoyed popular support, implementing land reforms and withdrawing Iraq from the pro-Western Baghdad Pact. He pursued a nationalist and somewhat populist agenda, attempting to balance various political factions, including communists, Ba'athists, and Kurdish groups. However, his rule became increasingly autocratic. He faced numerous challenges, including a 1959 uprising in Mosul led by Abd al-Wahab al-Shawaf, which was suppressed, and ongoing tensions with Kurdish groups demanding autonomy. In 1961, Qasim laid claim to newly independent Kuwait, leading to a tense standoff with Britain.

Qasim's regime was overthrown in February 1963 by a coalition of Ba'athist and other Arab nationalist officers in the Ramadan Revolution. This coup was marked by widespread violence and purges of communists and Qasim loyalists, significantly impacting human rights. Abdul Salam Arif became president. Internal divisions within the Ba'ath Party led to another coup in November 1963, which brought Arif and a group of non-Ba'athist officers to power, sidelining the Ba'athists. Arif's government recognized Kuwait's independence. He died in a helicopter crash in 1966 and was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif. The Arif regimes were characterized by continued political instability, military dominance in politics, suppression of dissent, and a failure to establish stable democratic institutions. Iraq participated in the Six-Day War against Israel in 1967 under Abdul Rahman Arif's rule. These successive coups and periods of authoritarian military rule undermined democratic development and often led to human rights abuses, as political opponents were frequently imprisoned or executed.

3.7. Ba'athist Era and Saddam Hussein's Regime

The Ba'ath Party seized power in a coup on July 17, 1968, with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr becoming president. Saddam Hussein, a key figure in the coup, rapidly consolidated power as Vice Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council. The Ba'athist regime established a one-party state, suppressing all political opposition. Initially, the regime implemented some popular policies, including nationalizing the oil industry in 1972, funding social programs, and promoting literacy and women's rights to a certain extent, aiming to build a modern, secular state. However, these developments were overshadowed by extreme authoritarianism and systematic human rights abuses.

The First Iraqi-Kurdish War ended in 1970 with an autonomy agreement for the Kurds, but this agreement was never fully implemented, leading to the Second Iraqi-Kurdish War (1974-1975). Border clashes with Iran occurred over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, with Iran supporting Kurdish militants. The 1975 Algiers Agreement temporarily resolved the border dispute, and Iran withdrew support for the Kurds, leading to their defeat. In 1973, Iraq participated in the Yom Kippur War. An attempt to ban an annual Shia pilgrimage to Karbala led to the 1977 Shia uprising, and another Shia uprising occurred from 1979 to 1980 following the Iranian Revolution.

Saddam Hussein formally assumed the presidency on July 16, 1979, initiating a brutal purge of perceived rivals within the Ba'ath Party. His regime became notorious for its pervasive surveillance, torture, extrajudicial killings, and suppression of any dissent. In September 1980, Saddam launched the Iran-Iraq War, hoping for a quick victory against a revolutionary Iran. The war lasted eight devastating years, resulting in hundreds of thousands to over a million casualties on both sides and causing immense economic damage. During the war, Saddam's regime used chemical weapons against Iranian forces and civilians, and also against its own Kurdish population, most infamously in the Halabja chemical attack in 1988. The Anfal campaign (1986-1989) against the Kurds constituted genocide, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 50,000 to 182,000 Kurdish civilians and the destruction of thousands of villages.

Facing massive war debts and disputes over oil policy and territorial claims, Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990, leading to the Gulf War (1990-1991). A U.S.-led international coalition swiftly defeated the Iraqi forces and liberated Kuwait. Following the war, widespread uprisings by Shia Muslims in the south and Kurds in the north were brutally suppressed by Saddam's forces, leading to tens of thousands of deaths and a major refugee crisis. The UN imposed severe economic sanctions on Iraq, which, combined with the regime's policies, had a devastating impact on the civilian population, leading to widespread poverty, malnutrition, and a decline in healthcare and education. The sanctions were intended to pressure Iraq to dismantle its alleged weapons of mass destruction (WMD) program and comply with UN resolutions. The establishment of Iraqi no-fly zones by the US, UK, and France in northern and southern Iraq provided some protection for the Kurds and Shia, and the Kurdistan Regional Government solidified its de facto autonomy in the north. The Iraqi Kurdish Civil War (1994-1997) further complicated the situation in the Kurdish region. Throughout the 1990s, Saddam's regime remained defiant, further isolating Iraq and worsening the humanitarian situation for its people.

3.8. Post-2003 Iraq

Following the September 11 attacks, the United States, under President George W. Bush, increasingly focused on Saddam Hussein's regime, alleging possession of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and links to terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda. These claims, which formed the primary public rationale for war, were later found to be largely unsubstantiated. On March 20, 2003, a U.S.-led coalition invaded Iraq, rapidly overthrowing Saddam Hussein's government by early April. Baghdad fell, and Saddam Hussein was captured in December 2003 (executed in 2006).

The invasion was followed by the occupation of Iraq and the establishment of the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), led by L. Paul Bremer. The CPA's policies, particularly de-Ba'athification and the disbandment of the Iraqi army, had profound and often detrimental consequences, contributing to a security vacuum and fueling an insurgency. The insurgency involved various groups, including former Ba'athists, Sunni nationalists, and foreign jihadists affiliated with Al-Qaeda in Iraq (which later evolved into ISIL). The period was marked by widespread violence, bombings, kidnappings, and attacks on coalition forces and Iraqi civilians.

Efforts towards political reconstruction began with the formation of an Iraqi Interim Government in 2004, followed by the drafting of a new constitution (approved by referendum in October 2005) and parliamentary elections. However, these processes were marred by ongoing violence and increasing sectarian strife, particularly between Sunni and Shia communities, which escalated dramatically after the 2006 bombing of the Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra. This period saw horrific human rights abuses, including mass killings, torture (such as at Abu Ghraib prison by U.S. personnel), and the displacement of millions of Iraqis. The Iraq War officially ended with the withdrawal of U.S. combat troops in December 2011. The conflict resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Iraqis and had a devastating impact on the country's infrastructure and social fabric.

Despite the U.S. withdrawal, instability persisted. Discontent with the Shia-led government of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, perceived as sectarian and authoritarian by many Sunnis and Kurds, contributed to renewed unrest. The Syrian Civil War further destabilized the region. In 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), a radical Sunni jihadist group, launched a major offensive, seizing large swathes of territory in western and northern Iraq, including major cities like Mosul and Tikrit. ISIL declared a caliphate and committed widespread atrocities, including the genocide against the Yazidis, mass executions, and systematic sexual violence, leading to another humanitarian crisis and the displacement of millions.

An international coalition, including the U.S., launched airstrikes against ISIL, supporting Iraqi government forces, Kurdish Peshmerga, and various militias (including Iranian-backed Shia militias known as the Popular Mobilization Forces). After years of brutal fighting, ISIL was declared territorially defeated in Iraq in December 2017. However, ISIL remnants continue to pose a threat. Iranian influence in Iraq significantly increased during this period, particularly through its support for Shia political factions and militias.

Post-ISIL Iraq continues to face significant social, economic, and human rights challenges. Political instability, corruption, unemployment, and inadequate public services remain major issues. Protests against government corruption and a lack of opportunities have occurred periodically. The country is also grappling with the long-term consequences of decades of conflict, including the need for reconstruction, reconciliation, and accountability for past human rights violations. The rights of ethnic and religious minorities, women, and LGBTQ+ individuals remain precarious. Efforts to strengthen democratic institutions and ensure good governance are ongoing, but face considerable obstacles. In October 2022, Abdul Latif Rashid was elected president, and Mohammed Shia' Al Sudani became prime minister, tasked with navigating these complex challenges.

4.1. Topography

Iraq's topography is dominated by the Tigris-Euphrates river system. These two major rivers originate in the mountains of Turkey, flow southward through Iraq, and converge to form the Shatt al-Arab waterway before emptying into the Persian Gulf. The land between and immediately surrounding these rivers forms the fertile Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain, historically known as Mesopotamia. This plain, built up by centuries of silt deposition from the rivers (annually carrying about 78 M yd^{3 (60.00 M m3)} of silt to the delta), is the agricultural heartland of Iraq.

To the north and northeast, Iraq features highlands and mountains. The Zagros Mountains extend into northeastern Iraq from Iran, forming a rugged border region. Cheekha Dar, located in this range, is Iraq's highest point at 12 K ft ^{(3.61 K m)}. The northernmost parts of Iraq, in the Iraqi Kurdistan region, are characterized by mountainous terrain with deep valleys.

West of the Euphrates River lies the Syrian Desert, which extends into Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. This area is characterized by arid plains and rocky terrain. The southern part of Iraq, below the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates, includes the Mesopotamian Marshes (The Ahwar of Southern Iraq). These vast wetlands, historically a unique ecosystem, were extensively drained in the late 20th century but have seen partial restoration efforts since 2003. The extreme south of Iraq is a desert plain leading to the Persian Gulf. About 40% of Iraq is covered by rocky deserts.

4.2. Climate

Most of Iraq has a hot arid climate with subtropical influences. Summers (June to August) are extremely hot and dry, with average temperatures exceeding 104 °F ^{(40 °C)} across most of the country and frequently surpassing 118.4 °F ^{(48 °C)}. Winters (December to February) are generally mild to cool, though temperatures can drop significantly, especially at night. Winter daytime highs typically range from 50 °F ^{(10 °C)} to 59 °F ^{(15 °C)}, with nighttime lows sometimes falling near freezing in central and northern regions.

Precipitation is generally low, with most areas receiving less than 9.8 in ^{(250 mm)} annually. The majority of rainfall occurs during the winter months (November to April). Summer rainfall is rare, except in the far northern mountainous regions. These northern areas, particularly the Zagros Mountains, experience colder winters with significant snowfall, which can sometimes lead to extensive flooding during the spring melt.

Climate Change Impacts:
Iraq is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The country is experiencing rising temperatures, reduced rainfall, and increased frequency and intensity of droughts and dust storms. Water scarcity is a critical issue, exacerbated by decreased river flows in the Tigris and Euphrates due to upstream dam construction in neighboring countries and unsustainable water management practices. These changes are leading to severe desertification, with an estimated half of the country's farmland at risk. Nearly 40% of Iraq has been overtaken by blowing desert sands. The Mesopotamian Marshes are also under threat from reduced water flow and salinization.

These environmental shifts have profound consequences for agriculture, food security, public health, and human well-being, potentially leading to increased displacement and social instability. The electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand. In response, the Iraqi government, under Prime Minister Mohammed Shia' Al Sudani, announced in 2023 a "Iraqi vision for climate action," which includes promoting clean and renewable energy (aiming for one-third of electricity demand from renewables by 2030), new irrigation and water treatment projects, reduced industrial gas flaring, planting 5 million trees, and creating green belts around cities. In the same year, Iraq signed a 27.00 B USD energy deal with TotalEnergies aimed at increasing oil production while also boosting renewable energy capacity, which experts believe could accelerate Iraq's path to energy self-sufficiency and advance its climate change objectives.

4.3. Biodiversity and Environmental Issues

Iraq's wildlife includes its flora and fauna and their natural habitats, shaped by its diverse biomes. These range from the mountainous regions in the north, home to species adapted to colder climates and rugged terrain, to the unique ecosystem of the Mesopotamian Marshes along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, and the arid deserts and semi-arid regions in the west and south.

The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Zagros Mountains forest steppe, Middle East steppe, Mesopotamian Marshes, Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests, Arabian Desert, Mesopotamian shrub desert, and South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert.

The Mesopotamian Marshes are a particularly significant area for biodiversity, traditionally supporting numerous species of birds (approximately 50 species, including important populations of the marbled teal and the Basra reed-warbler), fish, and other wildlife. The draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes under Saddam Hussein's regime in the 1990s caused a catastrophic decline in biological life and displaced the Marsh Arabs who inhabited the area. Since 2003, efforts to restore water flow have led to a partial recovery of this unique ecosystem, though it remains vulnerable to climate change and upstream water diversions.

Historically, larger mammals such as the Asiatic lion (now extinct in the region but a prominent symbol), Arabian oryx, and Persian fallow deer roamed Iraq. Today, remaining mammal species include various gazelles, jackals, wolves, hyenas, and smaller desert-adapted animals. Birdlife is rich, especially migratory species that use the river valleys and marshes as stopover points. Iraq's marine environment in the Persian Gulf supports some of the most extreme heat-tolerant coral reefs in the world, with seawater temperatures ranging between 57.2 °F ^{(14 °C)} and 93.2 °F ^{(34 °C)}. Major lakes like Lake Habbaniyah, Lake Milh, Lake Qadisiyah, and Lake Tharthar also support aquatic and semi-aquatic wildlife.

Environmental Issues:
Iraq faces severe environmental challenges. Habitat degradation and biodiversity loss are widespread due to decades of conflict, unsustainable agricultural practices, urbanization, and industrial pollution. Pollution from the oil industry, including oil spills and gas flaring, poses a significant threat to air, water, and soil quality. The remnants of war, including unexploded ordnance and contamination from depleted uranium and other hazardous materials, continue to affect human health and the environment.

Water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change and upstream damming, is a critical issue, leading to desertification, soil salinization, and loss of agricultural land. Deforestation and overgrazing have further degraded land resources. Waste management is also a major concern, particularly in urban areas.

Efforts towards conservation and sustainable resource management are underway but face significant challenges due to political instability, lack of funding, and institutional capacity. The protection of remaining natural habitats, restoration of degraded ecosystems like the marshes, and addressing the impacts of pollution and climate change are crucial for Iraq's long-term environmental and social well-being.

5.1. Governance Structure

Iraq operates as a federal parliamentary republic.
The President is the head of state, primarily performing ceremonial duties and upholding the constitution. The president is elected by the Council of Representatives (parliament) by a two-thirds majority. Abdul Latif Rashid has served as president since October 2022.

The Prime Minister is the head of government and holds the primary executive power. The prime minister is nominated by the largest parliamentary bloc and appointed by the president. The prime minister leads the Council of Ministers (cabinet), which is responsible for implementing laws and managing the day-to-day affairs of the state. Mohammed Shia' Al Sudani has served as prime minister since October 2022.

The Council of Representatives (مجلس النواب_{Majlis an-Nuwwāb al-ʿIrāqiyy}^Arabic) is the unicameral federal legislature. Its members are elected through a system of proportional representation for four-year terms. The Council enacts federal laws, approves the budget, oversees the executive branch, and ratifies treaties. The constitution also provides for a Council of Union, intended to represent regions and governorates, but it has not yet been established.

The Judiciary is constitutionally independent. It is headed by the Higher Judicial Council, which manages the affairs of the judiciary. The Federal Supreme Court is the highest constitutional court, responsible for interpreting the constitution and resolving disputes between the federal government and regional or provincial governments.

Challenges to democratic consolidation include political fragmentation, corruption, the influence of militias, external interference, and ongoing security concerns. Accountability mechanisms are often weak, and building trust in state institutions remains a significant hurdle. The Green Zone in Baghdad houses key governmental headquarters and foreign embassies. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices, Iraq was the third most electoral democratic country in the Middle East.

5.2. Political Parties and Factions

Iraq's political landscape is characterized by a multitude of political parties and coalitions, often formed along ethnic and sectarian lines, which significantly impacts national unity and democratic stability.
Major Shia Islamist parties have historically dominated post-2003 Iraqi politics, often forming large coalitions. These include the Sadrist Movement led by Muqtada al-Sadr, the State of Law Coalition associated with former Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, and the Fatah Alliance, which has close ties to the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) and Iran. The National Wisdom Movement (Hikma) led by Ammar al-Hakim is another notable Shia party.

Sunni Arab political representation has been more fragmented. Parties like the Wataniya (National) Coalition, formerly led by Ayad Allawi (a secular Shia who drew Sunni support), and various Sunni-based alliances have emerged, often struggling for unified leadership. Representation of Sunni interests and their integration into the political system remain critical for national reconciliation.

Kurdish politics is dominated by two main parties: the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), historically led by the Barzani family, and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), founded by Jalal Talabani. These parties control the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) and have significant representation in the federal parliament, advocating for Kurdish autonomy and rights. Smaller Kurdish parties also exist.

Secular and liberal voices, as well as parties representing smaller minorities like Christians, Turkmen, and Yazidis, often find it challenging to gain significant traction in a system where ethnic and sectarian loyalties play a dominant role. The influence of powerful political figures, tribal leaders, and external actors further complicates the political process. The allocation of government positions often follows an informal power-sharing arrangement known as muhasasa, which distributes posts among major ethno-sectarian groups but has been criticized for fostering corruption and hindering effective governance. The representation and protection of minority interests remain a significant concern for democratic stability and social justice.

5.3. Law and Judiciary

The Constitution of Iraq was adopted by referendum in October 2005. It establishes Iraq as a democratic, federal, parliamentary republic and affirms Islam as the official religion and a fundamental source of legislation, while also guaranteeing freedom of religion for other faiths. The constitution outlines the separation of powers and includes a bill of rights.

The Iraqi legal system is a civil law system with influences from Islamic Sharia, particularly in matters of personal status (marriage, divorce, inheritance) for Muslims. The Iraqi Penal Code and Civil Code are key statutes. Law No. 188 of 1959 (Personal Status Law), enacted before the Ba'athist era, introduced progressive reforms such as making polygamy difficult, granting child custody to the mother in divorce, prohibiting repudiation, and setting a minimum marriage age of 16. While Article 1 of the Civil Code identifies Islamic law as a formal source, civil courts generally handle cases, applying Sharia principles in personal status matters. During the Ba'athist era, Sharia punishments were introduced for certain criminal offenses in 1995.

The judiciary is headed by the Higher Judicial Council, responsible for its administration. The Federal Supreme Court acts as the constitutional court. Issues related to judicial independence, rule of law, and access to justice remain significant challenges. Corruption within the judicial system, political interference, and security threats against judges and legal professionals hinder its effectiveness. Efforts to reform the judiciary and strengthen its capacity are ongoing, but progress is slow. The influence of customary law and tribal justice mechanisms also persists in some areas.

5.4. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Iraq remains a grave concern, deeply affected by decades of authoritarian rule, conflict, sectarian violence, and the rise of extremist groups like ISIL. While the post-2003 constitution includes provisions for human rights, their implementation and protection are often inadequate.

Ethnic and Religious Minorities:
Iraq's diverse ethnic and religious minorities, including Kurds, Yazidis, Christians (Assyrians, Chaldeans, Syriacs, Armenians), Mandaeans, Shabaks, and Turkmen, have historically faced discrimination and persecution. The Anfal genocide against the Kurds under Saddam Hussein and the genocide of Yazidis by ISIL in 2014 are stark examples of extreme violence. Minorities continue to face threats to their security, cultural identity, and political representation. Displacement, attacks on places of worship, and pressure to assimilate remain serious issues. Ensuring their protection, equal rights, and meaningful participation in society is crucial for social justice and national reconciliation.

Women's Rights:
Iraqi women have faced significant challenges to their rights due to conflict, conservative interpretations of religion, and patriarchal social norms. While the constitution guarantees equality, women often experience discrimination in law and practice, particularly in areas of personal status, employment, and political participation. Violence against women, including domestic violence, honor killings, and sexual violence in conflict (notably by ISIL), is a severe problem. Access to education and healthcare for women and girls can be limited, especially in rural and conflict-affected areas. Women's rights activists work to promote gender equality and combat violence, but face considerable resistance.

LGBTQ+ Rights:
LGBTQ+ individuals in Iraq face severe discrimination, social stigmatization, and violence. Same-sex sexual conduct is not explicitly criminalized under the penal code, but individuals can be prosecuted under vague morality clauses. There are no legal protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. LGBTQ+ people are often targeted by militias, extremist groups, and family members, leading to killings, abductions, and torture. Many live in fear and are forced to hide their identity.

Freedom of Expression and Assembly:
Freedom of expression, press, and assembly are constitutionally guaranteed but restricted in practice. Journalists, activists, and human rights defenders often face threats, intimidation, harassment, and violence from state and non-state actors. Defamation laws are used to stifle criticism. Protests are sometimes met with excessive force by security forces.

Detention Conditions and Justice System:
Conditions in detention centers are often harsh, with overcrowding, poor sanitation, and inadequate medical care. Torture and ill-treatment of detainees remain widespread, often to extract confessions. The justice system suffers from corruption, political interference, and lengthy pre-trial detentions. Fair trial standards are not always upheld.

Impact of Conflict:
Past and ongoing conflicts have had a devastating impact on civilian populations, leading to mass displacement, loss of life, destruction of infrastructure, and long-term trauma. Accountability for human rights violations and war crimes committed by all parties, including state forces, militias, and extremist groups, remains largely elusive, hindering efforts towards justice and reconciliation.

5.5. Administrative Divisions

Iraq is a federal state composed of eighteen governorates (provinces), locally known as muhafazat (singular: muhafazah). These governorates are the primary administrative divisions of the country. Each governorate is further subdivided into districts (qadhas), and districts are then divided into sub-districts (nawahi).

The eighteen governorates are:

• Al Anbar
• Babil (Babylon)
• Baghdad
• Basra
• Dhi Qar
• Diyala
• Dohuk
• Erbil
• Karbala
• Kirkuk
• Maysan
• Muthanna
• Najaf
• Nineveh
• Al-Qādisiyyah
• Saladin (Salah ad Din)
• Sulaymaniyah
• Wasit

A nineteenth governorate, Halabja Governorate, was formed from part of Sulaymaniyah Governorate within the Kurdistan Region in 2014; while recognized by the Kurdistan Regional Government, its status as a separate federal governorate is processed by the Iraqi federal government.

The Kurdistan Region (officially the Iraqi Kurdistan Region) is an autonomous region in northern Iraq. It comprises the governorates of Dohuk, Erbil, Sulaymaniyah, and Halabja. The Kurdistan Region has its own democratically elected parliament and government (the KRG) and exercises a significant degree of autonomy in managing its internal affairs, including security (Peshmerga forces), education, and economic development, as stipulated by the Iraqi constitution. The relationship between the KRG and the federal government in Baghdad has often been complex, with disputes over oil revenues, territorial claims (particularly concerning Kirkuk and other disputed areas), and the extent of regional powers.

The Iraqi constitution allows for other governorates or groups of governorates to form autonomous regions, but apart from the Kurdistan Region, no other such regions have been formally established. The administrative functions of the governorates outside the Kurdistan Region are managed by provincial councils and governors, with varying degrees of decentralization from the federal government.

6.1. Foreign Policy Overview

The principles of Iraq's contemporary foreign policy are rooted in its 2005 constitution, which emphasizes maintaining good neighborly relations, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, resolving disputes peacefully, and adhering to international law and conventions. Key objectives include safeguarding Iraq's sovereignty and territorial integrity, promoting economic development through international partnerships, combating terrorism, and contributing to regional stability and security.

Following the 2003 invasion, Iraq transitioned from decades of Ba'athist-era isolation and confrontational foreign policy to a more engaged and multilateral approach. A primary challenge has been balancing its relationships, particularly with the United States and Iran, both of which wield significant influence within Iraq. The government has also focused on rebuilding ties with Arab nations, many of which were strained by past conflicts. Diplomatic efforts often aim to position Iraq as a mediator and a bridge in a volatile region, rather than a source of conflict. However, internal political divisions and the influence of various armed groups sometimes complicate the pursuit of a unified and consistent foreign policy. The impact of foreign relations on the Iraqi people, including issues like refugee flows, economic aid, and regional security, remains a critical consideration.

6.2. Relations with Neighboring Countries

Iraq's relations with its neighbors are multifaceted and crucial for its stability and development.

Iran: Relations with Iran are deeply intertwined due to historical, religious (Shia majority in both), cultural, and political ties, but also marked by past conflict (the Iran-Iraq War). Since 2003, Iran has gained significant political and economic influence in Iraq, supporting various Shia political parties and militias. While cooperation exists in areas like trade and religious tourism, concerns remain in Iraq about Iranian interference in its internal affairs. The humanitarian impact includes cross-border movements and shared environmental concerns like water resources.

Turkey: Relations with Turkey are complex, involving cooperation on trade and energy, but also tensions. Key issues include Turkish military operations against the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) in northern Iraq, which Iraq views as a violation of its sovereignty, and disputes over water sharing from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, critical for Iraq's agriculture and water security. The status of the Kurdistan Regional Government also plays a role in bilateral dynamics.

Saudi Arabia: Relations with Saudi Arabia have improved since 2003 after decades of Ba'athist-era hostility. Both countries share concerns about regional stability and terrorism. Economic cooperation is growing, but underlying sectarian differences (Shia-led Iraq vs. Sunni-led Saudi Arabia) and regional rivalries (particularly Saudi-Iranian tensions) influence the relationship. Iraq has played a role in mediating talks between Iran and Saudi Arabia.

Kuwait: Relations with Kuwait, severely damaged by the 1990 invasion, have gradually normalized. Kuwait has been a significant donor to Iraq's reconstruction. Key issues include finalizing border demarcation, war reparations (which Iraq completed paying in 2022), and maritime access.

Syria: Relations with Syria are shaped by a long shared border, tribal connections, and shared security concerns, especially regarding ISIL and other extremist groups. The Syrian Civil War led to significant refugee flows into Iraq and cross-border militant activity, impacting Iraq's stability. Prime Minister Mohammed Shia al-Sudani has sought to normalize relations and expand cooperation.

Jordan: Relations with Jordan are generally positive. Jordan has been a key partner for trade, a host for Iraqi refugees, and a supporter of Iraq's stability. Energy cooperation, including potential oil and gas pipelines, is an important aspect.

Regional instability, such as the Syrian Civil War and ongoing tensions in the Gulf, continues to have a significant humanitarian and security impact on Iraq, including refugee flows, cross-border militant threats, and economic disruptions.

6.3. Relations with Major Powers

United States: Relations with the United States have been transformative and complex since the 2003 invasion. The U.S. played a central role in overthrowing Saddam Hussein and in the subsequent political reconstruction and security efforts. A Status of Forces Agreement governed the presence of U.S. troops until their withdrawal in 2011, though U.S. forces returned in 2014 to combat ISIL as part of an international coalition. The U.S. remains a significant security and economic partner, but its influence is a subject of internal debate in Iraq, with some factions calling for a reduced U.S. presence. The Iraqi people's perspectives on this relationship are diverse, shaped by experiences of conflict, occupation, and subsequent aid.

Russia: Relations with Russia have historical roots from the Soviet era. Russia has re-engaged with Iraq in recent years, particularly in the energy sector and through arms sales. Russia opposed the 2003 invasion.

China: Relations with China are primarily economic, with China being a major importer of Iraqi oil and an increasingly important investor in Iraq's infrastructure and energy sectors.

European Union: The European Union and its member states are significant partners in Iraq's reconstruction, humanitarian aid, and efforts to promote democracy and human rights. Various EU countries participated in the anti-ISIL coalition.

Iraq seeks to maintain balanced relations with these major powers, leveraging partnerships for its development and security while safeguarding its sovereignty. The perspectives of the Iraqi people on these engagements are often shaped by historical grievances, current economic benefits, and concerns about foreign interference.

6.4. Membership in International Organizations

Iraq is a founding member of the United Nations (UN) (1945) and actively participates in its various agencies and programs, which play a crucial role in humanitarian aid, development, and promoting human rights in the country.
Iraq is also a founding member of the Arab League (1945), engaging in regional political and economic cooperation, though its role has fluctuated with its internal political situation.
It is a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), participating in initiatives related to the Muslim world.
As a major oil producer, Iraq is a founding member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) (1960), playing a significant role in global energy markets and policies.
Iraq is party to numerous international treaties and conventions, including those related to human rights, disarmament (such as the Chemical Weapons Convention, which it joined in 2009), and environmental protection. Its adherence to and implementation of these international obligations are important for its international standing and the well-being of its citizens, though challenges in full compliance remain.

7.1. Iraqi Armed Forces

The Iraqi Armed Forces operate under the Ministry of Defence and are composed of several branches:

The Iraqi Army is the largest component, responsible for ground operations. It consists of numerous infantry and armored divisions. Its personnel strength has varied, but significant efforts have been made to recruit, train, and equip its forces. Key equipment includes M1 Abrams tanks, various armored personnel carriers, and artillery systems, largely sourced from the United States and other international partners post-2003, replacing older Soviet-era hardware.

The Iraqi Air Force is tasked with air defense, ground support, reconnaissance, and transport. It operates aircraft such as F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter jets, T-50IQ light combat aircraft, Su-25 ground attack aircraft, and various transport planes and helicopters. Rebuilding its capabilities after years of neglect and conflict has been a priority.

The Iraqi Navy is relatively small and primarily focused on protecting Iraq's short coastline on the Persian Gulf, its territorial waters, and its vital offshore oil terminals. It operates patrol boats and support vessels.

The Iraqi Special Operations Forces (ISOF) are elite units trained for counter-terrorism, special reconnaissance, and direct action missions. They played a crucial role in the fight against ISIL and operate under the Counter Terrorism Service (CTS), which reports directly to the Prime Minister.

The Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) (الحشد الشعبي_{al-Hashd al-Shaabi}^Arabic) were formed in 2014 in response to a fatwa by Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani to combat ISIL. Comprising numerous, mostly Shia, militias (though some Sunni, Christian, and Yazidi units exist), the PMF were officially incorporated into the state security apparatus in 2016 but maintain distinct command structures and have faced controversy regarding accountability and sectarian actions. Their influence on national security and politics is significant.

Ongoing efforts to rebuild and modernize the armed forces include extensive training programs, often with international assistance (e.g., from the US and NATO), and procurement of new equipment. Challenges include integrating various security elements, ensuring professionalism and non-sectarianism, and combating corruption within the security sector.

7.2. Defense Policy and Challenges

Iraq's national security strategy focuses on several key areas:

• Internal Threats:** Combating terrorism and insurgency remains a primary concern. Groups like ISIL, though territorially defeated, continue to pose a threat through sleeper cells and sporadic attacks. Addressing the root causes of extremism, including political and economic grievances, is a long-term challenge.
• External Security Concerns:** Maintaining territorial integrity and managing relations with neighboring countries, some of which have complex security dynamics with Iraq, are crucial.
• Border Control:** Securing Iraq's long and often porous borders to prevent infiltration by militants, smugglers, and other destabilizing elements is a major task.
• Foreign Military Cooperation:** Iraq relies on foreign military cooperation for training, equipment, and intelligence sharing. The NATO Training Mission - Iraq and bilateral partnerships, particularly with the United States, have been important in rebuilding its defense capabilities. However, the presence and influence of foreign forces are politically sensitive.

• Social Impact of Military Operations:**

Military operations, particularly during the fight against ISIL and earlier conflicts, have had a severe impact on civilian populations. This includes mass displacement, casualties, destruction of homes and infrastructure, and long-term psychological trauma. Ensuring the protection of civilians during military operations, providing humanitarian assistance to affected populations, and addressing issues like unexploded ordnance and property restitution are critical aspects of post-conflict recovery. The conduct of security forces and accountability for any human rights violations are essential for building public trust and promoting reconciliation. The integration of various armed groups into a unified national command structure that respects human rights and the rule of law remains a key challenge for Iraq's defense policy.

8.1. Overview and Structure

Key economic indicators for Iraq include its Gross Domestic Product (GDP), inflation rate, and unemployment levels. Historically, Iraq experienced periods of significant economic growth, particularly during oil booms in the 1970s, which funded infrastructure development and social programs. However, the Iran-Iraq War, the Gulf War, subsequent UN sanctions, and the post-2003 conflict have led to severe economic disruption and decline.

The oil sector is the dominant force in the Iraqi economy, accounting for the vast majority (over 90%) of government revenue and export earnings. This heavy reliance on a single commodity makes the economy vulnerable to fluctuations in global oil prices and production levels. Other sectors, such as agriculture and manufacturing, have declined in relative importance but remain crucial for employment and food security.

Significant challenges to Iraq's economic development include:

• Post-Conflict Reconstruction:** The need to rebuild infrastructure damaged by decades of war is immense.
• Corruption:** Endemic corruption diverts public funds, hinders investment, and undermines public trust.
• Economic Diversification:** Reducing dependence on oil and developing other productive sectors is a critical long-term goal.
• Unemployment and Poverty:** High rates of unemployment, particularly among youth, and widespread poverty persist, contributing to social unrest. Ensuring job creation and improving labor rights are essential.
• Social Equity:** The distribution of wealth and economic opportunities is often unequal, with disparities between regions and social groups. Addressing these inequalities is vital for sustainable and inclusive growth.
• Business Environment:** A challenging regulatory environment, security concerns, and lack of access to finance can deter private sector investment.

Public sector employment remains high, with the government being the largest employer. Efforts are underway to stimulate private sector growth, but progress is slow. Foreign aid and investment play a role in reconstruction and development, but their effectiveness is often hampered by the aforementioned challenges.

8.2. Oil and Energy Sector

Iraq possesses some of the world's largest proven oil reserves, estimated at around 143.1 billion barrels, ranking it among the top global producers. The oil and gas industry is the cornerstone of its economy. Major oil fields are located in the southern regions (e.g., Rumaila, West Qurna) and in the north (e.g., Kirkuk).

Oil production levels have fluctuated due to conflict and technical issues but have generally increased since 2003. Iraq is a key member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and plays an influential role in its production policies. The national energy policy aims to maximize oil revenues, attract foreign investment for exploration and development, and expand production capacity. The Ministry of Oil oversees the sector, with state-owned companies like the Iraq National Oil Company playing a central role, often in partnership with international oil companies through service contracts.

The socio-economic impact of oil wealth is profound. While oil revenues fund the state budget and public services, the "resource curse" phenomenon presents challenges. These include over-reliance on oil, neglect of other economic sectors, vulnerability to price shocks, and issues of resource governance, such as transparency in revenue management and equitable distribution of benefits. Corruption within the oil sector is a significant concern. Environmental concerns associated with the oil industry include oil spills, gas flaring (which contributes to air pollution and wastes a valuable resource), and water usage. Developing the natural gas sector, both for domestic consumption (especially power generation) and potential export, is also a priority.

8.3. Agriculture

Agriculture in Iraq has a long history, dating back to ancient Mesopotamia, where fertile lands along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers supported early civilizations. Today, the sector remains important for food security, rural livelihoods, and potential economic diversification, though it faces numerous challenges.

Main agricultural products include wheat, barley, rice, dates (Iraq was historically a leading global producer), tomatoes, and other fruits and vegetables. Livestock, including sheep, goats, and cattle, is also significant. Land use patterns are dominated by cultivation in the river valleys and rain-fed agriculture in some northern areas. Irrigation systems are crucial for much of Iraq's agriculture, drawing water from the Tigris, Euphrates, and their tributaries.

Challenges facing the agricultural sector include:

• Water Scarcity:** Reduced river flows due to upstream dams in neighboring countries, climate change-induced droughts, and inefficient irrigation practices are leading to severe water shortages and soil salinization.
• Climate Change Impacts:** Rising temperatures, desertification, and increased frequency of dust storms are degrading agricultural land and reducing yields.
• Post-Conflict Recovery:** Decades of conflict have damaged infrastructure (irrigation canals, roads), displaced farming communities, and left agricultural lands contaminated with unexploded ordnance.
• Outdated Practices and Lack of Investment:** Limited access to modern farming techniques, quality seeds, fertilizers, and credit hinders productivity.
• Land Tenure Issues:** Complex land ownership and tenure systems can create uncertainty for farmers.

Revitalizing the agricultural sector is critical for improving food security, reducing reliance on food imports, creating rural employment, and promoting more balanced economic development. This requires investment in modernizing irrigation, promoting sustainable farming practices, supporting smallholder farmers, and addressing the impacts of climate change.

8.4. Other Industries and Services

Beyond the dominant oil and energy sector and agriculture, Iraq's economy includes several other industries and services, though their contribution to GDP and employment is comparatively smaller. Efforts to diversify the economy and promote these sectors are crucial for sustainable growth and job creation.

Manufacturing: The manufacturing sector in Iraq includes food processing, textiles, construction materials (cement, bricks), petrochemicals, and fertilizers. However, it has suffered from underinvestment, outdated technology, and competition from imports. Revitalizing state-owned enterprises and encouraging private sector investment are key challenges.

Construction: The construction sector has seen activity related to post-conflict reconstruction, including housing, infrastructure projects (roads, bridges), and commercial buildings. However, it is often hampered by security issues, corruption, and bureaucratic hurdles. There is a significant housing shortage in the country.

Tourism: Tourism in Iraq has immense potential, given its rich historical, archaeological, and religious heritage. Major archaeological sites like Babylon, Ur, and Hatra, and religious pilgrimage sites for Shia Muslims such as Karbala and Najaf, attract visitors. However, the sector has been severely impacted by decades of instability and conflict. Developing tourism infrastructure, ensuring security, and promoting Iraq as a safe destination are necessary for its growth. Ecotourism, particularly in the Mesopotamian Marshes, also presents opportunities.

Services: The services sector encompasses a range of activities, including wholesale and retail trade, transportation, finance, telecommunications, and public administration. The banking and financial services sector is still developing. The telecommunications sector has seen growth, particularly in mobile services.

Challenges for the sustainable growth of these non-oil sectors include improving the business environment, enhancing access to finance, developing skilled labor, strengthening infrastructure, and ensuring political stability and security. Promoting small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is also important for job creation and economic diversification.

8.5. Trade

Iraq's international trade is heavily dominated by the export of crude oil, which constitutes the vast majority of its export earnings. Non-oil exports are minimal, consisting mainly of some agricultural products (like dates) and re-exports.

Major import commodities include food products, machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, pharmaceuticals, and construction materials, reflecting the country's reliance on foreign goods for consumption and reconstruction.

Key trading partners for Iraq include:

• For Exports (primarily oil):** China, India, South Korea, the United States, and several European countries are major destinations for Iraqi oil.
• For Imports:** Turkey, China, Iran, the UAE, and the United States are among the leading sources of Iraq's imports. Trade with neighboring countries like Turkey and Iran is particularly significant due to geographical proximity and existing economic ties.

Iraq is a member of the Arab League and has participated in regional trade initiatives like the Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA), although the full benefits of such agreements are often hindered by political and logistical challenges. The country is not yet a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) but has observer status and has expressed interest in accession.

Efforts to improve Iraq's trade infrastructure and policies include modernizing ports (such as Umm Qasr Port and the development of the Grand Faw Port), streamlining customs procedures, and enhancing transportation networks. Challenges to expanding trade, particularly non-oil exports, include limited domestic production capacity in non-oil sectors, trade barriers, security concerns, and logistical bottlenecks. Reducing reliance on oil exports and promoting export diversification are key long-term economic goals.

8.6. Infrastructure

Iraq's essential infrastructure has suffered immensely from decades of conflict, sanctions, and underinvestment. Rebuilding and modernizing infrastructure is a critical priority for the country's economic development, social well-being, and overall stability. Significant projects are underway, often with international support and investment, but challenges related to security, corruption, and institutional capacity persist. In late 2023, the government announced plans for 15 new cities across Iraq to tackle the housing crisis, with the first five in Baghdad, Babylon, Nineveh, Anbar, and Karbala. The Al-Jawahiri city project, west of Baghdad, with 30,000 housing units, commenced in late 2023.

8.6.1. Transport

Roads: Iraq has an extensive network of roads and highways, totaling approximately 28 K mile ^{(45.55 K km)}, connecting major cities and neighboring countries like Iran, Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait. However, much of the network, constructed in the late 1970s and early 1980s, is in poor condition due to war damage and lack of maintenance. Traffic congestion, especially in Baghdad, is a serious issue. The maximum speed on major highways is generally 68 mph ^{(110 km/h)}.

Railways: Iraqi Republic Railways operates the national railway network, which consists of about 1.5 K mile ^{(2.41 K km)} of track. The system connects major cities like Baghdad, Basra, and Mosul, and has links to Syria and Turkey, though international services are often disrupted. Efforts are underway to modernize the railways, including projects like the Baghdad-Basra high-speed rail line and establishing links with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. New high-speed trains from China were introduced in 2014 for the Baghdad-Basra route.

Ports: Basra Governorate is home to all of Iraq's six main ports on the Persian Gulf: Abu Flous Port, Al Başrah Oil Terminal, Khor Al Amaya Oil Terminal, Khor Al Zubair Port, Al Maqal Port (Port of Basra), and Umm Qasr Port. These ports are vital for oil exports and general cargo. The Grand Faw Port project, launched in 2020 with Daewoo as head contractor, aims to become one of the largest ports in the Middle East. In 2024, Iraq, Turkey, Qatar, and the UAE signed a memorandum for the Iraq Development Road project, a 17.00 B USD, 1,200-kilometer rail and highway initiative to connect Grand Faw Port to the Turkish border by 2025.

Airports: Iraq has over 100 airports, with major international airports located in Baghdad, Basra, Erbil, Sulaymaniyah, Kirkuk, and Najaf. The government is constructing new international airports for Karbala and Nasiriyah, and reopening Mosul Airport.

8.7. Finance and Reconstruction

Iraq's banking and financial system has undergone significant changes since 2003, moving from a state-dominated system to one with a growing private sector. The Central Bank of Iraq is responsible for monetary policy, maintaining price stability, and regulating the banking sector. The financial system includes state-owned banks (like Rafidain Bank and Rasheed Bank), private commercial banks, and Islamic banks. However, the banking sector is still relatively underdeveloped, with low levels of financial intermediation and public trust. Access to credit for businesses and individuals can be limited. The Iraqi Dinar (IQD) is the national currency.

The national budget relies heavily on oil revenues. Public debt, which was substantial after years of conflict and sanctions, has been managed through restructuring efforts, including debt relief from the Paris Club and other creditors. Iraq completed its war reparation payments to Kuwait in 2022, totaling 52.40 B USD.

Foreign investment is crucial for Iraq's economic reconstruction and development, particularly in the oil and gas sector, infrastructure, and other industries. However, the investment climate faces challenges, including security concerns, political instability, corruption, a complex regulatory environment, and a weak legal framework for contract enforcement.

Post-conflict economic reconstruction is a massive and ongoing undertaking. International donors and organizations have provided significant financial and technical assistance, but the scale of the needs is vast. Key challenges include rebuilding infrastructure (transport, energy, water), restoring public services (health, education), creating employment, supporting displaced populations, and promoting national reconciliation. Ensuring transparent and equitable distribution of resources for national development is critical to prevent further grievances and promote social justice. A "dollar auction" system established post-2003 has been identified as a conduit for financial fraud, siphoning billions out of the country and reportedly benefiting U.S. adversaries, highlighting challenges in financial oversight.

9.1. Population

Recent estimates indicate that the total Iraqi population is over 46 million. Iraq's population was estimated to be 2 million in 1878. In 2013, Iraq's population reached 35 million amid a post-war population boom. The country has experienced relatively high population growth rates. The age structure is predominantly young, with a large proportion of the population under the age of 25, presenting both demographic dividends and challenges for employment and social services.

Population density varies across the country, with the highest concentrations in the fertile river valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, particularly around major urban centers. Urbanization has been a significant trend, with a large percentage of the population living in cities. Key demographic statistics such as fertility rates, mortality rates, and life expectancy have been affected by periods of conflict and improvements in healthcare.

9.2. Ethnic Groups

Iraq is home to a diverse array of ethnic groups. The majority of the population are Arabs, who are themselves divided along religious lines (predominantly Shia in the south and central regions, and Sunni in the west and parts of the north).

Kurds form the largest ethnic minority, estimated at 15-20% of the population. They are predominantly Sunni Muslims and are concentrated in the northern Kurdistan Region, where they have achieved a significant degree of autonomy. The Kurdish people have a distinct language, culture, and history, and have long struggled for self-determination and cultural rights, facing periods of severe repression, most notably the Anfal campaign.

Turkmen are the third-largest ethnic group, mostly residing in a band of territory stretching from Tal Afar in the northwest through Kirkuk to areas east of Baghdad. They are linguistically and culturally related to Turks and are religiously diverse (Sunni and Shia). They have faced challenges to their cultural identity and political representation.

Assyrians (also known as Chaldeans or Syriacs) are an indigenous Christian people who speak Neo-Aramaic languages. Historically concentrated in northern Iraq, their numbers have significantly dwindled due to persecution, conflict, and emigration, particularly after 2003. They have a rich cultural and religious heritage dating back to ancient Mesopotamia.

Yazidis are a distinct ethno-religious group with ancient roots, primarily Kurdish-speaking, whose unique faith incorporates elements of various traditions. They are concentrated in the Sinjar region and other parts of northern Iraq. The Yazidis suffered a brutal genocide at the hands of ISIL in 2014.

Shabaks are another distinct ethno-religious minority, primarily found in the Nineveh Plains. Their language, Shabaki, has Indo-Iranian roots, and their religious practices incorporate elements of Shia Islam and local traditions.

Mandaeans (Sabean Mandaeans) are a small, ancient Gnostic religious group who revere John the Baptist and practice ritual baptism. They speak Mandaic, an Aramaic language, and have traditionally lived in southern Iraq along the rivers. Their numbers have also sharply declined due to persecution and emigration.

Armenians have a long history in Iraq, with communities in Baghdad and other cities, often involved in trade and crafts.

Other smaller groups include Afro-Iraqis (Iraqis of African descent, concentrated in Basra), Kawliya (Roma/Dom), and Iranians.
Issues related to minority rights, discrimination, political representation, and the preservation of cultural and linguistic heritage are critical for Iraq's diverse society. The impact of conflict and sectarianism has often exacerbated vulnerabilities for these groups.

9.3. Languages

The official languages of Iraq, as stipulated in the 2005 constitution, are Arabic and Kurdish. Mesopotamian Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect of Arabic. Kurdish, primarily the Sorani and Kurmanji dialects, is spoken by the Kurdish population, mainly in the Kurdistan Region.

The constitution also recognizes several minority languages in areas where their speakers constitute a significant portion of the population. These include:

• Turkmen (a Turkic language), spoken by the Iraqi Turkmen.
• Neo-Aramaic (also referred to as Syriac), spoken by Assyrians/Chaldeans and Mandaeans. Specific dialects include Chaldean Neo-Aramaic and Assyrian Neo-Aramaic.
• Armenian, spoken by the Armenian community.

Language policy in education and public life aims to protect these languages. Education in mother tongues is guaranteed in government institutions for these recognized minority languages, in accordance with educational guidelines. Arabic and Kurdish are used in official government proceedings and publications. The script used for Arabic and Kurdish (Sorani dialect) is derived from the Arabic script. Turkmen in Iraq has more recently adopted a Latin-based alphabet similar to Turkish. Neo-Aramaic languages traditionally use the Syriac script. Other languages spoken by smaller communities include Shabaki, Persian, and Domari (spoken by the Kawliya).

9.4. Religion

Religion in Iraq is predominantly Islam, with an estimated 95-98% of the population identifying as Muslim. The Muslim population is divided between Shia Muslims, who form the majority (estimated at 61-64%), and Sunni Muslims (estimated at 29-34%).
Shia Muslims are concentrated in the southern and central parts of Iraq, as well as in parts of Baghdad. Iraq is home to some of the holiest sites in Shia Islam, including the shrines of Imam Ali in Najaf and Imam Husayn in Karbala, which attract millions of pilgrims annually.
Sunni Muslims are prevalent in western and northern Iraq, including cities like Ramadi, Tikrit, and parts of Mosul (the "Sunni Triangle"). The Kurdish population is predominantly Sunni, though there are Shia Kurds (Faili Kurds) as well.

Christianity has ancient roots in Iraq, predating Islam. Iraqi Christians, though their numbers have significantly declined due to persecution and emigration (especially after 2003 and the rise of ISIL), include various denominations. The largest groups are indigenous Assyrians belonging to the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Assyrian Church of the East, the Syriac Orthodox Church, and the Syriac Catholic Church. There is also a community of Armenian Christians. In 1987, Christians numbered over 1.4 million (8% of the population), but current estimates are much lower, possibly a few hundred thousand.

Yazidism is an ancient, monotheistic ethno-religious faith practiced by Yazidis, who are primarily Kurdish-speaking. Their holiest sites are in northern Iraq, particularly around Lalish. Yazidis faced a genocide by ISIL in 2014.

Mandaeism (Sabeanism) is an ancient Gnostic religion whose followers revere John the Baptist. They are a small, Aramaic-speaking community traditionally living along rivers in southern Iraq. Their numbers have also sharply declined.

Yarsanism (Ahl-e Haqq or Kaka'i) is a syncretic religion found among some Kurdish communities.
Judaism once had a vibrant and ancient presence in Iraq, dating back to the Babylonian exile. In 1948, the Jewish population was significant, but mass emigration, largely due to persecution following the establishment of Israel, led to a drastic reduction. Today, only a very small number of Jews remain in Iraq.
The constitution declares Islam as the official religion and a basic source of legislation but also guarantees freedom of religious belief and practice for all citizens. However, religious minorities continue to face discrimination and security threats. Sectarianism has been a major source of conflict and political division in Iraq, particularly between Sunni and Shia communities, with profound impacts on society and governance. Interfaith relations and efforts to promote religious tolerance are ongoing but face many challenges.

9.5. Education

The Iraqi education system, once considered one of the most advanced in the region, has suffered significantly from decades of conflict, sanctions, and underfunding. Before 1990, Iraq had high literacy rates and enrollment in primary and higher education. Saddam Hussein's regime invested in education, establishing numerous schools and universities. However, the quality and accessibility of education have "de-developed" since then.

The current system encompasses primary, secondary, vocational, and higher education. Education is nominally free from primary to higher education, and primary education is compulsory. However, challenges abound:

• Access and Enrollment:** While enrollment numbers nearly doubled between 2000 and 2012, reaching six million students, and continued to increase to around 9.2 million by 2015-2016, regional disparities persist. Conflict-ridden areas like Saladin Governorate have seen over 90% of school-age children out of school at times, with schools converted into shelters or military bases. Dropout rates are a concern, particularly for girls in some areas due to economic pressures or early marriage.
• Quality of Education:** Overcrowded classrooms, a shortage of qualified teachers, outdated curricula, and a lack of essential learning materials (textbooks, equipment) affect the quality of education. Many schools operate on multiple shifts to accommodate student numbers, reducing instructional time.
• Impact of Conflict:** The destruction of school infrastructure, displacement of students and teachers, and psychological trauma have severely impacted the education system. ISIL's occupation of parts of Iraq led to the closure of schools and the imposition of extremist curricula.
• Underfunding:** Despite the importance of education, it has often received an insufficient share of the government budget (around 5.7% in some estimates), leading to a lack of investment in schools and infrastructure. This has resulted in high repetition rates, which further strain resources.
• Vulnerable Groups:** Children from low-income families, displaced populations, girls in conservative areas, and children with disabilities often face greater barriers to accessing quality education.

Efforts have been made to rebuild the education system, including reopening schools in areas liberated from ISIL (e.g., over 380,000 children returned to school in Mosul post-liberation). In 2024, the government inaugurated 790 new schools as part of an agreement with China to build 1,000 schools, aiming to address overcrowding and triple shifts. There are also plans for the Development Fund for Iraq (DFI) to collaborate with the private sector to build an additional 400 schools, though a shortage of over 8,000 schools persists. Reforming the curriculum, improving teacher training, and ensuring equitable access for all children are critical for Iraq's future development.

9.6. Health

The healthcare system in Iraq has faced immense challenges due to decades of conflict, sanctions, political instability, and underinvestment. Prior to 1990, Iraq had a relatively well-developed, centralized, free healthcare system, with a focus on hospital-based curative care and reliance on imported medicines and equipment funded by oil revenues. At that time, access to primary healthcare was high (97% urban, 71% rural).

However, the system has since deteriorated significantly. Key public health issues include:

• Impact of Conflict and Sanctions:** Wars and sanctions led to the destruction of healthcare infrastructure, shortages of medicines and medical supplies, an exodus of medical professionals, and a decline in the overall quality of care.
• Access to Services:** Access to medical services remains uneven, with significant disparities between urban and rural areas, and between different regions of the country. Many Iraqis struggle to afford healthcare, even if nominally free, due to associated costs or the need to seek private care.
• Health Infrastructure:** Many hospitals and clinics are dilapidated, poorly equipped, and understaffed. There is a shortage of specialized medical personnel.
• Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases:** While communicable diseases like diarrheal diseases and respiratory infections remain a concern, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer are increasingly prevalent.
• Maternal and Child Health:** Maternal and child mortality rates, while having seen some improvement, remain higher than in many other countries in the region. Access to prenatal and postnatal care, skilled birth attendance, and immunization services needs strengthening.
• Mental Health:** Decades of trauma from conflict and violence have led to widespread mental health issues, including PTSD, depression, and anxiety, yet mental health services are severely underdeveloped and stigmatized.
• Environmental Health:** Poor sanitation, water contamination, and pollution contribute to various health problems.

Life expectancy at birth was around 68.49 years in 2010, a decrease from a peak of 71.31 years in 1996. In 2010, healthcare spending accounted for 6.84% of GDP. In 2008, there were approximately 6.96 physicians and 13.92 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.

Recent efforts to improve the healthcare system include the construction of new hospitals and specialized centers. In 2024, Mohammed Shia' Al Sudani inaugurated Shaab General Hospital in Baghdad, the city's first new general hospital in nearly 40 years. The Ministry of Health reported the construction of 13 new hospitals and various specialized centers over the preceding two years, with plans for more. A joint operation and management program for modern hospitals, involving global companies, was launched at Najaf Teaching Hospital. Health equity and addressing the specific challenges faced by vulnerable populations (displaced persons, impoverished communities, minorities) are critical for improving overall public health outcomes.

9.7. Major Cities

Iraq has several major urban centers that are hubs of population, economic activity, culture, and political administration.

• Baghdad: The capital and largest city of Iraq, located on the Tigris River. With a population of over 8 million, it is the country's primary political, economic, and cultural center. Baghdad has a rich history, having been the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and a major center of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. Today, it faces challenges of reconstruction, security, and urban development.
• Mosul: The second-largest city, located in northern Iraq on the Tigris River, in Nineveh Governorate. Mosul is a historic city with a diverse population. It suffered extensive damage during its occupation by ISIL (2014-2017) and the subsequent battle to liberate it. Reconstruction efforts are ongoing.
• Basra: A major port city in southern Iraq, located on the Shatt al-Arab waterway near the Persian Gulf. Basra is the economic capital of southern Iraq, crucial for the country's oil exports. It has a distinct cultural heritage and a diverse population, including Afro-Iraqis.
• Erbil ({{lang|ku|Hewlêr|}}): The capital of the Kurdistan Region in northern Iraq. Erbil is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, with its ancient Erbil Citadel recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site. It is a major political, economic, and cultural center for Iraqi Kurds.
• Kirkuk: A historically multi-ethnic city in northern Iraq, rich in oil resources. Kirkuk has been a focal point of territorial disputes between the Iraqi federal government and the Kurdistan Regional Government. Its population includes Kurds, Arabs, Turkmen, and Assyrians.
• Najaf: A holy city for Shia Muslims, located south of Baghdad. It is home to the shrine of Imam Ali, the first Shia Imam, making it a major pilgrimage destination and a center of Shia scholarship.
• Karbala: Another holy city for Shia Muslims, south of Baghdad, containing the shrine of Imam Husayn. It is the site of the annual Arba'een pilgrimage, one of the largest religious gatherings in the world.
• Sulaymaniyah ({{lang|ku|Silêmanî|}}): A major city in the Kurdistan Region, known as a cultural and intellectual center for Kurds.

These cities, along with others like Fallujah, Ramadi, Hillah, and Nasiriyah, reflect the diverse demographic, economic, and social fabric of Iraq, each with its own unique history and contemporary challenges.

9.8. Diaspora and Refugees

Decades of conflict, political persecution, and economic hardship have resulted in significant waves of Iraqi emigration, creating a substantial Iraqi diaspora around the world, and large numbers of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and refugees in neighboring countries and beyond.

The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), the Gulf War (1990-1991) and subsequent sanctions, and the repression under Saddam Hussein's regime led many Iraqis to flee the country. Ethnic and religious minorities, political opponents, and those seeking better economic opportunities were among those who left.

The 2003 US-led invasion and the ensuing Iraq War (2003-2011) triggered a massive displacement crisis. The UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that nearly two million Iraqis fled the country, primarily to neighboring Syria and Jordan, while millions more were internally displaced. Sectarian violence, insurgency, and direct threats to specific communities, including Christians and Mandaeans, fueled this exodus. It was estimated in 2007 that about 40% of Iraq's middle class had fled.

The rise of ISIL in 2014 caused another wave of mass displacement, particularly affecting minority groups like the Yazidis (who suffered genocide), Christians, Shabaks, and Turkmen in northern and western Iraq. Hundreds of thousands fled to other parts of Iraq, including the Kurdistan Region, or to neighboring countries.

The causes of displacement are multifaceted, including direct conflict, persecution based on ethnicity or religion, lack of security, destruction of homes and livelihoods, and lack of access to basic services. Iraqi refugees and IDPs often face numerous challenges, including poverty, limited access to employment, education, and healthcare, legal difficulties, and psychological trauma. Host countries, while often generous, have faced strains on their own resources.

Efforts for return, resettlement, and social integration are ongoing but complex. Some displaced Iraqis have returned to their homes as security conditions improved in certain areas, but many face obstacles such as destroyed property, lack of services, ongoing security risks, and unresolved political and social tensions. Resettlement to third countries has been an option for some vulnerable refugees. The long-term social integration of IDPs within Iraq and the reintegration of returnees are critical for national reconciliation and stability. The Syrian Civil War also led to an influx of Syrian refugees into Iraq, adding another layer to the displacement challenges in the region.

10.1. Historical and Archaeological Heritage

Iraq is often called the "cradle of civilization" due to its legacy as the heartland of ancient Mesopotamia. The country is home to numerous archaeological sites of global significance, representing civilizations such as Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, and Assyria.
Key sites include:

• Ur**: An ancient Sumerian city-state, famous for its well-preserved Ziggurat of Ur.
• Babylon**: The capital of ancient Babylonia, known for its legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon (though their existence is debated) and the impressive Ishtar Gate (reconstruction in Berlin, original fragments in Iraq). Saddam Hussein initiated controversial reconstructions at the site.
• Nineveh**: A major capital of the Assyrian Empire, located near modern Mosul. Its ruins include vast palaces and libraries.
• Nippur**: An important Sumerian religious center.
• Hatra**: A fortified Parthian city that withstood Roman invasions, showcasing a unique blend of Hellenistic, Roman, and Eastern architectural styles.
• Ctesiphon**: Capital of the Parthian and Sasanian Empires, famous for the colossal Taq Kasra arch.
• Samarra**: An Abbasid capital, known for its unique spiral minaret of the Great Mosque of Samarra.
• Ashur (Qal'at Sherqat)**: The first capital of Assyria and its religious center.

These sites have yielded countless artifacts, including cuneiform tablets, sculptures, pottery, and jewelry, many of which are housed in the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad and museums worldwide.
The preservation and recovery of Iraq's archaeological heritage have been severely challenged by decades of conflict, looting (especially following the 2003 invasion), and insufficient resources. ISIL deliberately destroyed several ancient sites and artifacts. Ongoing international and national efforts focus on protecting remaining sites, combating illicit trafficking of antiquities, and restoring damaged heritage. In 2021, Iraq announced the repatriation of about 17,000 looted artifacts, a significant achievement.

10.2. Arts

Iraqi art encompasses a long tradition from ancient Mesopotamian reliefs and sculptures to contemporary forms. During the Abbasid Caliphate, Baghdad was a center for Islamic art, with flourishing calligraphy, manuscript illumination (especially of the Quran), and ceramics. The 12th-century Baghdad School of manuscript illustration was known for its expressive figures and depictions of daily life.

In the 20th century, a vibrant modern art movement emerged in Iraq, with artists blending international styles with local traditions and motifs. Notable figures include Jewad Selim, Faiq Hassan, and Shakir Hassan Al Said. Themes often explored national identity, social issues, and the impact of conflict. Painting, sculpture, and ceramics are prominent media. Calligraphy remains a highly respected art form. Despite the challenges of war and instability, Iraqi artists continue to produce significant work both within Iraq and in the diaspora.

10.3. Architecture

The Architecture of Iraq spans from the monumental ziggurats, palaces, and temples of ancient Mesopotamia (e.g., mudbrick construction of Ur, Babylon) to the sophisticated mosques, madrasas, and palaces of the Islamic era, particularly during the Abbasid period in Baghdad and Samarra, which featured intricate tilework, domes, and minarets. Examples include the Great Mosque of Samarra with its spiral minaret and the Mustansiriya Madrasah in Baghdad. Traditional Iraqi urban architecture often featured courtyard houses adapted to the hot climate.

Ottoman-era architecture contributed mosques, caravanserais, and public buildings. In the 20th century, modern architectural styles were introduced, often blending with traditional elements. Prominent modern and contemporary Iraqi architects include Rifat Chadirji, Mohamed Makiya, Hisham N. Ashkouri, Basil Bayati, and the internationally acclaimed Zaha Hadid, known for her futuristic and deconstructivist designs.
Conflict has damaged many historical and modern buildings, and reconstruction efforts often face challenges in preserving architectural heritage while addressing urgent housing and infrastructure needs. Baghdad and Mosul have a plethora of cultural and heritage buildings, including historic mosques, churches in Mosul, and synagogues in Baghdad. Saddam Hussein constructed numerous palaces, such as Al-Faw Palace (now part of the American University of Iraq - Baghdad) and As-Salam Palace, some of which are being considered for adaptive reuse.

10.4. Literature

Iraqi literature has ancient roots in Sumerian literature and Babylonian-Akkadian literature, which produced some of the world's earliest written works, including the Epic of Gilgamesh, creation myths like the Enuma Elish, and legal codes. Cuneiform tablets preserved a wealth of literary, historical, and religious texts.

During the Abbasid Caliphate, Baghdad was a major center for Arabic literature. Scholars and writers at the House of Wisdom translated and produced works in various fields. Poetry flourished, with famous poets like Abu Nuwas and Al-Mutanabbi associated with this era. Prose writers like Al-Jahiz also made significant contributions. Several stories in the One Thousand and One Nights are set in Abbasid Baghdad or feature its famous figures. Al-Hariri of Basra was a medieval poet and grammarian.

In the modern era, Iraqi literature in Arabic, Kurdish, and other languages has addressed themes of national identity, social change, political struggle, and the human experience of war and exile. Notable 20th and 21st-century Iraqi poets include Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri, Badr Shakir al-Sayyab, Nazik Al-Malaika (a pioneer of free verse in Arabic), Saadi Youssef, and Dunya Mikhail. Prominent novelists and short story writers include Ghaib Tuama Farman, Fouad al-Tikerly, and Samuel Shimon. The challenges of censorship, conflict, and displacement have profoundly impacted Iraqi writers, many of whom have worked in exile.

10.5. Music

The Music of Iraq is diverse, reflecting its long history and varied cultural influences. It is particularly known for the Iraqi Maqam (المقام العراقي_{al-Maqām al-ʿIrāqī}^Arabic), a sophisticated genre of improvised vocal and instrumental music based on melodic modes (maqamat). It is considered a classical art form and has been recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The traditional ensemble for Maqam often includes instruments like the oud (lute), joza (spike fiddle), santur (hammered dulcimer), and percussion instruments like the dumbak (goblet drum).

Folk music traditions vary across regions and ethnic groups, including Kurdish, Turkmen, and Assyrian music. In the early 20th century, Jewish musicians played a prominent role in Iraqi musical life, particularly in Baghdad. Famous singers like Salima Pasha (Salima Murad) and instrumentalists like Ezra Aharon (oud) and Yusuf Za'arur were influential.

Contemporary popular music in Iraq incorporates elements of traditional music with Western and other Middle Eastern pop styles. Kazem al-Saher is one of the most famous pan-Arab pop stars from Iraq. The music scene has been affected by conflict and social conservatism, but Iraqi musicians continue to create and perform. The Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra, briefly interrupted during the 2003 invasion, has resumed performances. Cultural institutions like the Academy of Music and the Music and Ballet School Baghdad contribute to musical education.

10.6. Cuisine

Iraqi cuisine has a rich history dating back some 10,000 years to the ancient Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Ancient Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets contain some of the world's oldest recorded recipes. The cuisine reached a zenith during the Abbasid Caliphate when Baghdad was a culinary center. Today, Iraqi cuisine reflects this ancient heritage as well as influences from neighboring Turkish, Persian, and Levantine culinary traditions.

Staple foods include rice (especially Basmati), wheat (used for bread and bulgur), and barley. Lamb and chicken are the most common meats. Popular traditional dishes include:

• Masgouf**: Grilled fish, often carp, considered a national dish.
• Dolma**: Vegetables (like onions, peppers, zucchini, grape leaves) stuffed with a mixture of rice, minced meat, and spices.
• Quzi**: Slow-cooked lamb served with rice.
• Biryani**: Spiced rice with meat (usually chicken or lamb) and vegetables.
• Kebabs**: Various types of grilled meat.
• Tepsi Baytinijan**: A layered casserole of eggplant, tomatoes, minced meat, and onions.
• Various stews (maraq)**: Often served with rice, such as maraq bamya (okra stew) and maraq shabzi (green herb stew).

Dates are a significant ingredient and are consumed widely, both fresh and dried. Other characteristic ingredients include eggplant, tomato, okra, onion, lentils, chickpeas, pomegranate, and various spices like cardamom, cumin, and turmeric. Yogurt and cheese are also common. Iraqi cuisine is known for its hospitality and communal dining customs.

10.7. Media

The media landscape in Iraq has undergone significant transformations, particularly since 2003. Under Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime, media was strictly controlled by the state, serving as a tool for propaganda.
Iraq was home to the second television station in the Middle East, launched in Baghdad in the 1950s by Pye Limited.

After 2003, there was a period of rapid growth in the broadcast and print media, with the emergence of numerous privately-owned television stations, radio stations, newspapers, and magazines. However, this proliferation has been accompanied by challenges related to political polarization, sectarianism, and a lack of professionalism in some outlets. Many media outlets are affiliated with political parties, religious groups, or business interests, influencing their editorial stance.

• Print Media:** Numerous daily and weekly newspapers are published in Arabic and Kurdish.
• Broadcast Media:** Television is the most influential medium. Satellite television channels, both Iraqi and pan-Arab, are widely watched. Numerous local and national radio stations operate.
• Digital Media:** Internet penetration and social media use have grown significantly, providing alternative sources of information and platforms for public discourse, but also contributing to the spread of misinformation.

• Media Freedom:** While the post-2003 constitution guarantees freedom of the press, journalists in Iraq face significant risks, including threats, intimidation, violence, and legal harassment from state and non-state actors. Iraq has consistently ranked as one of the most dangerous countries for journalists. Censorship, both direct and self-imposed, remains a concern. The role of media in promoting democratic discourse, accountability, and national reconciliation is crucial but often undermined by political pressures and security challenges.

10.8. Sports

Sport in Iraq is diverse, with football (soccer) being the most popular sport by a significant margin.
The Iraq national football team has achieved notable successes, including winning the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, a victory that brought immense joy and a sense of unity to the war-torn country. The national team also participated in the 1986 FIFA World Cup and the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. The Olympic football team reached the semi-finals of the 2004 Athens Olympics. The Iraq Stars League is the country's top professional football league. Al-Zawraa SC is one of the most successful clubs. Younis Mahmoud is a celebrated national football hero.

Other popular sports include basketball, swimming, weightlifting (in which Iraq has had Olympic success), bodybuilding, boxing, kickboxing, and tennis. Traditional sports and recreational activities also exist.
Sports infrastructure has suffered from conflict and underinvestment, but efforts have been made to build new stadiums and facilities, such as the Basra International Stadium. The role of sports in Iraqi culture is significant, often serving as a source of national pride and a means of bringing people together across ethnic and sectarian lines.

10.9. UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Iraq is home to six sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, reflecting its profound historical and cultural significance:
1. **Hatra** (inscribed 1985): A large fortified city that was the capital of the first Arab Kingdom. It flourished under the Parthian Empire and withstood Roman invasions. Known for its unique blend of Hellenistic and Roman architecture with Eastern decorative features. It suffered damage by ISIL.
2. **Ashur (Qal'at Sherqat)** (inscribed 2003): The ancient religious capital of the Assyrian Empire, located on the Tigris River. Its archaeological remains provide important evidence of Assyrian civilization from the 3rd millennium BC to its destruction in 614 BC. It was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger due to conflict and a proposed dam project.
3. **Samarra Archaeological City** (inscribed 2007): An Abbasid Caliphate capital in the 9th century, extending for 26 mile ^{(41.5 km)} along the Tigris. It showcases innovative Islamic architecture, including the Great Mosque of Samarra with its iconic spiral minaret (Malwiya). Also on the List of World Heritage in Danger.
4. **Erbil Citadel** (inscribed 2014): A fortified settlement on top of an imposing ovoid-shaped tell in Erbil, Kurdistan Region. It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited urban areas in the world, with a history stretching back at least 6,000 years.
5. **The Ahwar of Southern Iraq: Refuge of Biodiversity and the Relict Landscape of the Mesopotamian Cities** (inscribed 2016): This mixed (natural and cultural) site comprises four component Mesopotamian marshlands (Huwizah, Central Marshes, East Hammar, and West Hammar) and three archaeological sites of Sumerian origin (Uruk, Ur, and Eridu). It recognizes the unique biodiversity of the marshes and their connection to ancient Mesopotamian civilizations.
6. **Babylon** (inscribed 2019): The ruins of the ancient city of Babylon, capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, renowned for its ziggurats, palaces, and association with figures like Hammurabi and Nebuchadnezzar II. The site includes remnants of its outer and inner city walls, temples, and palaces.

These sites underscore Iraq's immense contribution to human civilization and the importance of preserving its rich cultural and natural heritage for future generations, especially in the face of ongoing challenges from conflict, neglect, and environmental pressures.