Armenia

3.1. Prehistory

The Armenian Highlands show evidence of human presence from the Lower Paleolithic period, with Acheulean tools found near obsidian outcrops dating back over 1 million years. The Nor Geghi 1 Stone Age site in the Hrazdan River valley, with artifacts dated to 325,000 years ago, suggests that human technological innovation, such as Levallois technology, may have occurred intermittently across the Old World rather than spreading from a single origin.

The region was home to numerous Bronze Age cultures. Early Bronze Age settlements, part of the Kura-Araxes culture, have been found throughout Armenia, including Shengavit (near modern Yerevan), Harich, Karaz, and Garni. The Shengavit settlement, flourishing in the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE, was a significant urban center. Archaeological findings from this period include evidence of early metallurgy, sophisticated pottery, and agricultural practices. The Trialeti-Vanadzor culture, succeeding the Kura-Araxes, is known for its rich burial mounds containing elaborate gold and silver artifacts.

Discoveries in Armenia have included some of the world's oldest known artifacts, such as the Areni-1 shoe (c. 3500 BC), a 5,900-year-old skirt found in the Areni-1 cave, and the Areni-1 winery (c. 4100 BC), the earliest known wine-making facility, indicating advanced societal development. Petroglyphs found on Mount Ughtasar and elsewhere depict scenes of hunting, animals, and human figures, dating back possibly to the 12th millennium BC, though more commonly associated with the Bronze Age. The Zorats Karer (also known as Karahunj) megalithic complex, dating to the Middle Bronze Age or earlier, consists of hundreds of standing stones, some with circular holes, suggesting potential astronomical or ritualistic functions.

During the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, confederations of tribes such as Hayasa-Azzi and Nairi emerged in the Armenian Highlands. These entities are considered by some scholars to be among the precursors to the later Armenian state and people.

3.2. Antiquity

The ancient history of Armenia is marked by the rise and fall of powerful kingdoms, interactions with major empires, and the pivotal adoption of Christianity. The Armenian Highlands served as a cradle for these developments.

The first major state in the region was Urartu (known as Ararat or Biainili in its own language), which emerged in the 9th century BC and flourished until the early 6th century BC. Centered around Lake Van, Urartu developed a sophisticated culture with impressive fortresses (like Erebuni in modern Yerevan, founded in 782 BC by King Argishti I), irrigation systems, and a unique cuneiform script. Urartu frequently clashed with the Assyrian Empire.

Following the decline of Urartu, the region came under the influence of the Median Empire and subsequently the Achaemenid Empire. Armenia was organized as a satrapy within the Achaemenid Empire, mentioned in the Behistun Inscription of Darius I (c. 515 BC). The Orontid Dynasty (Yervanduni) ruled Armenia, first as satraps and later as independent kings after the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire following Alexander the Great's conquests in the 4th century BC. Armenia then fell under the influence of the Seleucid Empire.

Around 190 BC, Artaxias I, an Orontid general, founded the Artaxiad dynasty (Artashesian), establishing a fully sovereign Kingdom of Armenia. This kingdom reached its zenith under Tigranes the Great (r. 95-55 BC), who expanded its borders from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, creating a vast empire that briefly became the most powerful state east of the Roman Republic. Tigranes built a new capital, Tigranocerta. However, his expansion brought him into conflict with Rome, and after defeats by Roman generals Lucullus and Pompey, Armenia became a Roman client state.

The following centuries saw Armenia as a buffer state contended by the Roman (later Byzantine) and Parthian (later Sasanian Persian) empires. The Arsacid dynasty (Arshakuni), a branch of the Parthian Arsacids, was established on the Armenian throne in the 1st century AD under Tiridates I of Armenia. Despite periods of independence and autonomy, Armenia was often subject to the influence or direct rule of these larger powers. The pagan Garni Temple, likely built in the 1st century AD during the reign of Tiridates I, stands as a unique example of Greco-Roman architecture in the region.

A pivotal event in Armenian history was the adoption of Christianity as the state religion. According to tradition, this occurred in 301 AD when King Tiridates III of Armenia, converted by Gregory the Illuminator (Grigor Lusavorich), declared Christianity the official religion. This made Armenia the first nation to do so, an act that had profound and lasting consequences for Armenian identity, culture, and political orientation, often setting it apart from its Zoroastrian Persian and later Islamic neighbors. The Etchmiadzin Cathedral, traditionally founded in 303 AD, became the spiritual center of the Armenian Apostolic Church.

In the early 5th century, around 428 AD, the Arsacid Kingdom of Armenia was abolished, and its territory was divided between the Byzantine Empire (Western Armenia) and the Sasanian Empire (Eastern Armenia, known as Persarmenia), which was administered as a marzpanate (province). Despite political division, Armenians maintained a strong sense of cultural unity, significantly bolstered by the invention of the Armenian alphabet by Mesrop Mashtots around 405 AD. This invention facilitated the translation of the Bible and other religious and literary works into Armenian, ushering in a golden age of Armenian literature and preserving national identity. The Battle of Avarayr in 451 AD, though a military defeat for the Armenians led by Vardan Mamikonian against the Sasanians who sought to reimpose Zoroastrianism, is remembered as a moral victory that ultimately secured Armenia's right to practice Christianity.

3.3. Middle Ages

The Middle Ages in Armenia were characterized by periods of restored sovereignty alternating with domination by powerful neighboring empires, significant cultural achievements, and the eventual loss of statehood on the Armenian Highlands, leading to the rise of a new Armenian kingdom in Cilicia.

Following the division of Armenia between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires in the 5th century, Eastern Armenia remained under Persian rule until the Arab conquests of the 7th century. In the mid-7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered Sasanian Persia and subsequently Armenia. The region became an autonomous principality known as Arminiya within the Umayyad Caliphate and later the Abbasid Caliphate. It was ruled by an Armenian prince (ostikan), recognized by both the Caliph and often the Byzantine Emperor, with its center at Dvin. Despite Arab rule, Armenians largely retained their Christian faith and cultural identity, and the Armenian nobility played a significant role in the administration of the region.

In the 9th century, as the Abbasid Caliphate weakened, Armenian noble families, particularly the Bagratunis (Bagratids), gained increasing power. In 884/885 AD, Ashot I Bagratuni was recognized as King of Armenia by both the Caliph and the Byzantine Emperor, restoring the Armenian Kingdom. The Bagratid era, centered in cities like Ani (its capital from 961 AD), is considered a golden age of Armenian culture, architecture, and learning. Ani, known as the "city of a thousand and one churches," became a major urban center. However, the kingdom was often plagued by internal divisions and pressure from external powers. Several regions, such as Vaspurakan (under the Artsrunis), Syunik, and Artsakh, formed independent or semi-independent kingdoms while nominally recognizing Bagratid supremacy.

The Bagratid Kingdom eventually succumbed to Byzantine pressure and Seljuk Turk invasions. In 1045, Ani was annexed by the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine rule was short-lived, as the Seljuks, under Alp Arslan, defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, opening Anatolia and Armenia to Turkic settlement. This defeat had devastating consequences for both Byzantium and Armenia, leading to widespread destruction and displacement of the Armenian population.

In response to the Seljuk invasions, many Armenians migrated southwards to the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean coast, where they established new principalities. One of these, founded by Ruben I, Prince of Armenia, evolved into the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (also known as Lesser Armenia). Officially declared a kingdom in 1198 under Leo I (Levon I), Cilician Armenia, with its capital at Sis, became an important commercial and cultural center. It maintained close ties with the European Crusaders and served as a bastion of Christianity in the East. The seat of the Catholicos (head of the Armenian Church) was transferred to Cilicia during this period. Cilician Armenia flourished for several centuries, adopting Western European feudal structures and legal codes, but eventually fell to the Egyptian Mamluks in 1375.

Back in the Armenian Highlands, following the decline of Seljuk power, parts of northern and eastern Armenia experienced a revival under the Zakarids (Mkhargrdzeli), Armenian princes who served the Georgian Kingdom in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. This period, known as Zakarid Armenia, saw a resurgence of Armenian culture and monastic life. However, this revival was cut short by the Mongol invasions in the 1230s. Armenia became part of the Mongol Empire and later suffered further devastation from the campaigns of Timur (Tamerlane) in the late 14th century. These invasions led to a significant decline in the region's prosperity and population, and a further dispersal of Armenians. The Orbelian Dynasty maintained a degree of local autonomy in Syunik, while the House of Hasan-Jalalyan ruled the Kingdom of Artsakh in Nagorno-Karabakh.

3.4. Early Modern Era

The Early Modern Era for Armenia, spanning from the 16th to the early 19th centuries, was predominantly characterized by foreign domination, as the traditional Armenian homeland became a battleground and a divided territory between the Ottoman Empire and successive Persian empires (Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar). This period profoundly impacted the socio-cultural and demographic landscape of the Armenian people.

From the early 16th century, after the decline of local Turcoman dynasties like the Kara Koyunlu and Ag Qoyunlu, the Armenian Highlands were contested between the expanding Ottoman Empire to the west and the Safavid Empire of Iran to the east. The Ottoman-Safavid Wars frequently ravaged Armenian lands. The Peace of Amasya in 1555 formally divided historic Armenia: Western Armenia came under Ottoman rule, while Eastern Armenia (including regions like Yerevan and Karabakh) fell under Persian control. This division was largely reaffirmed by the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639 and remained, with some territorial shifts, until the Russian conquests of the 19th century.

Under Ottoman rule, Western Armenians were part of the millet system, which granted religious minorities a degree of autonomy in their internal affairs, particularly in religious and cultural matters, under the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople. While Armenians initially played significant roles in Ottoman commerce, crafts, and administration, their status as non-Muslims (dhimmi) subjected them to legal and social disabilities, including higher taxes and restrictions. Conditions varied over time and by region, but generally deteriorated in later centuries, particularly with the weakening of central Ottoman authority and the rise of local Kurdish chieftains.

In Eastern Armenia, under Persian rule, Armenians also experienced periods of both relative tolerance and severe persecution. Shah Abbas I (r. 1588-1629) of the Safavid dynasty implemented a "scorched earth" policy during his wars with the Ottomans. In 1604-1605, he ordered the forced resettlement of a large Armenian population from the Ararat valley and Nakhichevan to Persia, primarily to Isfahan, where they established the New Julfa quarter. This was done to depopulate the border regions against Ottoman advances and to bring skilled Armenian merchants and artisans into Persia to boost its economy. While New Julfa became a thriving center of Armenian culture and international trade, the forced deportations were a traumatic event, causing immense suffering and loss of life. Eastern Armenia was often administered as a province (khanate), such as the Erivan Khanate.

Throughout this period, the Armenian Church played a crucial role in preserving Armenian identity, language, and culture in both Ottoman and Persian Armenia. Monasteries remained centers of learning and manuscript production. The Armenian diaspora, which had begun in earlier centuries, continued to grow, with significant communities emerging in various parts of Europe, Asia, and later, the Americas. These diaspora communities often maintained strong ties with their homeland and contributed to Armenian cultural and intellectual life.

The socio-economic conditions for many Armenians, particularly peasants, were often harsh under both empires, subject to heavy taxation, feudal exploitation, and insecurity due to wars and local conflicts. Despite these challenges, Armenian merchants and craftsmen continued to play vital roles in regional and international trade networks.

3.5. Modern Era

The Modern Era for Armenia, stretching from the 19th century to the early 20th century, was marked by continued foreign rule, a significant national awakening, devastating conflicts including the Armenian Genocide, and the first, albeit brief, period of modern independent statehood.

3.5.1. Russian and Ottoman Rule and National Awakening

In the early 19th century, the geopolitical landscape of the Armenian homeland shifted dramatically. Following the Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) and the Russo-Persian War (1826-1828), Qajar Iran was forced to cede Eastern Armenia (including the Erivan Khanate and Karabakh Khanate) to the Russian Empire under the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828). This part of Armenia became known as Russian Armenia. Under Russian rule, conditions for Eastern Armenians were somewhat more stable compared to those under Ottoman or Persian rule, though they were still subject to Tsarist autocracy and Russification policies. The establishment of the Armenian Oblast in 1828 was an early administrative form.

Meanwhile, Western Armenia remained under Ottoman rule. The 19th century saw a decline in the Ottoman Empire's power and increasing discontent among its Christian minorities. While some reforms (Tanzimat) were introduced, the situation for Western Armenians often remained precarious, marked by discrimination, heavy taxation, and lack of security. In response to worsening conditions and inspired by nationalist movements elsewhere in Europe, an Armenian national awakening (Zartonk) began in both Russian and Ottoman Armenia. This cultural and intellectual movement sought to revive Armenian language, literature, and historical consciousness. Armenian schools, newspapers, and cultural societies were established. Political consciousness also grew, with calls for reforms, autonomy, and eventually, liberation from foreign rule.

In the Ottoman Empire, Armenian demands for reforms and protection led to increased repression. Sultan Abdul Hamid II responded to Armenian activism and rebellions (such as the Sasun rebellion of 1894) with brutal force, organizing the Hamidian massacres between 1894 and 1896, which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 80,000 to 300,000 Armenians. These massacres earned Abdul Hamid II the epithet "Red Sultan" or "Bloody Sultan" and foreshadowed the larger-scale atrocities to come. Armenian revolutionary parties, such as the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun) and the Hnchakian Party, were formed during this period, advocating for self-defense and Armenian rights, sometimes through armed resistance (fedayi groups).

The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 initially raised hopes among Armenians for equality and reform within the Ottoman Empire. However, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which came to power, soon adopted a more nationalist and authoritarian agenda. The Adana massacre of 1909, in which 20,000-30,000 Armenians were killed, was a grim indicator of continuing anti-Armenian sentiment. As World War I approached, the Armenian reform package of 1914 was an attempt to address Armenian grievances, but its implementation was cut short by the outbreak of the war.

3.5.2. World War I and Armenian Genocide

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 set the stage for one of the darkest chapters in Armenian history: the Armenian Genocide. The Ottoman Empire, under the rule of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), commonly known as the Young Turks, allied with the Central Powers. The war provided the CUP with a pretext to implement its ultranationalist policies aimed at Turkifying the empire and eliminating non-Turkish elements, particularly the Armenians, whom they viewed with suspicion as a potential pro-Russian fifth column, especially as the Russian Empire (an Entente Power) bordered Ottoman Armenia and had Armenian volunteer units within its army.

The genocide began on April 24, 1915, a date now commemorated as Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day. On that day, several hundred Armenian intellectuals, community leaders, clergy, and professionals were arrested in Constantinople (Istanbul) and other major cities, then deported and mostly killed. This act was designed to decapitate the Armenian community and remove its leadership.

Following these arrests, the Ottoman government, under the pretext of wartime necessity, initiated the systematic extermination of its Armenian population. The Tehcir Law (Law of Deportation) of May 29, 1915, provided a veneer of legality for the forced displacement of Armenians from their ancestral lands in Western Armenia and other parts of Anatolia. The genocide was carried out in two main phases:
1. The massacre of able-bodied Armenian men: Armenian men serving in the Ottoman army were disarmed, transferred to labor battalions, and then systematically killed. Civilian men were also rounded up and executed.
2. The deportation of women, children, the elderly, and the infirm: These groups were forced on death marches into the Syrian Desert (primarily around Deir ez-Zor). Driven by military escorts, they were deprived of food, water, and shelter, and subjected to robbery, rape, torture, and mass killings by Ottoman gendarmes, soldiers, and irregular Kurdish or Turkish bands. Many perished from starvation, disease, and exhaustion. Concentration camps were established where survivors faced further atrocities.

There were instances of Armenian resistance, such as the defense of Van, Musa Dagh, and Urfa, but these were largely isolated and ultimately overwhelmed.

The systematic nature of the killings, the direct involvement of state organs, and the clear intent to destroy the Armenian population as a group lead most Western historians and many countries to recognize these events as genocide. Estimates of the number of Armenians killed range from 600,000 (an early estimate by Arnold J. Toynbee for 1915-1916 only) to over 1.5 million, with the most common figure cited being around 1 to 1.5 million. The genocide resulted in the near-total annihilation of the Armenian presence in their historic homeland in Western Armenia, the destruction of countless churches, monasteries, schools, and cultural heritage sites, and the creation of a vast Armenian diaspora.

International reactions at the time included condemnations from Allied powers (Britain, France, Russia) who warned the Ottoman government that they would hold it responsible for these "crimes against humanity." Foreign diplomats, missionaries, and aid workers (like Henry Morgenthau Sr., the US Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire) witnessed and documented the atrocities.

The long-term consequences for survivors and the diaspora have been profound, shaping Armenian identity, memory, and political aspirations. The denial of the genocide by successive Turkish governments remains a major point of contention and a barrier to reconciliation. For the Armenian people, the pursuit of recognition, justice, and remembrance of the genocide is a central and deeply felt issue, impacting their efforts towards democratic development and human rights advocacy, as the trauma of this event underscores the vulnerability of minorities and the importance of international accountability.

3.5.3. First Republic of Armenia (1918-1920)

The collapse of the Russian Empire following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent Russian Civil War created a power vacuum in the Caucasus. Eastern Armenia, along with Georgia and Azerbaijan, initially formed the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic in February 1918. However, internal divisions and external pressures, particularly from the advancing Ottoman army, led to its dissolution in May 1918.

On May 28, 1918, the Armenian National Council declared the independence of the First Republic of Armenia (also known as the Democratic Republic of Armenia) in Tiflis (Tbilisi), with its capital later established in Yerevan. Aram Manukian was a key figure in its establishment. The new republic faced immense challenges from its inception. It was born amidst war, territorial disputes with its neighbors (Georgia, Azerbaijan, and the Ottoman Empire/Turkey), and a massive humanitarian crisis caused by the influx of hundreds of thousands of refugees fleeing the Armenian Genocide in Ottoman Armenia. These refugees brought disease and starvation, overwhelming the fledgling state's resources.

Militarily, the nascent republic had to fight for its survival. The Battle of Sardarabad, Battle of Karakilisa, and Battle of Bash Abaran in May 1918, where Armenian forces, including regular army units and volunteer militias, successfully halted the Ottoman advance into Eastern Armenia, were crucial for the establishment of the state. The Treaty of Batum (June 1918) forced Armenia to cede significant territories to the Ottoman Empire, but the republic survived.

The government of the First Republic, dominated by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun), attempted to build state institutions, establish a parliamentary system, and gain international recognition. It introduced reforms in education and land distribution. Women were granted suffrage. However, the political landscape was fractured, and the government struggled with internal dissent and uprisings by Muslim populations in some regions.

The Entente Powers, particularly the United States, Britain, and France, provided some humanitarian aid and political support. The Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920), signed between the Allies and the defeated Ottoman Empire, recognized Armenia's independence and proposed to assign it significant territories in Western Armenia (often referred to as "Wilsonian Armenia" as U.S. President Woodrow Wilson was tasked with drawing the borders). However, this treaty was never ratified by the Ottoman parliament and was rejected by the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk).

In late 1920, the First Republic faced a two-front assault. Turkish nationalist forces under Kâzım Karabekir invaded from the west, leading to the Turkish-Armenian War. Simultaneously, the Soviet Eleventh Army invaded from the east, aiming to establish Soviet rule in the Caucasus. Defeated by the Turks and facing internal pressure from Armenian Bolsheviks, the government of the First Republic was forced to sign the Treaty of Alexandropol (December 2, 1920), ceding Kars and other territories to Turkey and renouncing the Treaty of Sèvres. On the same day, Soviet forces entered Yerevan, and the Armenian government agreed to transfer power to a Soviet-backed Revolutionary Committee. The First Republic of Armenia ceased to exist after only two and a half years.

Despite its short existence, the First Republic was a crucial experience in modern Armenian statehood, providing a symbol of independence and self-governance that would be revived decades later. Its legacy continues to influence Armenian national consciousness and political thought, particularly concerning democratic ideals and territorial integrity. The humanitarian catastrophe it inherited from the Genocide, and its own struggles with war and displacement, highlighted the vulnerability of the Armenian people and the urgent need for stable statehood and international support.

3.6. Soviet Era

The Soviet era in Armenia spanned from late 1920 to 1991, a period of profound transformation that included nation-building within a totalitarian framework, industrialization, cultural developments, political repression, and ultimately, a movement towards independence. This era significantly shaped modern Armenian society, its economy, and its national consciousness, with lasting impacts on human rights and democratic aspirations.

3.7. Independent Armenia (1991-present)

The period following Armenia's declaration of independence in 1991 has been characterized by efforts to build a democratic state and a market economy, while grappling with regional conflicts, geopolitical challenges, and socio-economic transformations. The pursuit of human rights, democratic development, and ensuring the well-being of its citizens, including those displaced by conflict, has been central to this era.

3.7.2. Early 21st Century Developments (2000s-2010s)

The first two decades of the 21st century in Armenia were marked by political consolidation, economic struggles and reforms, and ongoing foreign policy challenges. Levon Ter-Petrosyan served as the first president until his resignation in 1998, followed by Robert Kocharyan (1998-2008) and Serzh Sargsyan (2008-2018). The political landscape was often characterized by a strong executive, contested elections, and concerns about democratic backsliding, corruption, and the independence of the judiciary. The 1999 Armenian parliament shooting, in which the Prime Minister, Parliament Speaker, and other officials were assassinated, was a major political trauma.

Economically, Armenia transitioned to a market economy, but faced challenges including high unemployment, poverty, and the continued impact of regional blockades. The country relied significantly on remittances from its large diaspora and on foreign aid. Some sectors, like IT and tourism, showed growth. Armenia joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2003. In terms of foreign policy, Armenia sought to balance its strategic alliance with Russia (including membership in the CSTO and hosting a Russian military base) with efforts to deepen ties with Western countries and institutions, including the European Union (through the Eastern Partnership) and NATO (through the Partnership for Peace program). Relations with Turkey remained frozen due to Turkey's denial of the Armenian Genocide and its support for Azerbaijan. The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict continued to dominate Armenia's security agenda. Social issues included emigration, demographic challenges, and the need to strengthen social safety nets and protect vulnerable groups.

3.7.3. 2018 Velvet Revolution and Aftermath

In April-May 2018, Armenia experienced a series of widespread, peaceful anti-government protests known as the Velvet Revolution. The protests were initially triggered by Serzh Sargsyan's attempt to retain power as Prime Minister after serving two terms as President, following constitutional changes that shifted power from the presidency to the parliament. Led by opposition MP Nikol Pashinyan, the movement quickly grew, fueled by popular discontent over corruption, cronyism, economic stagnation, and a perceived lack of democratic accountability.

The revolution was characterized by civil disobedience, marches, and strikes, largely centered in Yerevan but with support across the country. The protests were notable for their peaceful nature and the significant participation of youth. Under immense public pressure, Serzh Sargsyan resigned on April 23, 2018. Nikol Pashinyan was elected Prime Minister by the National Assembly on May 8, 2018.

The Velvet Revolution was widely hailed as a victory for democratic development and popular sovereignty in Armenia. Pashinyan's government promised sweeping reforms aimed at tackling corruption, strengthening the rule of law and judicial independence, improving human rights protections, and fostering economic development. Early parliamentary elections in December 2018 resulted in a landslide victory for Pashinyan's My Step Alliance. The revolution raised hopes for a more democratic and accountable Armenia, with a renewed focus on citizens' rights and well-being. However, the new government faced significant challenges in implementing its reform agenda and addressing long-standing socio-economic problems and the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. The impact on human rights was initially positive, with increased media freedom and space for civil society, but challenges remained, particularly concerning judicial reform and addressing past injustices.

4.1. Topography

Armenia's terrain is predominantly mountainous, characterized by a complex network of ranges, volcanic plateaus, and deep river gorges. Approximately 90% of the country lies at an altitude of 3.3 K ft ^{(1.00 K m)} or more above sea level. The average elevation is around 5.9 K ft ^{(1.80 K m)}. The highest point is Mount Aragats, an extinct volcano with four peaks, the northernmost reaching 13 K ft ^{(4.09 K m)}. The lowest point, at 1230 ft ^{(375 m)}, is in the Debed River valley in the north.

The Lesser Caucasus mountain range extends across northern and eastern Armenia, forming a significant part of its landscape. The Ararat Plain, a fertile lowland area, stretches across the southwestern part of the country, along the border with Turkey, and is home to the capital, Yerevan. Historically, Mount Ararat, though now located in Turkey, is a powerful national symbol for Armenians and is visible from much of Armenia.

Principal rivers include the Aras River (Araks), which forms a large part of the border with Iran and Turkey; the Hrazdan River, which flows through Yerevan and into the Aras; the Debed River in the north; and the Vorotan River in the south.

Lake Sevan (Սևանա լիճ_{Sevana lich}^Armenian) is the largest lake in Armenia and one of the largest high-altitude freshwater lakes in the world. Located in the eastern part of the country at an elevation of about 6.2 K ft ^{(1.90 K m)}, it is of immense ecological, economic, and cultural importance. Its water levels have fluctuated due to human intervention, primarily for irrigation and hydroelectric power, leading to environmental concerns.

The mountainous terrain makes transportation and agriculture challenging in many areas but also provides stunning natural scenery and resources for mining and hydroelectric power. Armenia is also located in a seismically active zone and has experienced destructive earthquakes, most notably the 1988 Spitak earthquake.

4.2. Climate

Armenia has a highland continental climate, characterized by distinct seasons with significant variations in temperature and precipitation due to its topography and elevation. Generally, summers are dry and sunny, while winters are cold and snowy.

• Summers** (June to mid-September) are typically hot and dry, especially in the Ararat Plain and lower-lying areas, where temperatures can range from 71.6 °F ^{(22 °C)} to 96.8 °F ^{(36 °C)}, occasionally exceeding 104 °F ^{(40 °C)}. Humidity is generally low, making high temperatures more tolerable. Higher elevations experience cooler summers.
• Winters** (mid-November to March) are cold, particularly in mountainous regions, with abundant snowfall. Temperatures in Yerevan and the Ararat Plain can range from 14 °F ^{(-10 °C)} to 23 °F ^{(-5 °C)}, but can drop much lower in higher altitudes. Mountain passes may become snowbound.
• Spring** (April to May) is generally short, with mild temperatures and increasing precipitation.
• Autumn** (mid-September to mid-November) is long and often considered the most pleasant season, with mild, sunny weather and colorful foliage.

Precipitation varies significantly across the country. The Ararat Plain is relatively arid, receiving about 7.9 in ^{(200 mm)} to 9.8 in ^{(250 mm)} of rainfall annually. Mountainous regions, especially in the north and southeast, receive more precipitation, ranging from 20 in ^{(500 mm)} to 31 in ^{(800 mm)} or more, often as snow in winter.

The country experiences a high number of sunny days per year, particularly in the Ararat Plain. Regional climatic differences are pronounced: the southern regions generally have a drier and warmer climate, while the northern, forested regions are cooler and more humid. The climate of Lake Sevan has its own microclimate, with cooler summers and colder winters than the surrounding areas.

4.3. Environment

Armenia faces a range of environmental issues, many of which are linked to its Soviet past, economic development pressures, and geographical characteristics. Efforts towards environmental conservation and sustainable development are underway, involving government policies and civil society initiatives.

Key environmental challenges include:

• Deforestation**: Historically, Armenia had more extensive forest cover. Deforestation occurred due to logging for fuel and construction, particularly during the energy crisis of the 1990s following independence. Reforestation efforts are ongoing, but illegal logging remains a concern. Current forest cover is around 11-12% of the total land area.
• Water pollution**: Rivers and Lake Sevan have suffered from pollution due to untreated or inadequately treated municipal wastewater, industrial discharges (especially from mining), and agricultural runoff (pesticides and fertilizers). This impacts water quality, biodiversity, and human health. Lake Sevan, in particular, has faced ecological challenges due to water level fluctuations and pollution, though efforts are being made to restore its ecosystem.
• Air pollution**: Urban areas, particularly Yerevan, experience air pollution primarily from vehicle emissions and industrial activities. Dust from construction and open mines can also contribute to poor air quality.
• Waste Management**: Waste management is underdeveloped. Most solid waste is disposed of in landfills that often do not meet modern environmental standards. There is limited waste sorting, recycling, and proper disposal of hazardous waste. Plans for modern waste processing facilities are being developed.
• Soil degradation and Erosion**: Unsustainable agricultural practices, overgrazing, and deforestation have led to soil erosion and degradation in some areas, impacting agricultural productivity and biodiversity.
• Mining Impacts**: Armenia has a significant mining sector (copper, molybdenum, gold), which is a major contributor to its economy but also a source of environmental concern. Issues include water and soil pollution from mine tailings and wastewater, habitat destruction, and air pollution. Balancing economic benefits with environmental protection in the mining sector is a critical challenge, with significant social impact on local communities often bearing the brunt of environmental degradation.
• Biodiversity loss**: Armenia is part of the Caucasus biodiversity hotspot, with a rich variety of flora and fauna, including many endemic species. Habitat loss and degradation, pollution, poaching, and climate change pose threats to this biodiversity.

• Protected Areas and Conservation Efforts:**

Armenia has established several protected areas, including national parks, state reserves, and sanctuaries, to conserve its unique ecosystems and species. Notable protected areas include Dilijan National Park, Sevan National Park, Khosrov Forest State Reserve, and Shikahogh State Reserve. These areas aim to protect forests, wetlands, alpine meadows, and diverse wildlife.

Government policies and legislation for environmental protection are in place, and Armenia is a signatory to various international environmental conventions. Civil society organizations and environmental activists play an important role in raising awareness, advocating for stronger environmental governance, and monitoring environmental issues. There is a growing focus on sustainable development, renewable energy (Armenia has potential for solar, wind, and hydropower), and green economy initiatives. Addressing the social impact of environmental degradation, particularly on vulnerable communities dependent on natural resources, is also an increasing concern. The Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant remains an environmental and safety concern, with ongoing discussions about its future and potential replacements.

In the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), Armenia's ranking has varied, highlighting ongoing challenges in areas like air quality and ecosystem vitality.

5.1. Governance Structure

The current Constitution of Armenia, adopted via a referendum in 2015 and amended subsequently, defines the structure of governance:

• The President:** The President of Armenia is the head of state. Under the parliamentary system, the President's role is largely ceremonial and representational. The President is elected by the National Assembly for a single seven-year term and is not eligible for re-election. The President's functions include signing laws passed by the National Assembly, appointing and dismissing ambassadors upon the Prime Minister's recommendation, awarding honors, and representing the state in international relations. The President is also the guarantor of the Constitution and is expected to be impartial.

• The Prime Minister:** The Prime Minister of Armenia is the head of government and holds executive power. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the political party or coalition that commands a majority in the National Assembly. They are appointed by the President based on the parliamentary majority. The Prime Minister forms the government (the Cabinet), directs its activities, and is responsible for implementing domestic and foreign policy. The Prime Minister is accountable to the National Assembly.

• The National Assembly (Azgayin Zhoghov):** The National Assembly is the unicameral legislature of Armenia. It is the supreme representative body of the people. Its members (deputies) are elected for five-year terms through a proportional representation system. The National Assembly enacts laws, approves the state budget, oversees the government, ratifies international treaties, and can declare war or a state of emergency. It also elects the President, the Human Rights Defender (Ombudsman), and members of key independent bodies. The minimum number of seats is 101, but can be higher due to mechanisms ensuring a stable majority and representation for national minorities.

• The Cabinet (Government):** The Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister, consists of ministers responsible for various sectors of public administration. Ministers are appointed and dismissed by the President upon the Prime Minister's recommendation. The Government implements laws and manages the day-to-day affairs of the state.

• The Judiciary:** The judicial system is headed by the Court of Cassation (the highest court of appeal for most matters) and the Constitutional Court (which reviews the constitutionality of laws and other legal acts). The system also includes courts of first instance and appellate courts. Judicial reform aimed at ensuring independence and combating corruption has been a key priority, particularly after the 2018 revolution.

Armenia has universal suffrage for citizens aged 18 and above. The Fragile States Index has consistently ranked Armenia relatively well compared to its neighbors, though challenges remain.

5.2. Political Parties

Armenia has a multi-party system, with numerous political parties representing a range of ideologies and interests. The political landscape has been dynamic, particularly since the 2018 Velvet Revolution, which disrupted the long-standing dominance of the Republican Party of Armenia.

Major political parties and their general ideological leanings include:

• Civil Contract**: Led by Nikol Pashinyan, this party came to power following the 2018 Velvet Revolution. It generally positions itself as centrist, pro-reform, and anti-corruption, advocating for democratic development, rule of law, and social justice. It has formed the My Step Alliance and later run independently, securing majorities in parliamentary elections.
• Republican Party of Armenia (RPA)**: Formerly the dominant ruling party for nearly two decades before 2018, led by former Presidents Robert Kocharyan (though not formally a member for all his tenure) and Serzh Sargsyan. It is a conservative, nationalist party. Its influence significantly declined after the Velvet Revolution but it remains a key opposition force.
• Prosperous Armenia (BHK)**: Founded by businessman Gagik Tsarukyan, this party is generally considered centrist or center-right, with a populist appeal. It has been both a coalition partner with the RPA and an opposition party at different times.
• Bright Armenia**: A liberal, pro-European party that emerged as a significant opposition force after the 2018 revolution, advocating for closer ties with the EU and democratic reforms.
• Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF or Dashnaktsutyun)**: One of the oldest Armenian political parties, founded in 1890. It is a socialist and nationalist party with a strong presence in the Armenian diaspora. It has been part of governing coalitions and in opposition at various times.
• Armenia Alliance (Hayastan Dashink)**: An opposition bloc formed for the 2021 elections, led by former President Robert Kocharyan, largely comprising conservative and nationalist elements critical of the Pashinyan government.
• I Have Honor Alliance (Pativ Unem Dashink)**: Another opposition bloc, associated with former President Serzh Sargsyan and the Republican Party, also critical of the post-revolution government.

Numerous smaller parties also exist, often forming alliances for elections. Electoral performance has seen shifts, with the post-2018 period favoring parties associated with the Velvet Revolution, though the political scene remains competitive and sometimes polarized. The influence of political parties on democratic processes includes participation in elections, parliamentary work, policy debate, and public mobilization. Challenges include party financing transparency, internal party democracy, and the personalization of politics around key leaders.

5.3. Judiciary

The judiciary of Armenia is structured as a three-tiered system, with the Constitution of Armenia guaranteeing its independence and separation from the legislative and executive branches. However, ensuring genuine judicial independence, efficiency, and public trust has been a persistent challenge, with reforms being a key focus, especially after the 2018 Velvet Revolution.

The main components of the Armenian judicial system are:

• Courts of First Instance:** These are general jurisdiction courts that handle civil, criminal, and administrative cases at the initial level. They are located throughout the country. There are also specialized first-instance courts, such as the Administrative Court and the Bankruptcy Court.
• Courts of Appeal:** There are separate appellate courts for civil, criminal, and administrative matters. These courts review decisions made by the courts of first instance.
• Court of Cassation**: This is the highest court of appeal in Armenia for most civil, criminal, and administrative cases (except for constitutional matters). Its primary role is to ensure the uniform application of law and to correct fundamental errors of law made by lower courts. It does not typically re-examine facts but focuses on legal interpretation.
• Constitutional Court**: This is a specialized court responsible for interpreting the Constitution and determining the constitutionality of laws, decrees, international treaties, and other legal acts. It also resolves disputes related to election results and referendums, and can provide opinions on matters of constitutional importance. It consists of nine judges.

• Judicial Independence and Reforms:**

Historically, the Armenian judiciary has faced criticism regarding its independence from political influence, particularly from the executive branch. Corruption within the judiciary has also been a significant concern. Public trust in the judicial system has often been low.

Following the 2018 Velvet Revolution, judicial reform became a top priority for the new government. Key objectives of these reforms include:

• Strengthening judicial independence and impartiality.
• Combating corruption within the judiciary.
• Improving the efficiency and transparency of court proceedings.
• Enhancing the professionalism and accountability of judges.
• Ensuring fair trials and access to justice for all citizens.

Reforms have involved legislative changes, vetting processes for judges (transitional justice mechanisms), improvements in judicial training, and efforts to increase court funding and resources. The establishment and functioning of the Supreme Judicial Council, responsible for judicial appointments, discipline, and administration, has also been a focus of reform.

Challenges remain in fully implementing these reforms and overcoming entrenched issues. International organizations and domestic civil society groups continue to monitor the progress of judicial reform in Armenia, emphasizing its critical importance for democratic development and the rule of law.

5.4. Human Rights and Freedoms

The state of human rights in Armenia has seen notable developments since its independence, particularly following the 2018 Velvet Revolution, which brought a renewed focus on democratic principles and fundamental freedoms. While progress has been made in several areas, challenges persist, and ongoing efforts are needed to fully align with international human rights standards. Reports from international organizations like Freedom House, Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the Council of Europe provide regular assessments.

• Key Areas of Human Rights:**
  • Freedom of Speech and Press:** The media landscape in Armenia is diverse, with numerous television and radio stations, newspapers, and online outlets. Following the 2018 revolution, there was a significant improvement in press freedom, with reduced government pressure and increased space for critical reporting. Armenia's ranking in international press freedom indices improved. However, challenges remain, including concerns about media ownership transparency, instances of pressure or violence against journalists, and the spread of disinformation, particularly online. Defamation laws have sometimes been used in ways that could stifle free expression.
  • Freedom of Assembly:** The right to peaceful assembly is generally respected, and Armenia has a vibrant tradition of public protest. The 2018 Velvet Revolution itself was a testament to the power of peaceful assembly. While demonstrations are usually permitted, there have been instances of excessive force used by law enforcement in the past, and isolated incidents continue to be monitored.
  • Electoral Integrity:** Armenia has held regular presidential and parliamentary elections. While earlier elections were often criticized by international observers for irregularities, including vote-buying and pressure on voters, more recent elections, particularly those after 2018, have been assessed more positively as being generally free and fair, reflecting an improvement in democratic processes. However, issues related to campaign finance and the use of administrative resources still draw attention.
  • Minority Rights:** Armenia is ethnically quite homogeneous, but it has small minority populations, including Yazidis, Russians, Assyrians, Kurds, and others. The Constitution guarantees rights for national minorities, including the preservation of their traditions and language. The Yazidi community is the largest minority. Challenges include ensuring full social and economic integration, adequate representation, and protection against discrimination. The rights of religious minorities are generally respected, though the Armenian Apostolic Church holds a dominant position in society.
  • LGBT Rights:** LGBT rights remain a sensitive issue in Armenia's socially conservative society. While homosexual acts are legal, LGBT individuals often face discrimination, harassment, and social stigma. There is limited legal protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Public discourse on LGBT issues is often negative, and pride events have faced strong opposition.
  • Corruption:** Corruption has historically been a significant problem in Armenia, affecting various sectors, including the judiciary, public administration, and healthcare. The post-2018 government made combating corruption a key priority, launching investigations and implementing anti-corruption strategies. Progress has been made, but systemic corruption remains a challenge, impacting human rights by undermining the rule of law and equal access to public services.
  • Judicial Independence and Fair Trial:** Ensuring an independent and impartial judiciary is crucial for the protection of human rights. As mentioned, judicial reform is ongoing, aiming to address issues of political influence, corruption, and inefficiency within the courts, and to guarantee the right to a fair trial.
  • Rights of Vulnerable Groups:** Protecting the rights of vulnerable groups, including women, children, persons with disabilities, and displaced persons (particularly those affected by the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict), is an ongoing concern. Issues include domestic violence, gender inequality, access to education and employment for persons with disabilities, and providing adequate support and durable solutions for refugees and internally displaced persons. The mass displacement of over 100,000 ethnic Armenians from Nagorno-Karabakh in 2023 created a major humanitarian crisis and highlighted the urgent need to protect the rights of displaced populations.

  Progress in democratic development includes strengthening parliamentary oversight, improving electoral processes, and increasing civic participation. However, regional conflicts and security challenges can put pressure on human rights and democratic institutions. Armenia is a member of the Council of Europe and is party to numerous international human rights treaties, and its human rights record is subject to monitoring by international bodies.

6.1. Overview

Armenia's primary foreign policy objectives include safeguarding its sovereignty and territorial integrity, achieving a just and lasting resolution to conflicts affecting its interests, promoting economic growth through international cooperation, and supporting Armenian communities abroad.

Armenia is a member of numerous international organizations, which reflects its engagement on multiple fronts:

• United Nations (UN)** and its specialized agencies.
• Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)**, which has played a key role in the Nagorno-Karabakh peace process through the Minsk Group.
• Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)**, a Russia-led military alliance. However, Armenia's participation has been "frozen" since early 2024 amid strained relations with Russia and dissatisfaction with the CSTO's response to security challenges.
• Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)**, an economic union with Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.
• Council of Europe**, reflecting its commitment to European standards of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law.
• Eastern Partnership** with the European Union, aimed at deepening political and economic ties. Armenia signed a Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement (CEPA) with the EU, which came into force in 2021.
• World Trade Organization (WTO)**.
• Organisation internationale de la Francophonie**, reflecting its cultural and historical ties with France.

Armenia has generally sought to maintain a strategic partnership with Russia while also developing closer relations with Western countries (notably the United States and France, both home to large Armenian diasporas) and the European Union. Its relationship with neighboring Iran is pragmatic, driven by economic and energy interests, especially given the closed borders with Turkey and Azerbaijan.

6.2. Relations with Neighboring Countries

Armenia's relations with its immediate neighbors are complex and vary significantly.

• Georgia:** Relations with Georgia are generally positive and cooperative. Georgia provides a vital transit route for Armenia's trade and energy supplies. There are shared interests in regional stability and economic development, though occasional minor issues arise.
• Iran:** Armenia has maintained good relations with Iran, driven by mutual economic interests and Iran's role as an alternative route to the outside world for landlocked Armenia, especially given the blockades by Turkey and Azerbaijan. Cooperation exists in energy, trade, and transport.
• Azerbaijan:** Relations with Azerbaijan have been dominated by the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict for over three decades, leading to two major wars (1988-1994 and 2020) and numerous clashes. There are no diplomatic relations, and the border is closed. The conflict has resulted in immense human suffering, displacement, and deep-seated animosity.
• Turkey:** Relations with Turkey are also fraught. Turkey closed its border with Armenia in 1993 in solidarity with Azerbaijan during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War and has refused to establish diplomatic relations. A key stumbling block is Turkey's denial of the Armenian Genocide. Attempts at normalization, such as the Zurich Protocols in 2009, have failed.

6.2.2. Relations with Turkey

Armenia's relationship with Turkey is deeply troubled and complex, characterized by a lack of formal diplomatic relations and a closed border since 1993. Key issues include:

• Non-recognition of the Armenian Genocide:** Turkey's official denial of the systematic extermination of 1.5 million Armenians by the Ottoman Empire in 1915-1923 is the primary obstacle. Armenia and its diaspora actively campaign for international recognition of the genocide, which Turkey vehemently opposes, claiming the events were a tragic consequence of wartime conditions and inter-communal conflict, not a deliberate state-sponsored extermination. This historical wound deeply impacts Armenian national identity and foreign policy.
• Closed Border and Lack of Diplomatic Ties:** Turkey closed its border with Armenia in 1993 in support of Azerbaijan during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Despite some attempts at normalization, notably the Zurich Protocols signed in 2009 under Swiss and US mediation, the process stalled and ultimately failed, partly due to Turkish preconditions linking normalization with progress on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and Armenian diaspora activities.
• Regional Stability and Geopolitics:** The closed border and lack of relations hinder regional economic cooperation and contribute to Armenia's relative isolation. Turkey's strong alliance with Azerbaijan further complicates the regional dynamics for Armenia.
• Human Rights Concerns:** For Armenia, Turkey's denial of the genocide is seen as a continuation of injustice and a human rights issue. The lack of accountability for past atrocities and ongoing restrictions on freedom of expression within Turkey regarding the genocide are also major concerns.

Occasional high-level contacts and "football diplomacy" have occurred, but a fundamental breakthrough remains elusive. The normalization of relations with Turkey is a significant foreign policy challenge for Armenia, with implications for its economic development, security, and regional integration.

6.3. Relations with Russia

Historically, Russia has been Armenia's closest strategic, military, and economic partner since independence. This relationship is rooted in historical ties, shared security concerns, and economic interdependence.

• Military and Security Cooperation:** Armenia is a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), a Russia-led military alliance. Russia maintains the Russian 102nd Military Base in Gyumri, Armenia, which has been seen as a key element of Armenia's security architecture, particularly as a deterrent. Russian border guards also patrolled Armenia's borders with Turkey and Iran (though Armenia requested their withdrawal from Yerevan's Zvartnots airport in 2024).
• Economic Ties:** Russia is Armenia's largest trading partner and a major source of investment and remittances. Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), and its energy sector, including the Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant, has been heavily reliant on Russian fuel and technical assistance.
• Political Relations:** Russia has traditionally played a significant role as a mediator in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, co-chairing the OSCE Minsk Group and brokering the 2020 ceasefire agreement.

However, since the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War and especially the 2023 Azerbaijani offensive, relations between Armenia and Russia have become increasingly strained. Armenia has expressed deep dissatisfaction with what it perceives as Russia's failure to fulfill its security obligations under the CSTO and bilateral agreements, particularly in protecting Armenia's territorial integrity against Azerbaijani incursions and failing to prevent the humanitarian crisis and subsequent loss of Nagorno-Karabakh. Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan announced in February 2024 that Armenia had "frozen" its participation in the CSTO and later stated that the CSTO posed a threat to Armenia's national security. This has led Armenia to seek diversification of its security partnerships and explore closer ties with Western countries.

6.4. Relations with the European Union and Western Countries

Armenia has actively sought to deepen its engagement with the European Union and key Western nations, viewing them as important partners for democratic reform, economic development, and, increasingly, security cooperation.

• European Union (EU):** Armenia is part of the EU's Eastern Partnership initiative. In November 2017, Armenia and the EU signed the Armenia-EU Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement (CEPA), which fully entered into force in March 2021. CEPA provides a framework for enhanced political dialogue, policy cooperation across various sectors (including economic governance, trade, energy, transport, environment, and justice), and alignment with EU standards. While Armenia chose to join the Russian-led Eurasian Economic Union in 2015 instead of an EU Association Agreement with a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area, CEPA represents a significant deepening of EU-Armenia ties. Following recent geopolitical shifts, Armenian officials have expressed increased interest in further integration with the EU, with some discussions about potential EU membership candidacy.
• United States:** The U.S. has been a significant partner for Armenia, providing substantial financial assistance since independence, supporting democratic and economic reforms, and playing a role in the Nagorno-Karabakh peace process as an OSCE Minsk Group co-chair. The large and influential Armenian American diaspora also contributes to strong bilateral ties. The U.S. recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2021.
• France:** France has a historically close relationship with Armenia, reinforced by a large Armenian diaspora in France and shared cultural affinities. France has been a strong advocate for Armenia within the EU and internationally, supporting its democratic development and providing humanitarian assistance. France also co-chairs the OSCE Minsk Group and has been vocal in its support for Armenia's security.
• NATO:** Armenia participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PfP) program and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). While not seeking NATO membership, Armenia has engaged in security cooperation with NATO, including participation in peacekeeping operations (e.g., KFOR in Kosovo).

Armenia's pivot towards closer ties with the West has become more pronounced following the 2020 and 2023 Nagorno-Karabakh events and the subsequent strains in its relationship with Russia. This includes seeking to diversify its security partnerships and enhance cooperation in areas like defense reform, democratic institution-building, and economic resilience.

8.1. Provinces

Armenia is divided into ten **provinces** (մարզեր_marzer^Armenian; singular: մարզ_marz^Armenian). Each province is headed by a governor (marzpet), who is appointed by the national government. The provinces are the primary level of subnational administration.

The ten provinces are:
1. **Aragatsotn** (Արագածոտնի մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Ashtarak
2. **Ararat** (Արարատի մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Artashat
3. **Armavir** (Արմավիրի մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Armavir
4. **Gegharkunik** (Գեղարքունիքի մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Gavar
5. **Kotayk** (Կոտայքի մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Hrazdan
6. **Lori** (Լոռու մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Vanadzor
7. **Shirak** (Շիրակի մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Gyumri
8. **Syunik** (Սյունիքի մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Kapan
9. **Tavush** (Տավուշի մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Ijevan
10. **Vayots Dzor** (Վայոց Ձորի մարզ^Armenian) - Administrative center: Yeghegnadzor

• Yerevan** (Երևան^Armenian), the capital city, has the status of a province and is administered as a community. The chief executive of Yerevan is the Mayor, who has been elected by the Yerevan City Council since 2009 (previously appointed). Yerevan is further divided into twelve semi-autonomous districts.

Each province consists of communities (hamaynkner; singular: hamaynk). Communities are self-governing units and can be either urban (towns, kaghakner) or rural (villages, gyugher). As of recent administrative reforms, many smaller communities have been consolidated into larger ones to improve efficiency and local governance capacity. These communities are responsible for local services and development.

8.2. Major Cities

Armenia has several urban centers that are significant for their demographic, economic, cultural, and historical importance.

• Yerevan**: The capital and largest city of Armenia, Yerevan is the country's political, administrative, economic, and cultural hub. With a history dating back to the founding of the Erebuni fortress in 782 BC, it is one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities. Yerevan is home to over a million people, approximately a third of the country's total population. It hosts major governmental institutions, universities, museums, theaters, and industrial enterprises. Key landmarks include Republic Square, the Yerevan Opera Theatre, the Matenadaran (repository of ancient manuscripts), and the Tsitsernakaberd Armenian Genocide memorial.

• Gyumri**: Located in Shirak Province, Gyumri is the second-largest city in Armenia. Historically known as Alexandropol, it has a rich cultural heritage with distinctive 19th-century architecture. Gyumri was severely affected by the 1988 Spitak earthquake but has undergone significant reconstruction. It is an important industrial and cultural center in northern Armenia.

• Vanadzor**: The third-largest city, Vanadzor is the administrative center of Lori Province. Situated in a picturesque valley, it is a significant industrial city, particularly known for its chemical plants during the Soviet era. It also serves as a transportation hub in northern Armenia and has several cultural institutions.

Other notable towns include:

• Vagharshapat (Etchmiadzin)**: Located in Armavir Province, near Yerevan, Vagharshapat is the spiritual center of Armenia, home to the Etchmiadzin Cathedral, the mother church of the Armenian Apostolic Church and the seat of the Catholicos of All Armenians. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Hrazdan**: The administrative center of Kotayk Province, an industrial town known for its power plants.
• Kapan**: The administrative center of Syunik Province in southern Armenia, a major mining town.
• Armavir**: The administrative center of Armavir Province, located in the fertile Ararat Plain, an important agricultural region.
• Artashat**: The administrative center of Ararat Province, also in the Ararat Plain, with historical significance as one of the ancient capitals of Armenia.
• Ijevan**: The administrative center of Tavush Province in northeastern Armenia, known for its woodworking industries and surrounding forests.
• Dilijan**: A spa town in Tavush Province, known for its forested mountains and traditional Armenian architecture, often referred to as "Armenian Switzerland."
• Sevan**: A town on the shores of Lake Sevan in Gegharkunik Province, a popular resort area.
• Goris**: A town in Syunik Province, known for its unique rock formations and proximity to the Tatev Monastery.

These cities and towns reflect Armenia's diverse regional characteristics, from the urban concentration in Yerevan to industrial centers and historically significant locations.

9.1. Overview

Armenia is classified as a developing country with a lower-middle-income economy. Its GDP in 2022 stood at approximately 19.50 B USD (nominal) with substantial growth in recent years, partly due to an influx of Russian citizens and businesses. The economy relies on industrial output, mineral extraction, agriculture, and increasingly, services.

• Key Economic Indicators and Characteristics:**
  • GDP Growth:** Armenia experienced strong GDP growth in the years leading up to the 2008 global financial crisis and again in the late 2010s and early 2020s. For example, growth was 7.6% in 2019, and after a contraction due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War, it rebounded strongly, with growth rates exceeding 12% in 2022.
  • Inflation:** Inflation has been variable, with the Central Bank of Armenia working to maintain price stability.
  • Unemployment:** Unemployment has been a persistent challenge, often fluctuating around 15-20%, with youth unemployment being a particular concern.
  • Poverty:** Poverty rates have declined from high levels in the 1990s but remain significant, especially in rural areas and among vulnerable groups.
  • Public Debt:** Public debt has risen, particularly after economic shocks, requiring careful fiscal management.
  • Currency:** The national currency is the Armenian Dram (AMD).
  • Foreign Trade:** Key export commodities include copper ore, ferroalloys, gold, diamonds (processed), alcoholic beverages (brandy, wine), and agricultural products. Major imports include natural gas, petroleum products, machinery, and food. Russia is a major trading partner, along with EU countries, China, Iran, and Georgia.
  • Investment Climate:** The government has sought to improve the investment climate by simplifying regulations and combating corruption. Foreign direct investment (FDI) has been variable, with significant contributions from the Armenian diaspora.
  • Blockades:** The closed borders with Turkey and Azerbaijan since the early 1990s have severely hampered Armenia's trade and transportation links, increasing costs and limiting access to markets. This has made relations with Georgia and Iran, which provide vital transit routes, particularly important.
  • Remittances:** Remittances from Armenians working abroad, especially in Russia, have historically been a significant source of income for many households and a contributor to the economy.
  • Economic Reforms and Challenges:**

  Since independence, Armenia has implemented wide-ranging economic reforms, including privatization of state enterprises, price liberalization, and financial sector development. The country joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2003 and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) in 2015.
  
  Challenges include:

  • Diversifying the economy away from reliance on a few key sectors like mining.
  • Reducing high levels of unemployment and underemployment.
  • Addressing poverty and income inequality, ensuring fair labor rights, and promoting social equity.
  • Combating corruption and strengthening rule of law to improve the business environment.
  • Upgrading infrastructure, particularly in transportation and energy.
  • Managing the economic impact of regional conflicts and geopolitical instability.
  • Promoting sustainable economic development that balances growth with environmental protection.

  The IT sector has emerged as a bright spot, showing dynamic growth and attracting international attention. Tourism also has significant potential. The government has focused on improving tax collection, macroeconomic management, and creating a more favorable environment for private businesses. The influx of displaced persons from Nagorno-Karabakh in 2023 posed a new and significant socio-economic challenge.

9.2. Key Sectors

Armenia's economy is diversified across several key sectors, with some experiencing significant growth in recent years.

• Mining and Metallurgy:** This is a historically important and major export-earning sector. Armenia has significant deposits of copper, molybdenum, gold, and zinc. Other minerals include iron ore, lead, and various industrial minerals. The mining industry contributes substantially to industrial output and exports, but also raises environmental concerns regarding pollution and land use. Key mining centers are in Syunik and Lori provinces. Production includes concentrates and some refined metals.

• Agriculture:** Agriculture accounts for a significant portion of GDP (around 12-15% in recent years) and employs a substantial part of the workforce (though often with low productivity). Key agricultural products include:
  • Fruits: Apricots (a national symbol), grapes (for consumption and wine/brandy), peaches, apples, pomegranates, figs, and berries.
  • Vegetables: Potatoes, tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplants, and various greens.
  • Livestock: Cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry, providing meat, dairy products, and wool.
  • Cereals: Wheat and barley are grown, but Armenia is not self-sufficient in grain.

  The sector faces challenges such as small farm sizes, outdated technology, limited access to finance, and the impacts of climate change. The food processing industry, including fruit canning, wine and brandy production, and dairy processing, is an important related manufacturing activity.

  • Information Technology (IT):** The IT sector has been one of the most dynamic and rapidly growing areas of the Armenian economy, often referred to as "Silicon Mountains." It focuses on software development, IT services, semiconductor design, and high-tech engineering. Yerevan is the main hub. The sector benefits from a strong educational base in science and mathematics, government support (e.g., tax incentives for startups), and a global network of Armenian tech professionals. Many Armenian IT companies work for international clients or have developed their own products.
  • Tourism:** Tourism has been a growing contributor to the economy, attracting visitors with its rich historical and cultural heritage (ancient monasteries, churches, archaeological sites), scenic mountain landscapes, and hospitality. Key attractions include Yerevan, Lake Sevan, Garni Temple, Geghard Monastery, Tatev Monastery, and Dilijan National Park. The sector encompasses cultural tourism, ecotourism, adventure tourism, and wine tourism. The COVID-19 pandemic and regional conflicts have impacted tourism, but recovery efforts are ongoing.
  • Manufacturing:** Beyond food processing and beverages (especially Armenian brandy and wine, which are significant exports), manufacturing includes:
    • Textiles and Apparel: A traditional sector, though facing international competition.
    • Jewelry and Diamond Processing: Armenia has a tradition of skilled craftsmanship in jewelry making and diamond cutting, often using imported raw materials.
    • Machinery and Equipment: A legacy from the Soviet era, though many enterprises have struggled.
    • Construction Materials: Production of cement and other materials for the domestic construction sector.
    • Energy:** Armenia is heavily reliant on imported energy, particularly natural gas from Russia. The Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant provides a significant portion (around 30-40%) of its electricity. Hydropower is the main domestic renewable energy source, with growing potential for solar power.
    • Services:** The services sector is the largest contributor to GDP, encompassing trade, transportation, finance, real estate, and public administration, in addition to IT and tourism.

    The government has been promoting export-oriented industries and seeking to attract foreign investment to diversify the economy and create sustainable employment.

9.3. Science and Technology

Armenia has a strong tradition in science and education, inherited from the Soviet era, particularly in fields like physics, mathematics, astrophysics, and engineering. Since independence, the country has sought to leverage this potential, with a particular focus on developing a knowledge-based economy, most notably in the Information Technology (IT) sector.

• Key Sectors and Areas of Focus:**
  • Information Technology (IT):** This is the most prominent and successful high-technology sector in Armenia. It encompasses software development, IT outsourcing, semiconductor design, data science, artificial intelligence, and cybersecurity. Many Armenian IT companies serve international markets, and several multinational tech companies have established a presence in Armenia. The government has actively supported the IT sector through tax incentives, educational programs, and the creation of technology parks like the Gyumri Technology Center and Vanadzor Technology Center.
  • Biotechnology and Pharmaceuticals:** There is growing interest and some development in biotechnology, life sciences, and pharmaceutical research and production. This includes research in molecular biology and genetics.
  • Engineering:** Armenian engineers are involved in various fields, including electronics, machine building, and instrument making, though many traditional industries have faced challenges.
  • Astrophysics:** The Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory, founded in 1946, remains an important research institution with a significant history in astronomical research.
  • Physics and Material Science:** Research continues in areas like condensed matter physics, laser physics, and material science, often centered around institutes of the Armenian National Academy of Sciences.
  • Research Institutions and Education:**
    • Armenian National Academy of Sciences (NAS RA):** The primary body for fundamental scientific research, comprising numerous research institutes across various disciplines. It plays a key role in postgraduate education and shaping national science policy.
    • Universities:** Institutions like Yerevan State University, the National Polytechnic University of Armenia, and the American University of Armenia are major centers for science and engineering education and research. There is an increasing emphasis on linking university research with industry needs.
    • Private Sector Research:** While still developing, some private companies, particularly in the IT sector, conduct their own research and development.
    • Government Initiatives and Strategies:**

    The Armenian government has adopted strategies aimed at developing science and technology, such as the "Strategy for the Development of Science 2011-2020" and subsequent action plans. These often prioritize:

    • Modernizing scientific infrastructure.
    • Promoting basic and applied research in targeted fields.
    • Encouraging cooperation between science, education, and industry (innovation ecosystems).
    • Supporting young scientists and researchers.
    • Enhancing international scientific collaboration.

    The State Committee of Science (now part of the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport) has co-funded projects in areas like pharmaceuticals, IT, and engineering.

    • Challenges and Opportunities:**
      • Funding:** Spending on research and development (R&D) as a percentage of GDP has been relatively low (around 0.2 % to 0.3 %), though efforts are being made to increase it.
      • Brain Drain:** Emigration of skilled scientists and engineers has been a challenge, though there are also initiatives to attract diaspora professionals back to Armenia.
      • Commercialization of Research:** Translating scientific research into marketable products and innovations remains an area for development.
      • International Collaboration:** Armenia actively participates in international research programs and collaborations, including with the EU (e.g., Horizon Europe), the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (Dubna), and bilateral agreements.
      • Social and Environmental Impact:**

      The development of science and technology, particularly in the IT sector, has positive social impacts by creating high-value jobs and contributing to economic growth. However, the environmental impact of some industries (e.g., mining-related technologies) requires careful management to ensure sustainability. There is also a focus on using technology for societal benefit, such as in e-governance, education, and healthcare. Armenia was ranked 63rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, indicating a capacity for innovation but also room for improvement in framework conditions and outputs.

10.1. Population

Armenia's population was estimated to be around 2.9 to 3.0 million people in the early 2020s. The country has experienced significant demographic shifts since independence:

• Population Decline:** Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Armenia experienced a notable population decline due to high levels of emigration, driven by economic hardship, the 1988 earthquake's aftermath, and the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. While emigration rates have fluctuated, the overall population has been lower than its Soviet-era peak. Some stabilization and slight growth were observed in certain years.
• Density:** Armenia is one of the more densely populated countries of the former Soviet republics, given its small land area and mountainous terrain.
• Birth and Death Rates:** Birth rates declined after independence but have shown some stabilization. Life expectancy has generally increased.
• Urbanization:** A majority of the population (around 63-64%) lives in urban areas, with Yerevan, the capital, being by far the largest urban concentration, home to over a third of the country's population.
• Migration Trends:** Emigration, primarily for economic reasons, has been a significant factor. Russia has been a major destination for Armenian labor migrants. The influx of over 100,000 ethnic Armenian refugees from Nagorno-Karabakh in September 2023 presented a new, acute demographic and humanitarian challenge, significantly increasing the de facto population and straining resources.

• Armenian Diaspora:**

Armenia has a vast global diaspora, estimated to be much larger (perhaps 8-10 million people) than the population of the Republic of Armenia itself. Major diaspora communities exist in:

• Russia
• United States (especially California)
• France
• Iran
• Georgia
• Lebanon
• Syria (though significantly reduced due to the Syrian Civil War)
• Argentina, Canada, Australia, and various European countries.

The diaspora plays a crucial role in Armenia's economic, political, and cultural life through remittances, investment, philanthropic activities, and advocacy. It is a key source of support and connection to the wider world for Armenia.

10.2. Ethnic Groups

Armenia is one of the most ethnically homogeneous countries in the former Soviet Union.

• Ethnic Armenians:** Constitute about 98% of the population.
• Minorities:** The largest ethnic minority group is the **Yazidis**, who make up around 1.1-1.3% of the population and primarily practice Yazidism. They are concentrated in the western parts of the country, particularly in Aragatsotn province. Other minorities include **Russians** (around 0.4-0.5%), **Assyrians**, **Kurds** (distinct from Yazidis, though some Yazidis are ethnically Kurdish), **Ukrainians**, **Greeks** (Caucasus Greeks), **Georgians**, and Jews. There are also very small communities of Vlachs, Mordvins, Ossetians, Udis, and Tats.

During the Soviet era, Azerbaijanis were the second-largest ethnic group, forming about 2.5% of the population in 1989. However, due to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, virtually all Azerbaijanis emigrated from Armenia (primarily to Azerbaijan) between 1988 and 1992, and conversely, ethnic Armenian refugees from Azerbaijan (including Baku and Sumgait) came to Armenia. This population exchange further increased Armenia's ethnic homogeneity.

The Constitution of Armenia guarantees the rights of national minorities, including the right to preserve their language, culture, and traditions. Minority languages are taught in some schools, and there are cultural organizations representing various minority groups. However, ensuring full social integration and addressing any instances of discrimination remain important for the protection of minority rights. Gallup research in 2017 indicated a relatively high migrant acceptance rate in Armenia compared to other Eastern European countries.

10.3. Languages

• Official Language:** The sole official language of Armenia is Armenian (Հայերեն_Hayeren^Armenian). It is an Indo-European language forming its own independent branch within the family. Armenian has two main standardized modern forms: Eastern Armenian, which is spoken in Armenia, Artsakh (historically), and by Armenian communities in Iran and the former Soviet Union; and Western Armenian, spoken by much of the Armenian diaspora originating from Western Armenia (modern-day eastern Turkey). Eastern Armenian is the form used officially in the Republic of Armenia.
• Armenian Alphabet:** Armenians have their own unique alphabet, which was invented around 405 AD by Saint Mesrop Mashtots. This was a pivotal event in Armenian history, crucial for the translation of the Bible, the development of a national literature, and the preservation of Armenian cultural and religious identity, especially during long periods of foreign rule. The alphabet originally had 36 letters; three more were added during the Cilician period.
• Other Languages:**
  • Russian** is widely spoken and understood, particularly by the older and middle-aged generations, as a legacy of Armenia's time as part of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. It was a compulsory second language in schools. While its prominence has somewhat declined since independence, Russian remains important in business, media, and as a lingua franca in the region. According to a 2013 survey, 95% of Armenians had some knowledge of Russian.
  • English** has gained significant popularity, especially among younger generations and in urban areas. It is increasingly taught in schools and universities and is important for international communication, business, and access to global information. The same 2013 survey indicated 40% had some knowledge of English, and a preference for English instruction in schools was growing.
• Other languages spoken by minorities include Yazidi/Kurdish (Kurmanji dialect), Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Greek, and Ukrainian.
  • Due to cultural and historical ties, French also has a presence, and Armenia is a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.

  The Armenian language is a core element of national identity, and efforts are made to promote its use and development.

10.4. Religion

According to the 2011 Census, the primary religion is the Armenian Apostolic Church (92.6%). Other groups include Evangelicals (1.0%), other religions (2.4%), those with no religion (1.1%), and unspecified (2.9%).
Religion plays a significant role in Armenian national identity and culture, with Christianity being the predominant faith. Armenia holds the distinction of being the first nation to adopt Christianity as its state religion, an event traditionally dated to 301 AD.

• Armenian Apostolic Church:** The vast majority of the population (over 92% according to the 2011 census) belongs to the Armenian Apostolic Church. It is one of the Oriental Orthodox Churches and is sometimes referred to as the Armenian Orthodox Church or Gregorian Church (after St. Gregory the Illuminator, who converted King Tiridates III and the nation to Christianity). The church traces its origins to the apostles Bartholomew and Thaddaeus (Jude Thaddeus), who are believed tohave preached in Armenia in the 1st century AD. The spiritual center of the Armenian Apostolic Church is the Etchmiadzin Cathedral in Vagharshapat. The church has played a crucial role in preserving Armenian language, culture, and national identity throughout centuries of foreign rule and diaspora. It is recognized in the Constitution as the national church.
• Other Christian Denominations:**
  • Armenian Catholic Church:** A smaller community of Armenian Catholics exists, who are in full communion with the Pope in Rome but maintain their own Armenian liturgical rite. The Mekhitarists, an order of Armenian Catholic monks, are renowned for their scholarly contributions.
  • Armenian Evangelical Church:** A Protestant denomination with several thousand members, established in the 19th century.
• Other Protestant groups include Baptists, Pentecostals (e.g., Word of Life), and Presbyterians.
  • There is also a small community of Russian Orthodox Christians, primarily among the ethnic Russian minority, and Molokans (a Spiritual Christian group).
• Yazidism:** The largest non-Christian religious minority in Armenia is the Yazidis, who practice their unique, ancient syncretic religion. The world's largest Yazidi temple, Quba Mêrê Dîwanê, was consecrated in the village of Aknalich in 2019.
• Islam:** Historically, there was a Muslim population, primarily Azerbaijanis and Kurds. However, after the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and population exchanges, the number of resident Muslims (mostly citizens) is very small. There are some visiting or resident Muslims from Iran and other countries. The Blue Mosque in Yerevan is a functioning Shia mosque.
• Judaism:** A small Jewish community exists in Armenia, with a synagogue in Yerevan. Most Jewish emigrants left for Israel after independence.
• Others/Non-religious:** A small percentage of the population identifies as non-religious or follows other beliefs.

The Constitution of Armenia provides for freedom of religion, although the Armenian Apostolic Church enjoys a distinct historical status. Religious minorities generally practice their faith freely, though some smaller, non-traditional groups have occasionally reported societal discrimination or difficulties.

10.5. Education

Education has a long and respected tradition in Armenia, with historical centers of learning at monasteries like Tatev and Gladzor in the medieval period. The modern education system was largely shaped during the Soviet era but has undergone reforms since independence.

• Structure of the Education System:**

The education system in Armenia generally comprises the following levels:

• Pre-school Education:** Kindergartens and nurseries, though not universally accessible, especially in rural areas.
• General Secondary Education:** This is compulsory and free. It typically lasts for 12 years, divided into:
  • Primary School (grades 1-4)
  • Middle School (grades 5-9)
  • High School (grades 10-12)

  A 10-grade marking system is commonly used. Upon completion of high school, students receive a certificate (attestat) and can take unified state examinations for university admission.

  • Vocational Education and Training (VET):** Preliminary (craftsmanship) and middle-level (technician) VET programs are offered in various colleges and vocational schools.
  • Higher Education:** Armenia has a multi-tiered higher education system, aligned with the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area. It includes:
    • Bachelor's degree (typically 4 years)
    • Master's degree (typically 2 years after Bachelor's)
    • PhD/Doctoral studies (aspirantura)

    Major universities include Yerevan State University (YSU, the oldest continuously operating public university), the National Polytechnic University of Armenia (NPUA), Yerevan State Medical University, Armenian State Pedagogical University, and the American University of Armenia (AUA), among others. There are both state and private higher education institutions.

    • Key Features and Policies:**
      • Literacy Rate:** Armenia has a very high literacy rate, reported at nearly 100% since the Soviet era.
      • Language of Instruction:** Armenian is the primary language of instruction. Russian is widely taught as a second language, and English is increasingly popular.
      • Curriculum:** Since independence, the curriculum has placed greater emphasis on Armenian history, language, and culture. Reforms have aimed to modernize curricula and teaching methods.
      • Reforms:** Post-independence reforms have focused on decentralization, curriculum development, quality assurance, and integration into international educational frameworks. The "National Program for Educational Excellence" (NPEE) and the Araratian Baccalaureate (AB) program were initiatives to create an internationally competitive educational standard.
      • Challenges:** The education system faces challenges including underfunding, the need for further modernization of infrastructure and teaching materials, improving teacher salaries and professional development, ensuring equal access to quality education across regions, and better aligning education with labor market needs.
      • International Cooperation:** Armenia participates in international educational programs and collaborations, such as Erasmus+ and partnerships with universities worldwide. The government also supports Armenian schools in the diaspora.

      The Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport is the main regulatory body for the education sector. The Armenian National Academy of Sciences plays a significant role in postgraduate education and research. Chess has been integrated into the primary school curriculum since 2011.

10.6. Health

Armenia's healthcare system has undergone significant reforms since its transition from the Soviet Semashko model, which was highly centralized and theoretically provided universal free access. Post-independence, the system has moved towards a mixed model involving state funding, private provision, and out-of-pocket payments, with ongoing efforts to improve accessibility, quality, and efficiency.

• Key Health Indicators (approximate recent figures):**
  • Life Expectancy:** Around 72 years for males and 79 years for females (total around 75-76 years).
  • Infant Mortality Rate:** Has significantly decreased since the Soviet era, currently around 7-9 deaths per 1,000 live births.
  • Maternal Mortality Rate:** Also significantly reduced, though precise figures vary.
  • Structure of the Healthcare System:**
    • Primary Healthcare:** Provided through polyclinics and rural ambulatories, often serving as the first point of contact. Efforts have been made to strengthen family medicine. Since 2006, primary care services have been nominally free of charge for many under a Basic Benefits Package (BBP), though informal payments can still occur.
    • Secondary and Tertiary Care:** Provided by hospitals and specialized medical centers, concentrated mainly in Yerevan and larger towns. Access to specialized care can be limited in rural areas.
    • Public and Private Providers:** While many healthcare facilities remain state-owned, there has been growth in the private healthcare sector, including private clinics, diagnostic centers, and dental practices.
    • Financing:** Healthcare is financed through a combination of state budget allocations, social insurance contributions (limited), and significant out-of-pocket payments by patients, which can be a major barrier to access, particularly for vulnerable populations. International loans and donor assistance have also supported healthcare reforms.
    • Major Health Challenges:**
      • Non-communicable diseases (NCDs):** Cardiovascular diseases (heart disease, stroke), cancer, and diabetes are the leading causes of morbidity and mortality, linked to risk factors such as smoking (high rates among men), poor diet, and lack of physical activity.
      • Infectious Diseases:** While rates of many vaccine-preventable diseases are low due to immunization programs, concerns remain about tuberculosis (including drug-resistant TB) and HIV/AIDS, though prevalence is relatively low.
      • Mental Health:** Mental health services are often under-resourced and face stigma.
      • Maternal and Child Health:** Significant improvements have been made, but further progress is needed, particularly in reducing disparities between urban and rural areas.
      • Environmental Health:** Issues like air and water pollution can impact public health.
      • Government Health Policies and Reforms:**
        • Basic Benefits Package (BBP):** A state-funded package of health services intended to provide coverage for vulnerable groups and certain essential services. The scope and funding of the BBP have been subjects of ongoing reform. In 2019, healthcare became free for citizens under 18.
        • Universal Health Insurance (UHI):** Armenia has explored and is gradually moving towards implementing a system of universal health insurance to reduce out-of-pocket expenditures and improve financial protection.
        • Public Health Programs:** Focus on disease prevention, health promotion, and control of infectious diseases.
        • Pharmaceutical Sector:** Ensuring access to affordable and quality medicines is a priority.
        • Quality of Care:** Efforts are being made to improve the quality of medical services through training, licensing, and accreditation.
        • Challenges:**
          • Underfunding:** The healthcare system is generally underfunded compared to many European countries.
          • Out-of-Pocket Payments:** High out-of-pocket expenses remain a significant barrier to accessing care and can lead to catastrophic health expenditures for households.
          • Corruption:** Informal payments and corruption within the healthcare sector have been reported as concerns, though anti-corruption efforts are underway.
          • Regional Disparities:** Access to and quality of healthcare services can vary significantly between Yerevan and rural or remote regions.
          • Human Resources:** Retaining skilled medical professionals, particularly in rural areas, and ensuring continuous professional development are ongoing challenges.

          The COVID-19 pandemic placed additional strain on the healthcare system, highlighting both its capacities and areas needing further strengthening. The influx of over 100,000 displaced persons from Nagorno-Karabakh in 2023 also created urgent healthcare needs.

11.1. Overview

Armenian cultural heritage is characterized by its unique traditions in architecture, manuscript illumination, music, dance, literature, and cuisine. The Armenian Apostolic Church has played a pivotal role in preserving and fostering this culture. Resilience, a deep connection to historical lands (including Mount Ararat, even though it's now in Turkey), and a strong sense of community are prominent themes. Contemporary Armenian culture blends these ancient traditions with modern influences, reflecting a dynamic and evolving society.

11.2. Architecture

Armenian architecture is renowned for its distinctive medieval churches and monasteries, characterized by centrally planned domed structures, conical or polygonal domes, intricate stone carving, and the use of locally quarried volcanic tufa stone (often pink, orange, or black).

• Churches and Monasteries:** Armenia is dotted with ancient and medieval religious complexes, many in stunning natural settings. Examples include Etchmiadzin Cathedral (traditionally 303 AD, the mother church), Geghard Monastery (partially cave-carved), Tatev Monastery (accessible by one of the world's longest cable cars), Noravank Monastery, Haghpat and Sanahin (both UNESCO World Heritage sites), and Khor Virap Monastery (with views of Mount Ararat). These structures often feature unique Armenian architectural elements like the gavit (narthex) and zhamatun (outer hall).
• Khachkars:** These are uniquely Armenian memorial stele, intricately carved stone slabs bearing a cross, often surrounded by rosettes, interlaces, and botanical or zoomorphic motifs. Khachkars are found throughout Armenia and are a significant form of Armenian Christian art. The art of khachkar carving is inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
• Fortresses:** Ancient and medieval fortresses like Amberd, Smbataberd, and Erebuni (in Yerevan) attest to Armenia's historical military architecture.
• Soviet-Era Architecture:** Yerevan, in particular, features examples of Soviet Neoclassical and Modernist architecture, designed by architects like Alexander Tamanian, who developed the master plan for the modern capital.
• Modern Architecture:** Contemporary architecture in Armenia blends modern design with traditional elements.

Armenian buildings, especially churches, were often designed to withstand earthquakes, a common occurrence in the region.

11.3. Art

Armenian art has a long and rich history, from ancient petroglyphs to contemporary works.

• Ancient Art:** Petroglyphs dating back thousands of years are found in mountainous regions like Ughtasar. Urartian art (bronzes, ceramics, jewelry) also forms part of Armenia's ancient artistic heritage.
• Medieval Art:**
  • Illuminated Manuscripts:** A highly developed art form, with richly decorated Gospels and religious texts. Artists like Toros Roslin (13th century) are renowned for their exquisite miniatures. The Matenadaran in Yerevan houses a vast collection of these manuscripts.
  • Frescoes and Mosaics:** Found in some medieval churches, though many have not survived.
  • Relief Sculpture:** Stone carvings on church facades, khachkars, and tombstones.
• Modern Painting and Sculpture:** The 19th and 20th centuries saw the emergence of prominent Armenian painters like Martiros Saryan (known for his vibrant landscapes of Armenia), Hovhannes Aivazovsky (a marine painter of Armenian descent), Vardges Sureniants (historical themes), and Arshile Gorky (an influential Armenian-American abstract expressionist who drew inspiration from his Armenian heritage and the trauma of the Genocide). Sculptors like Yervand Kochar also gained prominence.
• Contemporary Art:** Armenia has a developing contemporary art scene, with artists exploring various media and themes. The Cafesjian Center for the Arts in Yerevan showcases a significant collection of modern and contemporary art.

The National Gallery of Armenia in Yerevan holds the largest collection of Armenian art, as well as works by Russian and European masters. The Yerevan Vernissage, an open-air arts and crafts market, is a popular place to find traditional crafts, woodwork, carpets, and obsidian jewelry.

11.4. Music and Dance

Music and dance are integral parts of Armenian culture, with both ancient traditions and modern expressions.

• Traditional Folk Music:** Characterized by its melodic richness and often melancholic or epic tones. Key traditional instruments include:
  • Duduk:** An ancient double-reed woodwind instrument made of apricot wood, known for its haunting, soulful sound. The music of the duduk is inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Djivan Gasparyan is a world-renowned duduk master.
• Other instruments include the dhol (double-headed drum), zurna (oboe-like wind instrument), kanun (plucked zither), tar and kamancha (stringed instruments).

Folk songs often tell stories of love, nature, heroism, and historical events. Ashughs (troubadours) like Sayat-Nova (18th century) were important figures in folk music.

• Religious Music (Sharakans):** Armenian liturgical chants (sharakans) form a rich and ancient tradition, with complex modal systems. Many chants date back to the early centuries of Christianity in Armenia, some attributed to figures like Mesrop Mashtots.
• Classical Music:** Armenia has produced internationally acclaimed classical composers and musicians. Aram Khachaturian (20th century) is perhaps the most famous, known for works like the "Sabre Dance" from his ballet Gayane, and concertos. Komitas (Komitas Soghomonian, late 19th-early 20th century) was a pioneering ethnomusicologist who collected and arranged thousands of Armenian folk songs, preserving them from oblivion, and also composed original works. He is considered a foundational figure in modern Armenian classical music. Other notable figures include composer Alexander Spendiaryan.
• Popular Music:** Contemporary Armenian pop music (rabiz and estrada) is popular, as are genres like jazz, rock, and electronic music. Armenian artists also participate in international competitions like the Eurovision Song Contest.
• Traditional Dances:** Armenian folk dances are vibrant and diverse, often performed in groups. They range from solemn circle dances (e.g., kochari) to energetic solos and duets, reflecting regional traditions and historical events.

The Armenian diaspora has also significantly contributed to Armenian music, with artists like Charles Aznavour (French-Armenian singer and songwriter) and the American heavy metal band System of a Down (whose members are of Armenian descent and often incorporate Armenian themes and musical elements) achieving global fame.

11.5. Literature

Armenian literature boasts a rich history dating back to the invention of the Armenian alphabet in the 5th century AD, which ushered in a "Golden Age" (Voskedar).

• Early Literature (5th century):** This period saw the translation of the Bible into Armenian (considered a masterpiece of the language) and the works of early historians like Movses Khorenatsi (often called the "father of Armenian history," though his dating is debated), Agathangelos, Ghazar Parpetsi, and Koryun (biographer of Mesrop Mashtots). Philosophical and theological works were also produced.
• Medieval Literature:** This era produced historical chronicles, religious poetry, epic poems (such as David of Sassoun, an oral epic later written down), and fables. Grigor Narekatsi (10th century) is a revered mystical poet, whose Book of Lamentations is a masterpiece of world religious literature. Nerses Shnorhali (12th century) was another prominent poet and theologian.
• Modern Literature (19th century onwards):** The 19th century saw a revival of Armenian literature, influenced by European Romanticism and Realism. Key figures include Khachatur Abovian (considered the father of modern Eastern Armenian literature, author of Wounds of Armenia), Mikael Nalbandian (writer and revolutionary), Raffi (historical novelist), and Hovhannes Tumanyan (poet and writer, often considered the national poet of Armenia).
• 20th Century and Contemporary Literature:** The Armenian Genocide profoundly impacted 20th-century literature, with themes of loss, survival, and memory being prominent. Writers like Yeghishe Charents, Avetik Isahakyan, Hovhannes Shiraz, Paruyr Sevak, and William Saroyan (Armenian-American) are significant figures. Diaspora literature also flourished. Contemporary Armenian literature continues to explore diverse themes and styles.

The Matenadaran in Yerevan is a major repository of ancient and medieval Armenian manuscripts, crucial for the study of Armenian literature and history.

11.6. Cinema

Armenian cinema has a history dating back to the early 20th century, with the first Armenian-subject film produced in 1912 in Cairo. The establishment of the Armenfilm studio (Hayfilm) in Yerevan in 1923 marked the beginning of organized filmmaking in Soviet Armenia.

• Early Soviet Period:** Hamo Beknazarian was a pioneering director, known for films like Namus (1925, silent film) and Pepo (1935, the first Armenian sound film).
• Post-War and Later Soviet Era:** Armenian cinema produced a range of films, including historical dramas, comedies, and adaptations of literary works.
• Sergei Parajanov:** An internationally acclaimed director of Armenian descent, Parajanov created visually stunning and poetic films that often drew on Armenian and Caucasian folklore and art. His masterpieces include Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors (Ukrainian), The Color of Pomegranates (Armenian, about Sayat-Nova), and The Legend of Suram Fortress (Georgian). His unconventional style often clashed with Soviet authorities.
• Other Notable Directors:** Frunze Dovlatyan, Henrik Malyan, and Artavazd Peleshyan (known for his innovative documentary style) are among other significant filmmakers.
• Post-Independence Cinema:** Armenian cinema has continued to develop since independence, with filmmakers exploring contemporary themes and participating in international film festivals. Challenges include funding and distribution.

The Golden Apricot Yerevan International Film Festival, established in 2004, has become a major cultural event in Armenia, showcasing Armenian and international cinema.

11.7. Cuisine

Armenian cuisine is rich and diverse, reflecting the country's long history, agricultural traditions, and influences from Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, and Eastern European cuisines. It emphasizes fresh ingredients, herbs, and a balance of flavors.

• Key Ingredients:** Wheat (in various forms like bulgur, lavash), lamb, beef, vegetables (eggplant, tomatoes, peppers, onions, garlic), fruits (apricots, pomegranates, grapes, figs, quinces), nuts (walnuts, almonds), legumes (lentils, chickpeas), dairy products (cheese, yogurt/matzoon), and a wide variety of fresh and dried herbs (parsley, dill, cilantro, tarragon, mint, basil).
• Signature Dishes:**
  • Lavash:** A thin, soft unleavened flatbread, traditionally baked in a tonir (clay oven). Lavash is a staple of Armenian cuisine and is inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
  • Khorovats:** Armenian barbecue, typically made with marinated chunks of lamb, pork, or beef, grilled on skewers (shampoors).
  • Dolma (Tolma):** Stuffed vegetables (peppers, eggplants, tomatoes) or grape leaves, typically filled with minced meat and rice. Pasuts tolma is a Lenten version made with grains and legumes.
  • Harissa:** A thick porridge made from slow-cooked cracked wheat (korkot) and chicken or lamb.
  • Ghapama:** A festive dish made by stuffing a pumpkin with rice, dried fruits, nuts, and honey, then baking it.
  • Khash:** A traditional winter soup made from boiled cow or sheep feet and/or head, eaten with dried lavash and garlic.
  • Spas:** A creamy yogurt-based soup with grains (often bulgur or rice) and herbs.
  • Cheeses:** Armenia produces various types of cheese, including lori, chanakh, and chechil (string cheese).
  • Matzoon:** Fermented milk product similar to yogurt, widely used in Armenian cuisine.
• Sweets and Desserts:** Gata (sweet pastry), pakhlava (baklava), dried fruits, fruit preserves (murabba), and various nut-based sweets.
• Beverages:**
  • Wine:** Armenia has one of the world's oldest wine-making traditions, with archaeological evidence dating back over 6,000 years (Areni-1 winery).
  • Brandy (Cognac):** Armenian brandy is internationally renowned.
  • Coffee:** Armenian coffee (similar to Turkish/Greek coffee) is strong and often served with cardamom.
• Tan: A refreshing yogurt-based drink.
  • Herbal teas.

  Armenian meals are often communal events, emphasizing hospitality and shared enjoyment of food.

11.8. Sport

Armenians have a strong tradition in sports, with notable achievements in several disciplines at the international level. Popular sports include chess, wrestling, weightlifting, boxing, and football.

• Chess:** Chess is extremely popular and considered a national pastime. Armenia has produced numerous Grandmasters and has been highly successful in international team competitions. The Armenian men's national team won the World Team Chess Championship in 2011 and the Chess Olympiad on three occasions (2006, 2008, 2012). Chess is taught as a compulsory subject in schools. Prominent Armenian chess players include former World Champion Tigran Petrosian (Soviet era) and top Grandmaster Levon Aronian.
• Wrestling:** Both freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are popular, and Armenian wrestlers have won numerous Olympic medals and world championships. Armen Nazaryan (Olympic gold, 1996) and Artur Aleksanyan (Olympic gold, 2016) are among the most successful. Traditional Armenian wrestling is called kokh.
• Weightlifting:** Armenia has a strong tradition in weightlifting, with many Olympic and world champions.
• Boxing:** Boxing is also a popular sport, with Armenian boxers achieving success in international competitions.
• Football (Soccer):** Football is widely followed. The Armenian Premier League is the top professional league. The Armenia national football team competes in UEFA and FIFA competitions. While they have not qualified for a major tournament, the national team has had periods of strong performance. FC Ararat Yerevan was a successful club during the Soviet era, winning the Soviet Top League and Soviet Cup in 1973.

Henrikh Mkhitaryan is the most internationally renowned Armenian footballer, having played for top European clubs like Borussia Dortmund, Manchester United, Arsenal, Roma, and Inter Milan.

• Other Sports:** Other sports practiced include gymnastics, judo, athletics, basketball, and, due to the mountainous terrain, skiing and climbing. Armenia participates in both Summer and Winter Olympic Games. The Pan-Armenian Games, held every four years, bring together Armenian athletes from Armenia and the diaspora.

Prior to 1992, Armenian athletes competed as part of Soviet Olympic teams and contributed significantly to the USSR's medal tallies. Since independence, Armenia has continued to foster athletic talent, with government and private support for sports development.

11.9. Media

The media landscape in Armenia includes a variety of television and radio broadcasters, newspapers, and online media outlets. Since independence, and particularly after the 2018 Velvet Revolution, there has been a notable increase in media freedom and pluralism, though challenges remain.

• Television:** Television is a major source of news and entertainment. There are public broadcasters (e.g., Public Television Company of Armenia) and numerous private channels.
• Radio:** Radio stations offer diverse programming, including news, music, and talk shows.
• Print Media:** Newspapers, both daily and weekly, cover political, social, and economic issues. Their circulation has faced challenges from the rise of online media.
• Online Media:** Online news portals, blogs, and social media platforms have become increasingly important sources of information and platforms for public discourse. They play a significant role in shaping public opinion and facilitating civic engagement.
• Press Freedom:** The Constitution of Armenia guarantees freedom of speech. Armenia's ranking in international press freedom indices, such as those by Reporters Without Borders and Freedom House, improved significantly after the 2018 revolution. However, concerns persist regarding:
  • Media ownership transparency (concentration of media in the hands of politically affiliated individuals or business groups).
  • Instances of pressure or harassment against journalists, including through legal means (e.g., defamation lawsuits).
  • The spread of disinformation and hate speech, particularly online and during politically sensitive periods.
  • Ensuring the safety of journalists.
• Access to Information:** Legislation on freedom of information exists, but its full implementation can be challenging.

The media plays a crucial role in Armenia's democratic development by providing information, facilitating public debate, and holding power accountable. Efforts to strengthen media independence, professionalism, and financial sustainability are ongoing.

11.10. Holidays and Festivals

Armenia observes a number of official national holidays and traditional festivals that reflect its cultural, religious, and historical heritage.

• Major National Holidays:**
  • New Year's Day** (January 1) and **Christmas** (January 6): The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates Christmas on January 6th, often combined with Epiphany. The period from December 31st to January 6th is generally a holiday season.
  • Army Day** (January 28): Celebrates the formation of the Armenian Armed Forces.
  • Women's Day** (March 8): International Women's Day is widely celebrated. Armenia also has a "Month of Women" from March 8 to April 7 (Motherhood and Beauty Day).
  • Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day** (April 24): A solemn day of national mourning and remembrance for the victims of the Armenian Genocide of 1915. Hundreds of thousands visit the Tsitsernakaberd memorial in Yerevan.
  • Victory and Peace Day** (May 9): Commemorates the Allied victory in World War II and the liberation of Shushi in Nagorno-Karabakh in 1992 (though the latter's significance has shifted after recent events).
  • Republic Day** (May 28): Celebrates the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia in 1918.
  • Constitution Day** (July 5): Marks the adoption of the Armenian Constitution in 1995.
  • Independence Day** (September 21): Commemorates Armenia's declaration of independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, following a referendum.
  • Earthquake Remembrance Day** (December 7): Remembers the victims of the devastating 1988 Spitak earthquake.
  • Traditional Festivals:**
    • Vardavar (Water Festival):** An ancient festival, likely with pagan origins, celebrated 14 weeks after Easter (usually in July). It is a joyful occasion where people douse each other with water. It is associated with the Transfiguration of Jesus in Christian tradition.
    • Trndez (Feast of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple):** Celebrated on February 14th (or the eve of February 13th), 40 days after Christmas. It involves lighting bonfires, which young couples jump over for good luck and fertility.
    • Easter (Surp Zatik):** The most important Christian holiday, celebrated with church services and traditional foods.
    • Grape Blessing Day (Khaghogh-orhnek):** Held in August, associated with the Feast of the Assumption of Mary. The first grape harvest is blessed.

These holidays and festivals are important occasions for family gatherings, cultural expressions, and the affirmation of national and religious identity.

11.11. National Symbols

Armenia has several official and unofficial national symbols that represent its identity, history, and cultural values.

• Official National Symbols:**
  • Flag:** The national flag is a tricolor consisting of three equal horizontal bands of red, blue, and orange.
    • Red symbolizes the Armenian Highlands, the Armenian people's continued struggle for survival, their Christian faith, independence, and freedom.
    • Blue symbolizes the will of the Armenian people to live beneath peaceful skies.
    • Orange symbolizes the creative talent and hard-working nature of the Armenian people.

    The current design was adopted by the First Republic of Armenia in 1918 and re-adopted in 1990.

    • Coat of Arms:** The national coat of arms depicts an eagle and a lion supporting a shield. The shield is divided into four quadrants, representing the four historical Armenian royal dynasties (Artaxiad, Arsacid, Bagratid, and Rubenid). In the center of the shield is a depiction of Mount Ararat with Noah's Ark on its peak. Elements below the shield include a broken chain (representing freedom), a sword (power), wheat ears (hard-working nature), and a feather (intellectual and cultural heritage). The current coat of arms is also based on that of the First Republic.
    • Anthem ("Mer Hayrenik" - Our Fatherland):** The national anthem's lyrics are adapted from a poem by Mikael Nalbandian, with music by Barsegh Kanachyan. It was the anthem of the First Republic and was re-adopted in 1991.
    • Unofficial but Culturally Significant Symbols:**
      • Mount Ararat:** Although located in modern-day Turkey, Mount Ararat (both Greater and Lesser Ararat) is a deeply revered symbol of the Armenian homeland and national identity. It is prominently featured in Armenian art, literature, and the coat of arms.
      • Apricot (Prunus armeniaca):** The apricot is considered a national fruit, and its scientific name even means "Armenian plum." The orange color on the Armenian flag is sometimes said to represent the apricot.
      • Pomegranate:** Symbolizes fertility, abundance, and marriage in Armenian culture. It is often used in art and decorative motifs.
      • Grape and Vine:** Reflect Armenia's ancient wine-making tradition.
      • Khachkar (Cross-stone):** A uniquely Armenian symbol of Christian faith and artistry.
      • Eternity Sign (Arevakhach):** An ancient Armenian symbol representing eternity and celestial motion, often depicted as a swirling sun-like emblem.
      • Eagle and Lion:** Ancient symbols of royalty, power, and courage, featured on the coat of arms and in historical iconography.

      These symbols are integral to Armenian cultural expression and national consciousness, connecting the past with the present.