Israel

2.1. Origins of the name

During the British Mandate (1920-1948), the region was officially known as Palestine. Upon its establishment on May 14, 1948, the country formally adopted the name State of Israel (מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל_{Medīnat Yisrā'el (IPA: mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel)}^Hebrew; دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل_{Dawlat Isrāʼīl (IPA: dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl)}^Arabic). Other names considered at the time included Land of Israel (אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל_{Eretz Yisrael}^Hebrew), Ever (from the biblical ancestor Eber), Zion, and Judea, but these were ultimately rejected. The name Israel was proposed by David Ben-Gurion, the first Prime Minister of Israel, and was approved by a vote of 6-3. In the initial weeks following the establishment of the state, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of the State of Israel.

The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically been used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel and the entire Jewish people respectively. The name Israel (יִשְׂרָאֵל_Yīsrāʾēl^Hebrew), derived from the Hebrew Bible, is traditionally understood to mean "El (God) persists/rules" or "He Who Struggles with God". It was given to the patriarch Jacob after he successfully wrestled with an angel of God, as recounted in the Book of Genesis (Genesis 32:28).

The earliest known archaeological artifact to mention the word "Israel" as a collective entity or people is the Merneptah Stele, an ancient Egyptian inscription dated to the late 13th century BCE (circa 1208 BCE). The stele, erected by Pharaoh Merneptah, son of Ramesses II, recounts his military victories in Canaan. A specific line on the stele reads, "Israel is laid waste and his seed is not," which most scholars interpret as a reference to a people named Israel existing in Canaan at that time. This is considered the earliest extrabiblical reference to Israel. The personal name "Israel" itself appears even earlier in texts from Ebla (modern Syria), dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE, but the Merneptah Stele is significant for its use of "Israel" to denote a people or tribal group.

3.1. Prehistory

The Levant, where Israel is located, has a rich prehistoric past. Evidence of early hominin presence dates back at least 1.5 million years, as indicated by finds at the Ubeidiya prehistoric site in the Jordan Rift Valley. This site has yielded Oldowan-type stone tools, making it one of the oldest hominin sites outside of Africa.

Later, anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) appeared in the region. Fossils discovered in the Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel and Qafzeh Cave in Galilee date back approximately 80,000 to 120,000 years. These remains are among the earliest evidence of modern humans outside of Africa, suggesting that the Levant was a crucial corridor for early human migrations. For a period, modern humans and Neanderthals, whose remains have also been found in the region (e.g., Kebara Cave, Amud Cave), likely coexisted or alternated presence in the Levant.

The Epipalaeolithic period saw the emergence of the Natufian culture (circa 12,500 to 9,500 BCE). The Natufians were hunter-gatherers who established some of the earliest known permanent or semi-permanent settlements. They are notable for their intensive harvesting of wild cereals and for early signs of social complexity, including elaborate burials. The Natufian culture is considered a precursor to the Neolithic period, which marked the beginning of agriculture. Some scholars link the Natufians to the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic languages.

The Neolithic period in the Levant (beginning around 9,500 BCE) witnessed the transition to farming and animal domestication. Sites like Jericho show evidence of early agricultural communities and fortified settlements. This era was followed by the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age), during which the Ghassulian culture (circa 4500 to 3500 BCE) flourished, particularly in the southern Levant. The Ghassulians are known for their copper metallurgy, distinctive pottery, and complex village life.

3.2. Bronze and Iron Ages

The Bronze Age (circa 3500-1200 BCE) in the region, then known as Canaan, was characterized by the development of city-states, many of which were influenced or controlled by larger empires such as Egypt and later the Hittites. Canaanite civilization thrived, engaging in extensive trade and developing a unique material culture. Key Canaanite cities included Hazor, Megiddo, and Lachish. During the Late Bronze Age (1550-1200 BCE), much of Canaan was under Egyptian suzerainty. The period ended with the Late Bronze Age collapse, a time of widespread societal upheaval, migration, and destruction across the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean.

The Iron Age (circa 1200-586 BCE) saw the emergence of new political entities in the Levant. According to biblical tradition and supported by some archaeological evidence, this is the period when the ancient Kingdoms of Israel and Judah arose. The Merneptah Stele (late 13th century BCE) contains the earliest extrabiblical reference to a people called "Israel" in Canaan.

Modern archaeological accounts suggest that the Israelites emerged from indigenous Canaanite populations. Their culture gradually differentiated, particularly through the development of a distinct monolatristic-and later monotheistic-religion centered on the worship of Yahweh. They spoke an archaic form of the Hebrew language, known as Biblical Hebrew. Around the same time, the Philistines, one of the Sea Peoples, settled in the southern coastal plain of Canaan, establishing cities like Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza.

The existence and extent of a United Monarchy under kings Saul, David, and Solomon (traditionally dated to the 10th century BCE) are subjects of ongoing scholarly debate. However, by the 9th century BCE, the northern Kingdom of Israel (also known as Samaria or Ephraim) and the southern Kingdom of Judah were established entities. The Kingdom of Israel, with its capital eventually at Samaria, was generally larger and more prosperous. The Omride dynasty in Israel (9th century BCE) is well-attested in both biblical and extrabiblical sources, such as the Mesha Stele.

In 722/720 BCE, the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered the Kingdom of Israel, deporting a significant portion of its population (the "Ten Lost Tribes"). The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in Jerusalem, survived as an Assyrian vassal state and later a Babylonian one. Judah experienced periods of religious reform and consolidation under kings like Hezekiah and Josiah. In 587/586 BCE, following a revolt, the Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar II conquered Judah, destroyed Jerusalem and Solomon's Temple, and exiled much of the Judean elite to Babylon. This event marked a critical turning point in Jewish history, leading to the development of new forms of religious expression and communal identity in exile.

3.3. Classical antiquity

The classical period for the Land of Israel spans from the Persian restoration to the end of Roman rule and the Jewish-Roman wars.

In 539 BCE, Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The following year, he issued the Edict of Cyrus, allowing exiled peoples, including the Judeans, to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. This marked the beginning of the Second Temple period. Many Judeans returned to Yehud (Judah), which became a Persian province, and the Second Temple in Jerusalem was completed around 516 BCE. During Persian rule, figures like Ezra and Nehemiah played key roles in reorganizing the Jewish community and codifying religious law.

In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the region from the Persians. After his death, the Land of Israel became a contested territory between the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt and the Seleucid dynasty of Syria, part of the larger territory known as Coele-Syria. Hellenistic culture spread, leading to tensions within Jewish society. These tensions culminated in the Maccabean Revolt (167-160 BCE) against the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who attempted to suppress Jewish religious practices.

The successful Maccabean Revolt led to the establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom, which gradually achieved full independence and expanded its territory. The Hasmoneans ruled as high priests and later as kings, but internal strife and Roman expansionism eventually undermined their rule.

In 63 BCE, the Roman general Pompey conquered Jerusalem, and Judea became a Roman client state. Herod the Great was appointed king by the Romans in 37 BCE and undertook extensive building projects, including a major renovation of the Second Temple. After Herod's death, Judea was increasingly brought under direct Roman rule, becoming the Roman province of Judaea in 6 CE.

Roman rule was often met with resistance from various Jewish groups. The First Jewish-Roman War (66-73 CE) resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE by the Roman general Titus. This event was a profound catastrophe for the Jewish people, leading to significant loss of life, displacement, and the end of the sacrificial cult centered at the Temple. The fortress of Masada was the last Jewish stronghold to fall in 73/74 CE.

Despite the devastation, Jewish life continued in the region, particularly in Galilee, which became a new center of Jewish learning. However, further tensions led to the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-136 CE), led by Simon bar Kokhba. This revolt was brutally suppressed by the Romans under Emperor Hadrian. The aftermath was even more severe: Judea was devastated, many Jews were killed or enslaved, and Jews were banned from Jerusalem. Hadrian renamed the province Syria Palaestina in an attempt to erase Jewish connections to the land, and rebuilt Jerusalem as a Roman colony named Aelia Capitolina. These events significantly intensified the Jewish diaspora, with Jewish communities becoming more dispersed throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, though a Jewish presence remained in the Land of Israel, especially in Galilee.

3.4. Late antiquity and the medieval period

This era covers the transition from Roman to Byzantine rule, the early Islamic conquests, the Crusader period, and subsequent rule by various Islamic dynasties.

After the Bar Kokhba revolt, Galilee became the primary center of Jewish life in Palestine. The Sanhedrin, the supreme Jewish religious and judicial body, was re-established in cities like Usha and Tiberias. It was during this period (2nd to 4th centuries CE) that the Mishnah (codification of Jewish oral law) and the Jerusalem Talmud were compiled.

In the 4th century CE, Emperor Constantine I legalized Christianity throughout the Roman Empire, and it eventually became the state religion under Theodosius I. Palestine, as the Holy Land, became a major center of Christian pilgrimage and monasticism. Churches were built on sites associated with the life of Jesus, and the Christian population grew, partly through immigration and conversion. Byzantine rule brought periods of both tolerance and persecution for the Jewish community. A series of laws were passed that discriminated against Jews and Judaism. Samaritan revolts in the 5th and 6th centuries were harshly suppressed, leading to a significant decline in the Samaritan population.

In 614 CE, the Sasanian Persians, with Jewish support during the Jewish revolt against Heraclius, conquered Jerusalem and much of Palestine from the Byzantines. This period of Sasanian control was short-lived; the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recaptured the region in 628 CE.

A few years later, the Islamic conquests swept through the Middle East. In 636-638 CE, Arab Muslim armies under the Rashidun Caliphate conquered Palestine from the Byzantines. Under early Islamic rule, Jews and Christians were generally considered "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab) and granted dhimmi status, allowing them to practice their religion in exchange for paying a poll tax (jizya). Jerusalem became a holy city for Muslims, recognized as the site of Muhammad's Night Journey (Isra and Mi'raj) and the first qibla (direction of prayer).

Control of Palestine passed through several Islamic dynasties:

• Umayyads** (661-750 CE): Damascus was their capital, and they built iconic structures in Jerusalem, such as the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif).
• Abbasids** (750-969 CE): Their capital was Baghdad. Palestine became a more peripheral province.
• Fatimids** (969-1099 CE): A Shi'a dynasty ruling from Egypt, their control over Palestine was often contested by groups like the Seljuks.

In 1099, the First Crusade culminated in the capture of Jerusalem by European Crusaders. They established the Kingdom of Jerusalem and other Crusader states in the Levant. The Crusader period was marked by conflict between Christians and Muslims, and also brought significant changes to the demographic and religious landscape. Many Muslims and Jews were massacred during the initial conquest of Jerusalem.

In 1187, Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan, decisively defeated the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin and recaptured Jerusalem. The Ayyubids restored Muslim control over much of Palestine. Subsequent Crusades attempted to regain Christian control but were largely unsuccessful in the long term.

In 1260, the Mamluks of Egypt defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in Palestine, halting Mongol westward expansion. The Mamluks then consolidated their rule over Palestine, which lasted until 1516. Under Mamluk rule, Palestine was generally a period of economic decline and relative obscurity, though it remained religiously significant.

Throughout the medieval period, despite conquests and demographic shifts, Jewish communities persisted in cities like Jerusalem, Tiberias, Safed, and Hebron, often engaging in scholarship and maintaining religious traditions.

3.5. Modern period and the emergence of Zionism

The modern period in the history of the Land of Israel is marked by Ottoman rule, the rise of European influence, the emergence of the Zionist movement, and the beginnings of significant Jewish immigration.

In 1516, the Ottoman Empire conquered Palestine from the Mamluks, and the region became part of Ottoman Syria for the next four centuries. Under Ottoman rule, the land was divided into various administrative districts (sanjaks). While Jerusalem retained its religious significance, the region was generally a relatively impoverished and sparsely populated part of the empire. Local Arab notables and Bedouin tribes often held considerable influence. Incidents of violence against Jews, such as the 1517 Safed attacks and 1517 Hebron attacks, occurred after the Ottoman conquest.
The Ottoman millet system allowed religious communities, including Jews and Christians (as dhimmi), a degree of autonomy in their internal affairs in exchange for loyalty and payment of the jizya tax. Jewish communities, known as the Old Yishuv (Old Settlement), continued to exist, particularly in the Four Holy Cities: Jerusalem, Hebron, Safed, and Tiberias. Safed became a major center of Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) in the 16th century. There were small waves of Jewish immigration, often for religious reasons, such as Sephardi Jews fleeing the Spanish Inquisition who were invited by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to settle in Tiberias. In 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem. A Druze revolt in 1660 led to the destruction of Safed and Tiberias. In the 18th century, Perushim (opponents of Hasidic Judaism) from Eastern Europe also settled in Palestine.

In the late 18th century, a local Arab sheikh, Zahir al-Umar, created a de facto independent emirate in the Galilee. After his death, Ottoman control was reasserted. In 1799, Jazzar Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Acre, successfully repelled Napoleon Bonaparte's siege, forcing the French to abandon their Syrian campaign. In the 19th century, Egyptian rule under Muhammad Ali of Egypt briefly extended over Palestine (1831-1840), followed by the restoration of Ottoman control with British support after a Palestinian Arab peasants' revolt in 1834. The Tanzimat reforms implemented by the Ottoman Empire aimed to modernize the state but had limited impact in Palestine.

The 19th century witnessed increasing European interest and intervention in the Ottoman Empire, including Palestine. Consulates were established, and Christian missionary activity grew. This period also saw growing antisemitism in Europe, particularly in Tsarist Russia with widespread pogroms (anti-Jewish riots). These persecutions, along with the rise of modern nationalism and the ideas of the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment), fueled the development of Zionism. Zionism, as a modern political movement, advocated for the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine to solve the "Jewish question" and provide a refuge for persecuted Jews.

Key figures in early Zionism included Moses Hess, Leon Pinsker, and most prominently, Theodor Herzl. Herzl's pamphlet Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State, 1896) and his organization of the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, in 1897, were pivotal in transforming Zionism into an organized international movement. The Congress adopted the Basel Program, which stated, "Zionism seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law."

The Zionist movement spurred Jewish immigration to Palestine, known as Aliyahs (ascents).

• The First Aliyah (1882-1903) brought around 25,000-35,000 Jews, mostly from Eastern Europe, who established agricultural settlements. This was motivated by pogroms and the May Laws in Russia.
• The Second Aliyah (1904-1914), following the Kishinev pogrom, brought another 35,000-40,000 immigrants. Many of these immigrants were imbued with socialist ideals and played a key role in developing the kibbutz (collective farm) movement and laying the foundations for future Jewish self-governance, including the establishment of Tel Aviv in 1909 and armed self-defense groups like Hashomer.

These early waves of Jewish immigration and land purchases, often from absentee Arab landlords, led to increasing friction with the local Arab population, who began to fear displacement and demographic change. This laid the groundwork for the escalating Arab-Israeli conflict in the 20th century.

3.6. British Mandate for Palestine

Following World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the League of Nations established the British Mandate for Palestine in 1922. The Mandate instrument incorporated the Balfour Declaration of 1917, in which the British government had expressed support for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people," while also stipulating that "nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine."

During the Mandate period, Jewish immigration (Aliyah) continued, significantly increasing the Jewish population (the Yishuv).

• The Third Aliyah (1919-1923) brought around 40,000 Jews, mainly from Eastern Europe, motivated by Zionist ideals and post-war instability.
• The Fourth Aliyah (1924-1929) saw about 82,000 immigrants, many from Poland and Hungary, including middle-class families who contributed to urban development.
• The Fifth Aliyah (1929-1939) was driven by the rise of Nazism in Germany and growing antisemitism in Europe, bringing approximately 250,000 Jews to Palestine.

Jewish institutions were developed, including the Histadrut (labor federation), the Haganah (defense organization), and the Jewish Agency, which acted as a quasi-government for the Yishuv. Land was purchased, often from absentee Arab landlords, and new agricultural settlements (kibbutzim and moshavim) and urban centers like Tel Aviv expanded.

The increasing Jewish presence and land acquisitions led to growing Arab resentment and fear of dispossession. This resulted in several outbreaks of violence:

• The 1920 Nebi Musa riots and the 1921 Jaffa riots.
• The 1929 Palestine riots, sparked by disputes over the Western Wall, which led to the Hebron massacre of Jews and attacks in other cities.
• The 1936-1939 Arab revolt, a major nationalist uprising against British rule and Jewish immigration. The British suppressed the revolt harshly, with significant casualties on both sides and a lasting impact on Arab political organization.

In response to the Arab revolt, the British Peel Commission (1937) proposed the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with an international corridor for Jerusalem. This was rejected by the Arabs and met with mixed reactions from the Jews. Subsequently, the White Paper of 1939 severely restricted Jewish immigration and land purchases, a policy seen by Zionists as a betrayal, especially with the Holocaust unfolding in Europe during World War II.

During World War II, many Palestinian Jews fought with the British Allies, and the Jewish Brigade was formed within the British Army. The Holocaust galvanized international sympathy for the Zionist cause and intensified Jewish determination to establish a state. After the war, the British maintained immigration restrictions, leading to clandestine immigration efforts (Aliyah Bet) and a growing Jewish armed resistance against British rule by groups like the Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi. Notable incidents included the King David Hotel bombing in 1946 by the Irgun.

Unable to resolve the escalating conflict, Britain referred the Palestine question to the newly formed United Nations in 1947. The UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) recommended partition. On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 181(II), which proposed the division of Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state, and an internationally administered corpus separatum for Jerusalem. The Jewish Agency accepted the plan, but the Arab Higher Committee and Arab states rejected it.

The UN vote was immediately followed by the outbreak of the 1947-1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine between Jewish and Arab militias. As British forces began to withdraw, the fighting intensified. This period saw significant military operations by both sides and the beginning of the Palestinian exodus (Nakba), as hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes in areas that would become part of Israel.

3.7. State of Israel

The establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 marked a pivotal moment, leading to immediate conflict and shaping the nation's subsequent political, social, and military trajectory. This section covers the key developments from Israel's founding to the present day.

3.7.1. Establishment and early years

On May 14, 1948, the day before the British Mandate for Palestine was due to expire, David Ben-Gurion, head of the Jewish Agency, proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel. The United States and the Soviet Union were among the first countries to recognize the new state.

The declaration was immediately followed by the invasion of the former Mandate territory by the armies of five Arab states: Egypt, Transjordan (later Jordan), Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq, joined by contingents from other Arab countries. The newly formed Israel Defense Forces (IDF), consolidating various Jewish paramilitary groups, fought against the invading Arab armies and local Palestinian Arab militias. The war, known in Israel as the War of Independence and by Palestinians as the Nakba ("catastrophe"), lasted for over a year.

The 1949 Armistice Agreements were signed between Israel and its neighboring states (Egypt, Lebanon, Transjordan, and Syria), establishing temporary borders known as the Green Line. Israel controlled about 78% of the former Mandate territory, a larger area than allocated under the UN Partition Plan. Jordan annexed the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. No Palestinian Arab state was established.

The war had profound demographic consequences. Approximately 700,000 to 750,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from the territories that became Israel. Their property was largely confiscated by the new Israeli state. The reasons for the exodus are debated, including Israeli military actions, fear of violence, calls from Arab leaders (a disputed claim), and the collapse of Palestinian Arab society. The Palestinian refugees and their descendants remain a central issue in the ongoing conflict. About 160,000 Palestinian Arabs remained within Israel's borders and became Israeli citizens.

The early years of Israel were characterized by nation-building efforts under a predominantly Labor Zionist government led by David Ben-Gurion. Key developments included:

• Mass Immigration (Aliyah)**: Israel absorbed a massive wave of immigrants, including Holocaust survivors from Europe and over 600,000 Jewish refugees who fled or were expelled from Arab and Muslim countries following the 1948 war. This influx doubled Israel's Jewish population within a few years and placed enormous strain on the new state's resources. Immigrants were often housed in temporary camps called ma'abarot. This mass immigration significantly shaped Israel's diverse society but also led to social and economic challenges, including austerity measures and tensions between different Jewish ethnic groups (Ashkenazi, Mizrahi, Sephardi).
• Establishment of State Institutions**: Israel developed its democratic institutions, including the Knesset (parliament), a judicial system, and a civil service. The Law of Return (1950) granted Jews the right to immigrate to Israel and gain citizenship.
• Economic Development**: The economy was initially fragile, relying on agriculture, reparations from West Germany, and aid from diaspora Jewry.
• Security Challenges**: Ongoing border skirmishes and infiltrations by Palestinian fedayeen were common.

3.7.2. Arab-Israeli conflict

The Arab-Israeli conflict continued to dominate Israel's existence, marked by several major wars and protracted lower-intensity conflicts. The core issues included territorial disputes, the status of Jerusalem, the plight of Palestinian refugees, Israeli security concerns, and Arab states' initial refusal to recognize Israel's legitimacy.

• Suez Crisis (1956)**: Israel, in alliance with Britain and France, invaded Egypt's Sinai Peninsula. The motivations included ending Palestinian fedayeen attacks from Gaza (then Egyptian-controlled) and reopening the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, which Egypt had blockaded. Under international pressure, particularly from the US and USSR, Israel withdrew from Sinai in 1957, but a UN peacekeeping force (UNEF) was stationed in Sinai and the Straits of Tiran were reopened.
• Six-Day War (1967)**: Following a period of heightened tension, including Egypt's remilitarization of Sinai, expulsion of UNEF, and closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, along with threatening rhetoric from Arab leaders, Israel launched a preemptive strike against Egypt, Syria, and Jordan. In a swift victory, Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. This war dramatically altered the geopolitical map of the region, placing a large Palestinian population under Israeli military occupation. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 242, calling for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories in exchange for peace and secure borders.
• War of Attrition (1967-1970)**: A prolonged period of shelling, air battles, and commando raids primarily between Israel and Egypt along the Suez Canal.
• Yom Kippur War (1973)**: Egypt and Syria launched a surprise coordinated attack on Israel on Yom Kippur, the holiest day in Judaism. After initial setbacks, Israel managed to repel the Arab forces and push into their territories. The war had a profound psychological impact on Israel, shattering the sense of invincibility following the 1967 victory. It also paved the way for future peace negotiations, particularly with Egypt.
• Ongoing Conflict with Palestinian Groups**: The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), established in 1964, became the main umbrella organization for Palestinian nationalist groups. From bases in neighboring countries (Jordan, then Lebanon), the PLO and other factions launched attacks against Israeli targets. Notable events include the 1972 Munich Olympics massacre of Israeli athletes by Black September. Israel responded with counter-terrorism operations, including Operation Wrath of God. The conflict with Palestinian groups, including Hamas (founded in 1987) and Islamic Jihad, has continued, marked by uprisings (First and Second Intifadas), rocket attacks from Gaza, and Israeli military operations in the West Bank and Gaza. The humanitarian consequences, particularly for Palestinians living under occupation or blockade, have been severe, including restrictions on movement, economic hardship, and loss of life and property. The plight of Palestinian refugees from 1948 and subsequent conflicts remains a core unresolved issue.

3.7.3. Peace process

Despite the ongoing conflict, various efforts have been made to achieve peace between Israel and its Arab neighbors, as well as with the Palestinians.

• Peace with Egypt (1979)**: Following the Camp David Accords (1978) brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter, Israel and Egypt signed a historic peace treaty. This was the first peace treaty between Israel and an Arab state. Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula, which was returned to Egypt. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
• Peace with Jordan (1994)**: Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty, normalizing relations and resolving border and water issues.
• Oslo Accords (1993-1995)**: A series of agreements between Israel and the PLO, initiated by secret talks in Oslo, Norway. The Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements (Oslo I, 1993) established mutual recognition between Israel and the PLO and created the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) with limited self-rule in parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. This was followed by the Interim Agreement (Oslo II, 1995), which further detailed the arrangements for Palestinian autonomy. Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, Foreign Minister Shimon Peres, and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Oslo process generated hope but faced significant challenges, including opposition from extremists on both sides, continued Israeli settlement construction, and Palestinian attacks. The assassination of Rabin in November 1995 by a Jewish extremist was a major blow to the peace process.
• Subsequent Negotiations**: Numerous attempts at further negotiations, such as the 2000 Camp David Summit and the Taba talks (2001), failed to achieve a final status agreement. Issues like borders, Jerusalem, settlements, security, and Palestinian refugees proved intractable. The Arab Peace Initiative (2002), proposed by Saudi Arabia and endorsed by the Arab League, offered Israel full normalization in exchange for withdrawal from occupied territories and a just solution for Palestinian refugees, but it did not lead to a breakthrough.

The peace process has been largely stalled for many years, with periods of intense conflict and violence. The impact on all populations involved has been significant, with cycles of hope and despair. Critics argue that the expansion of Israeli settlements has undermined the viability of a two-state solution.

4.1. Topography

Israel is situated at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, in the Levant region of the Middle East. It is bordered by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank to the east, and Egypt and the Gaza Strip to the southwest. The country also has a short coastline on the Gulf of Aqaba (Gulf of Eilat) at the Red Sea in the south.

Israel's topography can be divided into four main geographical regions:

1. **The Coastal Plain**: This is a fertile, relatively flat strip of land running along the Mediterranean coast from the Lebanese border in the north to the Gaza Strip in the south. It is the most densely populated region of Israel and includes major cities like Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Ashdod. The plain varies in width, being narrower in the north (around Mount Carmel) and widening towards the south. It includes areas like the Sharon Plain and the Jezreel Valley (Emek Yizra'el), which is a large, fertile inland valley extending southeast from Haifa.
2. **The Central Highlands (or Hills and Mountains)**: East of the coastal plain, a range of hills and mountains runs north to south. This region includes:

• Galilee** in the north, divided into Upper Galilee (mountainous, with peaks like Mount Meron, Israel's highest point within its internationally recognized borders) and Lower Galilee (hilly).
• Samarian Hills** (largely corresponding to the northern West Bank).
• Judean Hills** (including Jerusalem) and the Hebron Hills (largely corresponding to the southern West Bank). These highlands are characterized by rocky terrain and terraced agriculture.

3. **The Jordan Rift Valley**: This is a deep depression forming part of the larger Great Rift Valley (Syrian-African Rift). It runs along Israel's eastern border and includes:

• The Hula Valley in the north.
• The Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret or Lake Tiberias), Israel's largest freshwater lake and an important water source.
• The Jordan River, which flows south from the Sea of Galilee.
• The Dead Sea, a hypersaline lake that is the lowest point on Earth's land surface (approximately -1412.4 ft ^{(-430.5 m)} below sea level). It is shared with Jordan.
• The Arabah valley, extending south from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Eilat.

4. **The Negev Desert**: This desert region occupies the southern half of Israel, constituting about 60% of the country's land area (within the Green Line). It is characterized by arid and semi-arid conditions, rocky mountains, and erosion craters known as makhteshim (singular: makhtesh), such as Makhtesh Ramon. The northern Negev is more fertile and supports some agriculture, while the southern Negev is extremely arid.

The Golan Heights, occupied by Israel since 1967 and effectively annexed in 1981 (a move not recognized internationally), is a plateau east of the Sea of Galilee, characterized by volcanic soil and higher elevations, including parts of Mount Hermon.

4.2. Geology and seismicity

Israel's geology is largely shaped by its location at the boundary of the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. The most significant geological feature is the Dead Sea Transform (DST) fault system, which is a major transform fault extending from the Red Sea in the south to the Taurus Mountains in Turkey. The Jordan Rift Valley is a direct result of the tectonic movements along this fault. The DST is a left-lateral strike-slip fault, meaning the Arabian Plate is moving northwards relative to the African Plate. This movement has created the deep depression of the Dead Sea and the surrounding rift valley features.

The region experiences significant seismic activity due to the DST. Historically, Palestine has been affected by numerous earthquakes, some of which have been highly destructive. Major historical earthquakes include:

• The earthquake of 749 CE, which caused widespread destruction in Galilee, the Jordan Valley, and beyond, devastating cities like Tiberias, Beit She'an, and Pella.
• The earthquake of 1033 CE, which also caused major damage in the region, including to Jerusalem and Ramla.
• The Galilee earthquake of 1837, which severely damaged Safed and Tiberias.
• The Jericho earthquake of 1927, which caused considerable damage in Jerusalem, Jericho, Nablus, and Tiberias.

Seismic risk remains a concern in modern Israel. The country is located in an active seismic zone, and there is a recognized potential for future damaging earthquakes. Israeli building codes include seismic-resistant design standards, particularly for new constructions. However, many older buildings, especially those constructed before modern codes were implemented, are more vulnerable. Government and research institutions monitor seismic activity and work on preparedness measures, including public awareness campaigns and retrofitting of critical infrastructure. The Geological Survey of Israel plays a key role in seismic research and hazard assessment. The concentration of population and infrastructure along the coastal plain and within the rift valley system increases the potential impact of a major seismic event.

4.3. Climate

Israel has a diverse climate, largely influenced by its location between the temperate Mediterranean zone and arid desert regions. The climate varies significantly from north to south and from the coastal areas to the inland and desert regions. Generally, the country experiences long, hot, dry summers and short, cool, rainy winters.

The main climate zones are:
1. **Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa)**: This climate characterizes the coastal plain, the northern and central highlands (including Galilee, Samaria, and Judea), and the northern Negev.

• Summers** (April/May to September/October) are hot and dry with abundant sunshine. Coastal areas like Tel Aviv and Haifa experience high humidity, while inland areas like Jerusalem, being at a higher altitude, have warm to hot summers but lower humidity and cooler evenings.
• Winters** (November to March) are mild to cool and rainy. Most of Israel's annual precipitation occurs during this period, typically brought by low-pressure systems moving across the Mediterranean. Snowfall is rare in coastal areas but can occur in higher elevation areas like Jerusalem and the Golan Heights. The highest temperature recorded in Israel was 129.2 °F ^{(54 °C)} at Tirat Zvi in the Jordan Valley in 1942.

2. **Semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh)**: This transitional zone is found in areas like the northern Negev (e.g., Beersheba) and parts of the Jordan Valley. It experiences hotter summers and less rainfall than the Mediterranean zone.
3. **Desert climate (Köppen BWh)**: This climate prevails in the southern Negev, the Arava Valley, and the Dead Sea area. Summers are extremely hot and dry, and winters are mild with very little rainfall.

• Precipitation**:

Rainfall is highly seasonal, concentrated in the winter months. Annual precipitation varies greatly by region:

• Northern Galilee and the Golan Heights can receive over 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} annually.
• The coastal plain and central hills typically receive 20 in ^{(500 mm)} to 28 in ^{(700 mm)}.
• The northern Negev receives around 7.9 in ^{(200 mm)} to 12 in ^{(300 mm)}.
• The southern Negev and Eilat receive very little rainfall, often less than 2.0 in ^{(50 mm)} annually.

Droughts are a recurring problem.

• Temperature**:

Temperatures also vary significantly.

• Coastal areas: Summer average highs are around 86 °F ^{(30 °C)}, winter average highs around 62.6 °F ^{(17 °C)}.
• Jerusalem (highlands): Summer average highs are around 84.2 °F ^{(29 °C)}, winter average highs around 53.6 °F ^{(12 °C)}, with occasional frost and snow.
• Eilat (southern desert): Summer average highs can exceed 104 °F ^{(40 °C)}, winter average highs around 69.8 °F ^{(21 °C)}.

• Environmental Challenges**:
  • Water Scarcity**: Israel has historically faced water scarcity. It has developed advanced water management technologies, including drip irrigation, water recycling, and large-scale desalination of seawater, which now provides a significant portion of its fresh water.
  • Climate Change**: Israel is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including rising temperatures, decreased precipitation, increased frequency of extreme weather events (droughts, heatwaves, floods), and sea-level rise affecting coastal areas. These changes pose risks to water resources, agriculture, biodiversity, and public health. The Israeli government acknowledges these threats and has developed national adaptation plans.
  • Desertification**: Parts of the semi-arid northern Negev are at risk of desertification.
  • Air and Water Pollution**: Urbanization and industrial activity contribute to air and water pollution, though efforts are made to mitigate these issues.

5.1. System of government

Israel is a parliamentary democracy. The system is based on the separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

• The President (President of the State of Israel)**: The President is the head of state. The role is largely ceremonial and apolitical. The President is elected by the Knesset for a single seven-year term. Duties include signing laws (except those pertaining to presidential powers), appointing judges, the governor of the Bank of Israel, and other officials based on recommendations, granting pardons, and formally assigning the task of forming a government to a Knesset member after elections. The current president is Isaac Herzog.
• The Executive Branch (Government)**: The government is headed by the Prime Minister, who is the head of government. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the party or coalition that can command a majority in the Knesset. After elections, the President consults with party leaders and tasks a Knesset member (usually the leader of the largest party) with forming a government. The government, once formed, must win a vote of confidence in the Knesset. The Prime Minister and cabinet ministers are responsible to the Knesset and can be removed by a constructive vote of no confidence. The current prime minister is Benjamin Netanyahu.
• The Legislative Branch (Knesset)**: The Knesset is Israel's unicameral parliament. It has 120 members, elected for a four-year term through a system of nationwide proportional representation using party lists. The entire country is a single electoral district. Parties must pass an electoral threshold (currently 3.25% of the total votes) to gain representation. This system often leads to coalition governments, as it is rare for a single party to win an outright majority. The Knesset's functions include legislating, overseeing the government, electing the President and State Comptroller, and can dissolve itself to call early elections.
• Electoral System**: Elections are based on universal suffrage for citizens aged 18 and older. The proportional representation system means that the number of seats a party receives in the Knesset is directly proportional to the percentage of votes it receives nationally (provided it passes the threshold). This system encourages a multi-party landscape.
• Coalition Politics**: Due to the electoral system, Israeli governments are almost always coalitions of several parties. The process of forming a coalition can be complex and involve extensive negotiations over policy agreements and ministerial portfolios. Coalition governments can sometimes be unstable, leading to frequent early elections.

Israel's political culture is characterized by a wide spectrum of political parties, representing diverse ideologies from religious Zionism and secular nationalism to left-wing social democratic and Arab political parties.

5.2. Administrative divisions

Israel is divided into six main administrative districts (מְחוֹזוֹת_meḥozot^Hebrew; singular: מָחוֹז_maḥoz^Hebrew). These districts are further subdivided into sub-districts (נָפוֹת_nafot^Hebrew; singular: נָפָה_nafa^Hebrew) and natural regions. The districts serve as the primary administrative units for various government services.

The six main districts are:
1. **Northern District**: Capital - Nof HaGalil. Largest city - Nazareth. Includes much of the Galilee region and the Golan Heights (the latter's annexation by Israel is not internationally recognized).
2. **Haifa District**: Capital and largest city - Haifa. Surrounds the major port city of Haifa and includes parts of Mount Carmel.
3. **Central District**: Capital - Ramla. Largest city - Rishon LeZion. Located in the densely populated coastal plain, including the Sharon plain.
4. **Tel Aviv District**: Capital and largest city - Tel Aviv-Yafo. The smallest district by area but the most densely populated, encompassing the Tel Aviv metropolitan area (Gush Dan).
5. **Jerusalem District**: Capital and largest city - Jerusalem. Includes Israel's proclaimed capital, encompassing both West Jerusalem and East Jerusalem (the latter's annexation is not internationally recognized).
6. **Southern District**: Capital - Beersheba. Largest city - Ashdod. The largest district by area, covering the Negev desert and the Arabah valley.

In addition to these six districts, Israel administers the Judea and Samaria Area, which largely corresponds to the West Bank, excluding East Jerusalem. This area is under military administration, and Israeli settlements within it are governed by Israeli civilian law. However, this administration is not recognized internationally as part of Israel's sovereign territory; these are considered occupied territories.

5.3. Israeli citizenship law

Israeli citizenship law is primarily based on two main pieces of legislation: the Law of Return (1950) and the Citizenship Law (1952). These laws reflect Israel's identity as a Jewish state and its historical context of providing a homeland for Jews from around the world.

• Law of Return (חוק השבות_{Hok Hashvut}^Hebrew)**: This law grants every Jew the right to immigrate to Israel (make Aliyah) and gain Israeli citizenship. The law defines a Jew as someone born to a Jewish mother or who has converted to Judaism and is not a member of another religion. The right of return also extends to the children, grandchildren, and spouses of Jews, even if they are not themselves Jewish by halakhic (Jewish religious law) standards. This provision was intended to allow families to immigrate together and to provide refuge for those persecuted due to their Jewish ancestry.
• Citizenship Law (1952)**: This law details the various ways Israeli citizenship can be acquired:
  • By Return**: Under the Law of Return, as described above. This is the primary means of citizenship for Jewish immigrants.
  • By Residence**: This applied to non-Jewish inhabitants, mainly Palestinian Arabs, who were residents of Mandatory Palestine before the establishment of Israel in 1948 and remained within its borders after the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. They had to meet certain criteria, including registration and continuous presence.
  • By Birth (Jus sanguinis)**: A person born in Israel to at least one Israeli citizen parent is an Israeli citizen by birth. A person born outside Israel to an Israeli citizen parent also generally acquires citizenship, although there are some limitations regarding transmission through generations born abroad.
  • By Naturalization**: Non-Jews can apply for Israeli citizenship through naturalization. Requirements typically include a period of residence in Israel (usually three out of five years), some knowledge of the Hebrew language, renunciation of prior citizenship (unless Israeli law or the other country's law permits dual citizenship), and an oath of allegiance to the State of Israel. Naturalization is granted at the discretion of the Minister of the Interior.
  • By Grant**: Citizenship can be granted by the Minister of the Interior in special cases, such as to non-Jewish spouses of Israeli citizens or for individuals who have made a special contribution to the state.
  • Implications for Different Population Groups**:
    • Jewish Citizens**: The Law of Return provides a privileged path to citizenship for Jews worldwide, reflecting Israel's role as a homeland for the Jewish people.
    • Arab Citizens**: Most Arab citizens of Israel acquired citizenship by residence (if they were present in 1948-1952 and met criteria) or by birth. They have full civil and political rights, including the right to vote and be elected to the Knesset. However, they face various forms of discrimination and socio-economic disparities compared to Jewish citizens. The 2018 Nation-State Law, which defines Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people, has been criticized by Arab citizens and others for potentially undermining their status and rights.
    • Palestinians in the Occupied Territories**: Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip (occupied since 1967) are generally not Israeli citizens and do not have the right to vote in Israeli national elections, though they are subject to Israeli military rule or significant Israeli control (in the case of Gaza's borders). Residents of East Jerusalem, which Israel annexed (a move not recognized internationally), hold Israeli permanent residency and can apply for Israeli citizenship, though many have not done so for political reasons or due to complexities in the application process.
    • Druze and Circassian Citizens**: These minority groups generally serve in the IDF, unlike most Arab citizens who are exempt (though some volunteer).

    Dual citizenship is generally permitted in Israel. The citizenship law has been a subject of ongoing political and social debate, particularly concerning issues of national identity, the rights of minorities, and the relationship between Israel's Jewish and democratic character.

5.4. Israeli-occupied territories

Since the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel has occupied several territories: the West Bank (including East Jerusalem), the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights (captured from Syria), and formerly the Sinai Peninsula (captured from Egypt, but returned between 1979 and 1982 as part of the Egypt-Israel peace treaty). The status and administration of these territories are highly contentious and central to the Arab-Israeli conflict, particularly the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

• The West Bank**: This territory, located west of the Jordan River, was captured from Jordan in 1967. It is home to a large Palestinian population (around 3 million) and also to over 450,000 Israeli settlers living in numerous settlements and outposts established since 1967. Israel refers to the West Bank as Judea and Samaria, reflecting historical and religious Jewish connections to the land.
  • Administration**: Following the Oslo Accords in the 1990s, the West Bank was divided into three areas:
    • Area A**: Full civil and security control by the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). Includes major Palestinian cities.
    • Area B**: Palestinian civil control and joint Israeli-Palestinian security control. Includes Palestinian villages and rural areas.
    • Area C**: Full Israeli civil and security control. Comprises about 60% of the West Bank and includes most Israeli settlements, military areas, and sparsely populated Palestinian land.
  • Legal Status**: The international community considers the West Bank to be occupied territory under international law (Fourth Geneva Convention). Israeli settlements are widely regarded as illegal under international law. Israel disputes this legal interpretation, often citing historical claims and security needs. Palestinians in the West Bank are not Israeli citizens and are subject to Israeli military law in Area C and for security matters, while civil matters for Palestinians in Areas A and B are handled by the PNA.
• East Jerusalem**: Captured from Jordan in 1967, Israel effectively annexed East Jerusalem shortly thereafter, extending its law, jurisdiction, and administration over the area and incorporating it into a unified Jerusalem, which Israel declared its capital. This annexation is not recognized by the international community, which considers East Jerusalem to be occupied territory. Around 230,000 Israeli settlers live in East Jerusalem alongside over 350,000 Palestinians. Palestinian residents of East Jerusalem generally hold Israeli permanent residency status, which allows them to live and work in Israel and access social services, but most are not Israeli citizens.
• The Gaza Strip**: Captured from Egypt in 1967. In 2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from Gaza, withdrawing its military forces and dismantling its settlements. However, Israel continues to control Gaza's airspace, maritime access, and most of its land borders (along with Egypt controlling the Rafah crossing). Since Hamas took control of Gaza in 2007, Israel has imposed a strict blockade on the territory, severely restricting the movement of people and goods. The international community, including the UN, generally still considers Gaza to be occupied territory due to the extent of Israeli control over its external access and lifelines, despite the absence of a permanent Israeli military presence within the Strip itself. The blockade and repeated military conflicts have led to a severe humanitarian crisis in Gaza, which is home to over 2 million Palestinians.
• The Golan Heights**: Captured from Syria in 1967. In 1981, Israel passed the Golan Heights Law, effectively annexing the territory by applying Israeli law and administration. This annexation is not recognized internationally, and the UN considers the Golan Heights to be Syrian territory occupied by Israel. Approximately 27,000 Israeli settlers live in the Golan Heights, alongside around 24,000 Syrian Druze residents, most of whom have retained Syrian citizenship but hold Israeli permanent residency.

• Israeli Settlements**: The establishment and expansion of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and East Jerusalem (and formerly in Gaza and Sinai) are a major point of contention. Palestinians view settlements as a violation of international law, an impediment to a future Palestinian state, and a cause of dispossession and fragmentation of their land. The international community, including the United Nations, the European Union, and most countries, generally considers settlements illegal under international law, specifically Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention, which prohibits an occupying power from transferring parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies. Israel disputes this, arguing that the territories are "disputed" rather than "occupied" in a legal sense that would preclude settlement, or citing historical and security justifications.

The presence of these territories under Israeli control and the ongoing conflict have significant human rights implications for the Palestinian population living there, including restrictions on movement, access to resources, economic development, and exposure to violence.

5.5. Foreign relations

Israel maintains diplomatic relations with 165 out of 193 UN member states, as well as with the Holy See, Kosovo, the Cook Islands, and Niue. It has 107 diplomatic missions around the world. Countries with which it has no diplomatic relations include most Muslim-majority countries, a legacy of the Arab-Israeli conflict.

• Key Allies and Partners**:
  • United States**: The U.S. is Israel's closest and most important ally. The relationship is based on shared democratic values, strategic interests, and strong cultural ties. The U.S. has provided Israel with significant military and economic aid for decades and often plays a key role in diplomatic efforts in the region.
  • European Countries**: Israel has strong ties with many European nations, including Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. Relations with the European Union are extensive, governed by an Association Agreement, though often complicated by EU criticism of Israeli policies in the occupied territories. Israel is part of the EU's European Neighbourhood Policy.
  • Other Western Nations**: Countries like Australia and Canada also maintain close and friendly relations with Israel.
  • Relations with Neighboring Countries and the Arab World**:
    • Egypt**: Signed a peace treaty in 1979, the first Arab country to do so. Relations are often described as a "cold peace" but involve security cooperation, particularly concerning Sinai and Gaza.
    • Jordan**: Signed a peace treaty in 1994. Cooperation exists on security, water, and other issues, though popular sentiment in Jordan is often critical of Israel.
    • Lebanon and Syria**: Israel remains formally in a state of war with both Lebanon and Syria. Borders are tense, with significant conflicts having occurred, particularly the ongoing low-intensity conflict with Hezbollah in Lebanon and issues related to the Golan Heights with Syria.
    • Arab-Israeli Normalization (Abraham Accords)**: Beginning in 2020, Israel normalized relations with the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco, brokered by the U.S. These agreements marked a significant shift in regional diplomacy, driven partly by shared concerns about Iran.
    • Iran**: Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran became one of Israel's staunchest adversaries. The two countries are engaged in an ongoing proxy conflict across the region, with Iran supporting groups like Hezbollah and Hamas. Israel views Iran's nuclear program as an existential threat.
    • Turkey**: Historically, Turkey was one of the first Muslim-majority countries to recognize Israel (1949) and maintained strong ties. However, relations significantly deteriorated in the 21st century, particularly under the AKP government, over issues related to the Palestinians and Israeli policies, though some efforts at rapprochement have occurred.
    • Relations with Other Key Countries**:
      • Russia**: Relations are complex, balancing cooperation on some issues with disagreements, particularly concerning Syria and Iran. Russia has a large Russian-speaking diaspora in Israel.
      • China and India**: Israel has developed increasingly important economic, technological, and, in the case of India, defense ties with both Asian giants.
      • African Nations**: Israel has sought to strengthen ties with African countries, focusing on development aid, technology transfer (especially in agriculture and water), and security cooperation.
      • International Organizations**:

      Israel is a member of the United Nations (since 1949) but often faces criticism and numerous condemnatory resolutions in UN bodies, particularly concerning the Palestinian issue. It joined the OECD in 2010.
      
      Israeli foreign policy objectives generally include ensuring its security, gaining international recognition and legitimacy, fostering economic partnerships, countering regional threats (especially from Iran and its proxies), and maintaining strong ties with the Jewish diaspora. The unresolved Israeli-Palestinian conflict remains a central and often challenging element in its foreign relations.

5.6. Military

The Israel Defense Forces (IDF), commonly known in Israel by the Hebrew acronym Tzahal (צה״ל^Hebrew), is the military arm of the State of Israel. It consists of the ground forces, air force, and navy. The IDF is headed by the Chief of the General Staff (Ramatkal), who is subordinate to the Minister of Defense and the Israeli cabinet.

• Key Features of the IDF**:
  • Conscription**: Military service is compulsory for most Israeli citizens upon reaching the age of 18. Jewish and Druze men typically serve for 32 months, while Jewish women serve for 24 months. Arab citizens of Israel (except Druze men) are generally exempt but can volunteer. Haredi Jews can receive deferments for religious studies, a contentious issue in Israeli society. Women are integrated into many combat roles.
  • Reserve Forces**: After completing mandatory service, many Israelis are assigned to reserve units and are liable for reserve duty up to a certain age. The reserve system is a crucial component of Israel's defense posture, allowing for rapid mobilization of a large force in times of crisis.
  • Advanced Weaponry and Technology**: The IDF is known for its technological sophistication. It utilizes a mix of imported and indigenously developed weapons systems. Israel has a strong domestic defense industry, producing advanced technology such as the Merkava tank, Iron Dome anti-missile system, Arrow anti-ballistic missile system, and various drones and cyber warfare capabilities.
  • Reported Nuclear Capabilities**: Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons, although it maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity (also known as "nuclear opacity"), neither confirming nor denying their existence. It has not signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.
  • Major Military Operations and Defense Policies**: The IDF has been involved in all of Israel's major wars and numerous smaller operations. Its defense doctrine has traditionally emphasized deterrence, early warning, decisive battlefield victories, and, when necessary, preemptive action. Given its small size and geographic vulnerability, Israel has focused on maintaining a qualitative military edge over potential adversaries.
  • Intelligence Services**: The IDF's Directorate of Military Intelligence (Aman) is a key component of the Israeli intelligence community, alongside Mossad (foreign intelligence) and Shin Bet (internal security).
  • Criticism Regarding Human Rights**: The IDF's conduct, particularly in the occupied territories and during conflicts in densely populated areas like Gaza, has drawn significant international criticism from human rights organizations and UN bodies. Allegations include excessive use of force, disproportionate harm to civilians, and violations of international humanitarian law. Israel generally maintains that its actions are in self-defense and comply with international law, often citing the challenges of combating non-state actors operating within civilian populations. Investigations into alleged misconduct have been criticized by some as insufficient.

  Military expenditure has historically constituted a significant portion of Israel's national budget. The IDF plays a central role in Israeli society, and military service is often seen as a rite of passage and a unifying experience.

5.7. Legal system

Israel's legal system is a mixed system, drawing primarily from English common law traditions (a legacy of the British Mandate), continental civil law, and Jewish religious law (Halakha), the latter influencing personal status law for Jewish citizens. The country does not have a single, formal written constitution; instead, a series of Basic Laws, enacted by the Knesset, serve a constitutional function. These Basic Laws cover fundamental rights, state institutions, and the relationship between them.

• Key Components of the Israeli Legal System**:

1. **The Court System**: Israel has a three-tiered court system:

• Magistrate Courts**: These are courts of first instance for most civil and minor criminal cases.
• District Courts**: There are six district courts which serve as appellate courts for decisions from the magistrate courts and as courts of first instance for more serious civil and criminal matters.
• Supreme Court**: Located in Jerusalem, the Supreme Court is the highest court in Israel. It has two main functions:
  • As an appellate court for decisions from the district courts.
  • As the **High Court of Justice (HCJ)** (Bagatz). In this capacity, it sits as a court of first instance, primarily hearing petitions against government bodies, public officials, and state actions. The HCJ has played a significant role in judicial review and the protection of human rights, though its activism has also been a subject of political debate.

  2. **Religious Courts**: Matters of personal status (marriage, divorce, burial, conversion) for members of recognized religious communities are generally handled by their respective religious courts:

  • Rabbinical Courts**: For Jewish citizens, applying Jewish law (Halakha).
  • Sharia Courts**: For Muslim citizens.
  • Druze Religious Courts**: For Druze citizens.
  • Christian Ecclesiastical Courts**: For members of recognized Christian communities.

  There is no civil marriage or divorce in Israel; marriages must be performed by a religious authority of the couple's community if they wish for it to be recognized by the state, or couples can marry abroad and have their marriage registered in Israel.
  3. **Legal Principles**:

  • Rule of Law**: Israel operates under the principle of the rule of law, with laws enacted by the Knesset.
  • Judicial Independence**: The judiciary is independent of the executive and legislative branches. Judges are appointed by a Judicial Selection Committee, which includes representatives from the judiciary, the government, the Knesset, and the Israel Bar Association.
  • Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty** (1992) and **Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation** (1992, amended 1994): These Basic Laws are considered to have quasi-constitutional status and have been used by the Supreme Court as a basis for judicial review of legislation that infringes upon enshrined rights. Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty protects rights such as life, bodily integrity, dignity, property, privacy, and freedom of movement (though many rights can be limited by law if it befits the values of the State of Israel, is for a worthy purpose, and is proportionate).

  4. **Attorney General (Attorney General)**: The Attorney General serves as the head of the state prosecution system, chief legal advisor to the government, and represents the state in legal proceedings.
  5. **Application of Law in Occupied Territories**: Israeli law is applied to Israeli citizens living in settlements in the West Bank. Palestinians in the West Bank are largely subject to Israeli military law and a separate Palestinian legal system under the Palestinian Authority in areas of its jurisdiction. This dual legal system has been a source of significant human rights criticism.
  
  Recent years have seen significant debate and controversy over proposed judicial reforms aimed at altering the balance of power between the judiciary, executive, and legislative branches, particularly concerning the powers of the Supreme Court and the process of judicial appointments. These proposals have sparked widespread protests and concerns about the future of Israel's democratic checks and balances.

6.1. Overview

Israel's economy is characterized by:

• High-Tech Dominance**: The "Silicon Wadi" in the coastal plain is a global hub for technological innovation and start-ups, particularly in fields like cybersecurity, software development, biotechnology, life sciences, and communications. Many multinational tech companies have significant research and development centers in Israel.
• High GDP per capita**: Israel is considered a developed country with a high standard of living. As of 2023, its GDP was estimated at $521.7 billion, with a GDP per capita of around $53,200 (nominal).
• Export-Oriented**: Key exports include high-tech products, polished diamonds, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and agricultural products (especially fruits and vegetables).
• Diversified Economy**: Beyond high-tech, Israel has significant industries in manufacturing, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food processing, and tourism.
• Challenges**: The economy faces challenges such as a high cost of living, income inequality (one of the highest among OECD countries), regional geopolitical instability, and the economic integration of its diverse population groups, particularly Haredi Jews and Arab Israelis who often have lower labor force participation rates and income levels. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict also has economic repercussions, including defense spending and impacts on tourism and investment.
• Natural Resources**: Historically, Israel had limited natural resources, but the discovery of significant offshore natural gas fields (e.g., Tamar, Leviathan) in the 2000s has transformed its energy sector, making it largely energy self-sufficient and an exporter of natural gas.
• Currency**: The Israeli new shekel (ILS) is the official currency. The Bank of Israel is the central bank.

Israel joined the OECD in 2010, reflecting its status as a developed market economy.

6.2. Science and technology

Science and technology are cornerstones of the Israeli economy and its international reputation. Israel is often referred to as the "Start-up Nation" due to its high density of start-up companies per capita, second only to the United States in absolute numbers of start-ups and NASDAQ-listed companies (after the US and China).

• Key Aspects**:
  • Silicon Wadi**: This is the term for the high-tech cluster concentrated mainly in the coastal plain around Tel Aviv, Herzliya, and Haifa. It encompasses a wide range of industries including software, cybersecurity, communications, semiconductors, life sciences, biotechnology, medical devices, and cleantech.
  • Research and Development (R&D)**: Israel consistently ranks among the top countries in the world for R&D expenditure as a percentage of GDP. This investment is driven by both government initiatives and a strong private sector.
  • Innovation Ecosystem**: A well-developed ecosystem supports innovation, including venture capital funds, government incubators, academic research institutions, a highly skilled workforce (many with experience in elite military technology units like Unit 8200), and a culture that encourages entrepreneurship and risk-taking.
  • Multinational Corporations (MNCs)**: Many leading global technology companies, such as Intel, Microsoft, Google, Apple, and IBM, have established major R&D centers in Israel, often acquiring local start-ups.
  • Major Technological Innovations**: Israeli innovations have had a global impact. Examples include:
    • Software and Internet**: Firewall technology, instant messaging (ICQ), USB flash drives (DiskOnKey), Waze navigation app.
    • Cybersecurity**: Israel is a global leader in cybersecurity technology and expertise.
    • Life Sciences and Medical Devices**: Innovations in medical imaging, pharmaceuticals (Teva is one of the world's largest generic drug manufacturers), and agricultural technology (drip irrigation was pioneered in Israel).
    • Defense Technology**: Advanced defense systems developed by Israeli companies are also exported globally.
  • Academic Institutions**: Universities like the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem are renowned for their research in science and engineering and play a crucial role in the tech ecosystem.
  • Government Support**: The Israeli government, through agencies like the Israel Innovation Authority (formerly the Office of the Chief Scientist), provides grants, incentives, and support programs for R&D and start-ups.

  Israel's high-tech sector accounts for a significant portion of its exports and GDP, making it a key driver of economic growth and international competitiveness.

6.3. Energy

Israel's energy sector has undergone a significant transformation in recent decades, moving from heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels to increasing energy self-sufficiency, primarily due to the discovery of large offshore natural gas reserves.

• Primary Energy Sources**:
  • Natural Gas**: Large natural gas fields were discovered off Israel's Mediterranean coast in the 2000s and 2010s, most notably the Tamar field (production started in 2013) and the even larger Leviathan field (production started in 2019). These discoveries have made natural gas the primary fuel for electricity generation in Israel, significantly reducing reliance on imported coal and oil. Israel now exports natural gas to neighboring countries like Jordan and Egypt.
  • Coal**: Historically, imported coal was a major source for electricity generation. Its use is declining as natural gas becomes more prevalent, aligning with environmental goals.
  • Oil**: Israel has very limited domestic oil production and relies heavily on imports for its transportation sector and some industrial uses.
  • Nuclear Energy**: Israel operates the Negev Nuclear Research Center near Dimona, which is widely believed to be central to its undeclared nuclear weapons program. However, Israel does not currently have nuclear power plants for civilian electricity generation, though the possibility has been discussed at various times.
  • Renewable Energy**:

  Israel has a strong focus on developing renewable energy sources, particularly solar power, given its abundant sunshine.

  • Solar Power**: Israel was an early adopter of solar water heaters, which are ubiquitous on residential rooftops. The country is also expanding utility-scale solar power plants, including both photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies, especially in the Negev desert. The Ashalim Power Station is a notable example. The government has set targets to increase the share of renewables in electricity generation.
  • Wind Power**: Wind power potential is more limited but is being developed in some areas, particularly in the Golan Heights and Arava.
  • Other Renewables**: Research and development are ongoing in other areas like biofuels and geothermal energy.
  • Energy Policy and Challenges**:
    • Energy Security**: Diversifying energy sources and reducing reliance on imports have been key policy goals. The development of offshore gas has significantly enhanced Israel's energy security.
    • Environmental Concerns**: Transitioning to cleaner energy sources and reducing greenhouse gas emissions are important objectives. The shift from coal to natural gas has helped lower emissions from the power sector.
    • Regional Cooperation**: The discovery of Eastern Mediterranean gas reserves has opened opportunities for regional energy cooperation and export agreements, though geopolitical complexities remain.
    • Infrastructure**: Developing the necessary infrastructure for gas distribution, electricity grid modernization (including accommodating intermittent renewables), and potentially electric vehicle charging is an ongoing process.

    Israel aims to increase the share of renewable energy in its electricity mix, with targets set for 2030, as part of its efforts to combat climate change and enhance energy sustainability.

6.4. Transport

Israel has a relatively developed transportation infrastructure, which has seen significant upgrades and expansion in recent decades to accommodate a growing population and economy.

• Roads**: The road network is extensive, with 12 K mile ^{(19.22 K km)} of paved roads. Major highways connect the main urban centers. Traffic congestion is a significant problem in metropolitan areas, particularly around Tel Aviv. Efforts to expand highways and improve public transport aim to alleviate this. Israel has around 3 million motor vehicles.
• Railways**: Israel Railways, the state-owned railway company, operates a network of 0.8 K mile ^{(1.28 K km)}. Rail services have been significantly modernized and expanded, with a focus on passenger transport between major cities and suburban areas. Key lines include the coastal line (Nahariya-Haifa-Tel Aviv-Ashkelon) and the high-speed line connecting Tel Aviv and Jerusalem (opened in stages). Freight rail is also used, particularly for transporting minerals and goods from ports.
• Aviation**:
  • Ben Gurion Airport (TLV)**: Located near Tel Aviv, it is Israel's main international airport and a hub for El Al, Israel's flag carrier, as well as other Israeli airlines like Arkia and Israir. It handles the vast majority of international passenger traffic. In 2023, it served over 21.1 million passengers.
  • Ramon Airport (ETM)**: Located near Eilat in the south, it serves as Israel's second international airport, primarily handling tourism to Eilat and the southern region, as well as some domestic flights. It replaced the older Eilat City Airport and Ovda Airport for civilian traffic.
  • Haifa Airport (HFA)**: A smaller airport primarily serving domestic flights and some short-haul international routes.
• Ports**: Israel has three major commercial seaports:
  • Port of Haifa**: Located on the Mediterranean coast in the north, it is one of Israel's largest and busiest ports, handling both container and general cargo.
  • Port of Ashdod**: Also on the Mediterranean coast, south of Tel Aviv, it is another major deep-water port for containers and various types of cargo.
  • Port of Eilat**: Located on the Red Sea, it provides Israel with access to East Africa, Asia, and the Far East, primarily handling bulk cargo like potash and phosphates, as well as vehicle imports.
• Public Transportation**:
  • Buses**: Buses are the primary mode of public transport in Israel, with extensive networks within cities and between them. Egged and Dan are the largest bus operators, alongside several smaller companies.
  • Light Rail**: Jerusalem has an operational light rail system, and a more extensive light rail network is under construction in the Tel Aviv metropolitan area (Gush Dan), with the first line (Red Line) having opened in 2023.
  • Shared Taxis (Sherut)**: Sherut are shared taxis that typically follow major bus routes, offering a flexible alternative.
• Pipelines**: Israel has pipelines for transporting natural gas, oil, and refined products.

The Ministry of Transport and Road Safety oversees transportation policy and infrastructure development. Challenges include managing traffic congestion, improving public transport efficiency and accessibility (especially on Shabbat when many services are reduced or suspended), and ensuring the sustainability of the transport sector.

6.5. Tourism

Tourism is a significant industry in Israel, drawing visitors for a variety of reasons, including religious pilgrimage, historical and archaeological exploration, cultural experiences, and leisure.

• Main Tourist Attractions**:
  • Religious Sites**: Israel is central to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as well as the Baháʼí Faith.
    • Jerusalem**: The Old City of Jerusalem is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and contains paramount holy sites for all three Abrahamic faiths:
      • For Jews: The Western Wall (Kotel), the last remnant of the Second Temple, and the Temple Mount.
      • For Christians: The Church of the Holy Sepulchre (believed to be the site of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection), the Via Dolorosa, Mount of Olives, and Gethsemane.
      • For Muslims: The Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif), the third holiest site in Islam.
    • Galilee**: Sites important to Christianity, such as Nazareth (Church of the Annunciation), the Sea of Galilee (Capernaum, Tabgha, Mount of Beatitudes).
    • Bethlehem** and **Hebron** (in the West Bank, often part of tourist itineraries): Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron.
    • Baháʼí World Centre**: In Haifa and near Acre, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the spiritual and administrative heart of the Baháʼí Faith.
  • Historical and Archaeological Landmarks**: Israel has a wealth of archaeological sites spanning millennia.
    • Masada**: A desert fortress overlooking the Dead Sea, site of a famous Jewish last stand against the Romans. (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
    • Caesarea**: Ancient Roman port city with impressive ruins, including an amphitheater and aqueduct.
    • Akko (Acre)**: Historic walled port city with Crusader and Ottoman-era remains. (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
    • Beit She'an**: Extensive Roman and Byzantine ruins.
    • Megiddo**: An ancient tell with remains from numerous historical periods, associated with Armageddon. (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
  • Natural Landscapes and Leisure**:
    • Dead Sea**: Famous for its high salinity, allowing bathers to float easily, and its mineral-rich mud, used for therapeutic treatments.
    • Eilat**: A resort city on the Red Sea, popular for diving, snorkeling, and beaches.
    • Mediterranean Coast**: Beaches in Tel Aviv, Haifa, and other coastal cities.
    • Negev Desert**: Offers desert tourism, hiking, and unique geological formations like Makhtesh Ramon.
    • Nature Reserves and National Parks**: Israel has numerous protected areas showcasing its diverse flora and fauna.
  • Cultural Tourism**:
    • Tel Aviv**: Known for its Bauhaus architecture (UNESCO World Heritage Site), vibrant nightlife, arts scene, and beaches.
    • Museums**: Israel has many museums, including the Israel Museum in Jerusalem (housing the Dead Sea Scrolls), Yad Vashem (World Holocaust Remembrance Center), and the ANU Museum of the Jewish People in Tel Aviv.
    • Status of the Tourism Industry**:

    Tourism is a significant source of foreign currency and employment. In 2017, Israel saw a record 3.6 million tourist arrivals, contributing substantially to the economy. The industry is, however, sensitive to the regional security situation; periods of conflict or tension typically lead to a sharp decline in tourism. The COVID-19 pandemic also severely impacted the industry.
    
    The Israeli Ministry of Tourism works to promote Israel as a tourist destination and develop tourism infrastructure. Efforts are made to diversify tourism offerings beyond religious and historical sites to include ecotourism, culinary tourism, and adventure travel.

6.6. Real estate

Israel's real estate market has been characterized by significant price increases over the past two decades, making housing affordability a major social and economic issue.

• Trends in the Housing Market**:
  • Price Appreciation**: Housing prices in Israel, particularly in major urban centers like Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, have risen sharply since the early 2000s. Several factors contribute to this, including:
    • High demand due to population growth (including immigration) and a cultural preference for homeownership.
    • Limited supply of land, especially in central areas, partly due to state ownership of most land and bureaucratic hurdles in releasing land for development.
    • Low interest rates for a prolonged period, making mortgages more accessible.
    • Investment demand, both domestic and from foreign buyers (including diaspora Jews).
  • Affordability Crisis**: The rapid rise in prices has outpaced wage growth, leading to a housing affordability crisis for many Israelis, especially young families and those with lower incomes. The ratio of average apartment price to average annual salary is among the highest in the OECD.
  • Rental Market**: The rental market has also seen rising prices, particularly in high-demand areas.
  • Government Policies**: The Israeli government has implemented various policies to address the housing crisis, with mixed success. These include:
    • Increasing land supply for construction.
    • Incentivizing development in peripheral areas.
    • Lottery programs for discounted apartments for eligible first-time buyers (e.g., Mehir Lamishtaken - "Price for the Dweller").
    • Tax measures aimed at curbing investment purchases.
  • Regional Disparities**: There are significant regional disparities in housing prices, with the Tel Aviv metropolitan area being the most expensive, followed by Jerusalem and other central cities. Prices in the periphery (northern and southern regions) are generally lower but may lack employment opportunities and infrastructure.
  • Significant Development Projects**:

The housing market is a frequent topic of public debate and political attention in Israel. Factors such as interest rate changes, government planning policies, and broader economic conditions continue to influence its trajectory. Construction in Israeli settlements in the West Bank is also a component of Israel's overall building activity, though it is highly controversial internationally. As of 2022, there were about 2.7 million properties in Israel, with an annual increase of over 50,000. However, demand for housing has exceeded supply, with an estimated shortage of about 200,000 apartments as of 2021. This imbalance contributed to a 5.6% rise in housing prices by 2021. In that year, Israelis took out a record 116.10 B ILS in mortgages.

7.1. Major urban areas

Israel is a highly urbanized country, with the majority of its population residing in cities and towns. The country has several major metropolitan areas:

1. **Jerusalem**:

• Population**: Israel's largest single municipality, with approximately 951,100 residents (2021 estimate). The Jerusalem metropolitan area has a population of around 1,209,700 (2021 estimate).
• Status**: Proclaimed by Israel as its capital. This includes West Jerusalem and East Jerusalem, which was captured in 1967 and effectively annexed by Israel, a move not recognized by most of the international community.
• Economic Role**: Primarily a center for government, religious institutions, education, and tourism. It has a growing high-tech sector.
• Cultural Significance**: Holy to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Jerusalem is a city of immense historical and religious importance, attracting pilgrims and tourists from around the world. It is also a city with a complex demographic mix of Jews (secular, religious, Haredi) and Palestinian Arabs.

2. **Tel Aviv (officially Tel Aviv-Yafo)**:

• Population**: The second-largest city proper, with approximately 467,900 residents (2021 estimate). It is the heart of the Gush Dan (Tel Aviv metropolitan area), Israel's largest conurbation, with a population of around 4,156,900 (2021 estimate), which includes numerous surrounding cities like Ramat Gan, Holon, Bnei Brak, Petah Tikva, and Rishon LeZion.
• Economic Role**: Israel's undisputed economic, financial, commercial, and technological hub. Often referred to as "Silicon Wadi" due to its high concentration of tech companies and start-ups. Home to the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange.
• Cultural Significance**: Known for its vibrant cultural life, Bauhaus architecture (a UNESCO World Heritage site), beaches, nightlife, and liberal atmosphere. It is considered Israel's secular and cosmopolitan center.

3. **Haifa**:

• Population**: Israel's third-largest city, with approximately 282,700 residents (2021 estimate). The Haifa metropolitan area has a population of around 971,300 (2021 estimate).
• Economic Role**: A major seaport, industrial center (including oil refining and chemical industries), and a significant high-tech presence (Matam high-tech park).
• Cultural Significance**: Known for its mixed Jewish-Arab population and a history of coexistence. Home to the Baháʼí World Centre (a UNESCO World Heritage site), the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, and the University of Haifa. Its location on Mount Carmel offers scenic views.

4. **Beersheba**:

• Population**: The largest city in the Negev desert, considered the "Capital of the Negev," with a population of around 211,400 residents (2021 estimate). The Beersheba metropolitan area has about 395,400 residents (2021 estimate).
• Economic Role**: A growing center for technology, education (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev), and services for the southern region. It is a focus of government efforts to develop the Negev.
• Cultural Significance**: An ancient city with a rich history, now a modern urban center serving as a gateway to the desert.

Other significant urban areas include Ashdod (a major port city), Rishon LeZion, Petah Tikva, Netanya, and Bnei Brak (a predominantly Haredi Jewish city and one of the most densely populated in the world). Many Arab citizens of Israel reside in their own towns and villages (e.g., Nazareth, Umm al-Fahm, Rahat) as well as in mixed cities like Haifa, Jaffa (part of Tel Aviv-Yafo), Lod, Ramla, and Acre. The social dynamics within and between these urban areas reflect Israel's diverse and often complex society.

7.2. Language

Israel has a multilingual society, reflecting its diverse immigrant population and historical context.

• Hebrew (עִבְרִית_ʻIvrit^Hebrew)**:
  • Official Language**: Hebrew is the primary official language of the State of Israel.
  • Revival**: Modern Hebrew is a unique case of a language revival. Ancient Hebrew, primarily a liturgical and scholarly language for centuries, was revived as a spoken vernacular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, largely through the efforts of figures like Eliezer Ben-Yehuda. It became a symbol of Zionist aspirations and national identity.
  • Usage**: It is spoken by the majority of the population as a first or second language and is the main language of government, education, media, and daily life.
• Arabic (العربية_{al-ʿArabīyah}^Arabic)**:
  • Special Status**: Arabic has a "special status" in Israel, as defined by the 2018 Nation-State Law. Prior to this law, Arabic also had official language status alongside Hebrew.
  • Usage**: It is the native language of the Arab minority (approximately 21% of the population), which includes Muslims, Christians, and Druze. Arabic is used in Arab communities, schools, media, and in some official contexts. Road signs and official documents are often trilingual (Hebrew, Arabic, English). Many Jewish Israelis, particularly those of Mizrahi (Middle Eastern Jewish) origin, also speak or understand Arabic.
• English**:
  • Status**: While not an official language, English plays a significant role as a de facto second language for international communication, business, academia, and tourism. It was an official language during the British Mandate.
  • Usage**: English is widely taught in schools from an early age, and proficiency is common. Many university courses are offered in English, and it is prevalent in the high-tech sector and media.
• Immigrant Languages**: Due to large-scale immigration, numerous other languages are spoken by various communities in Israel. Significant immigrant languages include:
  • Russian**: Spoken by a large community of immigrants from the former Soviet Union who arrived mainly in the 1990s. Russian-language media and cultural institutions are well-established.
  • Amharic**: Spoken by the Ethiopian Jewish community (Beta Israel).
  • French**: Spoken by immigrants from France, North Africa, and other French-speaking countries.
  • Yiddish**: The historical language of Ashkenazi Jews, still spoken by some, particularly in Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) communities.
• Other languages include Spanish (Ladino and from Latin American immigrants), Romanian, Polish, Hungarian, etc.

The linguistic landscape of Israel reflects its history as a country of immigrants and its multicultural society. The state promotes Hebrew as a unifying national language through the ulpan system of intensive Hebrew language courses for new immigrants.

7.3. Religion

Israel is a country of profound religious significance for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and its population reflects this religious diversity. While founded as a Jewish state, Israel guarantees freedom of religion in its Declaration of Independence.

• Religious Makeup (approximate figures, as of 2022)**:
  • Judaism (73.5%)**: The majority of Israelis are Jewish. However, Jewish society in Israel is diverse in terms of religious observance:
    • Hiloni** (Secular Jews): Constitute the largest group (around 40-50%). They identify as Jewish culturally and nationally but are largely non-observant of religious law.
    • Masorti** (Traditional Jews): About 25-35% observe some Jewish traditions and laws but are not strictly Orthodox.
    • Dati Leumi** (Religious National/Modern Orthodox): Around 10-15%, they integrate strict observance of Jewish law with participation in modern society and often hold strong Zionist views.
    • Haredi** (Ultra-Orthodox Jews): Around 10-13%, they adhere to a very strict interpretation of Jewish law and often live in distinct communities with a focus on religious study. This group has a high birth rate and is growing proportionally.

    Movements like Reform and Conservative Judaism also have a presence, though smaller compared to Orthodoxy.

    • Islam (18.1%)**: Muslims are the largest religious minority, predominantly Sunni Muslims. Most are Arab Israelis, including Bedouin communities in the Negev and Circassians (a small Sunni Muslim non-Arab group). There are also Ahmadi Muslims, particularly in Haifa.
    • Christianity (1.9%)**: The Christian community is diverse:
      • Arab Christians**: The largest Christian group, belonging to various denominations, including Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Roman Catholic (Latin Rite), and Protestant churches.
    • Other Christians include immigrants (e.g., from the former Soviet Union, Ethiopia, Philippines), members of monastic orders, and Messianic Jews (Jews who believe in Jesus as the Messiah, generally considered a form of Christianity by mainstream Christian and Jewish groups).
    • Druze (1.6%)**: The Druze are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethno-religious group, primarily residing in Galilee and the Golan Heights. Their religion developed from Isma'ili Islam but is distinct. Druze men serve in the IDF.
    • Others (4.9%)**: This category includes people with no religious affiliation, members of smaller faiths like the Baháʼí Faith (whose world center is in Haifa and Acre), Buddhists, Hindus, Samaritans (an ancient ethno-religious group closely related to Judaism), and others not classified elsewhere.
    • Role of Religion in State and Society**:

7.4. Education

Education is highly valued in Israeli society and is considered crucial for national development and individual advancement. Israel has a high rate of tertiary education attainment compared to other OECD countries.

• Structure of the Education System**:
  • Compulsory Education**: Education is compulsory from age 3 (preschool) to age 18 (completion of 12th grade).
  • School Tiers**: The system is generally divided into:
    • Preschool (ages 3-5/6)
    • Primary School (grades 1-6)
    • Middle School (grades 7-9)
    • High School (grades 10-12)
  • Bagrut (Matriculation Exam)**: At the end of high school, students take the Bagrut examinations. Passing these exams in core subjects (Hebrew language and literature, English, mathematics, history, civics, and Bible studies or an equivalent for non-Jewish students) is generally required for admission to higher education.
  • School Streams**: The public education system is divided into several streams:
    • State Secular Schools (ממלכתי_Mamlachti^Hebrew)**: Attended by the majority of Jewish students.
    • State Religious Schools (ממלכתי דתי_{Mamlachti Dati}^Hebrew)**: Emphasize Jewish studies, tradition, and observance alongside the standard curriculum.
    • Arab Schools**: Instruction is in Arabic, catering to Arab, Druze, and Bedouin students, with Hebrew taught as a second language. These schools often face challenges related to funding, resources, and curriculum.
    • Independent Schools**: Mostly Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) schools (e.g., Chinuch Atzmai), which focus heavily on religious studies. There are also some private schools.
    • Higher Education**:
      • Universities**: Israel has several internationally recognized public universities, including the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Tel Aviv University, the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology (Haifa), Weizmann Institute of Science (Rehovot), Bar-Ilan University (Ramat Gan), Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (Beersheba), and the University of Haifa. Ariel University, located in the West Bank settlement of Ariel, also has university status, a controversial move.
      • Colleges**: There are numerous academic colleges offering bachelor's degrees and some master's degrees, as well as teacher training colleges.
      • Access**: Admission to universities is competitive, generally based on Bagrut scores and psychometric entrance exams. Higher education is largely subsidized by the state, but tuition fees are charged.
      • Educational Attainment and Challenges**:

The strong emphasis on education, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), is a key factor contributing to Israel's innovative economy.

8.1. Literature

Israeli literature is primarily written in Hebrew, a language that underwent a significant revival as a spoken vernacular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This literary tradition is relatively young but vibrant and internationally recognized.

• Foundational Figures**: Early modern Hebrew writers like Hayim Nahman Bialik and Shaul Tchernichovsky are considered national poets who laid the groundwork for contemporary Israeli literature.
• Nobel Laureate**: Shmuel Yosef Agnon was a co-recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1966 for his novels and short stories that depict the life of European Jewry and the early Yishuv in Palestine, often with a blend of realism and allegory.
• Prominent Authors**:
  • Poets**: Yehuda Amichai, Nathan Alterman, Leah Goldberg, and Rachel Bluwstein (Rachel the Poetess) are among Israel's most celebrated poets, whose works explore themes of love, war, identity, and the Israeli landscape.
  • Novelists**: Contemporary Israeli novelists have gained international acclaim. Key figures include Amos Oz (known for works like A Tale of Love and Darkness), A. B. Yehoshua, David Grossman (author of To the End of the Land), Meir Shalev, and younger writers like Etgar Keret (known for his surreal short stories) and Ayelet Gundar-Goshen.
• Themes**: Israeli literature often grapples with themes central to the Israeli experience, such as the Holocaust, immigration and acculturation, the Arab-Israeli conflict, military service, religious and secular tensions, individual and collective identity, and the complexities of life in a contested land.
• Arabic Literature in Israel**: Arab Israeli writers also contribute to the literary scene, often writing in Arabic and addressing their unique experiences. Authors like Emile Habibi (The Secret Life of Saeed the Pessoptimist) and Sayed Kashua (known for his satirical novels and columns) are notable.
• Publishing and Translation**: Israel has a thriving publishing industry. Many Israeli works are translated into numerous languages, contributing to a global readership. The National Library of Israel in Jerusalem serves as the repository for all printed matter published in Israel.

Israeli literature reflects the country's dynamic, often turbulent, social and political reality, offering diverse perspectives on its history and contemporary life.

8.2. Music and dance

Israeli music is highly eclectic, reflecting the multicultural backgrounds of its society. It encompasses a wide range of genres, from traditional folk music to contemporary pop, rock, classical, and Mizrahi styles. Dance also plays a significant role, both in traditional and modern forms.

• Music**:
  • Folk Music ("Songs of the Land of Israel" - שירי ארץ ישראל_{Shirei Eretz Yisrael}^Hebrew)**: These songs, often from the pre-state and early statehood periods, are characterized by pioneering themes, love for the land, and communal spirit. Composers like Naomi Shemer (Jerusalem of Gold) are iconic in this genre.
  • Mizrahi Music**: This genre blends musical traditions from Middle Eastern and North African Jewish communities (Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews) with pop, rock, and Mediterranean influences. Artists like Ofra Haza, Zohar Argov, Eyal Golan, and Sarit Hadad have popularized Mizrahi music, which is now a mainstream and highly popular style.
  • Israeli Pop and Rock**: Israel has a vibrant pop and rock scene, with artists achieving both local and international success. Influences range from Western rock and pop to local folk and Mizrahi sounds. Notable figures include Arik Einstein, Shlomo Artzi, Rita, Idan Raichel, and bands like Mashina and Teapacks.
  • Classical Music**: Israel has a strong classical music tradition. The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, founded in 1936 by Bronisław Huberman, is world-renowned and has been led by conductors like Zubin Mehta and Lahav Shani. Other orchestras and classical ensembles thrive, and Israeli classical musicians like Itzhak Perlman and Pinchas Zukerman have achieved international stardom.
  • Hasidic and Religious Music**: Various forms of Jewish religious music, including Hasidic niggunim (melodies) and contemporary religious pop, are popular, especially within religious communities.
  • Jazz and World Music**: Israel has a lively jazz scene and many musicians who fuse diverse global influences.
  • Eurovision Song Contest**: Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since 1973 and has won four times (1978, 1979, 1998, 2018), hosting the contest three times. It is a highly popular event in Israel.
  • Music Festivals**: Various music festivals are held, including the Red Sea Jazz Festival in Eilat and the Israel Festival.
  • Dance**:
    • Folk Dance**: Israeli folk dance, particularly the Hora, is a popular communal activity, often performed at celebrations and festivals. It draws on Eastern European, Yemenite, and other Jewish traditions, as well as local Arab (Debka) influences.
    • Contemporary and Ballet**: Israel has several acclaimed contemporary dance companies, such as the Batsheva Dance Company (known for the "Gaga" movement language developed by Ohad Naharin) and the Kibbutz Contemporary Dance Company. Classical ballet is also performed and taught.

    The diverse musical and dance landscape of Israel reflects its identity as a melting pot of cultures, continually evolving and incorporating new influences.

8.3. Cinema and theatre

Both cinema and theatre are vibrant and significant aspects of Israeli culture, often reflecting the country's social, political, and historical complexities.

• Cinema**:
  • Development**: The Israeli film industry has grown considerably since the state's establishment. Early films often focused on Zionist themes and nation-building.
  • International Recognition**: In recent decades, Israeli cinema has gained international acclaim, with numerous films winning awards at major festivals (Cannes, Berlin, Venice) and receiving Academy Award nominations for Best Foreign Language Film. Notable films that received Oscar nominations include Sallah Shabati (1964), The Policeman (1971), Beyond the Walls (1984), Beaufort (2007), Waltz with Bashir (2008, an animated documentary), Ajami (2009), Footnote (2011), and Foxtrot (2017).
  • Themes**: Israeli films often explore themes such as the Arab-Israeli conflict, military service and its psychological impact, Holocaust remembrance and its legacy, religious-secular tensions, family dynamics, immigration and identity, and social issues.
  • Filmmakers and Actors**: Prominent Israeli filmmakers include Joseph Cedar, Samuel Maoz, Ari Folman, Eran Riklis, and Nadav Lapid. Israeli actors like Gal Gadot, Natalie Portman (born in Jerusalem), Ayelet Zurer, and Lior Ashkenazi have achieved international success.
  • Palestinian Israeli Cinema**: Filmmakers from the Arab Israeli community also contribute significantly, often providing unique perspectives on their experiences within Israeli society and the broader conflict. Mohammed Bakri's Jenin, Jenin (2002) and Eran Riklis's The Syrian Bride (2004), which features prominent Arab Israeli actors, are examples of films that deal with these complex realities.
  • Theatre**:
    • Historical Roots**: Israeli theatre has roots in the Yiddish theatre traditions of Eastern Europe and early Hebrew theatre groups in Palestine.
    • National Theatre**: Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv, founded in Moscow in 1912 and re-established in Palestine in 1928 (permanently settling in Tel Aviv in 1931), is considered Israel's national theatre.
    • Major Theatres**: Other prominent theatre companies include the Cameri Theatre (Tel Aviv), Gesher Theatre (Jaffa, known for productions in Hebrew and Russian, founded by immigrants from the former Soviet Union), the Beit Lessin Theater (Tel Aviv), and the Haifa Theatre.
    • Repertoire**: Israeli theatres present a wide range of works, including classic Israeli plays, contemporary dramas, adaptations of international plays, musicals, and children's theatre. Original Israeli plays often reflect local concerns and societal debates.
    • Fringe Theatre**: There is also a lively fringe theatre scene, with independent productions and festivals like the Acco Festival of Alternative Israeli Theatre.

    Both film and theatre in Israel serve as important platforms for cultural expression, social commentary, and artistic innovation, engaging with the multifaceted identity of the country.

8.4. Visual arts

Israeli visual arts encompass a diverse range of styles and influences, reflecting the country's complex history, multicultural society, and engagement with international art movements.

• Early Developments (Pre-State and Early Statehood)**:
  • Bezalel School**: Founded in Jerusalem in 1906 by Boris Schatz, the Bezalel Academy played a crucial role in shaping early Israeli art. It initially focused on crafts and decorative arts, aiming to create a "Jewish national style" by blending European techniques with biblical and Zionist themes, as well as local Middle Eastern motifs.
  • Influence of European Modernism**: In the 1920s and 1930s, artists returning from studies in Europe, particularly Paris, introduced modernist influences like Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism. Artists like Reuven Rubin, Nahum Gutman, Pinchas Litvinovsky, and Isaac Frenkel Frenel depicted local landscapes, biblical scenes, and pioneering life with a modern sensibility. Anna Ticho and Leopold Krakauer were known for their drawings of Jerusalem and the Judean Hills.
  • École de Paris (School of Paris)**: Many Jewish artists from Eastern Europe who were part of the École de Paris, such as Marc Chagall, Chaïm Soutine, and Amedeo Modigliani, though not directly "Israeli" artists of that period, had an indirect influence on the artistic milieu and later on Israeli art through their exploration of Jewish identity and modern European styles.
  • Mid-20th Century and Beyond**:
    • Social Realism and National Themes**: In the early years of the state, themes of nation-building, immigration, war, and survival were prominent. Social realism influenced some artists depicting the collective efforts of the new society.
    • Abstract Art**: From the 1950s onwards, abstract art gained prominence, influenced by international movements like Abstract Expressionism. The "New Horizons" (Ofakim Hadashim) group, led by artists like Joseph Zaritsky, Yehezkel Streichman, and Avigdor Stematsky, championed lyrical abstraction.
    • Sculpture**: Israeli sculpture also evolved, with early influences from academic European styles and later explorations of modernism, abstraction, and land art. Yitzhak Danziger's "Nimrod" sculpture became an icon of Canaanite-inspired modernism.
    • Conceptual and Political Art**: From the 1970s, conceptual art, performance art, and politically engaged art became more prevalent, addressing the Arab-Israeli conflict, social inequalities, and critiques of Israeli society. Artists like Moshe Gershuni, Micha Ullman, and Dani Karavan (known for large-scale environmental sculptures) are notable from this period.
    • Contemporary Art**: The contemporary Israeli art scene is diverse and dynamic, with artists working in a wide range of media, including painting, sculpture, photography, video art, and installation. Many Israeli artists exhibit internationally and engage with global contemporary art discourses. Themes often continue to explore identity, memory, conflict, religion, and daily life in Israel. Prominent contemporary artists include Adi Nes, Sigalit Landau, Michal Rovner, and Yael Bartana.
    • Art Museums and Galleries**: Israel has a number of important art museums, including the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, the Israel Museum in Jerusalem (which has extensive collections of Israeli and international art), the Haifa Museum of Art, and numerous commercial galleries.

    The visual arts in Israel continue to evolve, reflecting the country's ongoing social, cultural, and political transformations.

8.5. Architecture

Israeli architecture is a blend of diverse styles, reflecting the country's history, waves of immigration, ideological movements, and responses to the local climate and landscape.

• Early 20th Century (Pre-State)**:
  • Ottoman and Local Arab Styles**: Existing traditional Arab architecture, with stone construction, courtyards, and domed roofs, influenced early building.
  • Eclectic Style**: In the early Yishuv period, particularly in new Jewish neighborhoods and cities like Tel Aviv, an eclectic style emerged. This combined European architectural elements (such as Art Nouveau and classicism) with Orientalist motifs, local materials (like kurkar sandstone), and adaptations to the Mediterranean climate (e.g., balconies, large windows). Architects like Yehuda Magidovitch were prominent in this style.
• Bauhaus and International Style (1930s-1940s)**:
  • The arrival of Jewish architects trained in Europe, many fleeing Nazism, brought the principles of the Modern Movement, particularly Bauhaus, to Palestine. This style emphasized functionalism, clean lines, white or light-colored stucco, flat roofs, and adaptation to the climate through features like pilotis (stilts), strip windows, and sun-shading balconies.
    • The White City of Tel Aviv**: Tel Aviv has the world's largest concentration of Bauhaus/International Style buildings (over 4,000), recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Architects like Arieh Sharon, Dov Karmi, Zeev Rechter, and Erich Mendelsohn (who designed several prominent buildings in Palestine) were key figures.
• Post-Independence (1950s-1970s)**:
  • Brutalism**: After Israel's establishment, there was a need for rapid construction of housing, public buildings, and infrastructure. Brutalism, with its use of exposed concrete (béton brut), monumental forms, and emphasis on functionality, became a dominant style. This was partly influenced by Le Corbusier and practical considerations. Examples can be found in university campuses, government buildings, and public housing projects.
  • Kibbutz Architecture**: The architecture of kibbutz (collective settlement) and moshav (cooperative settlement) communities often reflected their socialist ideologies, with communal dining halls, children's houses, and simple, functional residential units. The circular plan of Nahalal, designed by Richard Kauffmann, is a famous example of early kibbutz planning.
• Late 20th Century to Present**:
  • Postmodernism and Contemporary Styles**: From the 1980s onwards, Israeli architecture has become more diverse, incorporating postmodern elements, deconstructivism, and contemporary global trends. There is a greater emphasis on individualism, contextualism, sustainable design, and technological innovation.
  • Urban Planning**: Major cities like Tel Aviv and Jerusalem continue to evolve with new high-rise buildings, urban renewal projects, and infrastructure development. Challenges include balancing development with heritage preservation, addressing housing shortages, and creating sustainable urban environments.
  • Notable Contemporary Architects**: Israeli architects like Moshe Safdie (designer of Yad Vashem's Holocaust History Museum and Ben Gurion Airport Terminal 3) have achieved international renown.

  Israeli architecture reflects a search for identity, adapting international styles to local conditions and materials, and responding to the country's unique social and political context.

8.6. Media

The media landscape in Israel is diverse and dynamic, reflecting the country's democratic political system and its varied population. It includes print, broadcast, and online media, and plays a significant role in public discourse and political life.

• Newspapers**:
  • Hebrew Press**: Several major Hebrew-language daily newspapers cater to different political orientations:
    • Yedioth Ahronoth: A centrist, mass-circulation tabloid-style newspaper, historically one of the most widely read.
    • Maariv: Another long-standing centrist tabloid, though its circulation has declined.
    • Haaretz: A left-leaning, liberal broadsheet known for its in-depth analysis, investigative journalism, and often critical stance towards government policies. It also has an English edition.
    • Israel Hayom: A free, right-leaning daily newspaper, established in 2007 and funded by the late Sheldon Adelson. It has become one of the most widely circulated papers.
    • Religious and ultra-Orthodox communities also have their own newspapers (e.g., Hamodia, Yated Ne'eman).
  • Arabic Press**: Several Arabic-language newspapers serve the Arab Israeli community (e.g., Al-Ittihad, Kul al-Arab).
  • Other Languages**: Newspapers are also published in English (e.g., The Jerusalem Post, The Times of Israel (online)), Russian, French, and other languages.
  • Broadcasting (Television and Radio)**:
    • Public Broadcasting**: The Israeli Public Broadcasting Corporation (IPBC), known as Kan, was launched in 2017, replacing the older Israel Broadcasting Authority (IBA). Kan operates television channels (e.g., Kan 11) and radio stations, providing news, current affairs, and cultural programming in Hebrew, Arabic, and other languages.
    • Commercial Television**: Major commercial channels include Channel 12 (Keshet) and Channel 13 (Reshet), which are highly popular and offer news, entertainment, and reality shows.
    • Radio**: Numerous radio stations operate, including public stations (Kan Reshet Bet for news, Kan Gimel for Israeli music), regional stations, and stations catering to specific communities (e.g., Arabic-language radio, Russian-language radio). Army Radio (Galatz) is also a popular and influential station.
    • Cable and Satellite**: Multi-channel television services are provided by companies like HOT (cable) and Yes (satellite).
    • Online Media**:

• Press Freedom**:

Despite these challenges, the Israeli media remains a key component of its democratic society, characterized by a diversity of opinions and often robust debate.

8.7. Museums

Israel has a rich and diverse museum landscape, with the highest number of museums per capita in the world. These institutions cover a wide range of subjects, including art, archaeology, history, science, and specific cultural themes.

• Major National Museums**:
  • Israel Museum (Jerusalem)**: Israel's largest cultural institution and one of the world's leading art and archaeology museums. Its extensive collections include:
    • The **Shrine of the Book**, which houses the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest biblical manuscripts ever found.
    • A comprehensive collection of Judaica (Jewish ceremonial art and artifacts from around the world).
    • Archaeological finds from the Land of Israel spanning from prehistory to the Ottoman period.
    • Collections of Israeli art and international art (Impressionist, Post-Impressionist, modern, and contemporary).
    • The Billy Rose Art Garden, designed by Isamu Noguchi.
  • Yad Vashem (Jerusalem)**: The World Holocaust Remembrance Center. It is Israel's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust. It includes:
    • The Holocaust History Museum.
    • The Hall of Names, containing Pages of Testimony for millions of Holocaust victims.
    • The International School for Holocaust Studies.
    • Archives and libraries with extensive documentation on the Holocaust.
    • Memorials such as the Children's Memorial and the Garden of the Righteous Among the Nations.
  • ANU - Museum of the Jewish People (formerly Beth Hatefutsoth, Tel Aviv)**: Located on the campus of Tel Aviv University, this museum tells the story of the Jewish diaspora and Jewish communities around the world, celebrating their diverse cultures, traditions, and contributions throughout history. It utilizes interactive exhibits and multimedia presentations.
  • Other Notable Museums**:
    • Tel Aviv Museum of Art**: A leading museum of modern and contemporary art, with significant collections of Israeli and international art.
    • Design Museum Holon**: Designed by Ron Arad, it is Israel's first museum dedicated to design.
    • L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art (Jerusalem)**: Features collections of Islamic art and an important collection of antique clocks and watches.
    • Rockefeller Archeological Museum (East Jerusalem)**: Houses a major collection of antiquities discovered in Palestine during the Mandate period.
    • Haifa Museum of Art**: Focuses on Israeli and international contemporary art.
    • Eretz Israel Museum (Tel Aviv)**: A multidisciplinary museum focusing on the history and culture of the Land of Israel, with pavilions dedicated to archaeology, folklore, Judaica, crafts, and more.
    • Tower of David Museum of the History of Jerusalem**: Located in the ancient citadel near Jaffa Gate in the Old City of Jerusalem, it presents the history of Jerusalem.
    • Science Museums**: Such as the Bloomfield Science Museum in Jerusalem and the MadaTech (Israel National Museum of Science, Technology, and Space) in Haifa.
    • Specialized Museums**: Numerous smaller museums focus on specific topics, historical figures, local history (e.g., in kibbutzim and towns), or particular art forms.

    These museums play a vital role in preserving and presenting Israel's rich cultural, historical, and artistic heritage, as well as fostering education and dialogue.

8.8. Cuisine

Israeli cuisine is a vibrant and diverse culinary landscape that reflects the country's multicultural society, drawing influences from Jewish culinary traditions around the world, local Levantine ingredients, and broader Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cooking.

• Key Influences and Characteristics**:
  • Jewish Diaspora Traditions**:
    • Ashkenazi (Eastern and Central European Jewish)**: Contributed dishes like gefilte fish, kugel, cholent (Sabbath stew), chicken soup with matzah balls, and various pastries and breads (e.g., challah, bagels).
    • Sephardic (Iberian, Balkan, and North African Jewish)**: Brought dishes often featuring olive oil, vegetables, legumes, fish, and aromatic spices. Examples include various savory pastries (bourekas), fish preparations, and vegetable stews.
    • Mizrahi (Middle Eastern and Central Asian Jewish)**: Introduced flavors and techniques from countries like Iraq, Iran, Yemen, Morocco, and Bukhara. Dishes often include rice, lentils, chickpeas, lamb, and distinctive spice blends (e.g., kubbeh, jachnun, malawach, various tagines).
  • Levantine and Middle Eastern Cuisine**:
    • Local Arab Influence**: Israeli cuisine has heavily adopted and adapted dishes common throughout the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan). These include:
      • Hummus**: A ubiquitous dip or spread made from cooked, mashed chickpeas blended with tahini, lemon juice, and garlic.
      • Falafel**: Deep-fried balls or patties made from ground chickpeas or fava beans, often served in pita bread with salad and tahini.
      • Israeli salad (Salat Katzutz)**: A finely chopped salad of tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, and bell peppers, typically dressed with olive oil and lemon juice.
      • Shakshouka**: Eggs poached in a spicy tomato and pepper sauce.
      • Sabich**: A pita sandwich filled with fried eggplant, hard-boiled eggs, hummus, tahini, and salad.
      • Shawarma**: Meat (often lamb, chicken, or turkey) cooked on a vertical rotisserie, shaved, and served in pita or laffa bread.
      • Mezze**: A variety of small dishes served as appetizers, such as tahini, baba ghanoush, labneh, and various salads.
  • Mediterranean Diet**: Emphasis on fresh vegetables, fruits, olive oil, legumes, fish, and herbs, characteristic of the broader Mediterranean region.
  • Fresh Produce**: Israel's agriculture produces a wide variety of high-quality fruits and vegetables (e.g., tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, eggplants, citrus fruits, dates, pomegranates), which are central to the cuisine.
  • Dairy Products**: A strong dairy culture, with popular products including cottage cheese, labneh (strained yogurt), and various Israeli cheeses.
  • Kashrut (Jewish Dietary Laws)**: Many Israelis observe kashrut, which influences food preparation and availability. Kosher restaurants and food products are widespread, though non-kosher options are also common, especially in secular areas. Pork and shellfish are generally avoided in kosher cooking.
  • Street Food**: A vibrant street food scene, with falafel, shawarma, sabich, and bourekas being popular choices.
  • Fusion and Modern Cuisine**: Contemporary Israeli chefs are known for their innovative approach, blending traditional flavors with global culinary trends, creating a dynamic "New Israeli Cuisine."

  Popular dishes like falafel and hummus are often considered national dishes, though their origins are rooted in the broader Middle Eastern culinary heritage. Israeli cuisine is characterized by its freshness, an abundance of vegetables and salads, and a creative fusion of diverse culinary influences.

8.9. Sports

Sports play a significant role in Israeli culture, with association football (soccer) and basketball being the most popular spectator sports. Israel also participates in a wide range of other sports at both amateur and professional levels.

• Popular Sports**:
  • Football (Soccer)**:
    • The Israeli Premier League is the country's top professional football league.
    • Prominent clubs include Maccabi Tel Aviv F.C., Maccabi Haifa F.C., Hapoel Be'er Sheva F.C., and Beitar Jerusalem F.C..
    • The Israel national football team competes in UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) competitions. It qualified for the FIFA World Cup once, in 1970. Historically, Israel was a member of the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) and won the AFC Asian Cup in 1964. However, due to political boycotts by many Arab and Muslim nations, Israel moved to UEFA in the early 1990s.
  • Basketball**:
    • The Israeli Basketball Premier League is the top professional basketball league.
    • Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. is a historically dominant club and one of the most successful in European basketball, having won the EuroLeague championship multiple times. Hapoel Jerusalem B.C. is another prominent club.
    • The Israel national basketball team competes in FIBA Europe competitions.
    • Participation in International Competitions**:
      • Olympics**: Israel has participated in the Summer Olympics since 1952 and the Winter Olympics since 1994.
        • Israel won its first Olympic medal (silver) in 1992 (Barcelona) in judo.
        • Its first gold medal was won by Gal Fridman in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics (Athens).
        • Israeli athletes have also won medals in judo, gymnastics, sailing, and taekwondo. As of recent Olympics, Linoy Ashram (rhythmic gymnastics gold, Tokyo 2020) and Artem Dolgopyat (artistic gymnastics gold, Tokyo 2020) are notable medalists.
      • Paralympics**: Israel has a strong record in the Paralympic Games, having won over 100 gold medals. Israel hosted the 1968 Summer Paralympics in Tel Aviv.
      • Maccabiah Games**: An international Jewish and Israeli multi-sport event, styled after the Olympics, held in Israel every four years. It brings together Jewish athletes from around the world.
      • Other Sports**:
        • Judo**: A very successful sport in Israel, with numerous Olympic and World Championship medals.
        • Swimming**: Israeli swimmers compete internationally.
        • Tennis**: Players like Shahar Pe'er and Andy Ram and Jonathan Erlich (doubles) have achieved international success.
        • Krav Maga**: A self-defense and military hand-to-hand combat system developed in Israel, now taught worldwide.
        • Athletics, gymnastics, sailing, and chess** are also practiced and have produced notable Israeli athletes. Chess is particularly popular, with many Israeli grandmasters.

        Sports facilities are widespread, and physical education is part of the school curriculum. The Ministry of Culture and Sport oversees sports development in the country. Sporting events often evoke strong national pride.