Tunisia

3.1. Ancient Times

The earliest inhabitants of what is now Tunisia were the indigenous Berber peoples (also known as Amazigh). Farming methods, originating in the Fertile Crescent, reached the Nile Valley around 5000 BC and spread to the Maghreb by about 4000 BC, leading to the development of agricultural communities along the coastal plains.

Phoenicians, a Semitic people renowned for their maritime trade, began arriving on the coast of North Africa in the 12th century BC, establishing settlements such as Utica and Bizerte. The most famous of these settlements was Carthage, traditionally founded in 814 BC by Phoenician colonists from Tyre, led by the legendary Queen Dido. Carthage rapidly grew into a major commercial hub, bringing Phoenician culture, religion (including deities like Baal and Tanit), and technological innovations to the region. The descendants of these Phoenician settlers became known as the Punic people.

By the 7th century BC, Carthage had emerged as the most powerful city-state in the western Mediterranean. It established a vast mercantile empire, controlling trade routes and founding colonies across North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and southern Spain. Carthage's rise inevitably led to conflict with other Mediterranean powers, notably the Greek city-states of Sicily and, later, the expanding Roman Republic. The Punic Wars, a series of three major conflicts fought between Carthage and Rome from 264 BC to 146 BC, defined this era. During the Second Punic War (218-201 BC), the Carthaginian general Hannibal famously crossed the Alps and inflicted severe defeats on the Romans in Italy, nearly crippling Roman power. However, Rome ultimately prevailed. After functioning as a client state of Rome for 50 years following the Second Punic War, Carthage was utterly destroyed by the Romans in the Third Punic War (149-146 BC), ending its dominance.

3.2. Roman Rule

Following the defeat and destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, its territories were annexed by Rome and organized into the Roman province of Africa, with its capital at the rebuilt Carthage. Tunisia became a vital part of the Roman Empire for nearly 800 years. Under Roman rule, the region experienced significant development and prosperity. It was known as the "granary of the Empire" due to its extensive production of cereals, particularly wheat, much of which was exported to Rome. Olive oil also became a major export commodity by the 2nd century AD. Other agricultural products included beans, figs, and grapes. The Romans introduced advanced agricultural techniques, built extensive road networks, aqueducts, and public buildings, leaving a rich architectural legacy, including the impressive Amphitheatre of El Jem, one of the largest in the empire. Roman cities like Dougga, Thuburbo Majus, and Sufetula (Sbeitla) flourished.

Christianity spread throughout Roman North Africa from the 2nd century AD onwards, producing influential theologians such as Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine. The region also saw the rise of distinct Christian movements, such as Donatism, founded by the Berber bishop Donatus Magnus, which challenged the authority of the mainstream church.

Roman rule faced challenges in its later centuries. In 439 AD, the Germanic Vandals, under King Gaiseric, crossed from Spain and conquered Carthage, establishing the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa, which included Tunisia. The Vandals ruled for nearly a century. In 533-534 AD, the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), under Emperor Justinian I, launched a campaign led by General Belisarius to reconquer North Africa. The Vandals were defeated, and Tunisia became part of the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa, marking a period of Byzantine rule that lasted for about 165 years until the Arab conquest.

3.3. Medieval Period

The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb began in the mid-7th century. Arab Muslim armies, expanding from Egypt, reached Tunisia (then known as Ifriqiya) by 647 AD. Despite initial resistance from the Berbers and the Byzantine authorities, the region was gradually brought under Arab control. In 670 AD, Uqba ibn Nafi founded the city of Kairouan, which became a major center of Islamic learning and culture, as well as a strategic military base. The Mosque of Uqba (Great Mosque of Kairouan), constructed there, is one of the oldest and most prestigious mosques in the Islamic world. The Arab conquest was decisively completed by 698 AD with the fall of Carthage to Hassan ibn al-Nu'man.

The conquest initiated a profound socio-cultural transformation. Islam gradually replaced Christianity and indigenous Berber beliefs, and Arabic became the dominant language, although Berber languages continued to be spoken in many areas. The process of Arabization and Islamization was accelerated by the migration of Arab tribes, notably the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym in the 11th century. By the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had been largely Arabized.

Several Islamic dynasties ruled Ifriqiya:

• The Aghlabids (800-909 AD): An autonomous dynasty ruling on behalf of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, the Aghlabids made Kairouan their capital. They oversaw a period of prosperity, constructing irrigation systems that boosted agriculture, particularly olive production, and patronized arts and architecture. They also conquered Sicily.
• The Fatimids (909-973 AD in Ifriqiya): A Shi'a Ismaili dynasty that overthrew the Aghlabids. They established their capital at Mahdia before conquering Egypt in 969 and moving their capital to Cairo.
• The Zirids (973-1148 AD): Berber governors appointed by the Fatimids, the Zirids declared independence after the Fatimids moved to Egypt. Their rule saw initial flourishing but later declined due to internal strife and the devastating invasions of the Banu Hilal, which disrupted the economy and led to increased urbanization as rural areas suffered.
• The Normans of Sicily briefly conquered coastal cities in the 12th century.
• The Almohads (1160-1229 AD): A Berber Muslim empire originating in Morocco, the Almohads conquered Tunisia, ousting the Normans and Zirids. They ruled Ifriqiya through governors.
• The Hafsids (1229-1574 AD): Initially Almohad governors, the Hafsids declared independence and established Tunis as their capital. Their long rule was a period of significant cultural and commercial activity, with Tunis becoming a major Mediterranean port. They fostered trade with European states. The historian Ibn Khaldun served the Hafsid court for a time.

In the later Hafsid period, the dynasty weakened, and coastal cities faced threats from European powers, particularly Spain, which briefly seized some ports. The rise of the Ottoman Empire as a major Mediterranean power also began to impact the region.

3.4. Ottoman Rule

The Ottoman Empire extended its influence over North Africa in the 16th century. The first Ottoman conquest of Tunis occurred in 1534 under Hayreddin Barbarossa, but Spanish forces, aiding the Hafsids, recaptured the city in 1535. The Ottomans, however, launched a final reconquest in 1574 under Uluç Ali Reis, definitively ending Hafsid rule and incorporating Tunisia into the Ottoman Empire as the Eyalet of Tunis.

Initially, Tunis was governed by a Pasha appointed directly from Istanbul, supported by Janissary troops. However, local power dynamics soon led to a de facto autonomous province. By the early 17th century, military commanders known as Deys held effective power, often relegating the Pasha to a ceremonial role. Later, the office of the Bey (a high-ranking military and administrative official) became dominant.

In 1705, Husayn ibn Ali al-Turki established the Husainid Dynasty of Beys, which would rule Tunisia (nominally under Ottoman suzerainty) until the abolition of the monarchy in 1957. The Husainid Beys enjoyed considerable autonomy, managing internal affairs, conducting foreign policy to some extent, and maintaining their own armed forces. State business was often conducted in Turkish by the ruling elite. During this period, Tunis continued to be a center of corsair activity, preying on European shipping, although this declined significantly by the early 19th century due to increasing European naval power.

In the 19th century, Tunisian rulers like Ahmad Bey (1837-1855) and Muhammad III as-Sadiq Bey (1859-1882) became aware of Ottoman Tanzimat reforms and European modernization. They initiated reforms aimed at modernizing the state and economy. This included the abolition of slavery (1846), the adoption of the Fundamental Pact (Ahd al-Aman) guaranteeing rights to subjects, and the promulgation of the first written constitution in the Arab world in 1861, making Tunisia a constitutional monarchy. However, these reforms were costly and often met with internal resistance. Mounting foreign debt and financial mismanagement weakened the Beylical government. Plague epidemics in 1784-1785, 1796-1797, and 1818-1820 also ravaged the country. The growing financial instability provided a pretext for European intervention.

3.5. French Protectorate

In 1869, Tunisia declared bankruptcy, leading to the establishment of an international financial commission (dominated by France, Britain, and Italy) to oversee its finances. France, already established in neighboring Algeria, had growing ambitions in Tunisia. Using a Tunisian cross-border raid into Algeria as a pretext, French forces invaded Tunisia in April 1881 with an army of about 36,000. On May 12, 1881, Bey Muhammad III as-Sadiq was forced to sign the Treaty of Bardo, which officially established a French protectorate over Tunisia. The subsequent Conventions of La Marsa in 1883 further solidified French control, giving the French Resident-General authority over Tunisia's finances, foreign affairs, and military. The Bey remained the nominal ruler, but real power lay with the French administration.

French colonial rule brought significant changes to Tunisia. The French invested in infrastructure, including roads, railways, ports, and public utilities. They developed agriculture, particularly for export, and encouraged European settlement. The number of French colonists grew substantially, from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945. There was also a large Italian community, numbering around 105,000 in 1910. This colonization led to the appropriation of land from Tunisians and created social and economic disparities.

The French administration also impacted Tunisian society and culture. While some modern education and healthcare systems were introduced, they primarily benefited the European population. Nationalist sentiments began to rise in response to colonial rule. Early nationalist movements, such as the Young Tunisians in the early 20th century, advocated for reforms and greater Tunisian participation in government. The Destour (Constitution) Party, founded in 1920, and later its more assertive offshoot, the Neo-Destour Party, founded in 1934 by figures like Habib Bourguiba, became central to the struggle for independence.

During World War II, Tunisia became a major battleground. After the fall of France in 1940, the protectorate was administered by the collaborationist Vichy regime. In November 1942, following the Allied landings in Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch), German and Italian Axis forces occupied Tunisia. The Tunisia Campaign (November 1942 - May 1943) saw fierce fighting between Allied forces (American, British, and French) and Axis troops. The Allies eventually secured victory in May 1943, liberating Tunisia and marking the end of the war in North Africa. The experience of the war further fueled nationalist aspirations.

3.6. Struggle for Independence

The end of World War II marked an intensification of the Tunisian nationalist movement. The Neo-Destour party, led by Habib Bourguiba, emerged as the dominant force advocating for independence. Bourguiba, who had been imprisoned by the French multiple times, skillfully combined political negotiation with popular mobilization. The Tunisian General Labour Union (UGTT), a powerful trade union federation, also played a significant role in the independence struggle, organizing strikes and protests.

After the war, French authorities initially attempted to suppress the nationalist movement. Moncef Bey, who had shown sympathy towards nationalist aspirations and was popular among Tunisians, was deposed by the French in 1943, ostensibly for alleged Axis sympathies, though many believed it was due to his nationalist leanings. Bourguiba, after escaping French surveillance, spent time in Cairo in 1945, seeking support from the Arab League, and later traveled to the United States in 1946 and 1949 to plead the Tunisian case before the United Nations and U.S. officials.

The post-war international climate, with the decline of colonial empires and the rise of self-determination movements, provided a favorable context for Tunisian aspirations. However, France was reluctant to relinquish its control, particularly given its ongoing colonial war in Indochina and later in Algeria. The Tunisian struggle involved periods of armed resistance, particularly in the early 1950s, alongside political activism and diplomatic efforts.

In 1954, the French government, under Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France, facing mounting pressure in its colonies, agreed to grant Tunisia internal autonomy. Negotiations led to the Franco-Tunisian Conventions of June 1955. However, the Neo-Destour and many Tunisians demanded full independence. Continued negotiations and escalating tensions, coupled with the broader decolonization trend, finally led France to concede. On March 20, 1956, the Franco-Tunisian Protocol was signed, formally recognizing Tunisia's independence.

3.7. Post-Independence Era

Tunisia achieved independence from France on March 20, 1956, with Habib Bourguiba as Prime Minister of the newly formed Kingdom of Tunisia, with Muhammad VIII al-Amin Bey as King. However, the monarchy was short-lived. On July 25, 1957, the Constituent Assembly abolished the monarchy and declared Tunisia a republic, with Bourguiba becoming its first President.

Bourguiba's presidency (1957-1987) was characterized by state-building efforts, modernization, and secular policies. His government implemented significant social reforms, particularly concerning women's rights through the Code of Personal Status (1956), which outlawed polygamy, established judicial divorce, and raised the minimum age for marriage. Investment in education and healthcare was prioritized. Economically, Tunisia initially pursued socialist-oriented policies in the 1960s, including collectivization of agriculture, but these proved largely unsuccessful and were abandoned in favor of a more liberal, export-oriented economic model in the 1970s. Politically, Bourguiba's rule became increasingly authoritarian. The Neo Destour party (renamed the Socialist Destourian Party (PSD) in 1964) became the sole legal party, and political dissent was suppressed. In 1975, Bourguiba was declared President for Life.

In 1982, after being expelled from Beirut, the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was relocated to Tunis.

By the mid-1980s, Bourguiba's advanced age, failing health, and increasingly erratic governance led to political instability. On November 7, 1987, Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali orchestrated a bloodless coup d'état, removing Bourguiba from office on grounds of senility and incompetence, in accordance with Article 57 of the constitution.

Ben Ali's presidency (1987-2011) initially brought hopes for political liberalization. Some political prisoners were released, and a multi-party system was nominally introduced. However, his regime soon evolved into a highly authoritarian and repressive state. The Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), formerly the PSD, maintained a tight grip on power. Elections were consistently won by Ben Ali and the RCD with implausibly high majorities. Freedoms of speech, press, and assembly were severely curtailed, and political opponents, particularly Islamists and human rights activists, faced persecution. Corruption became widespread, with Ben Ali's family and close associates reportedly amassing vast wealth and controlling significant sectors of the economy. Despite the political repression, Tunisia experienced relative economic stability and social progress in some areas, often lauded by international financial institutions. However, underlying issues of unemployment, regional inequality, and lack of political freedom fueled growing discontent.

3.8. Jasmine Revolution and Aftermath

The Tunisian Revolution, also known as the Jasmine Revolution, began on December 17, 2010, when Mohamed Bouazizi, a 26-year-old street vendor in the town of Sidi Bouzid, set himself on fire in protest against police harassment, corruption, and the confiscation of his wares. His act of desperation resonated deeply with a populace frustrated by high unemployment, food inflation, widespread corruption, lack of freedom of speech and political freedoms, and poor living conditions under the 23-year rule of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.

Bouazizi's self-immolation (he died from his injuries on January 4, 2011) sparked widespread protests across Tunisia. Initially focused on socio-economic grievances, the demonstrations quickly evolved into demands for political reform and Ben Ali's resignation. Labor unions, particularly the UGTT, played a crucial role in organizing and supporting the protests. Despite a violent crackdown by security forces, the protests intensified.

On January 14, 2011, after weeks of escalating unrest, President Ben Ali fled the country to Saudi Arabia. Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi briefly assumed interim presidential powers before the Constitutional Council declared the presidency vacant and appointed Fouad Mebazaa, the speaker of parliament, as acting president.

The ousting of Ben Ali marked the beginning of a tumultuous but hopeful period of democratic transition. The revolution in Tunisia was the first in a series of popular uprisings across the Arab world, becoming the catalyst for the broader Arab Spring.

An interim government was formed, tasked with preparing for free and fair elections. On October 23, 2011, Tunisians voted for a Constituent Assembly to draft a new constitution. The moderate Islamist party, Ennahda, emerged as the largest party, forming a coalition government with two secular parties. Moncef Marzouki, a veteran human rights activist and secularist, was elected president by the assembly in December 2011.

The drafting of the new constitution was a lengthy and often contentious process, reflecting deep divisions between Islamist and secularist visions for the country. However, a spirit of compromise eventually prevailed, and a progressive new constitution was adopted in January 2014, guaranteeing fundamental rights and establishing a parliamentary republic. The Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet, a group of four civil society organizations (UGTT, the Tunisian Confederation of Industry, Trade and Handicrafts (UTICA), the Tunisian Human Rights League (LTDH), and the Tunisian Order of Lawyers), played a critical role in mediating the political crisis of 2013-2014 and facilitating the adoption of the constitution, for which they were awarded the 2015 Nobel Peace Prize.

Parliamentary and presidential elections were held in late 2014. Beji Caid Essebsi, a veteran politician and leader of the secular Nidaa Tounes party, was elected president. From 2014 to 2020, Tunisia was often cited as the sole democratic success story of the Arab Spring. However, the democratic transition faced significant challenges, including economic difficulties, social unrest, and terrorist attacks, such as the Bardo National Museum attack and the Sousse beach attack in 2015, which severely impacted the tourism industry.

4.1. Topography

Tunisia is situated on the Mediterranean coast of Northwest Africa, midway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Nile Delta. It lies between latitudes 30° and 38°N, and longitudes 7° and 12°E. The country is relatively small, covering an area of 63 K mile^{2 (163.61 K km2)}.

The dominant topographical feature in northern Tunisia is the eastern extension of the Atlas Mountains. This range, known locally as the Dorsal (or Tunisian Dorsal), runs across the country in a northeasterly direction from the Algerian border in the west to the Cape Bon peninsula in the east. The highest point in Tunisia, Jebel ech Chambi at 5.1 K ft ^{(1.54 K m)}, is located within this range. North of the Dorsal lies the Tell region, characterized by low, rolling hills, fertile plains, and river valleys, including the Medjerda Valley, which is Tunisia's most important agricultural area. The Khroumirie mountains in the northwestern corner of the Tell are densely forested and receive the highest rainfall, with elevations reaching up to 3.4 K ft ^{(1.05 K m)}.

East and south of the Dorsal, the landscape changes. The Sahel is a broad coastal plain along Tunisia's eastern Mediterranean coast, extending from Hammamet south to Sfax. This region is known for its extensive olive groves. Inland from the Sahel, between the Dorsal and a range of hills south of Gafsa, are the central steppes, characterized by semi-arid plains and plateaus.

The southern third of Tunisia is largely part of the Sahara Desert. This region includes vast expanses of sand dunes (ergs), rocky plateaus (hamadas), and salt flats. A series of large, shallow salt lakes, known as chotts or shatts (such as Chott el Djerid, Chott el Fejej, and Chott el Gharsa), lie in an east-west line at the northern edge of the Sahara, extending from the Gulf of Gabès into Algeria. Chott el Djerid is the largest of these and contains Tunisia's lowest point at 56 ft ^{(17 m)} below sea level. The island of Djerba is located in the Gulf of Gabès.

Tunisia has a coastline 0.7 K mile ^{(1.15 K km)} long. It includes Africa's northernmost point, Cape Angela.

4.2. Climate

Tunisia's climate varies significantly from north to south, primarily influenced by the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara Desert.

The northern part of the country, including the Tell region and the northern coastal areas, experiences a Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa). This is characterized by mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. Average annual rainfall in the north ranges from 16 in ^{(400 mm)} to 24 in ^{(600 mm)}, with some mountainous areas in the northwest receiving over 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)}. Snowfall can occur in the higher elevations during winter. Summer temperatures in the north can be high, often exceeding 86 °F ^{(30 °C)}.

The central region, encompassing the steppes and the Sahel, has a semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh and BSk). Rainfall is lower and less reliable than in the north, typically ranging from 7.9 in ^{(200 mm)} to 16 in ^{(400 mm)} annually. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild, though cooler than in the coastal north.

The southern part of Tunisia is dominated by an arid desert climate (Köppen BWh). This region receives very little rainfall, generally less than 5.9 in ^{(150 mm)} per year, and some areas may go years without significant precipitation. Summers are extremely hot and dry, with daytime temperatures frequently surpassing 104 °F ^{(40 °C)}. Winters are mild during the day but can be cold at night.

The Sirocco, a hot, dry, and often dusty wind originating from the Sahara, can affect all parts of Tunisia, particularly during the spring and summer, bringing骤然 high temperatures and reduced visibility. Coastal areas benefit from moderating sea breezes.

5.1. Government Structure

Under the 2022 Constitution, Tunisia is a presidential republic.
The President is the head of state and holds supreme executive authority. The President is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term and can be re-elected. The President appoints the Prime Minister and other members of the government, presides over the Council of Ministers, is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and has significant legislative powers, including the ability to issue decrees and dissolve parliament under certain conditions. The President also defines the general policies of the state.

The Government is headed by the Prime Minister, who is responsible for implementing the policies set by the President. The Prime Minister and ministers are accountable to the President.

The Parliament is bicameral, a change introduced by the 2022 Constitution, replacing the unicameral Assembly of the Representatives of the People that existed under the 2014 Constitution. The new parliament consists of:

• The Assembly of the Representatives of the People (ARP): This lower house is composed of members directly elected by the people.
• The National Council of Regions and Districts: This upper house is composed of members elected indirectly by regional and district councils. Its establishment aims to give greater representation to Tunisia's regions.

The 2022 Constitution declares Islam as the religion of the state, but also guarantees freedom of belief and conscience. The previous 2014 constitution had established a semi-presidential republic where power was more balanced between the president, prime minister, and parliament. The shift in 2021, initiated by President Kais Saied's invocation of emergency powers, suspension of the 2014 constitution, and subsequent referendum on the new constitution, has been viewed by many observers and opposition groups as a concentration of power in the executive and a setback for the democratic gains made after the 2011 revolution.

5.2. Political Parties

Tunisia has a multi-party system, with a large number of political parties emerging after the 2011 revolution. Before the revolution, the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) of President Ben Ali was the dominant party in what was effectively a single-party state.

Following the revolution, the moderate Islamist Ennahda Movement became a major political force, winning the largest share of seats in the 2011 Constituent Assembly elections and participating in several coalition governments. Secular parties, such as Nidaa Tounes (which won the 2014 elections but later fragmented), the Free Destourian Party (led by Abir Moussi, representing a neo-Bourguibist and anti-Islamist stance), and various leftist and liberal groups, also play significant roles.

However, the political landscape has been altered by President Saied's actions since 2021. Many established political parties, including Ennahda and the Free Destourian Party, opposed Saied's constitutional changes and boycotted the 2022 constitutional referendum and subsequent legislative elections held under new electoral laws. The new electoral system, which favors individual candidates over party lists, has further impacted the role and influence of traditional political parties. President Saied himself is officially an independent and has often expressed skepticism about the role of political parties. The current political climate is characterized by a fragmented opposition and a dominant executive.

5.3. Judiciary

The Tunisian judicial system is based on civil law, influenced by the French legal tradition. The 2022 Constitution affirms the judiciary as an independent authority, but critics have raised concerns about executive interference and the erosion of judicial independence, particularly after President Saied's dismissal of dozens of judges in 2022 and changes to the Supreme Judicial Council, the body responsible for overseeing the judiciary.

The court system includes courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the Court of Cassation (the highest court of appeal for civil and criminal matters). There are also administrative courts, headed by the High Administrative Court, which rule on disputes involving the state, and a Court of Audit. The 2014 constitution had established a Constitutional Court, but it was never fully operational. The 2022 constitution also provides for a Constitutional Court.

Reforming the judiciary to ensure its independence, efficiency, and accountability has been a key challenge in Tunisia's post-revolution period.

5.4. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Tunisia saw significant improvements after the 2011 revolution, with greater freedoms of speech, assembly, and the press, and the emergence of a vibrant civil society. The 2014 constitution enshrined many fundamental rights and freedoms. Tunisia established a Truth and Dignity Commission to address past human rights violations.

However, since President Saied's measures in July 2021, human rights organizations, both domestic and international, have expressed serious concerns about a deterioration in the human rights landscape. These concerns include:

• Freedom of Expression and Press Freedom**: There are reports of increased restrictions on media, harassment of journalists, and prosecutions for speech critical of the authorities, including under new decree-laws such as Decree Law 54 on cybercrime, which has been criticized for its vague language and potential to stifle dissent.
• Judicial Independence**: The dismissal of judges and changes to the Supreme Judicial Council have raised alarms about the independence of the judiciary and the right to a fair trial.
• Freedoms of Assembly and Association**: While protests still occur, there are concerns about restrictions and the use of force against demonstrators.
• Rights of Political Opponents and Activists**: Several prominent political figures, lawyers, and activists critical of President Saied have been arrested, detained, or prosecuted, leading to accusations of politically motivated charges.

Women's rights in Tunisia have historically been among the most progressive in the Arab world, largely due to the Code of Personal Status enacted in 1956. While these legal protections largely remain, concerns exist that broader democratic backsliding could impact the environment for all rights. The rights of minorities and vulnerable groups, including LGBTQ+ individuals (homosexuality remains criminalized), also continue to be a focus for human rights advocates.

9.1. Major Industries

The Tunisian economy is driven by several key industries that contribute to its GDP, employment, and export revenues. These industries reflect a mix of traditional sectors and more modern manufacturing and service activities.

9.1.1. Agriculture

Agriculture has historically been a cornerstone of the Tunisian economy. While its direct contribution to GDP has declined relative to other sectors, it remains a significant source of employment, particularly in rural areas. Key agricultural products include:

• Olives and Olive Oil**: Tunisia is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of olive oil. Olive cultivation is widespread, especially in the Sahel region and central parts of the country.
• Grains**: Wheat and barley are major cereal crops, primarily grown in the fertile northern regions like the Medjerda Valley. However, Tunisia is often a net importer of grains to meet domestic demand.
• Dates**: Dates are a significant export crop, with large plantations found in the southern oases, particularly in regions like Kebili and Tozeur. The Deglet Nour variety is highly prized.
• Citrus Fruits and Vegetables**: Oranges, lemons, tomatoes, peppers, and potatoes are widely cultivated, both for domestic consumption and export, especially to European markets.
• Fisheries**: With its long Mediterranean coastline, fishing is an important activity, contributing to local food supply and exports.

The agricultural sector faces challenges such as water scarcity, climate change impacts, and the need for modernization in farming practices and infrastructure.

9.1.4. Tourism

Tourism has traditionally been a vital sector for the Tunisian economy, contributing significantly to GDP, foreign currency earnings, and employment. Tunisia offers a variety of attractions:

• Coastal Resorts**: Sandy beaches and seaside resorts in cities like Hammamet, Sousse, Monastir, and the island of Djerba attract many European tourists.
• Historical and Cultural Sites**: Tunisia boasts numerous archaeological sites, including the ancient ruins of Carthage, Roman sites like Dougga and the El Jem amphitheater, and historic medinas (old cities) in Tunis, Kairouan, and Sousse, many of which are UNESCO World Heritage sites.
• Saharan Tourism**: The southern desert regions offer unique landscapes, oasis towns, and cultural experiences.

The tourism sector is sensitive to regional security and political stability. It was significantly impacted by terrorist attacks in 2015 and later by the COVID-19 pandemic. Efforts are ongoing to diversify tourism offerings and attract visitors from new markets.

9.2. Trade

International trade is a crucial component of the Tunisian economy. The country has an export-oriented economy, with strong trade links primarily with the European Union (EU).

Major Exports: Tunisia's main exports include:

• Textiles and apparel (clothing, footwear)
• Electrical machinery and components (e.g., automotive wiring, electronic parts)
• Olive oil
• Phosphates and chemical fertilizers
• Petroleum products (though production has declined)
• Dates and other agricultural products
• Seafood

Major Imports: Tunisia's main imports consist of:

• Textiles (raw materials for the apparel industry)
• Machinery and transport equipment
• Petroleum products (to meet domestic energy demand)
• Chemicals
• Food products (particularly grains)
• Iron and steel

Key Trading Partners:
The European Union is by far Tunisia's largest trading partner, accounting for the majority of both its exports and imports. Within the EU, the most significant partners are:

• France
• Italy
• Germany
• Spain

Other important trading partners include countries in the Maghreb region (such as Algeria and Libya, though trade can be affected by political stability), Turkey, and China.

Trade Agreements:
Tunisia has actively pursued trade liberalization and integration into the global economy. Key trade agreements include:

• EU Association Agreement**: Signed in 1995 and fully implemented for industrial goods by 2008, this agreement established a free trade area between Tunisia and the EU. Negotiations for a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA) with the EU have been ongoing, aiming to further liberalize trade in services and agriculture and align regulations.
• Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA)**: Tunisia is a member of GAFTA, which aims to reduce trade barriers among Arab League nations.
• Agadir Agreement**: A free trade agreement between Tunisia, Egypt, Jordan, and Morocco, aiming to boost intra-regional trade and facilitate integration with the EU.

Challenges for Tunisian trade include increasing international competition, the need to diversify export markets and products, and improving the competitiveness of domestic industries.

9.3. Water Supply and Sanitation

Tunisia has made significant progress in providing access to water supply and sanitation services, achieving some of the highest coverage rates in the Middle East and North Africa region. However, the country faces substantial challenges related to water scarcity, resource management, and ensuring equitable access, particularly in rural areas.

• Access to Water Supply:** As of 2011, access to safe drinking water was nearly universal in urban areas (approaching 100%) and around 90% in rural areas. The national water supply authority, SONEDE (Société Nationale d'Exploitation et de Distribution des Eaux), is responsible for water supply systems in urban areas and large rural centers. The DGGR (Direction Générale du Génie Rural) handles planning and supervision for smaller rural water supplies. Tunisia generally provides good quality drinking water throughout the year.

• Access to Sanitation:** Access to sanitation services has also improved significantly. ONAS (Office National de l'Assainissement) was established in 1974 to manage the sanitation sector and has been the main operator for wastewater treatment and pollution control since 1993.

• Water Resources and Challenges:** Tunisia is a water-scarce country. Its water resources are limited and unevenly distributed, with the northern regions receiving more rainfall than the arid central and southern parts. The country relies on surface water (rivers and dams) and groundwater (aquifers). Over-extraction of groundwater, particularly for irrigation, is a major concern, leading to aquifer depletion and saltwater intrusion in coastal areas.

Climate change is expected to exacerbate water scarcity through reduced rainfall and increased evaporation. Droughts are a recurrent problem.

• Water Management and Infrastructure:** The government has invested in water infrastructure, including dams, irrigation networks, and wastewater treatment plants. Efforts are underway to improve water use efficiency, particularly in agriculture, which is the largest consumer of water. Non-revenue water (water lost through leaks or unbilled consumption) was reported at 21% in 2012, which is relatively low for the region but still indicates room for improvement.

• Social Equity:** While overall access rates are high, disparities persist between urban and rural areas, and between different socio-economic groups. Ensuring affordable and reliable access to water and sanitation for all, particularly in underserved rural communities and marginalized areas, remains a key aspect of social equity in water management. The quality and continuity of services can also vary. Addressing these disparities and ensuring sustainable water resource management are critical for Tunisia's development.

10.1. Roads

The road network is extensive, connecting major cities and towns across the country. As of recent estimates, Tunisia has approximately 12 K mile ^{(19.23 K km)} of roads. This network includes:

• Motorways (Autoroutes)**: A system of modern highways connects key urban centers. Major motorways include:
  • A1: Tunis to Sfax (with extensions planned towards Libya).
  • A3: Tunis to Beja (with extensions towards the Algerian border).
  • A4: Tunis to Bizerte.
• National Roads (Routes Nationales - RN)**: These are primary roads connecting major regions.
• Regional and Local Roads**: These provide access to smaller towns and rural areas.

The condition of the road network varies, with motorways and major national roads generally being in good condition. Ongoing efforts focus on expanding and upgrading the network to improve connectivity and reduce traffic congestion, particularly around major urban areas like Tunis.

10.2. Railways

The Tunisian railway system is operated by the state-owned company SNCFT (Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Tunisiens). The network has a total length of approximately 1.3 K mile ^{(2.14 K km)}. It primarily serves the northern and coastal regions of the country.

• Passenger Services**: SNCFT operates passenger trains connecting major cities like Tunis, Sfax, Sousse, Monastir, Gabès, and Bizerte. There are different classes of service, including intercity trains.
• Freight Services**: Railways also play a role in transporting goods, particularly phosphates from the mining regions in Gafsa to coastal ports for export.
• Gauge**: The network uses both standard gauge (0.1 K in ^{(1.44 K mm)}) and metre gauge (0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)}).
• Urban Rail**: The Tunis metropolitan area is served by a light rail network known as the Métro léger de Tunis, managed by Transtu (Société des transports de Tunis). This network provides crucial public transport within the capital and its suburbs. There is also the TGM (Tunis-Goulette-Marsa) suburban rail line.

Efforts are underway to modernize the railway infrastructure, including track upgrades, new rolling stock, and potential expansion of services.

10.3. Aviation

Tunisia has several international and domestic airports, facilitating air travel.

• Major International Airports**:
  • Tunis-Carthage International Airport (TUN): Located near the capital, Tunis, it is the country's main international gateway.
  • Monastir Habib Bourguiba International Airport (MIR): Serves the coastal tourist resorts around Monastir and Sousse.
  • Djerba-Zarzis International Airport (DJE): Serves the island of Djerba, a major tourist destination.
  • Enfidha-Hammamet International Airport (NBE): Opened in 2009, it serves the tourist resorts of Hammamet and Port El Kantaoui, as well as inland cities like Kairouan.
  • Sfax-Thyna International Airport (SFA): Serves the city of Sfax and the surrounding region.
• National Airline**: Tunisair is the flag carrier of Tunisia, operating flights to destinations in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
• Other Airlines**: Several other airlines operate in Tunisia, including private carriers like Nouvelair and Tunisair Express (formerly Sevenair, then Tunisavia), which handles domestic and some regional flights.
• Air Routes**: Tunisia is well-connected by air to major European cities, particularly in France, Italy, and Germany, reflecting strong tourism and business links. There are also connections to other North African countries, the Middle East, and some sub-Saharan African destinations.

The aviation sector is vital for Tunisia's tourism industry and international trade.

11.1. Demographics

As of 2021, Tunisia had an estimated population of around 11.8 million inhabitants. The country has experienced a demographic transition, with declining fertility rates and a slowing population growth rate (just over 1% per annum in recent years). This has been attributed in part to a successful government-supported family planning program initiated in the post-independence era.

Key demographic features include:

• Age Structure**: Tunisia has a relatively young population, though the proportion of elderly people is gradually increasing.
• Urbanization**: A significant majority of the population lives in urban areas, particularly along the coastal regions and in the capital, Tunis, and its metropolitan area. The urbanization rate has been steadily increasing.
• Population Density**: Population density is highest in the coastal plains and the Tunis region, and sparsest in the southern desert areas.
• Migration**: Tunisia is a country of emigration, with a significant diaspora, particularly in Europe (mainly France and Italy). It is also a transit country and, to a lesser extent, a destination for migrants from sub-Saharan Africa.

The government has generally focused on policies aimed at managing population growth and improving human development indicators.

11.2. Ethnic Groups

Tunisian society is predominantly Arab and Berber (Amazigh) in origin. Over centuries of intermingling and cultural assimilation, particularly following the Arab conquests in the 7th century, a largely homogenous Arab-Berber identity has emerged. The vast majority of Tunisians (around 98%) identify as Arab.

• Berbers (Amazigh)**: While most of the population has Berber ancestry, distinct Berber-speaking communities are smaller today. They are primarily found in certain regions such as the Dahar mountains in the southeast (e.g., around Matmata), the island of Djerba, and parts of the Khroumirie region in the northwest. Efforts to revive and promote Berber language and culture have gained some traction since the 2011 revolution.
• Black Tunisians**: Constituting an estimated 10-15% of the population, Black Tunisians are largely descendants of sub-Saharan Africans who were brought to Tunisia through the trans-Saharan slave trade (abolished in Tunisia in 1846) or through other historical migrations. They are integrated into Tunisian society but have faced issues of racial discrimination, which has become a more openly discussed topic in recent years with anti-racism laws being passed.
• Other Groups**: Historically, Tunisia has been home to various other groups. The Ottoman period brought a Turkish elite whose descendants have largely assimilated. European settlers, mainly French and Italians, were numerous during the colonial era but mostly left after independence. A small but ancient Jewish community continues to exist, primarily in Tunis and Djerba.

The official census does not typically collect data based on ethnicity in a way that distinguishes finely between Arab and Berber identities, reflecting the largely Arabized nature of the country.

11.3. Languages

The linguistic landscape of Tunisia is characterized by the predominance of Arabic and the significant role of French.

• Arabic**: Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the official language of Tunisia, used in government, formal education, media, and official documents.
• Tunisian Arabic (Derja or Tounsi)**: This is the vernacular dialect spoken by the vast majority of Tunisians in daily life. It is a Maghrebi Arabic dialect, containing Berber substratum influences and loanwords from French, Italian, Turkish, and Spanish. While primarily a spoken language, its use in informal written contexts (e.g., social media) and some artistic expressions (music, theatre) is increasing.
• French**: Despite having no official status, French plays a major role in Tunisian society. It is widely used in higher education (especially in science and technology fields), business, administration, and the media. A large segment of the population is bilingual in Arabic and French. Many official signs and documents are in both Arabic and French.
• Berber Languages (Tamazight)**: Small communities, particularly in the south (e.g., Djerba, Matmata) and some northwestern areas, continue to speak Berber languages, collectively known as Shelha or Jebbali. These include Jerba Berber and Matmata Berber. The Sened language is considered extinct. There has been a growing movement to preserve and promote Berber languages and culture since 2011.
• Other Languages**: English is increasingly taught as a foreign language in schools and is gaining importance in business and tourism. Italian is understood by some, particularly older generations in areas with historical Italian communities.

11.4. Religion

The religious landscape of Tunisia is overwhelmingly Muslim, with small minorities of Christians and Jews.

• Islam**: Islam is the official state religion, as stipulated in the constitution. An estimated 98-99% of the population is Muslim, predominantly adhering to the Sunni branch and the Maliki school of jurisprudence. Mosques are recognizable by their square minarets, typical of the Maliki tradition in the Maghreb. The Hanafi school, introduced during Ottoman rule, also has a presence, particularly among families of Turkish descent, whose mosques traditionally feature octagonal minarets. Non-denominational Muslims and followers of Ibadism (mainly among some Berber communities) constitute smaller Muslim groups.

Surveys have indicated varying levels of religiosity. An Arab Barometer survey in 2018 suggested a significant portion of Tunisians, especially youth, identified as non-religious, making Tunisia one of the least religious countries in the Arab world at that time. However, more recent surveys (e.g., 2021-2022 Arab Barometer) indicate a potential reversal of this trend, with a majority still identifying as religious or somewhat religious.

• Christianity**: Christians form a small minority, estimated at over 35,000. The community is mainly composed of Catholics (around 22,000), largely expatriates and some Tunisian citizens, and a smaller number of Protestants and other denominations. Historically, Berber Christian communities existed in some regions until the 15th century, and a community in Tozeur persisted until the 18th century.
• Judaism**: Judaism in Tunisia has ancient roots, dating back over 2,000 years. The Jewish population was estimated at around 105,000 in 1948 but has significantly decreased since independence, with estimates in recent years ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 individuals. The majority reside in Tunis and on the island of Djerba, home to the historic El Ghriba synagogue, one of the oldest in the world and a site of annual pilgrimage. Smaller communities exist in Sfax and Hammam-Lif.
• Baháʼí Faith**: A small Baháʼí community also exists in Tunisia.

The Tunisian constitution guarantees freedom of belief and the free practice of religion, provided it does not disturb public order. Tunisia has a largely secular culture in public life, although Islam plays an important role in society and national identity.

11.5. Education

Education has been a high priority for the Tunisian government since independence, receiving a significant portion of the national budget (around 6% of GNP).

• Structure**: The education system comprises primary, secondary, and higher education. Basic education, from age 6 to 16, has been compulsory since 1991.
  • Primary education lasts for six years.
  • Lower secondary education (collège) lasts for three years.
  • Upper secondary education (lycée) lasts for four years, culminating in the Baccalaureate examination, which is the main qualification for entry into higher education.

  

  • Literacy**: Tunisia has achieved significant progress in literacy. The adult literacy rate was 78% in 2008, and for youth (15-24 years old), it was 97.3%.
  • Languages in Education**: Children typically learn Tunisian Arabic at home. In school, Modern Standard Arabic is the primary language of instruction for many subjects. French is introduced early (around age 8) and is used as the language of instruction for science, mathematics, and technology subjects in secondary and higher education. English is typically introduced around age 11 and is gaining importance.
  • Higher Education**: Tunisia has a network of public universities, higher institutes of technological studies (ISETs), and private higher education institutions. Major public universities include Tunis University, Tunis El Manar University, University of Carthage, and University of Sousse. The number of students in higher education has expanded rapidly in recent decades. The gross enrollment rate at the tertiary level was 31% in 2007.
  • Quality and Challenges**: While Tunisia has made strides in access to education, challenges remain regarding the quality of education, relevance to the job market, and reducing dropout rates. Reforms often focus on improving curricula, teacher training, and vocational education. In the 2008-09 Global Competitiveness Report, Tunisia ranked relatively well in the quality of its higher education system (17th) and primary education (21st).

  Notable historical institutions include Sadiki College (founded 1875) in Tunis and Ez-Zitouna University (with roots in the 8th-century mosque-university).

11.6. Health

Healthcare in Tunisia is provided through a mixed system of public and private sector services. The government has historically invested significantly in public health, leading to improvements in key health indicators.

• Health Indicators**:
  • Life expectancy at birth was approximately 75.73 years in 2016 (73.72 for males, 77.78 for females).
  • Infant mortality rate was 11.7 per 1,000 live births in 2016.

  These indicators are generally favorable compared to many other countries in the region.

  • Healthcare System**:
    • Public Sector**: The Ministry of Health oversees a network of public hospitals, primary healthcare centers, and specialized clinics. Public healthcare is heavily subsidized and aims to provide universal access.
    • Private Sector**: The private healthcare sector has grown, offering alternative and often more specialized services, particularly in urban areas.
  • Healthcare Professionals**: In 2009, there were approximately 12.02 physicians and 33.12 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.
  • Health Expenditure**: In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for about 3.37% of Tunisia's GDP.
  • Prevalent Health Issues**: Like many developing countries, Tunisia faces a double burden of disease, with an increasing prevalence of non-communicable diseases (such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer) alongside ongoing challenges with communicable diseases, though many of the latter are well-controlled.
  • Health Policies**: Government health policies focus on strengthening primary healthcare, improving the quality of hospital services, controlling disease outbreaks, and promoting preventative health measures.

  Challenges in the health sector include ensuring equitable access to quality care, particularly in rural and underserved regions, managing the rising costs of healthcare, and addressing the growing burden of chronic diseases.

11.7. Public Safety

The general public safety situation in Tunisia has varied, particularly since the 2011 revolution. While day-to-day crime rates in many areas are moderate, the country has faced periods of increased security concerns.

• Law Enforcement**: The primary law enforcement agencies are the National Police and the National Guard, both falling under the Ministry of Interior. Their responsibilities include maintaining public order, combating crime, and ensuring internal security.
• Crime**: Common crimes include petty theft, pickpocketing, and residential burglaries, particularly in urban areas and tourist centers. Violent crime is less common but does occur. There have been reports of increased crime rates in the post-revolution period, partly attributed to socio-economic challenges and transitions in the security apparatus.
• Terrorism**: Tunisia experienced significant terrorist attacks in 2015 (Bardo Museum and Sousse beach attacks) and has since strengthened its counter-terrorism efforts, often in cooperation with international partners. While the direct threat from large-scale attacks has diminished, concerns about extremist groups and isolated incidents persist, particularly in border regions and remote areas. Security forces conduct regular counter-terrorism operations.
• Public Order**: Demonstrations and protests are relatively common, particularly concerning socio-economic issues or political developments. While mostly peaceful, some have led to clashes with security forces.
• Road Safety**: Road traffic accidents are a significant public safety concern, with relatively high fatality rates.

The government has prioritized enhancing security, particularly in response to terrorism threats and managing public order. Tourists are generally advised to take standard precautions against crime. The overall security situation can be influenced by political and economic stability.

12.1. Visual Arts

Tunisian visual arts have a long history, from the intricate mosaics of the Roman and Byzantine periods, many of which are exceptionally preserved in sites like Bardo National Museum, to traditional Islamic arts such as calligraphy, ceramics, and carpet weaving.

The birth of contemporary Tunisian painting is strongly associated with the School of Tunis (École de Tunis), founded in 1949. This group of artists, including both French and Tunisian individuals of diverse religious backgrounds (Muslim, Christian, and Jewish) like Pierre Boucherle, Yahia Turki, Abdelaziz Gorgi, Moses Levy, Ammar Farhat, and Jules Lellouche, aimed to develop a distinctly Tunisian artistic identity by incorporating native themes and rejecting the influence of Orientalist colonial painting. Some members drew inspiration from Arab-Muslim aesthetic sources like Islamic miniatures and architecture.

After independence in 1956, the art movement was supported by the state as part of nation-building efforts. The Ministry of Culture played a role in promoting artists such as Hatem El Mekki and Zoubeir Turki. Expressionist works by artists like Amara Debbache and Jellal Ben Abdallah gained recognition, while abstract art influenced painters like Edgar Naccache, Nello Levy, and Hedi Turki. Sadok Gmech drew from national heritage, while Moncef Ben Amor explored fantasy. Youssef Rekik revived the technique of painting on glass, and Nja Mahdaoui became renowned for his calligraphy with mystical dimensions.

Tunisia currently has numerous art galleries, such as Gallery Yahia in Tunis and Carthage Essaadi gallery, exhibiting works by both Tunisian and international artists. Contemporary Tunisian art continues to evolve, addressing modern themes and experimenting with new forms.

12.2. Literature

Tunisian literature exists in both Arabic and French, reflecting the country's linguistic and cultural history.

• Arabic Literature**: Arabic literature in Tunisia dates back to the 7th century with the arrival of Arab civilization. Historically, Kairouan and Tunis (particularly the Zitouna Mosque-University) were important centers of learning and literary production. Classical figures include theologians, jurists, and poets. Modern Arabic literature in Tunisia encompasses poetry, novels, short stories, and drama. Writers like Khraief Bashir, who published notable books in the 1930s with dialogue in Tunisian dialect, and Mahmoud Messadi are significant figures. Ali Douagi was a prolific writer of radio stories, poems, and plays. Tunisian poetry often features innovation, with poets like Aboul-Qacem Echebbi being a national icon.
• French Literature**: French-language literature emerged during the French protectorate and has continued to flourish post-independence. It is often characterized by a critical approach and themes of identity, exile, memory, and social commentary. Prominent Tunisian writers in French include Albert Memmi, Abdelwahab Meddeb, Bakri Tahar, Mustapha Tlili, Hélé Béji, and Fawzi Mellah. Despite early pessimistic predictions, Tunisian Francophone literature remains vibrant.

The national bibliography listed 1,249 non-school books published in Tunisia in 2002, with 885 titles in Arabic. This figure increased to 1,500 in 2006 and 1,700 in 2007. Children's literature also forms a significant portion of publications.

12.3. Music

Tunisian music is diverse, blending indigenous Berber sounds, Arab-Andalusian traditions, Ottoman influences, and contemporary Western and Middle Eastern styles.

• Malouf**: This is the predominant genre of classical Arab-Andalusian music in Tunisia. It has roots in medieval Iberia and was further developed in North Africa. Malouf orchestras typically include instruments like the oud, qanun, violin, ney, and darbuka. The Rachidia Institute, founded in 1934 in Tunis, played a crucial role in preserving and reviving Malouf and traditional Tunisian music.
• Folk Music**: Berber folk music, with its distinct rhythms and melodies, is found in rural areas. Other folk traditions include Bedouin music and various regional styles associated with celebrations and rituals.
• Religious Music**: Liturgical music associated with Sufi brotherhoods (turuq) and Islamic chanting (inshad) are important parts of the religious soundscape.
• Contemporary Popular Music**: Tunisian popular music incorporates elements of traditional music with Western pop, rock, jazz, and Arabic pop music from the Middle East. Radio Tunis, established in 1938, helped promote Tunisian musicians.
• Notable Musicians**: Prominent Tunisian musicians who have gained national and international recognition include Saber Rebaï (pop), Dhafer Youssef (jazz, world music), Belgacem Bouguenna (folk), Sonia M'barek (Malouf, world music), Latifa (pop), Salah El Mahdi (classical, Malouf composer), Anouar Brahem (oud player, jazz/world music), Emel Mathlouthi (protest singer, world music), and Lotfi Bouchnak (Malouf, Arabic classical).

Music festivals, such as the International Festival of Carthage, feature both Tunisian and international artists.

12.4. Cinema

Tunisian cinema has a history dating back to the early 20th century, with the first Tunisian-produced film appearing in the 1920s. After independence, the government supported the development of a national film industry.

• Key Themes and Styles**: Tunisian films often explore social issues, cultural identity, history, and political themes. They range from realist dramas to more experimental works.
• Notable Filmmakers and Films**:
  • Férid Boughedir is known for films like Halfaouine: Boy of the Terraces (1990) and A Summer in La Goulette (1996).
  • Moufida Tlatli gained international acclaim for Silences of the Palace (1994), which explored the lives of women in a traditional setting.
  • Other important directors include Nouri Bouzid, Selma Baccar (a pioneering female filmmaker), and more contemporary figures like Leyla Bouzid and Kaouther Ben Hania.
• Film Festivals**: The Carthage Film Festival (Journées Cinématographiques de Carthage - JCC), established in 1966, is one of the oldest and most prestigious film festivals in Africa and the Arab world. It focuses on films from Africa and the Middle East, with the top prize being the Tanit d'Or (Golden Tanit).
• International Productions**: Tunisia's diverse landscapes and historical sites have also made it a popular location for international film productions, including several films in the Star Wars franchise (shot in southern Tunisia) and Raiders of the Lost Ark.

The Tunisian film industry continues to produce critically acclaimed films that are showcased at international festivals.

12.5. Cuisine

Tunisian cuisine is a blend of Mediterranean and Berber culinary traditions, with influences from Punic, Roman, Arab, Ottoman, Jewish, and French cooking. It is known for its flavorful and often spicy dishes.

• Key Ingredients**: Common ingredients include wheat (for bread and couscous), olives and olive oil (a staple), tomatoes, peppers, onions, garlic, chickpeas, fava beans, lamb, chicken, and a variety of seafood from the Mediterranean coast.
• Harissa**: A signature Tunisian condiment, harissa is a spicy paste made from red chili peppers, garlic, olive oil, and spices like cumin and coriander. It is used to flavor many dishes.
• Popular Dishes**:
  • Couscous**: Considered the national dish, Tunisian couscous is typically made with semolina, vegetables (like carrots, turnips, pumpkin), chickpeas, and a choice of meat (lamb, chicken) or fish, often served with a spicy broth.
  • Brik**: A thin pastry (malsouka dough) filled with egg, tuna, capers, and parsley, then deep-fried.
  • Tagine (Tajine)**: Unlike Moroccan tagine (a stew), Tunisian tagine is more akin to a baked frittata or quiche, made with eggs, meat (chicken or lamb), cheese, vegetables, and spices.
  • Lablabi**: A hearty chickpea soup, often served with pieces of stale bread, harissa, cumin, capers, olives, and sometimes a poached egg.
  • Salade Méchouia**: A grilled salad made with tomatoes, peppers, onions, and garlic, seasoned with olive oil, lemon juice, and spices.
  • Merguez**: Spicy lamb or beef sausages.
  • Shakshouka**: Eggs poached in a spicy tomato and pepper sauce.
• Sweets and Desserts**: Tunisian sweets often feature honey, dates, almonds, and semolina. Examples include makroudh (date-filled semolina pastries), baklava, and various types of nougat.
• Beverages**: Mint tea is a popular beverage. Tunisia also produces wine.

Regional specialties exist, with coastal areas known for seafood dishes and southern regions for heartier, spicier fare. Tunisian cuisine emphasizes fresh ingredients and aromatic spices.

12.6. Sports

Sport in Tunisia is popular and diverse, with football (soccer) being the most followed sport.

• Football (Soccer)**: The Tunisia national football team, nicknamed "The Eagles of Carthage," has achieved significant success. They won the African Cup of Nations in 2004 (which they hosted) and have qualified for the FIFA World Cup multiple times (1978, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2018, 2022). The top domestic league is the Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1. Major clubs include Espérance Sportive de Tunis, Étoile Sportive du Sahel, Club Africain, and CS Sfaxien.
• Handball**: Handball is also very popular. The Tunisian men's national handball team is one of the strongest in Africa, having won the African Men's Handball Championship multiple times (10 titles as of 2018, including the 2018 edition by defeating Egypt). They regularly participate in the World Men's Handball Championship, achieving a fourth-place finish in 2005 when Tunisia hosted the tournament. Wissem Hmam is a renowned Tunisian handball player.
• Basketball**: The Tunisian men's national basketball team has emerged as a competitive side in Africa, winning the AfroBasket championship in 2011 and 2021.
• Volleyball**: Both men's and women's national volleyball teams compete at the African level.
• Individual Sports**:
  • Athletics**: Mohammed Gammoudi is a celebrated Tunisian athlete who won four Olympic medals in long-distance running, including a gold in the 5000m at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics.
  • Swimming**: Oussama Mellouli is a highly successful swimmer, winning Olympic gold medals in the 1500m freestyle (2008 Beijing) and the 10km marathon swim (2012 London), as well as a bronze in the 1500m freestyle (2012). Ahmed Hafnaoui won Olympic gold in the 400m freestyle at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.
  • Boxing**: Victor "Young" Perez was a world champion in the flyweight class in 1931 and 1932.
  • Tennis**: Ons Jabeur has achieved historic success, becoming the first Arab woman to reach major Grand Slam finals (Wimbledon 2022, 2023; US Open 2022) and reach a high WTA ranking (No. 2). Her success has significantly boosted the popularity of tennis in Tunisia and the Arab world.
• Paralympics**: Tunisia has a strong record in the Paralympic Games, particularly in athletics, with their national team consistently winning medals. In the 2012 Summer Paralympics, Tunisia finished 14th in the medal table with 19 medals (9 gold).

Tunisia has hosted several major international sporting events, including the African Cup of Nations (football), the World Men's Handball Championship, and the Mediterranean Games.

12.7. Media

The media landscape in Tunisia has undergone significant changes, especially since the 2011 revolution, moving from a state-controlled system to a more pluralistic, albeit still evolving, environment.

• Television**: For many years, television was dominated by the state-owned Establishment of the Broadcasting Authority Tunisia (ERTT) and its predecessors, which managed public stations like Télévision Tunisienne 1 and Télévision Tunisienne 2. Since 2011, several private television channels have emerged, including Hannibal TV, Nessma TV, and Ettounsiya TV (now El Hiwar El Tounsi), offering diverse programming and news coverage. Most programs are in Arabic, with some in French.
• Radio**: Similar to television, radio was historically state-controlled, with stations like Radio Tunis and RTCI (Radio Tunis Chaîne Internationale). The post-revolution era has seen the proliferation of private radio stations, such as Mosaïque FM, Jawhara FM, and Shems FM, which have become popular sources of news and entertainment.
• Print Media**: Tunisia has a range of daily newspapers and weekly magazines in both Arabic and French. Prominent titles include La Presse de Tunisie, Le Temps, Assabah, and Al Chourouk. Before 2011, the press was heavily controlled by the government. While formal censorship was largely abolished after the revolution, leading to more critical reporting, challenges related to financial sustainability, political influence, and self-censorship persist.
• Digital Media**: Online news portals, blogs, and social media have become increasingly important sources of information and platforms for public discourse, particularly among younger Tunisians.
• Press Freedom**: Freedom of the press was a key gain of the 2011 revolution. Tunisia saw significant improvements in press freedom rankings in the years immediately following the revolution. However, concerns have been raised more recently, particularly since 2021, about increasing pressure on journalists, legal actions against media professionals, and the impact of new legislation like Decree Law 54 on "false information and rumours," which critics argue can be used to stifle dissent and limit media freedom. The regulatory framework and the broader political and social culture continue to shape the environment for media independence. The state news agency, Agence Tunis Afrique Presse (TAP), remains an important player.

12.8. World Heritage Sites

Tunisia is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding cultural or natural significance. These sites reflect the country's rich and diverse history and natural environment.

Cultural Heritage Sites:
1. **Medina of Tunis** (Inscribed 1979): The historic heart of Tunis, founded in 698 AD around the original core of the Zitouna Mosque. It contains numerous palaces, mosques, mausoleums, madrasas, and fountains from the Almohad and Hafsid periods, showcasing centuries of urban development.
2. **Archaeological Site of Carthage** (Inscribed 1979): The ruins of the ancient Punic city and its Roman successor. Highlights include Punic ports, the Tophet, Roman villas, baths, theatre, amphitheatre, and the Antonine Baths.
3. **Amphitheatre of El Jem** (Inscribed 1979): An impressive Roman amphitheatre built in the early 3rd century AD, one of the largest and best-preserved in the Roman world, testifying to the prosperity of Roman Africa.
4. **Ichkeul National Park** (Inscribed 1980 - also a Natural Heritage Site, see below)
5. **Punic Town of Kerkouane and its Necropolis** (Inscribed 1985, 1986): The only surviving example of a Phoenicio-Punic city that was not rebuilt by later civilizations. It provides valuable insights into Punic urban planning and daily life before the Roman conquest.
6. **Kairouan** (Inscribed 1988): One of the holiest cities in Islam in the Maghreb, founded in 670 AD. Its rich architectural heritage includes the Great Mosque of Uqba (Sidi Okba Mosque), the Mosque of the Three Gates, and ancient reservoirs.
7. **Medina of Sousse** (Inscribed 1988): A historic coastal city with a well-preserved medina, kasbah, ribat (fortified monastery), and the Great Mosque, reflecting its importance as a port and stronghold from the Aghlabid period.
8. **Dougga / Thugga** (Inscribed 1997): An exceptionally well-preserved Roman-Berber town with impressive ruins, including a theatre, capitol, temples, baths, and mausoleums, illustrating centuries of cultural fusion.

Natural Heritage Site:
1. **Ichkeul National Park** (Inscribed 1980): Lake Ichkeul and its surrounding wetlands are a crucial stopover point for hundreds of thousands of migratory birds, including ducks, geese, and flamingos. Its unique hydrology, with seasonal variations in salinity, supports a rich biodiversity. It is also listed under cultural criteria due to its long history of human interaction and traditional resource management.

These sites are major attractions for tourism and are subjects of ongoing conservation and research efforts.

12.9. Festivals

Tunisia hosts a vibrant array of festivals throughout the year, celebrating its cultural heritage, arts, music, religious traditions, and folklore. These events attract both locals and international visitors.

Major Cultural and Arts Festivals:

• International Festival of Carthage**: Held annually in July and August in the ancient Roman theatre of Carthage, this is one of North Africa's most prestigious arts festivals. It features a diverse program of music (Arab, international pop, jazz, classical), theatre, dance, and film screenings with renowned artists from around the world.
• International Festival of Hammamet**: Similar to the Carthage festival, this event takes place in July and August in the seaside town of Hammamet, offering a rich program of music, theatre, and dance in an open-air theatre.
• Carthage Film Festival (Journées Cinématographiques de Carthage - JCC)**: Held biennially (alternating with the Carthage Theatre Festival) in October/November, it is a major showcase for Arab and African cinema, established in 1966.
• Carthage Theatre Festival (Journées Théâtrales de Carthage - JTC)**: Alternating with the film festival, this event celebrates theatre from Tunisia, the Arab world, and Africa.
• Tabarka Jazz Festival**: An internationally renowned jazz festival held in the coastal town of Tabarka, attracting prominent jazz musicians.
• El Djem International Symphony Music Festival**: Held in the magnificent Roman amphitheatre of El Jem during the summer, this festival features classical music performances by international orchestras and soloists.

Folk and Traditional Festivals:

• International Festival of the Sahara in Douz**: Celebrated annually at the end of December, this festival honors the traditions of the desert peoples. It includes camel races, traditional music and dance, poetry readings, Bedouin wedding ceremonies, and displays of desert horsemanship and crafts.
• Falconry Festival in El Haouaria**: Showcases the ancient tradition of falconry.
• Regional Festivals**: Many towns and regions host festivals celebrating local products (e.g., oranges in Menzel Bouzelfa, dates in Kebili) or specific cultural traditions.

Religious Festivals:

• Islamic holidays like Eid al-Fitr (end of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (Festival of Sacrifice) are major national celebrations.
• Mawlid (Prophet Muhammad's birthday) is also observed with religious and cultural events.
• The annual pilgrimage to the El Ghriba synagogue on the island of Djerba is a significant event for the Jewish community, attracting pilgrims from Tunisia and abroad.

Other Festivals:

• Carnival of Awussu in Sousse**: An annual festive parade held on July 24th, featuring symbolic chariots, fanfares, and folk groups. It has roots in ancient celebrations, possibly related to the Roman god Neptune or even Phoenician traditions.
• Omek Tannou**: An ancient rainmaking ritual with Punic and Berber origins, involving a procession with a sculpted female head (representing the goddess Tanit) and children singing for rain during droughts.

These festivals reflect the dynamism and diversity of Tunisian culture and traditions.