Pakistan

3.1. Early Civilizations and Ancient Period

The lands of present-day Pakistan were the cradle of some of South Asia's earliest human civilizations. Archaeological evidence points to ancient human presence, with the Soanian people inhabiting the region during the Lower Paleolithic. Artifacts from this period have been discovered in the Soan Valley within Punjab.

The Indus region, which forms the bulk of modern Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures. Among the most significant prehistoric settlements is Mehrgarh, located in Balochistan. Dating back to around 7000 BCE, Mehrgarh provides some of the earliest undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in South Asia. The domestication of plants and animals, particularly the zebu cattle, indicates a localized development distinct from other parts of the world.

This Neolithic culture paved the way for the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), a major Bronze Age civilization that flourished from approximately 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. The IVC was one of the world's three earliest urban civilizations, alongside Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, and was the most geographically extensive. Key urban centers of this civilization included Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, which exhibited sophisticated urban planning, advanced drainage systems, and standardized weights and measures. The society of the Indus Valley Civilization had developed complex social structures and engaged in extensive trade networks. The iconic Priest-King statue from Mohenjo-daro offers a glimpse into their artistry and possibly their governance.

Following the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, believed to be due to a combination of climatic changes and possible migrations, the Vedic period (circa 1500-500 BCE) began. During this era, Indo-Aryan tribes are thought to have migrated into the Punjab region from Central Asia in several waves. They brought with them distinct religious traditions and practices, which fused with local cultures, leading to the development of Vedic culture. The early Vedic society was primarily tribal and pastoral, centered in the Indus Valley. It was during this period that the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. The Gandhara grave culture, found in the Swat Valley, dates to this transitional period and shows distinct burial practices. The Gandhara region itself would later become a significant center of cultural exchange and religious development.

3.2. Classical Empires and Foreign Dynasties

The regions that constitute modern Pakistan came under the influence and rule of various classical empires and foreign dynasties, each leaving a significant mark on its socio-cultural and political landscape. Around 517 BCE, the western parts of present-day Pakistan, including Gandhara, became part of the Achaemenid Empire following the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley. This integration brought the region into contact with the wider Persian world.

In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great led his Macedonian and Greek forces into the Indian subcontinent, campaigning through these territories. He defeated several local rulers, most notably King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes near modern Jhelum. Alexander's invasion, though short-lived, facilitated increased interaction between Hellenistic and Indian cultures.

Following Alexander's withdrawal, the Maurya Empire (circa 322-185 BCE), founded by Chandragupta Maurya and later expanded by his grandson Ashoka the Great, rose to prominence. The Mauryan Empire encompassed vast swathes of the subcontinent, including much of present-day Pakistan. Ashoka's reign is particularly noted for the spread of Buddhism and the establishment of a centralized administration.

After the decline of the Mauryas, the Indo-Greek Kingdom emerged, founded by Demetrius of Bactria around 180-165 BCE. This kingdom included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its zenith under Menander I (circa 165-150 BCE). During this period, Greco-Buddhism flourished, characterized by a syncretism of Hellenistic artistic styles and Buddhist philosophy, as seen in the art of Gandhara. Taxila became a renowned center of learning, hosting one of the earliest universities in the world, established during the late Vedic period around the 6th century BCE. This ancient university was documented by Alexander's invading forces and later by Chinese pilgrims such as Fa-Hsien in the 4th or 5th century CE.

The Kushan Empire (circa 1st-3rd centuries CE) followed, extending its rule over much of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and northern India. The Kushans were patrons of Mahayana Buddhism and Gandharan art, and their empire was a crucial hub on the Silk Road, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the East and West. The Gupta Empire (circa 4th-6th centuries CE), primarily centered in eastern India, also exerted influence over parts of the Indus region. In Sindh and surrounding territories, the Rai dynasty (circa 489-632 CE) held sway at its peak. These successive empires and dynasties contributed to the complex tapestry of cultures, religions, and political systems that characterized ancient Pakistan.

3.3. Medieval Period and Islamic Influence

The medieval period in the Indian subcontinent, particularly in the regions now constituting Pakistan, was marked by the arrival and progressive spread of Islam, leading to profound socio-cultural and political transformations. Before the 8th century, the area was home to a diverse religious landscape, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism.

The first significant Muslim military expedition into the subcontinent was led by the Arab general Muhammad ibn Qasim, who conquered Sindh and parts of Punjab in 711 CE under the Umayyad Caliphate. The Pakistan government's official chronology sometimes cites this event as a foundational moment. This initial conquest established a Muslim presence, primarily in the southern regions.

Over the subsequent centuries, Islam gradually spread throughout the region. Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in this process, converting a majority of the local population through their teachings and community engagement. Their inclusive approach often resonated with local traditions, facilitating a more organic adoption of Islam.

The decline of the Turk Shahi and Hindu Shahi dynasties, which had ruled areas like the Kabul Valley, Gandhara (present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), and western Punjab from the 7th to 11th centuries CE, paved the way for a series of powerful Muslim empires originating from Central Asia and Persia. The Ghaznavid Empire (975-1187 CE), under rulers like Mahmud of Ghazni, launched numerous expeditions into the subcontinent, establishing Lahore as an important cultural and administrative center. They were followed by the Ghurid Kingdom, which further expanded Muslim rule.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE), a succession of five short-lived Turkic and Afghan dynasties, consolidated Muslim political power over much of northern India, including significant parts of present-day Pakistan. Various dynasties within the Sultanate, such as the Mamluks, Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis, each contributed to the administrative and cultural landscape.

The Mughal Empire (1526-1857 CE) replaced the Lodi dynasty and ushered in a new era of political consolidation and cultural efflorescence. The Mughals, of Turco-Mongol origin, introduced Persian literature, art, and high culture, deeply embedding Indo-Persian culture in the region. Key cities in modern-day Pakistan, such as Lahore, Multan, Peshawar, and Thatta, flourished as important urban, commercial, and cultural centers during the Mughal period. These cities became sites for impressive Mughal buildings, including mosques, forts, and tombs, such as the Badshahi Mosque and the Lahore Fort.

By the 18th century, the Mughal Empire began a slow disintegration due to internal weaknesses and the rise of regional powers like the Maratha Confederacy and later the Sikh Empire. Invasions by Nader Shah of Persia in 1739 and the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan in 1759 further hastened the decline of Mughal authority in the northwestern regions. This period of transition set the stage for the subsequent colonial era.

3.4. Colonial Rule

The advent of British influence in the Indian subcontinent gradually extended to the regions that now form Pakistan, fundamentally reshaping their political, economic, and social structures. Initially, British presence was through the East India Company, which expanded its commercial and political control over several centuries. None of modern Pakistan was under direct British rule until 1839, when Karachi, then a small fishing village with a mud fort under the Talpurs of Sindh, was taken by the Company. Karachi was subsequently used as a port and military base for the First Afghan War. The remainder of Sindh was annexed in 1843 after the Battle of Miani.

Following a series of wars and treaties, most notably the Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849) which led to the annexation of the Punjab, and the Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839-1919) which helped define the western frontiers, the East India Company, and later the British Crown after the Indian Mutiny of 1857 (also known as the Sepoy Mutiny), established direct rule over most of the region. By 1893, virtually all of modern Pakistan was part of the British Indian Empire.

Under British rule, modern Pakistan was primarily divided into the Sind Division, Punjab Province, and the Baluchistan Agency. The region also included several princely states, such as Bahawalpur, which maintained a degree of internal autonomy under British suzerainty.

Colonial policies had a profound impact. The introduction of new land revenue systems, the development of infrastructure like railways and canals (primarily for strategic and economic exploitation), and the imposition of a Western legal and administrative framework altered traditional societal structures. The economic policies of the British Raj often prioritized British industrial and commercial interests, leading to the deindustrialization of some local crafts and changes in agricultural patterns. This economic exploitation also brought about discussions on labor rights and environmental concerns, particularly related to resource extraction and large-scale irrigation projects.

The 1857 Mutiny was a major armed struggle against British rule in the subcontinent, although its impact varied across the regions of modern Pakistan. In the aftermath, direct British Crown rule replaced Company rule. The latter half of the 19th century saw the rise of early nationalist stirrings and socio-religious reform movements among both Hindus and Muslims. The Hindi-Urdu controversy exacerbated tensions. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan led an intellectual movement, the Aligarh Movement, aimed at modernizing Muslim education and promoting a distinct Muslim identity. This movement, along with the articulation of the two-nation theory (the idea that Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations), contributed to the formation of the All-India Muslim League in 1906. This set the stage for the Pakistan Movement in the 20th century.

3.5. Pakistan Movement and Independence

The rise of Muslim nationalism in British India during the early 20th century formed the core of the Pakistan Movement, which advocated for a separate homeland for the Muslims of the subcontinent. This movement was underpinned by the two-nation theory, which posited that Muslims and Hindus were distinct nations with irreconcilable religious, cultural, and social differences, and thus could not coexist peacefully in a single, independent India.

The All-India Muslim League, under the leadership of figures like Muhammad Ali Jinnah, became the primary political vehicle for this demand. Key milestones in the movement include the 1930 Allahabad Address by poet-philosopher Allama Muhammad Iqbal, who envisioned a consolidated Muslim state in northwestern India. The perception among many Muslims that their interests would not be safeguarded in a Hindu-majority independent India, particularly after the experiences under Congress-led provincial governments between 1937 and 1939, further galvanized support for the Muslim League.

The Lahore Resolution, passed by the Muslim League on March 23, 1940, is considered a pivotal moment. Presented by A. K. Fazlul Huq, it formally demanded the creation of "independent states" in the Muslim-majority regions of northwestern and eastern India. This resolution is often referred to as the Pakistan Resolution.

During World War II, the Muslim League, unlike the Indian National Congress which launched the Quit India Movement demanding immediate British withdrawal, chose to cooperate with the British war effort. This stance was partly strategic, aiming to gain British favor for the cause of a separate Muslim state. The 1946 elections demonstrated the widespread support for the Muslim League among Muslims, as it won a vast majority of the Muslim-reserved seats. This outcome significantly strengthened Jinnah's negotiating position and made the demand for Pakistan increasingly undeniable.

Despite last-minute efforts by the British, such as the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946, to maintain a united India, the growing communal tensions and the Muslim League's unwavering stance led to the decision to partition the subcontinent. On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, announced the plan for the Partition of India.

Pakistan gained independence on August 14, 1947 (the 27th of Ramadan in 1366 of the Islamic calendar). The new nation comprised two geographically separate wings: West Pakistan (consisting of Balochistan, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab, and Sindh) and East Pakistan (formerly East Bengal).

The partition was accompanied by one of the largest mass migrations in human history and widespread communal violence, particularly in Punjab and Bengal, which were divided between the two new countries. Estimates of the loss of life range from several hundred thousand to two million. Millions of Muslims moved to Pakistan, while millions of Hindus and Sikhs moved to India, resulting in a profound humanitarian crisis and leaving a lasting legacy of bitterness and mistrust. The division of assets and the demarcation of boundaries, particularly the Radcliffe Line, also led to numerous disputes, the most intractable of which was the Kashmir dispute, sparking the first Indo-Pakistani war.

3.6. Post-Independence Era

Following its creation in 1947, Pakistan embarked on a complex journey of nation-building, facing immense challenges including the settlement of millions of refugees, establishing a new administrative and governmental framework, and defining its national identity. The post-independence era has been characterized by efforts to establish democratic institutions, alternating with periods of military rule, significant socio-political upheavals, economic development, and conflicts.

3.6.1. Early Republic and Military Interventions

Pakistan began as a Dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah as its first Governor-General and Liaquat Ali Khan as its first Prime Minister. Jinnah's death in September 1948, shortly after independence, was a significant blow to the nascent state. The early years were marked by the enormous task of drafting a constitution. The Objectives Resolution was passed in March 1949, laying down principles that would guide the future constitution, emphasizing Islamic values and democratic ideals. After years of debate, Pakistan adopted its first constitution in 1956, officially declaring the country an Islamic republic and abolishing the status of a Dominion. Iskander Mirza became the first President.

However, democratic governance was fragile. Political instability, corruption, and economic difficulties plagued the early republic. In 1958, President Iskander Mirza abrogated the constitution and declared martial law, but he was soon deposed by General Ayub Khan, the Commander-in-Chief of the Army. Ayub Khan's coup marked the beginning of a long period of military dominance in Pakistani politics. He introduced a new constitution in 1962 that established a presidential system, with significant powers vested in the president. His decade-long rule (1958-1969), often termed the "Decade of Development," saw considerable economic growth, particularly in industry, and the implementation of land reforms. However, this development was often uneven, and political freedoms were curtailed. His regime centralized power and weakened democratic institutions, which sowed seeds of discontent, especially in East Pakistan, which felt economically and politically marginalized. The 1965 war with India over Kashmir, while demonstrating military resolve, also strained the economy and led to increased public dissatisfaction, eventually culminating in widespread protests that forced Ayub Khan to resign in 1969. He handed over power to General Yahya Khan, who abrogated the 1962 constitution and promised fresh elections.

3.6.2. 1971 War and Secession of Bangladesh

The period leading up to 1971 was marked by escalating political and economic tensions between West Pakistan and East Pakistan. East Pakistan, despite having a larger population, felt systematically discriminated against in terms of political representation, economic investment, and resource allocation. Linguistic nationalism also played a crucial role, with the imposition of Urdu as the sole national language sparking protests among Bengali speakers in the East.

The 1970 general elections, the first direct elections in Pakistan's history, proved to be a turning point. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and based in East Pakistan, won a landslide victory, securing an absolute majority in the National Assembly. However, the predominantly West Pakistani political and military establishment, led by President Yahya Khan and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) (which had won a majority in West Pakistan), was unwilling to transfer power to the Awami League.

Negotiations failed, and on March 25, 1971, the Pakistani military launched Operation Searchlight, a brutal crackdown in East Pakistan aimed at suppressing the Bengali nationalist movement. This action led to widespread atrocities, a massive refugee crisis with millions fleeing to India, and the declaration of independence by Bengali nationalist leaders, igniting the Bangladesh Liberation War. The Mukti Bahini, a Bengali guerrilla force, engaged in a nine-month-long armed struggle against the Pakistani army.

India, burdened by the refugee influx and sympathetic to the Bengali cause, provided support to the Mukti Bahini and eventually intervened militarily in December 1971. This led to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which ended swiftly with the surrender of Pakistani forces in Dhaka on December 16, 1971. East Pakistan seceded and became the independent nation of Bangladesh.

The war and the loss of East Pakistan had profound socio-political consequences for Pakistan. It was a significant military and psychological blow, leading to the fall of Yahya Khan's regime. The event also raised critical questions about national identity, the viability of a state based solely on religious unity without addressing ethnic and regional aspirations, and the role of the military in politics. The war resulted in a severe humanitarian crisis, with independent researchers estimating civilian deaths between 300,000 and 500,000, while the Bangladesh government's figure of three million is widely considered inflated. The events of 1971 remain a sensitive and debated topic in the histories of Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India, with discussions around war crimes and human rights violations.

3.6.6. 21st Century: Musharraf Era and War on Terror

The dawn of the 21st century in Pakistan was marked by another military takeover. On October 12, 1999, General Pervez Musharraf, the Chief of Army Staff, led a bloodless military coup, ousting the democratically elected government of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. Musharraf initially assumed the title of Chief Executive and suspended the constitution. In 2001, he appointed himself President of Pakistan. His rule, which lasted until 2008, significantly shaped Pakistan's domestic and foreign policy landscape.

A pivotal moment during Musharraf's era was the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States. Following these attacks, the U.S. launched its War on Terror, demanding Pakistan's cooperation in its campaign against Al-Qaeda and the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. Musharraf's government made a strategic decision to align Pakistan with the U.S.-led coalition, providing logistical support, intelligence sharing, and allowing U.S. forces access to Pakistani airspace and bases. This alliance brought Pakistan significant financial aid and military assistance from the U.S. and led to its designation as a Major non-NATO ally. However, it also embroiled Pakistan in a protracted and costly conflict along its western border and fueled domestic militant insurgencies, particularly by Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) factions. Pakistan's involvement in the War on Terror is estimated to have cost the country significantly in terms of human lives and economic resources.

Domestically, Musharraf's regime implemented a number of reforms. He introduced the Local Government Ordinance 2001, aimed at devolving power to local bodies, though its effectiveness was debated. Economic reforms, under the guidance of technocrats like Shaukat Aziz (who later became Prime Minister), led to a period of relatively high GDP growth, an increase in foreign investment, and an expanding middle class in the early to mid-2000s. Musharraf also projected an image of "Enlightened Moderation," advocating for a progressive and modern interpretation of Islam. Socially, his era saw a degree of liberalization in media, with the proliferation of private television channels.

However, challenges to democratic governance persisted. Musharraf held a controversial referendum in 2002 to legitimize his presidency, and general elections held later that year were criticized by some for being manipulated to favor pro-Musharraf parties, leading to the formation of a coalition government led by the PML-Q. He continued to hold the dual posts of President and Chief of Army Staff until late 2007, a move that drew considerable criticism.

Tensions escalated in 2007 with Musharraf's attempt to dismiss Chief Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry, sparking a nationwide Lawyers' Movement for the restoration of the judiciary and rule of law. This was compounded by the deadly Lal Masjid (Red Mosque) siege in Islamabad. Facing mounting political pressure and declining popularity, Musharraf declared a state of emergency in November 2007, suspending the constitution and dismissing senior judges. The assassination of Benazir Bhutto in December 2007 further destabilized the political situation.

4.1. Topography and Geology

Pakistan's topography can be broadly divided into three major geographical areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Balochistan Plateau.

The northern highlands are dominated by parts of the Himalayas, the Karakoram, and the Hindu Kush mountain ranges. This region is home to some of the world's highest peaks, including K2 (28 K ft ^{(8.61 K m)}), the second-highest mountain on Earth, and Nanga Parbat (27 K ft ^{(8.13 K m)}). These ranges contain extensive glaciers, including the Siachen Glacier and Baltoro Glacier, which are crucial sources for Pakistan's rivers. The terrain is rugged, with deep valleys and high-altitude plateaus. This area also includes the Pamir Knot, a convergence point for several major mountain systems.

The Indus River plain is a vast, fertile expanse formed by the Indus River and its major tributaries: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej (collectively forming the Punjab region, meaning "Land of Five Rivers"). This plain stretches from the foothills of the Himalayas down to the Arabian Sea. It is the most populous and agriculturally productive region of Pakistan, with extensive irrigation systems supporting crops like wheat, cotton, rice, and sugarcane. The plain is further divided into Upper Indus (Punjab) and Lower Indus (Sindh) plains.

The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and southwest of the country. It is an arid and sparsely populated region characterized by barren mountains, deserts (such as the Kharan Desert), and salt pans. The plateau is geographically part of the Iranian Plateau. Coastal areas along the Balochistan coast, such as Gwadar, are strategically important.

Geologically, Pakistan is situated at a complex tectonic boundary. The Indian tectonic plate underlies the Sindh and Punjab regions and is colliding with the Eurasian Plate. This collision zone is responsible for the formation of the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges and makes the region highly susceptible to earthquakes, particularly in the northern and western areas. Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir are located along the edge of the Indian plate and are prone to powerful seismic activity. The Chaman Fault is a major fault line running through Balochistan. The country also possesses significant mineral resources due to its varied geology.

East of the Indus River lies the Thar Desert, which extends into India, and the Cholistan Desert. The southeastern part of the country features the Indus River Delta, which flows into the Arabian Sea, and the disputed Sir Creek marshlands on the border with India.

4.2. Climate

Pakistan experiences a wide range of climatic conditions due to its diverse topography and latitudinal extent. The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions prevailing in the coastal south and much of the Balochistan plateau.

Four distinct seasons are generally recognized:

• A cool, dry winter from December to February.
• A hot, dry spring from March to May.
• The summer rainy season, also known as the southwest monsoon period, from June to September.
• The retreating monsoon period during October and November.

The northern mountain regions (Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush) experience an alpine climate. Winters are extremely cold with heavy snowfall, and summers are mild. Higher altitudes remain snow-covered year-round. These mountains significantly influence the weather patterns of the subcontinent.

The Indus plains experience a continental climate with extreme variations in temperature. Summers are very hot, with temperatures often exceeding 104 °F ^{(40 °C)}. The monsoon brings significant rainfall to the Punjab region, crucial for agriculture, though Sindh receives less. Winters are cool and can be foggy.

The Balochistan Plateau is characterized by an arid and semi-arid climate. Summers are hot and dry, while winters can be quite cold, especially in the highlands like Quetta. Rainfall is generally low and erratic.

The coastal areas along the Arabian Sea, including Karachi, have a more moderate maritime climate, with high humidity, warm summers, and mild winters.

Rainfall patterns vary greatly across the country and from year to year. The monsoon is the primary source of rainfall for most of the agricultural plains. However, western disturbances also bring precipitation, particularly during the winter months, to the northern and western parts of the country. Patterns of alternate flooding and drought are common.

Pakistan is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. These include increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as floods (as seen in the devastating 2010 and 2022 floods), droughts, heatwaves, and glacial melt. The recession of glaciers in the northern mountains poses a long-term threat to water security, as these glaciers feed the Indus River system, which is vital for the country's agriculture and water supply.

4.3. Flora and Fauna

Pakistan's diverse geography and climate support a rich variety of flora and fauna, though many species face threats from habitat loss, hunting, and pollution.

Flora:
The vegetation varies significantly by region.

• In the northern mountain ranges (Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush), coniferous alpine and subalpine forests are found at altitudes from approximately 3.3 K ft ^{(1.00 K m)} to 13 K ft ^{(4.00 K m)}. Dominant tree species include spruce, pine, deodar cedar, and fir. Above the tree line, alpine meadows and scrublands prevail.
• The foothills and lower mountain slopes feature temperate forests. In the Sulaiman Mountains and other ranges, deciduous trees like shisham (Indian rosewood) and oak are common.
• The Indus plains originally supported tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forests, as well as tropical and xeric shrublands. However, much of this natural vegetation has been cleared for agriculture. Acacia, prosopis, and tamarisk are common in arid and semi-arid parts of the plains.
• In the arid regions of Balochistan and Sindh, vegetation is sparse, consisting of xeric shrublands, juniper (especially in Ziarat), tamarisk, coarse grasses, and drought-resistant plants. Date palms and Ephedra are also found.
• The coastal areas, particularly the Indus River Delta, support extensive mangrove forests, which are ecologically important for marine life and coastal protection. Avicennia marina is a dominant mangrove species.

Pakistan's total forest cover is relatively low, estimated at around 4.8% of its land area in 2021. Deforestation remains a significant environmental challenge.

Fauna:
Pakistan's fauna is equally diverse, reflecting its varied climates and habitats.

• Mammals: The country is home to around 174 mammal species.
  • Mountainous north: Snow leopard (a rare and endangered species), Himalayan brown bear, Asian black bear, Marco Polo sheep, urial, markhor (the national animal), ibex, musk deer, and wolf.
  • Plains and deserts: Asiatic jackal, Indian fox, jungle cat, sand cat, striped hyena, leopard (in some hilly areas), mongoose, small Indian civet, Indian pangolin, wild boar, various deer species (like chital and hog deer in protected areas), and porcupines. The chinkara (Indian gazelle) is found in desert areas like Cholistan, and nilgai can be found along the border with India.
  • Aquatic: The endangered blind Indus river dolphin is endemic to the Indus River system, with its primary population protected in the Indus Dolphin Reserve in Sindh.
• Birds: Around 668 bird species have been recorded, including resident and migratory birds. Notable species include houbara bustard, western tragopan, various eagles, falcons, vultures (many critically endangered), pheasants, partridges, crows, mynas, and numerous waterfowl species in wetlands like Haleji Lake and Keenjhar Lake. Palas in Kohistan is known for the western tragopan. Many migratory birds visit from Central Asia, Siberia, and Europe during winter.
• Reptiles and Amphibians: There are about 177 reptile species, including mugger crocodiles (in the Indus River and marshes), various snakes (cobras, vipers, pythons), lizards (monitors, geckos, agamids), and turtles (freshwater and marine). Around 22 amphibian species are also found.
• Fish: Pakistan has about 198 freshwater fish species and a rich marine fish diversity in the Arabian Sea. Mahseer is a notable freshwater game fish.
• Insects: Over 5,000 insect species have been recorded.

Conservation:
Pakistan's wildlife faces significant threats from deforestation, habitat degradation, illegal hunting and poaching, pollution, and the impacts of climate change. Several national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and game reserves have been established to protect biodiversity. Key protected areas include Hingol National Park, Khunjerab National Park, Deosai National Park, and Lal Suhanra National Park. Conservation efforts are undertaken by government agencies and non-governmental organizations like the WWF-Pakistan. However, enforcement of wildlife protection laws and resource constraints remain challenges. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.42/10, ranking it 41st globally out of 172 countries.

5.1. Governance Structure

The governance structure of Pakistan is defined by its constitution, outlining the roles and powers of its key institutions:

• President (Head of State): The President is the ceremonial Head of State and the civilian Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces. The President is elected by an Electoral College comprising members of the Senate, National Assembly, and the provincial assemblies. While the President's powers were significantly curtailed by the 18th Amendment in 2010, making the office largely ceremonial, the President still plays a role in assenting to legislation, appointing provincial governors (on the advice of the Prime Minister), and has the power to grant pardons and clemency. The President is constitutionally bound to act on the advice of the Prime Minister.

• Prime Minister (Head of Government): The Prime Minister is the Head of Government and the country's chief executive. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the majority party or coalition in the National Assembly (the lower house of Parliament) and is elected by the Assembly. The Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, which is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the country. Key responsibilities include formulating and implementing government policies, overseeing executive functions, and making appointments to senior civil service and military positions, often in consultation with or on the advice of relevant bodies.

• Parliament (Legislature): Pakistan has a bicameral Parliament (Majlis-e-Shoora) consisting of:
  • The National Assembly (Lower House): It has 336 members. Members of the National Assembly are elected through first-past-the-post voting in single-member constituencies under universal adult suffrage for a five-year term. The constitution reserves 60 seats for women and 10 seats for non-Muslim religious minorities, which are allocated to political parties based on their proportional representation in the general seats.
  • The Senate (Upper House): It has 96 members who are elected by the members of the provincial assemblies and the National Assembly, ensuring equal representation from all provinces. Senators serve six-year terms, with half the members retiring every three years. The Senate provides a forum for provincial representation at the federal level.
  • Judiciary: The judiciary is responsible for interpreting the law and administering justice. It comprises two classes: the superior judiciary and the subordinate judiciary.
    • The Superior Judiciary includes the Supreme Court of Pakistan (the apex court), the Federal Shariat Court (which examines laws for repugnancy to Islamic injunctions), and five High Courts (one for each province and one for the Islamabad Capital Territory). The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal and has original jurisdiction in certain matters, including disputes between federal and provincial governments. It is also responsible for safeguarding the constitution.
    • The Subordinate Judiciary consists of lower courts at the district and tehsil levels.

    Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan have their own separate court systems.

    • Provincial Governments: Each of Pakistan's four provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan) has a similar governance structure, with a directly elected Provincial Assembly. The Chief Minister, typically the leader of the majority party or coalition in the Provincial Assembly, is the head of the provincial government and leads the provincial cabinet. The Chief Secretary, appointed by the Prime Minister, heads the provincial bureaucracy. Provincial Assemblies have legislative powers over matters within their jurisdiction and approve the provincial budget. The ceremonial head of each province is the Provincial Governor, appointed by the President on the binding advice of the Prime Minister.

    The first successful democratic transition from one elected civilian government to another occurred in May 2013, a significant milestone for the country's democratic journey. Constitutional amendments, notably the 18th Amendment in 2010, have sought to rebalance powers, particularly by reducing presidential authority and strengthening the role of the Prime Minister and Parliament.

5.2. Political System and Parties

Pakistan operates under a multi-party system, where numerous political parties compete for power at both the federal and provincial levels. However, the political landscape has often been dominated by a few major parties and has historically been influenced by the powerful military establishment.

Major Political Parties:
Historically, the three main political forces have been:

• Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) (PML-N)**: A center-right conservative party, with strongholds primarily in Punjab. It has been led by the Sharif family, with Nawaz Sharif having served as Prime Minister multiple times.
• Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP)**: A center-left socialist-oriented party, founded by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. It has historically had strong support in Sindh and among rural and working-class populations. It is currently led by Bilawal Bhutto Zardari.
• Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI)**: A centrist, populist party founded by former cricketer Imran Khan. It gained prominence on an anti-corruption platform and came to power in the 2018 elections.

Other significant parties include regional parties like the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) (primarily based in urban Sindh, representing Muhajir interests), the Awami National Party (ANP) (a Pashtun nationalist party in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), and various Islamic political parties such as Jamaat-e-Islami and factions of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam.

Electoral Process:
Members of the National Assembly and Provincial Assemblies are elected through direct universal adult suffrage via a first-past-the-post system in single-member constituencies. Elections are generally held every five years, or earlier if an assembly is dissolved. The Election Commission of Pakistan is an independent constitutional body responsible for organizing and conducting elections.

Influence of the Military:
The military has played a significant and often overt role in Pakistan's politics since independence. There have been several military coups (1958, 1977, 1999) that overthrew civilian governments, leading to extended periods of martial law or military-dominated rule. Even during periods of civilian government, the military is widely perceived to exert considerable influence over foreign policy, national security matters, and key domestic issues, often referred to as the "establishment's" role.

Challenges to Democratic Consolidation:
Pakistan's path to democratic consolidation has faced numerous challenges:

• Political Instability:** Frequent changes in government, dismissals of prime ministers, and periods of military rule have hindered the development of stable democratic institutions.
• Corruption:** Corruption remains a pervasive issue, undermining public trust and effective governance.
• Weak Political Institutions:** Political parties often revolve around personalities rather than strong ideological foundations or internal democratic structures.
• Economic Pressures:** Economic crises and dependence on international financial institutions have often constrained government policies and contributed to public discontent.
• Extremism and Terrorism:** The rise of religious extremism and terrorism has posed a severe threat to national security and democratic norms.
• Civil-Military Imbalance:** The historical dominance of the military in political affairs continues to be a central challenge for the strengthening of civilian democratic control.

Despite these challenges, there have been periods of progress, including the completion of full parliamentary terms by civilian governments and the gradual strengthening of judicial independence and civil society activism. The political system reflects a blend of socialism, conservatism, and elements of the third way.

5.3. Role of Islam in Politics

Islam plays a significant and constitutionally enshrined role in the politics and legal framework of Pakistan. The country was founded in 1947 as a homeland for the Muslims of British India, and this foundational ideology continues to shape its national identity and governance.

The Constitution of Pakistan declares Pakistan to be an Islamic republic and designates Islam as the state religion. It mandates that all existing laws must be brought into conformity with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran and Sunnah, and that no law repugnant to such injunctions can be enacted.

Key aspects of Islam's role in politics include:

• Constitutional Provisions**: The Objectives Resolution, passed in 1949 and now a substantive part of the Constitution (Article 2A), affirms that sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to Allah Almighty alone, and the authority to be exercised by the people of Pakistan within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust. It also states that Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in accordance with Islamic teachings.
• Islamic Institutions**: The Constitution establishes institutions like the Council of Islamic Ideology (CII) and the Federal Shariat Court.
  • The CII is an advisory body that makes recommendations to Parliament and provincial assemblies on how to bring existing laws into conformity with Islamic injunctions and advises on whether proposed laws are repugnant to Islam.
  • The Federal Shariat Court has the power to examine and decide the question of whether any law or provision of law is repugnant to the injunctions of Islam.
• Influence of Sharia Law**: While Pakistan's legal system is largely based on the common law tradition inherited from the British, elements of Sharia (Islamic law) have been incorporated, particularly in personal status laws (marriage, divorce, inheritance for Muslims) and through specific legislation like the Hudood Ordinances (introduced during General Zia-ul-Haq's regime, covering offenses like theft, adultery, and blasphemy). The extent and application of Sharia remain subjects of ongoing debate and political contention.
• Islamic Political Parties**: Several Islamic political parties, such as Jamaat-e-Islami, factions of Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (JUI), and others, participate in the political process. These parties advocate for a greater role of Islam in governance and society, though their electoral success has varied. They often form alliances and exert influence on policy debates, particularly concerning religious and social issues.
• Social Policies and Minority Rights**: The emphasis on Islamic ideology has had a significant impact on social policies and the rights of religious minorities and women. While the constitution guarantees freedom of religion and fundamental rights, minority groups (including Hindus, Christians, and Ahmadis) often face discrimination and challenges related to blasphemy laws and societal pressures. Debates around women's rights frequently involve interpretations of Islamic teachings. The blasphemy laws, in particular, have been a source of controversy and concern for human rights organizations due to their perceived misuse against minorities and for settling personal scores.

The interplay between Islamic principles, democratic governance, and human rights continues to be a central dynamic in Pakistan's political evolution. The degree to which the state should be governed by religious law and the interpretation of that law are subjects of ongoing national discourse and political contestation.

5.4. Administrative Divisions

Pakistan is a federal republic and is administratively divided into four provinces, one federal capital territory, and two administered regions (often referred to as territories with a special status due to the Kashmir conflict). Each administrative unit has its own distinct governance structure.

The primary administrative units are:
1. **Punjab**: The most populous province, located in the eastern part of the country. Its capital is Lahore. It is a major agricultural and industrial hub.
2. **Sindh**: Located in the southeast, it is the second-most populous province and home to Pakistan's largest city and main port, Karachi (which is its capital). The Indus River flows through Sindh to the Arabian Sea.
3. **Khyber Pakhtunkhwa** (often abbreviated as KP): Situated in the northwest, bordering Afghanistan. Its capital is Peshawar. The province includes mountainous terrain and has historically been a strategically important region. In 2018, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) were merged into Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
4. **Balochistan**: The largest province by land area but the least populated, located in the southwest. Its capital is Quetta. It is rich in natural resources but faces developmental and security challenges.

• Federal Territory**:
  • Islamabad Capital Territory** (ICT): This territory contains the national capital, Islamabad. It is administered directly by the federal government.
  • Administered Regions**:

  These regions are part of the larger Kashmir territory over which Pakistan and India have a long-standing dispute. Pakistan administers the western parts of this region.

  • Azad Kashmir** (officially Azad Jammu and Kashmir, or AJK): Located in the west of the Kashmir Valley, it has its own elected president, prime minister, and legislative assembly, enjoying a degree of self-governance. Its capital is Muzaffarabad.
  • Gilgit-Baltistan**: Located to the north of Azad Kashmir, this region also has a semi-provincial status with an elected legislative assembly and a chief minister. Its capital is Gilgit. The Gilgit-Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order 2009 granted it self-government.

  Further Subdivisions:
  The provinces and territories are further divided into divisions (in some provinces), which are then subdivided into districts. Districts are further broken down into tehsils (sub-districts), and the lowest administrative tier is the union council. The local government system involves elected bodies at these lower tiers, though the effectiveness and consistency of local governance have varied over time.

5.5. Law Enforcement

Law enforcement in Pakistan is a complex system comprising various federal and provincial agencies responsible for maintaining public order, combating crime, and supporting national security efforts, including counter-terrorism.

• Provincial Police Forces**:

Each of Pakistan's four provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan) has its own distinct police force responsible for general law and order within its jurisdiction.

• Punjab Police
• Sindh Police
• Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Police
• Balochistan Police

These provincial police forces are headed by an Inspector-General of Police (IGP) who is typically appointed by the provincial government but is often an officer from the Police Service of Pakistan (PSP), a federal cadre.

• Federal Capital Police**:

• Federal Law Enforcement Agencies**:

Several federal agencies operate nationwide with specific mandates:

• Federal Investigation Agency (FIA)**: Deals with federal crimes such as immigration and passport violations, cybercrime, intellectual property rights, and organized crime that has inter-provincial or international ramifications.
• National Highways & Motorway Police (NHMP)**: Enforces traffic laws and ensures safety on Pakistan's national highways and motorways. It is known for its professionalism and lower levels of corruption compared to some other forces.
• Pakistan Railways Police**: Responsible for security on the railway network.
• Anti-Narcotics Force (ANF)**: Combats drug trafficking and abuse.
• Airports Security Force (ASF)**: Provides security at airports.

• Specialized Units**:

Many police forces have specialized units to deal with specific challenges:

• Elite Police Units**: Each provincial police force, such as the Punjab Elite Force, has highly trained commando-style units focused on counter-terrorism operations, high-risk arrests, and VIP security.
• Counter Terrorism Departments (CTDs)**: Established within provincial police forces to specifically investigate and combat terrorism.
• Dolphin Force**: A specialized street crime fighting unit, notably in Punjab.

• Paramilitary Forces (Civil Armed Forces - CAF)**:

These forces often support regular law enforcement agencies, particularly in maintaining public order during large-scale unrest, counter-insurgency operations, and border security. They operate under the federal Ministry of Interior. Key CAF include:

• Pakistan Rangers**: Deployed in Punjab and Sindh, particularly for border security along the Indian border and internal security duties in cities like Karachi.
• Frontier Corps**: Operates in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan, primarily responsible for security along the Afghanistan and Iran borders and counter-insurgency operations in tribal and sensitive areas.
• Pakistan Coast Guards**: Responsible for maritime law enforcement along the coastline.

• Intelligence Agencies**:

While not strictly law enforcement, intelligence agencies play a crucial role in providing information that supports law enforcement and counter-terrorism efforts. The Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), [[Intelligence Bureau (Pakistan)|Intelligence Bureau (IB)], and Military Intelligence (MI) are the primary intelligence bodies. The National Intelligence Coordination Committee oversees intelligence activities at federal and provincial levels.

Challenges in law enforcement include issues of corruption, lack of resources and training, political interference, and the need for modernization to tackle evolving crime patterns and security threats. Efforts are ongoing to reform and improve the capacity and accountability of these agencies.

5.6. Human Rights

The state of human rights in Pakistan is a complex and often concerning issue, drawing attention from both domestic civil society organizations and international human rights bodies. While the Constitution of Pakistan guarantees fundamental rights, their implementation and protection face significant challenges due to a variety of factors including political instability, extremist violence, weaknesses in the justice system, and deeply entrenched societal norms.

• Freedom of Expression and the Press**:

Freedom of expression and press freedom are constitutionally guaranteed but face practical limitations. Journalists and media houses often experience pressure, intimidation, and censorship, particularly when reporting on sensitive topics such as the military, intelligence agencies, or religious issues. There have been instances of attacks on journalists, abductions, and restrictions on media outlets. In 2018, Pakistan ranked 139 out of 180 countries in the Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, indicating significant constraints. Television stations and newspapers have faced closures or disruption of distribution for publishing content critical of the government or military.

• Religious Freedom**:

Religious freedom is constitutionally protected, but religious minorities face significant discrimination and persecution.

• Blasphemy Laws**: Pakistan's stringent blasphemy laws, which can carry the death penalty, are a major concern. These laws are often vaguely worded and have been disproportionately used against religious minorities and to settle personal vendettas. Accusations of blasphemy can incite mob violence and extrajudicial killings.
• Ahmadis**: The Ahmadiyya community, declared non-Muslim by a constitutional amendment in 1974, faces severe legal and societal discrimination. They are restricted from calling themselves Muslims, using Islamic symbols, or proselytizing.
• Christians and Hindus**: These communities also report discrimination, harassment, and violence, including forced conversions (particularly of young women and girls), attacks on places of worship, and social marginalization.
• Shia Muslims**: While a significant minority within Islam, Shias have also been targeted by sectarian violence from extremist Sunni groups.

• Rights of Minorities (Ethnic and Other Groups)**:

Ethnic minorities, such as the Baloch, Pashtuns (in some contexts), and Sindhis, have raised grievances regarding political and economic marginalization, resource distribution, and alleged human rights abuses by state security forces, particularly in conflict-affected areas like Balochistan. Issues like enforced disappearances have been a persistent concern.

• Women's Rights**:

Women in Pakistan face significant challenges, including domestic violence, honor killings (karo-kari), acid attacks, forced marriages, and limited access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities, particularly in rural and conservative areas. Despite legislative efforts to protect women, implementation remains weak, and patriarchal societal norms often hinder progress.

• LGBTQ+ Rights**:

Homosexuality is illegal in Pakistan under a colonial-era law (Section 377 of the Pakistan Penal Code), punishable with penalties ranging from fines to life imprisonment. While the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2018 was a progressive step recognizing the rights of transgender individuals, societal acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals remains very low, and they face severe discrimination and violence.

• Justice System Challenges**:

The justice system is often slow, under-resourced, and plagued by corruption. Access to justice can be difficult, especially for marginalized communities. Issues like long pre-trial detentions, torture and ill-treatment in custody, and impunity for perpetrators of human rights violations are significant concerns. Extrajudicial killings have also been reported.

• Efforts Towards Improvement**:

Despite these challenges, there are active civil society organizations, human rights defenders, and lawyers working to promote and protect human rights in Pakistan. The government has established institutions like the National Commission for Human Rights and has ratified several international human rights treaties. The judiciary has, at times, played a proactive role in addressing human rights issues. However, sustained political will, institutional reforms, and societal change are crucial for meaningful improvement in the human rights situation.

6.1. Relations with India

[[File:194c776d973_505f75a9.jpg|width=445px|height=685px|thumb|upright=0.8|left|President of Pakistan Ayub Khan with US President John F. Kennedy in 1961, during a period of close Cold War alliance. Pakistan's relationship with the US has seen significant fluctuations.]]
The relationship with India has been central and highly challenging for Pakistan. Rooted in the traumatic 1947 partition, it has been marked by deep-seated mistrust, several wars (1947-48, 1965, 1971, and the 1999 Kargil conflict), and numerous military standoffs. The core issue remains the Kashmir conflict, which both countries claim in its entirety. Other points of contention include cross-border terrorism allegations, water disputes, and an ongoing arms race, including nuclear weapons. Despite the persistent tension, there have been periods of dialogue and peace initiatives, such as the Simla Agreement (1972) and the Lahore Declaration (1999), though sustained progress has been elusive. The relationship profoundly impacts regional stability and Pakistan's foreign and defense policies.

6.2. Relations with China

[[File:194c776db78_0988c2e2.jpg|width=640px|height=911px|upright=0.8|thumb|Pakistani Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (left) with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai (right) signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan in Beijing. This marked an early stage in what became an "all-weather" strategic partnership.]]
Pakistan's relationship with the People's Republic of China is exceptionally close and often described as an "all-weather strategic cooperative partnership." It is a cornerstone of Pakistan's foreign policy. China is sometimes referred to as Pakistan's "Iron Brother."

This strong bond developed significantly after the 1962 Sino-Indian War, as both countries shared a common strategic concern regarding India. Diplomatic ties were established in 1951, shortly after the PRC's founding. Pakistan played a crucial role as an intermediary in the rapprochement between the United States and China in the early 1970s, facilitating President Richard Nixon's historic visit to Beijing.

Key aspects of the relationship include:

• Political and Diplomatic Support**: Both countries consistently support each other on core issues of national interest. China has supported Pakistan's stance on Kashmir, while Pakistan has supported China on issues like Taiwan, Tibet, Xinjiang, and the South China Sea. They coordinate closely in international forums.
• Economic Cooperation**: China is Pakistan's largest trading partner and a major investor. The most significant manifestation of this economic partnership is the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a multi-billion dollar infrastructure development project launched in 2013 as part of China's Belt and Road Initiative. CPEC involves the development of transportation networks (roads, railways), energy projects (power plants), and the Gwadar Port. A Free Trade Agreement has been in place since 2006, further boosting economic ties.
• Military and Defense Cooperation**: This is a critical pillar of the relationship. China is a major supplier of military hardware to Pakistan. The two countries engage in joint military exercises, co-production of defense equipment (such as the JF-17 Thunder fighter jet), and intelligence sharing.
• Strategic Alignment**: The relationship is driven by shared strategic interests, including regional stability, counter-terrorism efforts, and balancing other regional and global powers.

Despite changes in leadership in both countries and evolving regional and global dynamics, the Sino-Pakistani relationship has remained remarkably consistent and robust, characterized by high levels of mutual trust and cooperation across various sectors. China's largest embassy abroad is located in Pakistan.

6.3. Relations with the United States

Pakistan's relationship with the United States has been complex and has fluctuated significantly over the decades, often described as a "transactional" or "on-and-off" alliance. It has been shaped by Cold War dynamics, regional conflicts, counter-terrorism efforts, and differing strategic priorities.

• Cold War Era**: Pakistan aligned with the U.S. during the Cold War, joining U.S.-led alliances like SEATO and CENTO in the 1950s. This brought significant military and economic aid. The U.S. valued Pakistan's strategic location against the Soviet Union. However, relations cooled at times, particularly over U.S. arms embargoes during wars with India.
• Soviet-Afghan War (1980s)**: Pakistan became a crucial frontline state and a close U.S. ally during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. It served as a conduit for U.S. and Saudi aid to the Afghan mujahideen. This period saw a massive influx of U.S. assistance.
• Post-Cold War Sanctions (1990s)**: After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, U.S. interest in Pakistan waned. Relations soured significantly due to Pakistan's nuclear weapons program, leading to U.S. sanctions under the Pressler Amendment.
• War on Terror (Post-9/11)**: Following the 9/11 attacks, Pakistan again became a key U.S. partner in the War on Terror. President Pervez Musharraf allied Pakistan with the U.S. against Al-Qaeda and the Taliban. Pakistan was granted Major non-NATO ally status in 2004 and received substantial military and economic aid. However, this alliance was fraught with mistrust. The U.S. accused elements within Pakistan of supporting the Taliban insurgency in Afghanistan, while Pakistan felt its sacrifices in the War on Terror were not fully appreciated and objected to U.S. drone strikes on its territory. The discovery and killing of Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, Pakistan, in 2011 further strained relations.
• Current Dynamics**: The relationship continues to be characterized by a mix of cooperation and divergence. Areas of engagement include counter-terrorism, regional stability (particularly concerning Afghanistan), and economic ties. However, differences persist over issues like Pakistan's relationship with certain militant groups, its nuclear program, and its close ties with China. The U.S. remains an important trading partner and a source of aid, but the strategic alignment is less pronounced than in previous eras.

6.4. Relations with Afghanistan

Pakistan's relationship with Afghanistan is deeply intertwined by geography, history, ethnicity (particularly the Pashtun population straddling the Durand Line border), and decades of conflict and instability in Afghanistan.

• Durand Line**: The border, demarcated in 1893, has been a persistent source of tension, as Afghanistan has never formally recognized it as a permanent international boundary.
• Soviet-Afghan War and Civil War**: Pakistan played a major role during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan (1979-1989) by supporting the Afghan mujahideen. It hosted millions of Afghan refugees, a situation that continues to have social and economic impacts. After the Soviet withdrawal, Pakistan was involved in the subsequent Afghan civil war, eventually supporting the Taliban's rise to power in the mid-1990s.
• Post-9/11 Era**: After the U.S.-led intervention in Afghanistan in 2001, Pakistan became a key, albeit complex, partner in the War on Terror. Relations with the U.S.-backed Afghan governments in Kabul were often strained, with mutual accusations of cross-border militancy and interference.
• Current Issues**: Key contemporary issues include:
  • Border Management and Security**: Cross-border movement of militants and smugglers remains a major concern. Pakistan has fenced large parts of the border.
  • Refugee Issues**: Pakistan continues to host a large number of Afghan refugees, and their repatriation or integration is a complex challenge. In October 2023, Pakistan ordered the deportation of undocumented refugees, primarily affecting Afghans.
  • Trade and Connectivity**: Afghanistan is a landlocked country, and Pakistan provides crucial transit routes for its trade.
  • Impact of Taliban Rule in Afghanistan**: The Taliban's return to power in Afghanistan in 2021 has presented new challenges and opportunities for Pakistan, impacting regional security dynamics and Pakistan's own struggle with groups like the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP).

  The relationship is characterized by a mix of interdependence and mistrust, with both countries significantly affected by developments within the other.

6.5. Relations with the Muslim World

Pakistan, founded as a homeland for Muslims, places significant emphasis on its relations with other Muslim-majority countries and its role within the Islamic world.

• Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)**: Pakistan is an active and influential member of the OIC, often using it as a platform to advocate for causes relevant to the Muslim Ummah, including the Palestinian issue and Kashmir. Pakistan hosted the second OIC summit in Lahore in 1974.
• Pan-Islamic Aspirations**: In its early years, Pakistan harbored aspirations of leading a pan-Islamic bloc, sometimes referred to as "Islamistan." While this grand vision did not fully materialize due to the diverse national interests of other Muslim states, the sentiment of Islamic solidarity remains a key element of its foreign policy.
• Relations with Key Muslim Nations**:
  • Saudi Arabia**: A historically close strategic and economic partner. Saudi Arabia has provided significant financial assistance to Pakistan, and the two countries share close religious and military ties. Pakistan has provided military support and training to Saudi Arabia.
  • Iran**: Relations with neighboring Iran have been complex, marked by periods of cooperation and tension. While both are Muslim-majority nations, geopolitical alignments (e.g., during the Cold War, Iran's revolution) and sectarian differences (Sunni-majority Pakistan, Shia-majority Iran) have sometimes strained ties. Border security and economic cooperation are current areas of focus. Pakistan has at times played a mediatory role in tensions involving Iran, such as mediating between Saudi Arabia and Iran.
  • Turkey**: Pakistan and Turkey share a historically warm and fraternal relationship, based on shared cultural, religious, and strategic interests. They cooperate closely in various fields, including defense and trade, and support each other on key international issues.
• Support for Muslim Causes**: Pakistan has historically advocated for self-determination and supported independence movements in various Muslim countries, such as Indonesia, Algeria, and [[Eritrea]]. It has also been a strong supporter of the Palestinian cause.
• Sectarian Proxy Conflicts**: At times, Pakistan has been a theater for proxy rivalries between larger Muslim powers, particularly Iran and Saudi Arabia, which has exacerbated domestic sectarian tensions.
• Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition**: Pakistan is a member of this Saudi-led coalition.

Pakistan's engagement with the Muslim world is multifaceted, encompassing political, economic, cultural, and security dimensions.

6.6. Relations with Other Key Nations

Beyond its immediate neighbors and major global powers, Pakistan maintains important diplomatic and economic ties with several other nations and blocs:

• Russia**: Historically, relations were strained during the Cold War, especially due to Pakistan's alliance with the U.S. and its role in the Soviet-Afghan War. However, since the end of the Cold War, ties have gradually improved. Areas of cooperation include energy, defense, and counter-terrorism. Pakistan and Russia are both members of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO).
• Japan**: Japan has been a significant development partner for Pakistan, providing substantial economic assistance and investment, particularly in infrastructure and social sectors. Trade relations are also important.
• European Union (EU)**: The EU is a major trading partner for Pakistan and an important source of development aid. Pakistan benefits from the EU's GSP+ (Generalized Scheme of Preferences Plus) status, which grants preferential access to the EU market for its exports. Political dialogue on issues like human rights, democracy, and security is ongoing.
• Commonwealth of Nations**: Pakistan is a member of the Commonwealth. Its membership has been suspended at times due to military coups (e.g., after the 1999 coup) but has generally been restored following returns to democratic rule.
• ASEAN**: Pakistan is a sectoral dialogue partner of ASEAN and seeks to enhance economic and political engagement with Southeast Asian nations.
• Canada and Australia**: Pakistan maintains diplomatic relations with these Commonwealth countries, with notable Pakistani diaspora communities in both nations contributing to bilateral ties.
• Armenia**: Pakistan is the only UN member state that does not recognize Armenia, a stance linked to Pakistan's support for Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.

Pakistan's foreign policy aims to diversify its partnerships to support its economic and security objectives, engaging with a wide array of countries and international organizations.

7.1. Structure and Capabilities

The Pakistan Armed Forces consist of three main service branches, along with several paramilitary forces that support their operations:

1. **Pakistan Army**: This is the land-based branch and the largest component of the armed forces. It is responsible for land-based military operations.

• Personnel Strength**: It has a large active-duty force, supplemented by reserves. As of 2024, the total active personnel in the armed forces (all branches combined) is around 660,000.
• Major Equipment**: The army is equipped with a range of modern and older generation main battle tanks (e.g., Al-Khalid, T-80UD), armored personnel carriers, artillery systems (including self-propelled howitzers and multiple rocket launchers), attack helicopters, and surveillance drones.
• Operational Readiness**: The army is heavily deployed along the eastern border with India (including the Line of Control in Kashmir) and has been extensively involved in counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism operations in the western regions bordering Afghanistan.

2. **Pakistan Navy**: Responsible for naval defense and maritime security in the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman.

• Major Equipment**: Its fleet includes frigates, submarines (including air-independent propulsion (AIP) capable submarines), missile boats, patrol craft, mine countermeasures vessels, and auxiliary ships. It also has a naval aviation wing with maritime patrol aircraft and anti-submarine helicopters.
• Key Bases**: Major naval bases are located in Karachi and Ormara (Jinnah Naval Base). Gwadar Port also has strategic naval importance.

3. **Pakistan Air Force (PAF)**: Responsible for air defense and offensive air operations.

• Major Equipment**: The PAF operates a mix of modern and older fighter aircraft, including JF-17 Thunder (co-produced with China), F-16 Fighting Falcons, J-10C, and older Mirage III/5 aircraft. It also possesses airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft, transport aircraft, and training aircraft.
• Capabilities**: The PAF is focused on maintaining air superiority, providing close air support to ground forces, and strategic strike capabilities.

• Paramilitary Forces (Civil Armed Forces - CAF)**:

These forces operate under the federal Ministry of Interior but are often commanded by army officers and play a crucial role in border security and internal security:

• Pakistan Rangers**: Deployed in Punjab and Sindh, primarily for border security with India and internal security duties.
• Frontier Corps**: Operates in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan, securing borders with Afghanistan and Iran and involved in counter-insurgency.
• Pakistan Coast Guards**: Responsible for maritime law enforcement along the coast.
• National Guard** and other smaller forces. As of 2024, paramilitary personnel strength is around 291,000.

• Strategic Plans Division (SPD) Force**: This is a separate command responsible for the security and management of Pakistan's nuclear arsenal and strategic assets. It operates under the National Command Authority.

• Command Structure**:

The civilian President is the ceremonial Commander-in-Chief. The Prime Minister holds executive authority. The highest-ranking military officer is the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC), who serves as the principal military adviser to the civilian government and the National Command Authority. However, the service chiefs (Chief of Army Staff, Chief of Naval Staff, and Chief of Air Staff) retain operational command over their respective branches. The Joint Staff Headquarters (JSHQ) coordinates inter-service cooperation.

Pakistan's military maintains close defense ties with several countries, particularly China (a major supplier of equipment and technology) and Turkey. It has also historically received significant military aid and equipment from the United States. Pakistan was the 5th-largest importer of arms between 2019 and 2023.

7.2. Military History

The military history of Pakistan began with its independence in 1947, inheriting personnel and traditions from the British Indian Army. Since then, the Pakistan Armed Forces have been involved in numerous conflicts, counter-insurgency operations, and international peacekeeping missions, significantly shaping the nation's security and political landscape.

• Wars with India**:

The most significant military engagements for Pakistan have been its wars with India, primarily over the disputed territory of Kashmir:

• First Kashmir War (1947-1948)**: Erupted shortly after partition over the accession of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Resulted in Kashmir's division along a ceasefire line (now the Line of Control), with Pakistan controlling Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan.
• Second Kashmir War (1965)**: A full-scale conflict that began with skirmishes escalating into major battles. It ended in a stalemate and a UN-mediated ceasefire, with both sides returning to pre-war positions after the Tashkent Declaration.
• Bangladesh Liberation War/Third Indo-Pakistani War (1971)**: Stemming from the political crisis in East Pakistan, this war led to [[India]]'s intervention in support of Bengali nationalist forces. It resulted in a decisive defeat for Pakistan, the surrender of its forces in East Pakistan, and the creation of [[Bangladesh]].
• Kargil Conflict (1999)**: A limited conflict in the Kargil district of Kashmir after Pakistani-backed forces infiltrated Indian-administered territory. India repelled the infiltrators. This conflict brought both nuclear-armed nations to the brink of a wider war.

• Involvement in the Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989)**:

Pakistan played a crucial role as a frontline state during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. Its intelligence agency, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), coordinated with the U.S. CIA and Saudi Arabia to support and train the Afghan mujahideen fighting against Soviet forces. The PAF also had engagements with Soviet and Afghan air forces during this period. This involvement had long-lasting impacts on Pakistan, including the influx of refugees, proliferation of weapons, and the rise of militant groups.

• Counter-Terrorism Operations (War in North-West Pakistan)**:

Since the early 2000s, particularly after the 9/11 attacks and Pakistan's alignment with the U.S. in the War on Terror, the military has been engaged in a protracted insurgency in its northwestern tribal areas (now part of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) against various militant groups, including the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and foreign fighters. Major operations include Operation Al Mizan (2002-2006), Operation Rah-e-Haq (2007-2009), Operation Sherdil (2008), Operation Zalzala (2008), Operation Black Thunderstorm (2009), Operation Rah-e-Nijat (2009), and Operation Zarb-e-Azb (2014-2017), and Operation Radd-ul-Fasaad (2017-present). These operations have aimed to clear militant strongholds but have also resulted in significant displacement and casualties.

• UN Peacekeeping Missions**:

Pakistan has been a major and consistent contributor to UN peacekeeping missions around the world. Pakistani troops have served in various conflict zones, including [[Somalia]] (notably the rescue mission in Mogadishu in 1993), [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Sierra Leone]], Congo, [[Liberia]], and others. As of 2023, Pakistan was among the top troop-contributing countries to UN missions.

• Other Deployments and Engagements**:

The military's historical engagements have significantly influenced its doctrine, capabilities, and its role within the Pakistani state, often leading to a strong emphasis on national security and a considerable allocation of national resources to defense.

7.3. Nuclear Program

Pakistan's nuclear program is a cornerstone of its national security and strategic policy. It is one of nine countries to possess nuclear weapons and the only Muslim-majority country to have this capability. The program's development was driven by perceived threats, primarily from India, and the desire for a credible deterrent.

• Development History**:
  • Initiation**: The foundations of Pakistan's nuclear program were laid in the 1950s with a focus on peaceful applications of nuclear energy. However, following India's decisive victory in the 1971 war and India's first nuclear test ("Smiling Buddha") in 1974, Pakistan's nuclear program accelerated with a clear weapons objective. Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto famously initiated the clandestine weapons development project.
  • Key Figures and Institutions**: Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, a metallurgist, played a pivotal role in developing gas centrifuge technology for uranium enrichment at the Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL). The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), under scientists like Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad and Dr. Munir Ahmad Khan, focused on plutonium production and weapon design.
  • Nuclear Tests**: In response to India's second series of nuclear tests (Pokhran-II) in May 1998, Pakistan conducted its own series of nuclear tests (codenamed Chagai-I on May 28 and Chagai-II on May 30, 1998) in Balochistan. These tests confirmed Pakistan's status as a nuclear power.
  • Strategic Doctrine**:
    • Minimum Credible Deterrence**: Pakistan's official nuclear doctrine is based on maintaining a "minimum credible deterrence" against external aggression, particularly from India, which has conventional military superiority. This doctrine implies possessing a sufficient and survivable nuclear arsenal to deter any attack.
    • Full Spectrum Deterrence**: In recent years, there has been discussion and indication that Pakistan may be moving towards a "full spectrum deterrence" posture, which could include the development of tactical (battlefield) nuclear weapons (like the Nasr missile) to counter India's "Cold Start" doctrine for conventional warfare. This shift has raised concerns about lowering the nuclear threshold.
    • No First Use Policy**: Unlike India, Pakistan has not adopted a "No First Use" (NFU) policy regarding nuclear weapons. It reserves the right to use nuclear weapons if its existence is threatened, which could include a large-scale conventional attack.
    • Command and Control**:

    The National Command Authority (NCA) is the supreme body responsible for policy formulation, command, and control over Pakistan's nuclear weapons program and strategic assets. It is chaired by the Prime Minister and includes key civilian and military leaders. The Strategic Plans Division (SPD) acts as the secretariat for the NCA and is responsible for the operational management and security of the nuclear arsenal.

    • International Engagement and Non-Proliferation**:

Pakistan views its nuclear capability as vital for its national security and a guarantor against existential threats. The program remains a sensitive and central element of its defense posture.

8.1. Economic History and Development

Since its independence in 1947, Pakistan's economic trajectory has been varied.

• Early Years (1950s-1960s)**: The initial decades saw efforts towards industrialization, often through import substitution policies. The 1960s, under Ayub Khan, are often referred to as the "Decade of Development," with significant GDP growth driven by industrial expansion and the Green Revolution in agriculture. However, this growth also led to increased income inequality and regional disparities, particularly between West and East Pakistan.
• 1970s**: The government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto implemented large-scale nationalization of major industries, banks, and educational institutions under a policy of "Islamic Socialism." This period also saw the economic impact of the 1971 war and the oil crisis.
• 1980s**: Under General Zia-ul-Haq, there was a shift towards economic liberalization and privatization, alongside policies for the Islamization of the economy. The economy experienced high growth rates, partly fueled by remittances from Pakistani workers in the Middle East and aid related to the Soviet-Afghan War.
• 1990s**: This decade was marked by political instability with alternating democratic governments, leading to inconsistent economic policies and slower growth. Pakistan embarked on structural adjustment programs with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank.
• 2000s**: The early to mid-2000s, under Pervez Musharraf, saw another period of relatively high economic growth, driven by further liberalization, privatization, and increased foreign investment and aid, particularly after Pakistan joined the U.S.-led War on Terror. However, by the end of the decade, the economy faced challenges including rising inflation and a balance of payments crisis.
• 2010s-Present**: The economy has continued to experience cycles of growth and crisis, often requiring IMF support. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) initiative, launched in 2013, has brought significant Chinese investment in infrastructure and energy but has also contributed to rising external debt. Persistent issues include a narrow tax base, large fiscal deficits, energy shortages, and structural impediments to growth.

Pakistan's economy is the 24th-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) and the 43rd-largest by nominal GDP (as of historical estimates). It is considered one of the Next Eleven emerging economies.

8.2. Major Sectors

Pakistan's economy is diversified across agriculture, industry, and services, with the services sector being the largest contributor to GDP.

8.3. Trade and Investment

Pakistan's engagement in international trade and its ability to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) are crucial for its economic growth and development.

• International Trade**:
  • Major Trading Partners**:
    • Export Destinations**: Key export markets include the [[United States]], European Union (especially [[Germany]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[Italy]]), [[China]], [[United Arab Emirates]], and [[Afghanistan]].
    • Import Sources**: Major sources of imports are [[China]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United States]], [[Indonesia]], [[Kuwait]], and [[Japan]].
  • Key Exports**: Pakistan's main exports are dominated by textiles and apparel (including cotton yarn, fabrics, bedwear, knitwear, and readymade garments). Other significant exports include rice, leather goods, sports goods (especially footballs), surgical instruments, chemicals, and fruits.
  • Key Imports**: Major imports include petroleum and petroleum products (a significant drain on foreign exchange reserves), machinery, industrial raw materials, chemicals, edible oils, iron and steel, and vehicles.
  • Trade Balance**: Pakistan has historically faced a persistent trade deficit, with imports consistently exceeding exports. This deficit contributes to pressure on its foreign exchange reserves and balance of payments. The trade deficit was {{cvt|23.96|B|USD}} in the fiscal year 2015-16. Pakistan's share of global exports has been relatively small, around 0.13% in 2007 according to the WTO, indicating a need to enhance export competitiveness and diversify its export base.
  • Trade Agreements**: Pakistan has signed various bilateral and multilateral trade agreements, including SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area) and free trade agreements (FTAs) with countries like China, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. It also benefits from preferential trade schemes like the EU's GSP+.
  • Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)**:

• Remittances**:

Remittances from overseas Pakistanis are a crucial source of foreign exchange for the country, often exceeding FDI inflows and playing a significant role in supporting the balance of payments and household incomes. The Pakistani diaspora, particularly in the Middle East, North America, and Europe, contributes substantially. In 2015-16, remittances amounted to approximately {{cvt|19.9|B|USD}}.

Efforts to boost trade and investment often focus on improving the business environment, enhancing export competitiveness through value addition and diversification, exploring new markets, and ensuring policy consistency and security for investors.

8.4. Economic Challenges and Social Equity

Despite periods of growth, Pakistan's economy faces persistent challenges that impact its long-term stability and the well-being of its population. Achieving greater social equity and inclusive growth remains a critical objective.

• Key Economic Challenges**:
  • Poverty and Income Inequality**: A significant portion of the population lives below the poverty line (estimated at 21.04% living below {{cvt|1.25|USD}} a day in some reports, though figures vary). Income inequality is also a concern, with wealth concentrated in certain segments of society and regions. Rural poverty is generally higher than urban poverty.
  • Unemployment and Underemployment**: Providing sufficient employment opportunities for a rapidly growing young population is a major challenge. The official unemployment rate (around 5.5-5.7% in historical estimates) may not fully capture underemployment or issues in the informal sector. Youth unemployment is particularly high.
  • Inflation**: High and volatile inflation erodes purchasing power, especially for low-income households, and can create macroeconomic instability. Food price inflation is often a significant concern.
  • National Debt**: Pakistan has a high level of public debt, both domestic and external. Debt servicing consumes a substantial portion of the government's budget, limiting fiscal space for development and social spending. The country has frequently sought assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to manage balance of payments crises, often accompanied by austerity measures.
  • Fiscal Deficit**: A persistent gap between government revenues and expenditures contributes to borrowing and debt accumulation. A narrow tax base (low tax-to-GDP ratio) and challenges in tax collection are key issues.
  • Current Account Deficit**: A structural deficit in the current account, driven by a trade deficit (imports exceeding exports) and other factors, puts pressure on foreign exchange reserves.
  • Energy Crisis**: Chronic energy shortages (electricity and gas) have historically hampered industrial production and daily life, though investments, particularly under CPEC, have aimed to address this. Issues of circular debt in the power sector persist.
  • Low Savings and Investment Rates**: Compared to other emerging economies, Pakistan has relatively low rates of domestic savings and investment, which can constrain long-term growth potential.
  • Governance and Corruption**: Weak governance, institutional capacity, and corruption are significant impediments to economic development and efficient resource allocation.
  • Social Equity and Inclusive Growth**:
    • Access to Basic Services**: Disparities exist in access to quality education, healthcare, clean water, and sanitation, particularly between urban and rural areas, and across different income groups and provinces.
    • Human Development Indicators**: Pakistan's human development indicators (literacy, health outcomes, etc.) often lag behind other countries with similar income levels.
    • Gender Inequality**: Women face significant disadvantages in education, employment, and access to resources, limiting their economic participation and overall development.
    • Regional Disparities**: Economic development has been uneven across provinces, with regions like Balochistan and parts of Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa lagging behind Punjab and major urban centers.
    • Policies and Efforts**:

    Governments have often articulated policies aimed at poverty reduction, job creation, controlling inflation, and fiscal consolidation. Social safety net programs like the Benazir Income Support Programme (BISP) and the Ehsaas Programme aim to provide direct support to the poorest households. Efforts to broaden the tax base, improve governance, enhance export competitiveness, and invest in human capital are ongoing, though with varying degrees of success. Achieving sustainable and inclusive growth that translates into improved living standards for all segments of the population remains a central long-term challenge.

8.5. Tourism

[[File:194c776f09e_b3e0959c.jpg|width=4928px|height=3264px|thumb|right|Shangrila Lake and the adjoining resort in Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan, is a popular tourist destination known for its scenic beauty.]]
Tourism in Pakistan possesses significant potential due to the country's diverse cultural heritage, rich history, and varied natural landscapes, ranging from towering mountain peaks in the north to ancient archaeological sites and coastal areas. However, the sector's development has been hampered by various challenges, including security concerns, infrastructure limitations, and inconsistent policy focus.

• Major Attractions**:
  • Cultural and Historical Sites**:
    • Indus Valley Civilization Sites**: Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, both UNESCO World Heritage Sites, offer insights into one of the world's oldest urban civilizations.
    • Gandhara Buddhist Sites**: Taxila (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Takht-i-Bahi (UNESCO World Heritage Site), and Swat Valley are rich in Buddhist art and monastic ruins, reflecting the Greco-Buddhist period.
    • Mughal Era Monuments**: Lahore is particularly famous for its Mughal heritage, including the Lahore Fort and Shalimar Gardens (both UNESCO World Heritage Sites), Badshahi Mosque, Wazir Khan Mosque, and Jahangir's Tomb. Other cities like Multan (Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam) and Thatta (Makli Necropolis and Shah Jahan Mosque, UNESCO World Heritage Sites) also boast significant Islamic architecture.
    • Forts and Shrines**: Numerous forts like Rohtas Fort (UNESCO World Heritage Site) and Derawar Fort, and Sufi shrines attract pilgrims and tourists.
  • Natural Attractions**:
    • Northern Areas (Gilgit-Baltistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa)**: This region is renowned for its spectacular mountain scenery, including some of the world's highest peaks like K2 and Nanga Parbat. It offers opportunities for mountaineering, trekking, and adventure tourism. Valleys like Hunza, Skardu, Chitral (home to the Kalasha community), Swat, Kaghan, and Neelum Valley are popular for their beauty. Deosai National Park is one of the highest plateaus in the world.
    • Lakes**: Lake Saiful Muluk, Shangrila Lake (Lower Kachura Lake), Attabad Lake, and Keenjhar Lake are notable scenic lakes.
    • Deserts**: The Thar Desert in Sindh and the Cholistan Desert in Punjab offer unique landscapes and cultural experiences.
    • Coastal Areas**: While less developed for tourism, the Balochistan coast and Sindh coast have potential for beach tourism and marine activities. Hingol National Park along the Makran Coastal Highway is known for its unique geological formations.
  • Religious Tourism**: Pakistan has significant potential for religious tourism, attracting Sikhs (to sites like Kartarpur Sahib and Nankana Sahib), Buddhists, and Hindus to their respective holy places. Sufi shrines also draw large numbers of devotees.
  • Current State and Challenges**:
    • Visitor Numbers**: Pakistan attracted around 6.6 million foreign tourists in 2018, a significant increase in preceding years, but this declined from the peak tourism of the 1970s driven by the Hippie trail. Domestic tourism is also substantial.
    • Infrastructure**: Lack of adequate tourism infrastructure (hotels, transport, amenities) in many areas, especially remote ones, is a challenge.
    • Security Perception**: Past security concerns and negative international media portrayal have significantly impacted international tourist arrivals, although the security situation has improved in recent years.
    • Visa Policies and Promotion**: While efforts have been made to ease visa policies, further streamlining and more effective international marketing are needed.
    • Environmental Impact**: Unregulated tourism in ecologically sensitive areas can pose environmental threats.
    • Competitiveness**: In the 2015 World Economic Forum's Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report, Pakistan was ranked 125th out of 141 countries.

    Government initiatives and private sector efforts aim to promote Pakistan's cultural heritage and natural beauty, with a focus on improving infrastructure, ensuring safety, and marketing Pakistan as a diverse tourist destination. Events, festivals, and easier access to certain regions are part of these efforts.

9.1. Energy

[[File:194c776f795_b0f3b7ea.jpg|width=894px|height=596px|thumb|right|The Tarbela Dam, one of the world's largest earth-filled dams, constructed in 1968, is a crucial component of Pakistan's hydropower generation and irrigation system.]]
The energy sector in Pakistan is critical for its economic development and daily life, but it has historically faced significant challenges, including chronic shortages, inefficiencies, and issues of affordability and access.

• Power Generation Mix**:

Pakistan's electricity generation relies on a mix of sources:

• Hydropower**: A major contributor, utilizing the country's extensive river systems, particularly the Indus River and its tributaries. Key hydropower plants include Tarbela Dam, Mangla Dam, and Ghazi-Barotha. Hydropower contributes significantly, around 29.9% of the mix according to some estimates.
• Thermal Power (Fossil Fuels)**: This is the largest component of power generation, primarily using imported furnace oil, natural gas, and increasingly, imported coal. This reliance on imported fuels makes the sector vulnerable to international price fluctuations and impacts the balance of payments. Fossil fuels provide approximately 64.2% of electricity.
• Nuclear Power**: Pakistan operates several commercial nuclear power plants, which contribute a growing share to the energy mix (around 5.8% as of May 2021, but this share is increasing with new plants coming online). The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) oversees these plants, with facilities like CHASNUPP and KANUPP. Cooperation with China has been significant in developing nuclear power capacity. Pakistan's Nuclear Energy Vision 2050 aims for a capacity of 40,000 MWe.
• Renewable Energy**: There is a growing focus on renewable energy sources like wind, solar, and biomass. Pakistan has considerable potential, particularly for wind power in Sindh and Balochistan, and solar power nationwide. Several wind and solar projects have been commissioned, and the government has set targets to increase the share of renewables in the energy mix to 20-30% by 2030.
• Coal (Local and Imported)**: While local coal (lignite from Thar) contributes a small fraction (0.1% historically), new power plants based on imported coal and Thar coal are increasing coal's share in generation.

• Challenges**:
  • Energy Shortages (Load Shedding)**: For many years, Pakistan faced severe electricity shortages, leading to widespread "load shedding" (planned power outages) that affected industries and households. While capacity has increased, particularly through CPEC projects, issues of transmission and distribution remain.
  • Circular Debt**: A persistent problem where dues accumulate across the energy supply chain (from fuel suppliers to generation companies to distribution companies and consumers), creating financial stress and hindering investment.
  • Inefficient Transmission and Distribution**: High technical and commercial losses in the transmission and distribution (T&D) system contribute to inefficiencies.
  • Affordability and Access**: Ensuring affordable and reliable electricity access for the entire population, especially in rural and remote areas, is an ongoing challenge.
  • Dependence on Imported Fuels**: Heavy reliance on imported oil, gas, and coal exposes the economy to price volatility and trade imbalances.
  • Development Projects and Policies**:

As of 2023, Pakistan's installed electricity generation capacity was approximately 45,885 MW. The country aims to achieve energy security through a diversified and sustainable energy mix.

9.2. Transport

[[File:1952fa358b6_c7ee2a25.jpg|width=5184px|height=3456px|thumb|right|170px|The M-2 motorway passing through the Salt Range mountains, part of Pakistan's expanding expressway network.]]
[[File:195560d654b_470fd51e.jpg|width=7177px|height=4037px|thumb|left|170px|Karachi Cantonment railway station, a major railway hub in the country.]]
Pakistan's transport infrastructure plays a vital role in its economic development, national connectivity, and regional trade. It comprises a network of roads, railways, ports, and airports.

• Roads**:

• Railways**:

• Ports**:

• Aviation**:

The Karakoram Highway, connecting Pakistan to China through the northern mountains, is one of the highest paved international roads in the world and a significant symbol of Pak-China cooperation. Overall, ongoing investments, particularly through CPEC, aim to modernize and expand Pakistan's transport infrastructure to support economic growth and regional connectivity.

10.1. Overview and Key Institutions

Scientific research and technological development in Pakistan are primarily driven by universities, specialized research organizations, and government ministries.

• Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST)**: The main federal body responsible for S&T policy and coordination.
• Pakistan Academy of Sciences**: An influential learned society that advises the government on science policy and promotes scientific excellence.
• Higher Education Commission (HEC)**: Established in 2002, the HEC has played a significant role in promoting higher education and research in universities, including funding research projects, improving faculty qualifications, and establishing quality assurance mechanisms.
• Universities**: Many public and private universities engage in scientific research across various disciplines. Institutions like Quaid-i-Azam University, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), LUMS, and COMSATS University are prominent in research output.
• Research Organizations**:
  • Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC): Primarily known for its role in nuclear technology (both energy and defense), but also conducts research in related fields like agriculture, medicine, and materials science.
  • Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR): Conducts research and development in various industrial fields.
  • National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE): A leading center for biotechnology research.
  • Medical research councils and agricultural research councils also contribute.
• Science Parks and Technology Parks**: Efforts have been made to establish science and technology parks to foster innovation and industry-academia linkages.
• International Collaborations**: Pakistani scientists and institutions participate in international research collaborations, including with organizations like CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research), where Pakistan is an associate member. The International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics is an annual event inviting scientists worldwide.

Pakistan's scientific output, measured by published papers, has increased over the years. A Thomson Reuters report in 2016 noted a significant rise in scientific productivity and citation impact. However, overall R&D spending as a percentage of GDP has remained relatively low. Pakistan was ranked 91st in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

10.2. Space Program

[[File:194c776fbed_25a5d796.jpg|width=3008px|height=2000px|thumb|A Boeing 737 of Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) at Skardu International Airport. Aviation and space technology are areas of S&T focus in Pakistan.]]
Pakistan's national space program is managed by the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO), established in 1961.

• Early Achievements**: Pakistan was among the early space-faring nations in Asia. It launched its first sounding rocket, Rehbar-I, in 1962, becoming the third country in Asia and the tenth in the world to do so.
• Satellite Development**:
  • Badr-1: Pakistan's first experimental satellite, launched in 1990, making it the first Muslim-majority country and second in South Asia to launch an indigenously built satellite.
  • Badr-B: An earth observation satellite launched in 2001.
  • Paksat-1R: A communications satellite launched in 2011 to replace Paksat-1.
  • PRSS-1 and PakTES-1A: Remote sensing and experimental satellites launched in 2018.
• Applications**: SUPARCO's activities include satellite development for communications, remote sensing (for applications in agriculture, disaster management, environmental monitoring), and space sciences. It also works on ground infrastructure for satellite control and data reception.
• Future Plans**: Pakistan aims to enhance its indigenous satellite development capabilities and expand its space applications for socio-economic development.

10.3. Information Technology

The information technology (IT) sector has been one of the fastest-growing segments of Pakistan's economy.

• Software Development and Exports**: Pakistan has a significant software development industry, with many companies providing services to international clients. IT and IT-enabled services (ITES) exports have grown substantially.
• Freelancing Hub**: Pakistan is recognized as one of the top countries for online freelancing, with a large number of IT professionals offering services globally.
• E-Governance**: The government has launched various e-governance initiatives to improve public service delivery and transparency.
• Internet Connectivity**: Internet penetration has increased significantly, with around 82 million users as of May 2020, driven by mobile broadband.
• Start-up Ecosystem**: A nascent but growing start-up culture is emerging, particularly in cities like Lahore, Karachi, and Islamabad, supported by incubators, accelerators, and venture capital.
• Human Resources**: Pakistan produces a large number of IT graduates annually.

The government has focused on developing IT infrastructure, promoting IT education, and creating a favorable policy environment to support the growth of the IT sector.

10.4. Nuclear Science and Technology

Beyond its defense applications, Pakistan has developed capabilities in the peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology, primarily under the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC).

• Nuclear Power Generation**: Pakistan operates several commercial nuclear power plants to generate electricity, contributing to its energy mix. (See Energy section for more details).
• Agriculture**: Nuclear techniques are used in agriculture for developing new crop varieties (mutation breeding), pest control, food preservation, and soil fertility studies. Institutions like the Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB) and Nuclear Institute for Food and Agriculture (NIFA) are key in this area.
• Medicine**: Nuclear medicine is well-established, with PAEC operating several medical centers across the country providing diagnostic (e.g., SPECT, PET scans) and therapeutic (e.g., radiotherapy for cancer) services. Pakistan also produces radioisotopes for medical use.
• Industry and Research**: Nuclear technology is applied in various industrial processes (e.g., non-destructive testing) and scientific research.

Notable Pakistani scientists include Dr. Abdus Salam, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for his contribution to the electroweak theory (though his Ahmadiyya faith led to a complex relationship with the state). Dr. Atta-ur-Rahman is a prominent chemist who has made significant contributions to organic chemistry and S&T development in Pakistan, winning the UNESCO Science Prize in 1999. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was a pioneer in research on the pharmacological uses of domestic plants, particularly the neem tree. Dr. Mahbub ul Haq was an influential economist who developed the Human Development Index (HDI). Ayub K. Ommaya developed the Ommaya reservoir for treating brain conditions.

11.1. Population Trends

• Population Size**: Pakistan is the fifth-most populous country in the world. According to the 2023 census, the population was over 241.5 million. This figure includes data from Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan.
• Growth Rate**: Pakistan has historically had a high population growth rate. While the rate has declined in recent years, it remains relatively high compared to many other countries. The United States Census Bureau estimated a growth rate around 1.45% in 2016. This rapid growth places considerable pressure on resources, infrastructure, and social services.
• Density**: Population density varies significantly across the country, with the highest concentrations in the Indus River plain (particularly Punjab and Sindh) and major urban centers. Balochistan, despite being the largest province by area, is sparsely populated.
• Age Structure**: Pakistan has a very young population, with a large proportion of its citizens under the age of 30. The median age was around 23.4 years in 2016. This "youth bulge" presents both a demographic dividend (a large potential workforce) and a challenge (providing education and employment).
• Urbanization**: Urbanization has been a significant trend since independence. In 1990-2008, around 36% of the population lived in urban areas, making Pakistan one of South Asia's most urbanized nations, with over 50% living in towns of 5,000 or more inhabitants. Major cities like Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad, and Rawalpindi-Islamabad have experienced rapid growth due to rural-to-urban migration and natural increase. This has led to challenges such as housing shortages, strain on public services, and environmental pressures in urban areas. Karachi is the most populous commercial hub.

11.2. Ethnic Groups

Pakistan is an ethnically diverse country. The major ethnolinguistic groups include:

• Punjabis**: The largest ethnic group, comprising approximately 36.98% of the population (2023 census). They predominantly inhabit the Punjab province and speak Punjabi and its various dialects.
• Pashtuns** (Pathans): The second-largest group, around 18.15%, primarily residing in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northern Balochistan, and Karachi. They speak Pashto.
• Sindhis**: Making up about 14.31% of the population, concentrated in the Sindh province. Their language is Sindhi.
• Saraikis**: Constituting around 12%, mainly found in southern Punjab. They speak Saraiki, which is closely related to Punjabi and Sindhi.
• Muhajirs** (Urdu-speaking people): Approximately 9.25% of the population. These are descendants of Muslim immigrants from various parts of India who settled in Pakistan, especially in urban Sindh (Karachi, Hyderabad), after the 1947 partition. Urdu is their mother tongue.
• Balochis**: Around 3.38%, predominantly living in the Balochistan province. They speak Balochi.
• Hindkowans** / Hazarewals: About 2.32%, found in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and parts of Punjab, speaking Hindko.
• Brahuis**: Approximately 1.16%, mainly in Balochistan, speaking the Dravidian language Brahui.

Smaller ethnic groups include Kashmiris, Paharis, Chitralis, various peoples of Gilgit-Baltistan (like Shina, Balti, Burusho), Kohistanis, Torwalis, Meos, Hazaras, Kalash (an indigenous Dardic group in Chitral with unique customs), and Siddis (of African descent).

This ethnic diversity contributes to a rich cultural tapestry but has also, at times, been a source of political tension and demands for regional autonomy and rights. Inter-ethnic relations are generally complex, influenced by historical, political, and socio-economic factors. The Pakistani diaspora numbers over seven million, being the sixth largest globally.

[[File:194c776fffd_00fba8c0.jpg|width=3264px|height=2104px|thumb|left|Afghan refugee children near Islamabad fetching water. Pakistan has hosted one of the largest refugee populations globally, primarily from Afghanistan.]]
Since the 1947 partition, Indian Muslims continued migrating to Pakistan, particularly to Karachi and the Sindh province. The wars in neighboring Afghanistan during the 1980s and 1990s led to millions of Afghan refugees entering Pakistan. They mainly settled in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the tribal areas, with some also in Karachi and Quetta. Pakistan continues to host one of the world's largest refugee populations. Additionally, there are estimates of around 2 million Bangladeshis and half a million undocumented individuals, reportedly from Myanmar (Rohingya), residing in Pakistan. In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered the deportation of thousands of undocumented refugees, primarily Afghans, citing security concerns.

Migration of Bengalis and Rohingya people to Pakistan began in the 1980s and continued until 1998. Karachi hosts a significant number of Bengali settlements, and large-scale Rohingya migration made it one of their largest population centers outside Myanmar. The city's Burmese community resides in various slums. According to BBC World Service, thousands of Uyghur Muslims live in Gilgit-Baltistan; some left Xinjiang, China, and the trading town of Kashgar in 1949, while others are later arrivals claiming to escape political oppression. Since 1989, thousands of Kashmiri Muslim refugees have fled to Pakistan, alleging mistreatment and forced displacement by Indian soldiers.

11.3. Languages

Pakistan has a rich linguistic landscape, with estimates suggesting between 75 and 85 distinct languages spoken across the country. This diversity reflects its varied ethnic composition and historical influences.

• Official Languages**:
  • Urdu**: Designated as the national language, Urdu serves as a symbol of national unity and a lingua franca, understood by over 75% of Pakistanis. While it is the mother tongue of only about 9.25% of the population (primarily Muhajirs), it is widely used in media, education (as a medium of instruction in many schools), and formal communication.
  • English**: Retains its status as an official language and is widely used in government, business, higher education, and the legal system. Pakistani English has developed its own distinct features.
• Major Regional Languages (Mother Tongues, 2023 Census)**:
  • Punjabi**: The most widely spoken mother tongue (36.98%), predominantly in Punjab province. It has several dialects.
  • Pashto**: Spoken by 18.15% of the population, mainly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northern Balochistan, and parts of Karachi.
  • Sindhi**: The mother tongue of 14.31% of Pakistanis, concentrated in Sindh province.
  • Saraiki**: Spoken by 12.00%, primarily in southern Punjab. It is sometimes considered a dialect of Punjabi.
  • Balochi**: The language of 3.38% of the population, mainly in Balochistan.
  • Hindko**: Spoken by 2.32%, largely in parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (like Hazara division) and Punjab.
  • Brahui**: A Dravidian language spoken by 1.16% of the population, mostly in Balochistan.
• Other Languages**:
  • Smaller regional languages include Kashmiri, Pothwari/Pahari, Shina, Balti, Burushaski, Khowar (Chitrali), various Dardic and Kohistani languages in the northern areas.
  • There are also numerous other local languages and dialects spoken by smaller communities across the country.
  • Language Policy and Education**:

  The Constitution of Pakistan mandates the promotion of Urdu as the national language. However, English continues to play a significant role, especially in higher education and official domains. The use and status of regional languages in education and public life have been subjects of debate and policy initiatives. There is a growing movement for the recognition and promotion of regional languages in the education system to preserve linguistic diversity and cater to local needs. The linguistic diversity is a significant aspect of Pakistan's cultural richness.

11.4. Religion

Religion in Pakistan is a central aspect of its identity and society, with Islam being the constitutionally declared state religion. While the constitution guarantees freedom of religion, the practical experience of religious minorities often involves challenges and discrimination.

• Islam**: The overwhelming majority of Pakistanis are Muslims, accounting for approximately 96.3% - 96.5% of the population (based on 2017 and 2023 census data). Pakistan has the second-largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia.
  • Sunni Islam**: The majority of Pakistani Muslims are Sunnis, with estimates ranging from 75% to 95%. The Hanafi school of jurisprudence is predominant among Sunnis. Sufism has a strong traditional presence and influence within Pakistani Sunni Islam, with numerous shrines and a large following, though it has faced challenges from more puritanical interpretations of Islam.
  • Shia Islam**: Shias constitute a significant minority, estimated to be between 5% and 25% of the Muslim population (with 2019 estimates suggesting around 42 million Shias). The Twelver (Ithna'ashari) school is the most common among Shias. Sectarian tensions and violence against Shias by extremist Sunni groups have been a recurring problem.
  • Ahmadiyya**: The Ahmadiyya community is a religious movement that originated in the 19th century. They are officially declared non-Muslims by a 1974 constitutional amendment and subsequent laws in Pakistan. They face significant legal and societal discrimination, including restrictions on practicing and propagating their faith. Estimates of their numbers vary, but they are a small minority.
  • Non-denominational Muslims**: A segment of Muslims (around 12% in a 2012 Pew survey) identify as non-denominational.
  • Hinduism**: The largest religious minority, comprising approximately 2.14% - 2.2% of the population (2017 and 2023 census data). The majority of Pakistani Hindus reside in the Sindh province, particularly in districts like Umerkot (which has a Hindu majority), Tharparkar, Mirpurkhas, and Sanghar. They face issues such as forced conversions, discrimination, and attacks on their places of worship.
  • Christianity**: The second-largest religious minority, accounting for about 1.27% - 1.4% of the population. Pakistani Christians are spread across the country, with significant communities in Punjab (especially Lahore) and urban centers like Karachi. They too face discrimination, challenges related to blasphemy laws, and occasional violence.
  • Other Religions**:
    • Sikhism**: A small but historically significant community, with important religious sites like Nankana Sahib (birthplace of Guru Nanak) and Kartarpur Sahib located in Pakistan.
    • Buddhism**: Historically prevalent in regions like Gandhara, Buddhism now has a very small number of adherents.
    • Jainism**: Also a very small community, with historical presence.
    • Zoroastrianism (Parsis)**: A small, well-established community, mainly in Karachi.
    • Kalash People**: An indigenous group in Chitral practicing a unique polytheistic, animistic faith.
    • Baháʼí Faith**: A small community.
    • Atheism/Agnosticism**: While difficult to quantify due to social stigma, a small percentage of the population may identify as atheist or profess no faith.

    The Constitution of Pakistan guarantees freedom of religion and the right to profess, practice, and propagate one's religion. However, laws such as the blasphemy laws and societal pressures often create a challenging environment for religious minorities. Sectarianism and religious intolerance remain significant social issues.

11.5. Education

[[File:194c7771be8_586a3d7f.png|width=295px|height=280px|thumb|The NUST campus in Islamabad. NUST is one of Pakistan's top-ranked engineering and technology universities, reflecting efforts in higher education development.]]
Education in Pakistan is overseen by the federal government and provincial governments, with the federal government primarily responsible for curriculum development, accreditation, and financing of research. The Constitution of Pakistan mandates free and compulsory primary and secondary education.

• Structure of the Education System**:

The education system is generally divided into six main levels:
1. **Nursery/Pre-primary**: Early childhood education.
2. **Primary**: Grades 1 to 5.
3. **Middle**: Grades 6 to 8.
4. **Secondary/Matriculation**: Grades 9 and 10, leading to the Secondary School Certificate (SSC).
5. **Higher Secondary/Intermediate**: Grades 11 and 12, leading to the Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC).
6. **Higher Education**: University programs leading to Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral degrees.

• Institutions**:
  • Public Schools**: The largest segment, run by government authorities.
  • Private Schools**: A significant and growing sector, ranging from low-cost to elite institutions. Many private schools offer curricula based on international examination systems like Cambridge International Examinations (O-Levels and A-Levels). Pakistan had around 439 international schools as of one report.
  • Madrasahs (Islamic Seminaries)**: These institutions provide Islamic religious education, often along with free board and lodging. The government has made efforts to regulate madrasahs and integrate mainstream subjects into their curricula, amidst concerns that some may promote extremism. There are approximately 3,193 technical and vocational institutions in Pakistan, complemented by these madrasahs.
  • Universities**: Pakistan has a large number of public and private universities. Key public universities were established in each province early on, such as the University of the Punjab (Lahore), University of Sindh (Jamshoro), University of Peshawar, University of Karachi, and University of Balochistan. The Higher Education Commission (HEC), established in 2002, has played a role in improving the quality and research output of universities, though concerns about the quality of teaching in newer institutions persist.
  • Literacy Rates and Enrollment**:
    • Literacy Rate**: As of 2018, Pakistan's adult literacy rate was estimated at 62.3%. There are significant disparities between male and female literacy rates, and between urban and rural areas.
    • Enrollment**: While enrollment at the primary level has increased, dropout rates remain a challenge. Access to quality education, particularly for girls and marginalized communities (e.g., in rural Balochistan or remote northern areas), is a major concern. Government initiatives have aimed to achieve 100% enrollment among primary school-age children and an 86% literacy rate by 2015, though these targets have been difficult to meet.
    • Challenges and Reforms**:
      • Quality of Education**: Concerns exist regarding the quality of teaching, outdated curricula, and examination systems.
      • Funding**: Pakistan's expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP (around 2.3% in some recent estimates) is among the lowest in South Asia and below international recommendations.
      • Access and Equity**: Ensuring equitable access to quality education for all, regardless of gender, socio-economic status, or geographic location, remains a primary challenge.
      • Teacher Training and Development**: Improving the quality and availability of trained teachers is crucial.
      • Language of Instruction**: The medium of instruction (Urdu, English, or regional languages) is a subject of ongoing debate. Initiatives since 2007 made English medium education mandatory nationwide to some extent. In 2013, Sindh mandated Chinese language courses, reflecting China's growing influence.
      • Security**: Attacks on educational institutions, particularly girls' schools, by militant groups have occurred, notably highlighted by the 2012 attack on activist Malala Yousafzai, who later became the youngest Nobel laureate for her advocacy for education.

      Various reforms and initiatives have been launched by successive governments and international partners to address these challenges, focusing on improving access, quality, and relevance of education at all levels.

11.6. Health

[[File:194c7771e04_765aa761.jpg|width=3872px|height=3098px|thumb|left|Malala Yousafzai, awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2014 alongside Kailash Satyarthi of India, became a global advocate for education and health initiatives, particularly for girls, after surviving an assassination attempt by the Taliban for her activism.]]
The public healthcare system in Pakistan faces numerous challenges in providing accessible, affordable, and quality healthcare services to its large and diverse population. Health indicators, while showing some improvement over the decades, often lag behind those of other countries with similar economic development.

• Health Indicators**:
  • Life Expectancy**: Life expectancy at birth has increased but remains modest. (Historical data from WHO 2010: Female 67 years, Male 65 years).
  • Infant and Maternal Mortality**: Infant mortality rates (IMR) and maternal mortality ratios (MMR) are relatively high, though efforts have been made to reduce them. These are key indicators of the overall health system's effectiveness.
  • Disease Burden**: Pakistan faces a double burden of disease:
    • Communicable Diseases**: Diseases like tuberculosis, malaria, dengue fever, typhoid fever, hepatitis (B and C), and HIV/AIDS remain significant public health concerns. Polio eradication efforts have been ongoing but face challenges.
    • Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)**: There is a rising prevalence of NCDs such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases, linked to lifestyle changes, diet, and environmental factors.
  • Malnutrition**: Malnutrition, including stunting and wasting in children, and micronutrient deficiencies, is a widespread problem, impacting long-term health and development.
  • Healthcare System Structure**:
    • Public Sector**: The government provides healthcare services through a network of basic health units (BHUs), rural health centers (RHCs), tehsil headquarters hospitals (THQs), district headquarters hospitals (DHQs), and tertiary care teaching hospitals in major cities. These services are often subsidized or free but can suffer from understaffing, lack of equipment and medicines, and quality issues.
    • Private Sector**: The private sector plays a significant role in healthcare delivery, ranging from individual practitioners and small clinics to large private hospitals. Many people, especially in urban areas and those who can afford it, utilize private healthcare services.
    • Health Insurance**: Social health insurance schemes and private health insurance coverage are limited, with out-of-pocket expenditures forming a large proportion of healthcare financing for most households.
    • Challenges**:
      • Underfunding**: Public expenditure on health as a percentage of GDP is low.
      • Accessibility**: Access to healthcare services is uneven, with significant disparities between urban and rural areas, and across provinces. Remote and impoverished communities often lack access to basic healthcare.
      • Quality of Care**: The quality of healthcare services varies widely. Issues include lack of qualified health professionals (especially in rural areas), inadequate infrastructure and equipment, and weak regulatory oversight.
      • Human Resources for Health**: Shortages and maldistribution of doctors, nurses, and other health workers are common.
      • Preventive vs. Curative Care**: The system is often more focused on curative care rather than preventive and public health measures.
      • Governance and Regulation**: Weak governance, lack of accountability, and insufficient regulation of the private sector pose challenges.
      • Reforms and Initiatives**:

      Various health sector reforms and programs have been launched, often with support from international partners like the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF, focusing on areas such as maternal and child health (e.g., Lady Health Worker Program), disease control (e.g., polio eradication, TB control), strengthening primary healthcare, and improving health infrastructure. Recent initiatives have also aimed to expand health insurance coverage for vulnerable populations. Addressing the systemic challenges to ensure equitable access to quality healthcare remains a major priority for Pakistan.

12.1. Literature and Philosophy

[[File:194c7773442_0365a54e.jpg|width=227px|height=300px|thumb|upright=0.65|Muhammad Iqbal, revered as Pakistan's national poet, whose philosophical ideas and poetry played a crucial role in inspiring the Pakistan Movement and shaping the nation's intellectual discourse.]]
Pakistani literature is expressed in a multitude of languages, including its national language Urdu, as well as English, and various regional languages such as Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, and Balochi. The Pakistan Academy of Letters is a key institution dedicated to the promotion of literature and poetry, both domestically and internationally, supported by the National Library of Pakistan.

Historically, Pakistani literary traditions were rich in lyric poetry, Sufi spiritual verses, and folkloric tales. The colonial period introduced Western literary forms, leading to the development of prose fiction, which has since become a widely embraced genre.

The national poet of Pakistan, Allama Muhammad Iqbal, is a towering figure in its literary and philosophical landscape. He wrote influential poetry in both Urdu and Persian, advocating for an Islamic civilizational revival and articulating the intellectual foundations for the creation of Pakistan. His work, such as "The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam," remains a significant contribution to modern Islamic philosophy.

In contemporary Urdu literature, notable figures include Josh Malihabadi, Faiz Ahmad Faiz (a renowned poet known for his progressive and revolutionary themes), and Saadat Hasan Manto (a celebrated short story writer known for his poignant depictions of the Partition and social realities). Sufi poets like Shah Abdul Latif (Sindhi), Bulleh Shah (Punjabi), and Khwaja Farid (Saraiki) are deeply revered, and their mystical poetry continues to be popular and influential. Mirza Kalich Beg is regarded as the father of modern Sindhi prose.

Pakistani philosophy, while influenced by its Islamic heritage, has also engaged with British and American philosophical traditions. Thinkers like M. M. Sharif contributed to its early development. Post-1971, Marxist thought also gained some prominence through figures like Jalaludin Abdur Rahim. The intersection of Islamic thought, Western philosophy, and indigenous traditions continues to shape contemporary Pakistani intellectual discourse.

12.2. Architecture

[[File:195054950a2_fdc5cc25.jpg|width=511px|height=748px|thumb|left|The Lahore Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, showcases centuries of architectural evolution, particularly from the Mughal era, and stands as a landmark of Pakistan's rich historical heritage.]]
Pakistani architecture reflects a rich tapestry of influences spanning millennia, categorized into four main periods: pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-colonial.

• Pre-Islamic Period**: The Indus Valley Civilisation (circa 2600-1900 BCE) marked the emergence of sophisticated urban planning and large-scale structures. Major sites like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Kot Diji exhibit advanced drainage systems, grid-patterned streets, and standardized brick construction. Later, the Gandhara region (roughly 1st century BCE to 10th century CE) became a center for Greco-Buddhist art and architecture, blending Hellenistic and Indian styles. Notable examples include the monastic complex of Takht-i-Bahi (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) and stupas and sculptures found in Taxila (also a UNESCO World Heritage Site).

• Islamic Period**: The arrival of Islam led to the development of Indo-Islamic architecture. Early examples include tombs and mosques in Sindh. The Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire (16th to 19th centuries) brought Persian and Central Asian influences, resulting in a grand and ornate architectural style. Key Mughal-era landmarks in Pakistan include:
  • In Lahore: The Lahore Fort (including the Alamgiri Gate), the Badshahi Mosque (one of the largest mosques in the world), the Wazir Khan Mosque (renowned for its intricate tile work), and the Shalimar Gardens (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
  • In Thatta: The Makli Necropolis (a vast funerary site, UNESCO World Heritage Site) and the Shah Jahan Mosque.
  • In Multan: The Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam, an iconic example of Tughlaq-era architecture.
  • Colonial Period**: During British rule (mid-19th to mid-20th century), Indo-Saracenic and Neoclassical styles became prominent. Public buildings, railway stations, churches, and cantonments often reflected these European styles blended with local elements. Cities like Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar have numerous examples of colonial-era architecture, such as Frere Hall in Karachi and the Montgomery Hall in Lahore.
  • Post-Colonial Period**: After independence in 1947, Pakistan sought to develop a modern architectural identity. Early post-independence architecture often drew from international modernism, while later trends incorporated contemporary interpretations of Islamic and regional traditions. Notable modern landmarks include:
    • The Faisal Mosque in Islamabad, a striking contemporary design by Turkish architect Vedat Dalokay.
    • The Minar-e-Pakistan in Lahore, a monument commemorating the Lahore Resolution.
    • The Mazar-e-Quaid (Jinnah Mausoleum) in Karachi, the tomb of Pakistan's founder.
    • The Pakistan Monument in Islamabad.

    Contemporary Pakistani architecture continues to evolve, balancing global trends with local cultural and environmental contexts.

12.3. Performing Arts

Pakistan has a vibrant and diverse tradition of performing arts, encompassing music, dance, and theatre, which reflect its rich cultural heritage and contemporary influences.

• Music**:

Pakistani music is multifaceted, ranging from traditional classical and folk forms to modern popular genres.

• Qawwali**: A devotional form of Sufi music, characterized by powerful vocals, rhythmic hand-clapping, and mystical lyrics. Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was a globally renowned Qawwali maestro who brought this genre to international audiences. Other prominent Qawwals include the Sabri Brothers.
• Ghazal**: A poetic form often set to music, expressing themes of love, loss, and mysticism. Ghazal singing is a highly regarded art form, with legendary artists like Mehdi Hassan, Ghulam Ali, and Farida Khanum.
• Classical Music**: Pakistan shares the Hindustani classical music tradition with North India. Renowned classical vocalists and instrumentalists have emerged from Pakistan.
• Folk Music**: Each region of Pakistan has its own distinct folk music traditions, reflecting local languages, instruments, and cultural themes. Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pashto, and Saraiki folk music are particularly rich. Alam Lohar was a famous Punjabi folk singer.
• Pop and Rock Music**: Since the 1980s, a vibrant pop and rock music scene has developed, blending Western influences with local melodies and rhythms. Bands like Vital Signs and Junoon pioneered this movement. Coke Studio, a popular music television series, has played a significant role in fusing traditional and contemporary music, featuring collaborations between diverse artists.
• Film Music**: Music from Pakistani films (Lollywood) has also been an important part of the popular music landscape.

• Dance**:

Dance in Pakistan includes classical, folk, and contemporary forms.

• Kathak**: A classical dance form with historical roots in the Mughal courts, practiced by some artists.
• Folk Dances**: Various regions have their own energetic and colorful folk dances, often performed at festivals and celebrations. Examples include Bhangra and Luddi (Punjab), Jhoomar (Saraiki belt), Lewa (Balochistan), and Attan (Pashtun).
• Sufi Whirling**: Associated with Sufi traditions, particularly at shrines.

• Theatre**:

Theatre in Pakistan has a long history, though it has faced challenges.

• Traditional Theatre**: Forms like Nautanki and folk storytelling have existed for centuries.
• Modern Theatre**: Urban centers like Lahore and Karachi have a modern theatre scene, with groups performing plays in Urdu, Punjabi, and English. These often address social and political issues. Commercial theatre, often featuring comedy and popular entertainment, also exists.
• Street Theatre**: Used by activists and social organizations to raise awareness about various issues.

The performing arts in Pakistan continue to evolve, reflecting the country's dynamic cultural landscape and providing a platform for artistic expression and social commentary.

12.4. Visual Arts and Crafts

Pakistan possesses a rich heritage in visual arts and traditional crafts, reflecting centuries of artistic traditions and diverse cultural influences.

• Visual Arts**:
  • Painting**:
    • Miniature Painting**: Pakistan shares the tradition of Mughal and Pahari miniature painting with the Indian subcontinent. Contemporary artists have revived and reinterpreted this intricate art form. Abdur Rahman Chughtai was a prominent artist who blended Mughal art with Art Nouveau.
    • Modern and Contemporary Painting**: Since independence, Pakistani painters have explored various styles, from realism and impressionism to abstraction and conceptual art. Notable artists include Sadequain (known for his large murals and calligraphic paintings), Ahmed Parvez, Jamil Naqsh, Gulgee, and contemporary artists like Shahzia Sikander and Rashid Rana, who have gained international recognition.
  • Calligraphy**: Islamic calligraphy is a highly revered art form in Pakistan, used extensively in religious texts, architectural decoration, and contemporary art. Sadequain was also a master calligrapher.
  • Sculpture**: While less prevalent than painting due to traditional Islamic reservations about representational art, sculpture exists, particularly in modern and contemporary contexts.
  • Truck Art**: A unique and vibrant form of popular art where trucks and buses are elaborately decorated with colorful paintings, intricate patterns, calligraphy, and mirror work. This mobile art form is a distinctive feature of Pakistani visual culture.
  • Traditional Crafts**:

  Pakistan has a diverse range of traditional crafts, varying by region and reflecting local skills and materials.

  • Pottery and Ceramics**: Multan is famous for its blue pottery (Kashi Kari), characterized by intricate floral and geometric designs in blue and white. Terracotta pottery is also widespread.
  • Textiles**:
    • Embroidery**: Various regions are known for their distinctive embroidery styles, such as Sindhi ralli (patchwork quilts) and mirror work (shisha embroidery), Balochi embroidery, Punjabi phulkari, and Kashmiri embroidery.
    • Hand-woven Fabrics**: Khadi (hand-spun and hand-woven cotton), silk weaving, and carpet weaving (especially Persian-style carpets) are important crafts.
    • Block Printing**: Ajrak (block-printed shawls and fabrics with traditional Sindhi designs) is a well-known craft.
  • Woodwork**: Intricate wood carving is found in furniture, architectural elements (doors, windows), and decorative items, particularly in regions like Swat and Chiniot.
  • Metalwork**: Brass and copperware, often with detailed engraving and inlay work, are produced.
  • Leatherwork**: Production of leather shoes (khussa), bags, and other items.
  • Jewelry**: Traditional jewelry, often in silver and gold, incorporating gemstones and intricate designs, varies by region.

  Art galleries, craft bazaars, and cultural festivals play a role in promoting and preserving these visual arts and crafts traditions. However, like many traditional crafts globally, some face challenges from modernization and competition from mass-produced goods.

12.5. Media and Cinema

The media landscape in Pakistan has undergone significant transformation, particularly since the liberalization of electronic media in the early 2000s. It includes print, television, radio, and a domestic film industry.

• Print Media**:

• Television**:
  • Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV)**: The state-owned broadcaster, historically the dominant television network. It operates several channels, including PTV Home, PTV News, and regional channels.
  • Private Television Channels**: Since the early 2000s, there has been a proliferation of private satellite television channels. These include numerous 24-hour news channels (e.g., Geo News, ARY News, Samaa TV, Dunya News), entertainment channels (broadcasting popular Urdu dramas, reality shows, and films), sports channels, and religious channels. Private news channels have played a significant role in shaping political discourse and public opinion.
  • Radio**:
    • Radio Pakistan (PBC)**: The state-owned radio network, providing news, entertainment, and educational programming in various languages.
    • Private FM Radio Stations**: Numerous private FM radio stations have emerged, primarily in urban areas, offering music, entertainment, and local news.
    • Film Industry (Lollywood)**:

• Press Freedom**:

While the media in Pakistan is often described as vibrant and outspoken, particularly in its coverage of political issues and corruption, it faces significant challenges related to press freedom. Journalists and media organizations have reported experiencing intimidation, censorship, threats, and violence, especially when covering sensitive topics involving the military, intelligence agencies, or extremist groups. Pakistan consistently ranks low on international press freedom indices. The BBC describes Pakistani media as "among the most outspoken in South Asia," yet instrumental in exposing corruption.

12.6. Cuisine

[[File:194c777369f_7b51e172.jpg|width=3484px|height=2332px|thumb|Chapatis (a type of flatbread) served with various side dishes are a staple food in Pakistan's diverse cuisine.]]
Pakistani cuisine is known for its rich flavors, aromatic spices, and diverse regional specialties, reflecting a blend of South Asian, Central Asian, and Middle Eastern culinary influences. It also shares many similarities with North Indian cuisine due to shared historical and cultural roots, particularly from the Mughal era.

• Key Characteristics**:
  • Spices**: Pakistani dishes are typically well-spiced, using a variety of spices such as cumin, coriander, turmeric, chili powder, garam masala, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, and ginger-garlic paste. The level of spiciness can vary by region and dish.
  • Meat-Centric**: Meat, particularly chicken, lamb, beef (where consumed), and goat, plays a prominent role in many traditional dishes. Kebabs, kormas, and karahi dishes are popular.
  • Use of Dairy**: Yogurt (dahi), ghee (clarified butter), and paneer (cheese) are commonly used in cooking and as accompaniments.
  • Staple Foods**:
    • Roti/Naan/Flatbreads**: Wheat-based flatbreads are a staple with most meals. Common types include chapati (roti), naan (often baked in a tandoor), paratha (layered flatbread, often stuffed), and puri (deep-fried bread).
    • Rice**: Rice is also a staple, especially in Sindh and certain regions. It is served plain (chawal), as pulao (pilaf, cooked with meat or vegetables and spices), or as biryani (a highly aromatic and spiced rice dish with meat or vegetables).
  • Lentils and Legumes (Daal)**: Various types of lentils and legumes are widely consumed, often cooked into a stew-like dish called daal.
  • Vegetables (Sabzi)**: A variety of seasonal vegetables are used in curries and side dishes.
  • Popular Dishes**:
    • Biryani**: A fragrant rice dish cooked with meat (chicken, lamb, or beef), spices, and sometimes potatoes.
    • Karahi**: Meat (chicken or lamb) cooked in a wok-like pan (karahi) with tomatoes, ginger, garlic, and green chilies.
    • Nihari**: A slow-cooked stew of meat (usually beef shank or lamb) with rich spices.
    • Haleem**: A thick porridge-like dish made with wheat, barley, meat, and lentils, slow-cooked for hours.
    • Kebabs**: Various types, including seekh kebab (minced meat grilled on skewers), shami kebab (patties of minced meat and lentils), and chapli kebab (Pashtun-style minced meat patties).
    • Saag**: A dish made from leafy green vegetables like mustard greens or spinach, often served with makki di roti (cornbread) in Punjab.
    • Lassi**: A traditional yogurt-based drink, popular in Punjab, available in sweet or salty versions.
    • Chai (Tea)**: Black tea brewed with milk and sugar is a ubiquitous beverage, consumed throughout the day.
    • Regional Specialties**:
      • Punjabi Cuisine**: Known for its rich, buttery flavors, tandoori dishes, saag, and lassi.
      • Sindhi Cuisine**: Features dishes like Sindhi biryani, sai bhaji (spinach and lentil curry), and fish preparations.
      • Pashtun Cuisine (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa)**: Characterized by its emphasis on grilled meats (like chapli kebab and tikka), naan, and milder spices compared to other regions. Kabuli pulao is a famous dish.
      • Balochi Cuisine**: Known for dishes like sajji (whole lamb or chicken roasted on skewers) and kaak (a type of rock-hard bread).
      • Mughlai Cuisine**: A legacy of the Mughal emperors, known for its rich, aromatic, and creamy dishes like korma, biryani, and various kebabs.
      • Sweets and Desserts (Mithai)**:

      Popular sweets include gulab jamun, jalebi, barfi, kheer (rice pudding), and halwa (such as sohan halwa, a dense sweet from southern Punjab).
      
      Pakistani cuisine reflects a deep culinary heritage, with diverse flavors and cooking techniques passed down through generations.

12.7. Clothing and Fashion

[[File:194c777313c_1bf87b7c.jpg|width=1249px|height=1007px|thumb|A depiction of traditional clothing worn by women from Sindh province, showcasing regional variations in attire within Pakistan.]]
Clothing in Pakistan is a vibrant expression of its diverse cultural heritage, regional identities, and evolving fashion trends. The traditional attire, the Shalwar Kameez, is widely worn across all provinces by both men and women, though styles and embellishments vary.

• Traditional Attire**:
  • Shalwar Kameez**: This is considered the national dress of Pakistan.
    • Shalwar**: Loose-fitting trousers, often wide at the top and tapering towards the ankles. Styles can vary, such as the straight-cut shalwar, Patiala shalwar (with many pleats), or Sindhi kancha.
    • Kameez**: A long tunic or shirt, worn over the shalwar. The length, cut, and embroidery of the kameez differ by region and personal preference.
    • Dupatta**: A long scarf or shawl, typically worn by women with the shalwar kameez, often draped over the head or shoulders. It can be plain or heavily embroidered.
  • Regional Variations**:
    • Sindh**: Women often wear ghagra choli (long skirt and blouse) or heavily embroidered kameez with wide shalwars and ajrak (block-printed shawls). Men may wear a traditional Sindhi cap and ajrak.
    • Punjab**: Punjabi shalwar kameez styles are popular, with variations in embroidery like phulkari.
    • Khyber Pakhtunkhwa**: Pashtun men often wear a traditional khet partug (shalwar kameez) with a pakol (woolen cap) or turban (lungi). Women's attire can include intricately embroidered dresses. The Peshawari chappal is a distinctive type of leather sandal.
    • Balochistan**: Balochi dresses for women are known for their elaborate embroidery, often featuring mirror work. Men may wear loose shalwars and long kameez with turbans.
    • Gilgit-Baltistan**: Traditional woolen clothing, including embroidered caps and shawls, is common due to the cold climate.
  • Sherwani**: A long coat-like garment, often worn by men for formal occasions such as weddings, typically paired with a shalwar or churidar trousers.
  • Jinnah cap**: A fur Karakul hat, named after Muhammad Ali Jinnah, sometimes worn by men on formal occasions.
  • Modern Fashion Industry**:

• Contemporary Trends**:

While traditional attire remains prevalent, especially for daily wear and cultural events, Western clothing (jeans, t-shirts, shirts, suits) is also common, particularly among urban youth and in professional settings. There is often a fusion of styles, with individuals incorporating elements of both traditional and Western fashion into their wardrobes. The choice of clothing can also be influenced by factors such as age, socio-economic status, and level of religious conservatism.

12.8. Sports

[[File:195560d6aea_2a7093b9.jpg|width=6000px|height=4000px|thumb|right|170px|Locals playing tape ball cricket, a popular informal version of the sport, near the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore.]]
[[File:195560d6df8_10225a70.jpg|width=800px|height=533px|thumb|left|170px|A professional cricket match between Pakistan and Australia at Lord's, London. Cricket is Pakistan's most popular sport.]]
Sports are a significant part of Pakistani culture, with several sports enjoying widespread popularity and a history of international success.

• Cricket**: This is by far the most popular sport in Pakistan. The national team has a passionate following and has achieved significant international success:
  • Won the ICC Cricket World Cup in 1992.
  • Won the ICC World Twenty20 (T20 World Cup) in 2009.
  • Won the ICC Champions Trophy in 2017.

  Pakistan has produced many world-class cricketers, including legends like Imran Khan, Wasim Akram, Waqar Younis, Javed Miandad, and Shahid Afridi. Domestic cricket includes first-class competitions and the popular Pakistan Super League (PSL), a professional Twenty20 league that ranks among the top T20 leagues globally.

  • Field Hockey**: Officially the national sport of Pakistan. The national team has a glorious history, having been a dominant force in international hockey for decades:
    • Won three Olympic gold medals (1960, 1968, 1984).
    • Won a record four Hockey World Cups (1971, 1978, 1982, 1994).
    • Won eight Asian Games gold medals.

    While its dominance has waned in recent years, hockey remains an important sport.

    • Squash**: Pakistan has a legendary history in squash, producing some of the greatest players of all time, including Hashim Khan, Azam Khan, Roshan Khan, and most notably, Jahangir Khan and Jansher Khan. Jahangir Khan holds the record for the longest winning streak in professional sports history, winning 555 consecutive matches. These players dominated the international squash scene for decades.
    • Football (Soccer)**: Football is widely played and followed, especially among youth, although the national team has not achieved major international success. The Pakistan Football Federation was established soon after the country's creation. Pakistan is known for manufacturing high-quality footballs, including those used in FIFA World Cup tournaments. The domestic league is the Pakistan Premier League.
    • Polo**: Polo has a strong tradition in Pakistan, particularly in the northern areas like Gilgit-Baltistan (especially the Shandur Top polo festival, played in its traditional, free-style form) and Chitral.
    • Other Sports**:
      • Kabaddi**: A traditional contact sport popular in rural areas, especially Punjab.
      • Boxing, Wrestling (Kushti), Weightlifting, Snooker, Tennis, Badminton, Athletics, and Martial Arts** are also practiced and have seen some international success.
      • Motorsports**: Growing in popularity.
      • International Participation**:

      Pakistan regularly participates in major international sporting events, including the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, and Asian Games. The country has hosted various international tournaments, including editions of the Cricket World Cup, Hockey World Cup, and South Asian Games. Pakistan is set to co-host the 2025 ICC Champions Trophy.
      
      Sports play a significant role in national pride and provide a popular form of entertainment and recreation for millions of Pakistanis.

12.9. Festivals and Public Holidays

Festivals and public holidays in Pakistan reflect the country's religious and cultural diversity, as well as commemorating important national events.

• Religious Festivals (Islamic - based on the lunar Islamic calendar, dates vary annually)**:
  • Eid al-Fitr** (Eid-ul-Fitr): Marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting. It is a major three-day celebration involving special prayers, feasting, exchange of gifts, and visiting family and friends.
  • Eid al-Adha** (Eid-ul-Azha): Known as the "Festival of Sacrifice," it commemorates Prophet Ibrahim's (Abraham's) willingness to sacrifice his son. It involves the sacrifice of an animal (goat, sheep, cow, or camel), with the meat distributed among family, friends, and the poor. This also occurs during the Hajj pilgrimage period.
  • Eid Milad-un-Nabi**: Celebrates the birthday of Prophet Muhammad. Marked by religious processions, sermons, and community gatherings.
  • Ashura** (10th of Muharram): A day of mourning for Shia Muslims, commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Hussein ibn Ali, the grandson of Prophet Muhammad. Marked by processions (juloos) and gatherings (majalis).
  • Shab-e-Barat**: The "Night of Forgiveness," observed in the month of Sha'ban.
  • Shab-e-Miraj**: Commemorates Prophet Muhammad's night journey and ascension.
  • National Holidays (Fixed Dates - based on the Gregorian calendar)**:
    • Kashmir Solidarity Day** (February 5): Expresses solidarity with the people of Kashmir.
    • Pakistan Day** (March 23): Commemorates the adoption of the Lahore Resolution in 1940, which called for the creation of Pakistan, and the proclamation of Pakistan as the first Islamic Republic in 1956. Marked by military parades and official ceremonies.
    • Labour Day** (May 1): International Workers' Day.
    • Independence Day** (August 14): Celebrates Pakistan's independence from British rule in 1947. Marked by flag-hoisting ceremonies, parades, and patriotic events.
    • Defence Day** (September 6): Commemorates the 1965 war with India.
    • Anniversary of the Death of Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah** (September 11): Marks the death anniversary of Pakistan's founder.
    • Iqbal Day** (November 9): Celebrates the birthday of Allama Muhammad Iqbal, the national poet and philosopher.
    • Birthday of Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah** / Christmas (December 25): Coincides with Christmas, making it a public holiday for all.
    • Other Cultural and Regional Festivals**:
      • Basant**: A traditional Punjabi spring kite-flying festival, though it has faced restrictions in recent years due to safety concerns.
      • Nauroz (Nowruz)**: The Persian New Year, celebrated by some communities, particularly in Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistan, and among Parsi communities.
      • Lok Virsa Mela**: A folk festival held in Islamabad, showcasing traditional arts, crafts, music, and dance from various regions of Pakistan.

• Holidays for Religious Minorities**:

Christian communities observe Christmas and Easter. Hindu communities celebrate Diwali, Holi, and other festivals. Sikh communities observe Guru Nanak Gurpurab and other Gurpurabs. These are often declared as optional holidays for members of those communities.