Yemen

3.1. Ancient History

Yemen's strategic location on the Arabian Peninsula, with a long sea border facilitating trade between Eastern and Western civilizations, made it a cultural crossroads for over 7,000 years. Large settlements existed in the mountains of northern Yemen as early as 5000 BC. The Sabaean Kingdom emerged by at least the 12th century BC, becoming a prominent commercial power that, at its height, included parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Sabaeans, thought to be the biblical Sheba, were one of the four major kingdoms or tribal confederations in South Arabia, alongside Hadhramaut, Qataban, and Ma'in (Minaeans). Sabaean rulers adopted the title Mukarrib, believed to mean "unifier" or "priest-king," responsible for uniting various tribes. A significant achievement of the Sabaeans was the construction of the Great Dam of Marib around 940 BC, an engineering marvel designed to manage seasonal flash floods and support agriculture.

By the 3rd century BC, Qataban, Hadhramaut, and Ma'in had become independent of Saba. The Minaeans, with their capital at Baraqish, extended their influence as far as Dedan. However, Saba later regained control over Ma'in. During the Roman expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BC, led by Aelius Gallus under Emperor Augustus, the Sabaeans were again the dominant power. The Roman campaign, aiming to secure trade routes, ultimately failed to conquer Marib, with Roman accounts blaming their Nabataean guide.

Following the Roman expedition, the region fell into chaos. Two clans, Hamdan and Himyar, vied for power, with the Himyarite Kingdom eventually unifying Yemen around 275 CE under King Shammar Yahri'sh. The Himyarites annexed Sana'a around 100 CE and extended their rule over Hadhramaut, Najran, and Tihamah. They rejected polytheism for a form of monotheism known as Rahmanism. Christianity arrived in the 4th century, with an embassy sent by Roman Emperor Constantius II in 354 CE to convert the Himyarites, a mission met with resistance from local Jews. Inscriptions in Hebrew and Sabaean from this period praise the ruling house for supporting the "People of Israel."

King As'ad the Perfect (Abu Kariba As'ad) of Himyar reportedly led military expeditions into central Arabia. His long reign ended around 445 CE. By 515 CE, religious divisions within Himyar led to conflict, paving the way for intervention by the Aksumite Kingdom of Ethiopia. The last Himyarite king, Ma'adikarib Ya'fur, a Christian, was supported by Aksum against his Jewish rivals. After his death around 521 CE, a Himyarite Jewish warlord, Dhu Nuwas, seized power. Responding to Dhu Nuwas's persecution of Christians, Emperor Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire encouraged an Aksumite invasion, which led to the defeat of Dhu Nuwas and the establishment of Aksumite rule under Abraha. Abraha, known for his attempt to attack Mecca (the "Year of the Elephant"), faced internal rebellions and a breach of the Marib Dam. Around 570 CE, the Sasanian Empire of Persia annexed Aden and later extended their influence over much of Yemen, marking the decline of ancient South Arabian civilization as the region fragmented into independent clans until the advent of Islam in 630 CE.

3.2. Middle Ages

The Middle Ages in Yemen were characterized by the transformative arrival of Islam, the rise and fall of various local dynasties, and significant interactions with external powers, shaping the region's religious, political, and social landscape.

3.2.1. Advent of Islam and Early Dynasties

Islam was introduced to Yemen during the Prophet Muhammad's lifetime. Around 630 CE, Muhammad sent his cousin Ali to Sana'a and its surroundings. At that time, Yemen was considered the most advanced region in Arabia. The Hamdan tribal confederation was among the first to embrace Islam. Muhammad also dispatched Muadh ibn Jabal to Al-Janad (in present-day Taiz) and sent letters to various tribal leaders. Major tribes, including Himyar, sent delegations to Medina during the "year of delegations" around 630-631 CE. Several Yemenis, such as Ammar ibn Yasir and Abu Musa Ashaari, had accepted Islam even earlier. Following the establishment of Islam, a figure named 'Abhala ibn Ka'ab Al-Ansi briefly claimed prophethood but was defeated. Christians, mainly in Najran, and Jews agreed to pay the jizya (poll tax), though some Jews, like Wahb ibn Munabbih, converted to Islam.

Yemen remained stable during the Rashidun Caliphate. Yemeni tribes played a crucial role in the early Islamic conquests, contributing to the expansion into Egypt, Iraq, Persia, the Levant, Anatolia, North Africa, Sicily, and Andalusia. Yemeni tribes, particularly the Kinda, were instrumental in supporting the Umayyad Caliphate, especially during the reign of Marwan I at the Battle of Marj Rahit.

In 818 CE, Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ziyad founded the Ziyadid dynasty in the Tihamah region, with its capital at Zabid. The Ziyadid state extended from Haly (in present-day Saudi Arabia) to Aden and nominally recognized the Abbasid Caliphate but ruled with considerable independence. They maintained relations with Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Concurrently, the Himyarite clan of the Yu'firids established control over the highlands from Saada to Taiz. Hadhramaut, at this time, was an Ibadi stronghold.

In 893 CE, Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, the first Zaidi imam, arrived in Saada from Medina to arbitrate tribal disputes. His teachings gradually spread across the highlands, particularly among the Hashid and Bakil tribes, who became known as the "twin wings of the imamate." Yahya founded the Zaidi imamate in 897 CE, establishing influence in Saada and Najran, though his attempt to capture Sana'a from the Yu'firids in 901 CE failed.

3.2.2. Major Dynasties and External Rivalry

The medieval period in Yemen saw the rise of powerful local dynasties and increasing rivalry with external powers.

The Sulayhid dynasty, an Isma'ili Shia dynasty, was founded in the northern highlands around 1040 CE. By 1060, Ali ibn Muhammad Al-Sulayhi conquered Zabid, defeating the Najahid dynasty. He extended Sulayhid control over Greater Yemen by 1063 and even occupied Mecca. His wife, Asma bint Shihab, co-ruled with him, a rare honor for an Arab woman at the time. After Ali's death in 1084, his son Ahmed Al-Mukarram took over but soon retired due to injuries, handing power to his wife, Queen Arwa al-Sulayhi, in 1087. Queen Arwa moved the capital from Sana'a to Jibla and sent Ismaili missionaries to India. She ruled until her death in 1138 and is remembered as "the junior queen of Sheba." After her death, Yemen fragmented among five competing dynasties.

The Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt, under Saladin, dispatched Saladin's brother Turan Shah to conquer Yemen in 1174. Turan Shah captured Zabid from the Mahdids and Aden from the Zurayids. By 1189, the Ayyubids secured Sana'a, establishing stable rule in southern and central Yemen. However, they faced resistance from Zaidi forces in the north. Imam Abdullah bin Hamza fought against the Ayyubids, briefly capturing Sana'a and Dhamar before the Zaidis were eventually pacified through a truce in 1219. The Ayyubid rule weakened, and their last effective ruler, Mas'ud Yusuf, left Yemen around 1223-1228.

The Rasulid dynasty emerged in 1229, founded by Umar ibn Rasul, an Ayyubid deputy governor. The Rasulids, with capitals at Zabid and later Taiz, ruled for over two centuries, a period often considered a golden age for Yemen. Al-Muzaffar Yusuf I, who even appropriated the title of Caliph after the fall of Baghdad in 1258, consolidated Rasulid power. The Rasulids were patrons of learning and architecture, building numerous Madrasas and promoting the Shafi'i school of Sunni jurisprudence. Taiz and Zabid became major international centers of Islamic learning. They faced challenges from the Mamluks of Egypt over control of the Hejaz and internal succession disputes, as well as ongoing conflict with the Zaidi imams in the north.

The Tahirid dynasty, a local clan from Rada'a, succeeded the Rasulids in 1454. They were known for building schools, mosques, and infrastructure, including the Amiriya Madrasa in Rada'a (1504). However, the Tahirids were weaker than their predecessors, struggling to contain the Zaidi imams and defend against external threats. The Mamluks of Egypt, recognizing Yemen's wealth, invaded and conquered most of the Tahirid realm by 1517, though they failed to capture Aden. This Mamluk victory was short-lived, as the Ottoman Empire soon conquered Egypt.

During this period, Portuguese influence began to be felt in the region. The Portuguese, aiming to control trade routes, occupied Socotra and launched an unsuccessful attack on Aden in 1513 under Afonso de Albuquerque. Their presence in the Indian Ocean posed a threat, prompting Mamluk intervention attempts in Yemen.

3.3. Modern History

Yemen's modern history was shaped by the re-establishment of Ottoman control, the rise of British colonial power in the south, the eventual emergence of an independent kingdom in the north, and the complex interplay of local and international interests.

3.3.1. Ottoman Rule and British Southern Occupation

The Ottoman Empire reasserted its control over parts of Yemen in the 16th century, driven by the need to secure the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina and to counter Portuguese influence on the India trade route. In 1538, an Ottoman fleet under Hadım Suleiman Pasha captured Aden, killing its Tahirid ruler, and extended Ottoman authority over Zabid and the Tihamah coastal plain. Zabid became the administrative headquarters of the Yemen Eyalet. However, Ottoman control over the highlands remained tenuous, and they faced persistent resistance from the Zaidi imams.

The first Ottoman occupation was marked by conflict. Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din ruled the northern highlands independently. His son, al-Mutahhar ibn Yahya, allied with the Ottomans to attack his father, and was made a Sanjak-bey. However, al-Mutahhar later turned against the Ottomans, leading tribal forces to recapture Sana'a in 1567 and largely expelling the Turks by 1568, except for Zabid. The Ottomans, under Koca Sinan Pasha, launched a major campaign and reconquered Yemen between 1569 and 1571.

Despite this reconquest, Zaidi resistance continued. In the early 17th century, Imam Al-Mansur al-Qasim initiated a successful revolt, and his son Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad eventually expelled the Ottomans completely by 1635, establishing the Qasimi dynasty which ruled over a largely unified Yemen. This period saw Yemen become the world's sole producer of coffee, traded through the port of Mocha. However, by the 18th century, European powers broke this monopoly by cultivating coffee in their colonies, and internal strife weakened the Qasimi imamate.

In the 19th century, British interest in the region grew, primarily for a coaling station to service ships en route to India. In 1839, the British East India Company captured Aden from the Sultanate of Lahej, establishing the Aden Colony. The British gradually extended their influence inland, creating the Aden Protectorate through treaties with local tribal leaders and sultanates. This expansion brought Britain into direct contention with the Ottoman Empire, which still claimed sovereignty over the entire Arabian Peninsula.

The Ottomans returned to Yemen for a second period of rule, reoccupying the Tihamah in 1849 and, following the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, launching a campaign to reconquer the highlands. By 1873, Sana'a became the administrative capital of the Yemen Vilayet. The Ottomans attempted to implement Tanzimat reforms and centralize control, but faced continuous resistance from the Zaidi tribes, particularly the Hashid and Bakil. Imam Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din of the Hamidaddin family (a branch of the Qasimids) led a major rebellion in 1904. After years of costly conflict, the Ottomans signed the Treaty of Da'an in 1911, granting Imam Yahya autonomous rule over the Zaidi northern highlands, while the Ottomans continued to administer Shafi'i areas in the mid-south until their final departure after World War I in 1918.

3.3.2. Kingdom of Yemen and Great Power Rivalry

Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, Imam Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din declared the independence of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen (North Yemen) in 1918, with himself as king. He consolidated his rule over the northern highlands and sought to expand his territory. In 1925, Imam Yahya captured Al Hudaydah from the Idrisids. His expansionist ambitions brought him into conflict with the British, who controlled the Aden Protectorate in the south, and with the emerging Kingdom of Saudi Arabia under Ibn Saud to the north.

In 1926, the Italian Empire became the first power to recognize Yahya as King of Yemen, which concerned the British, who saw it as an endorsement of Yahya's claims over Greater Yemen, including Aden and Asir. Tensions with Saudi Arabia escalated over control of Asir, leading to the Saudi-Yemeni War in 1934. Yemen was defeated, and under the Treaty of Taif, Imam Yahya ceded the provinces of Najran, Asir, and Jazan to Saudi Arabia for 20 years (a status later made permanent). In the same year, Yahya signed a treaty with Britain, recognizing British sovereignty over the Aden Protectorate for 40 years, effectively establishing the borders of North Yemen for the coming decades.

Imam Yahya ruled as an absolute monarch, seeking to isolate Yemen from foreign influences while attempting modest modernization. His reign was characterized by autocratic rule and resistance to broader social and political reforms. He was assassinated in 1948, and his son, Imam Ahmad bin Yahya, succeeded him. Imam Ahmad continued his father's policies, facing internal dissent and external pressures from rising Arab nationalism and the Cold War.

3.4. Contemporary History

Yemen's contemporary history has been defined by periods of division, attempts at unification, political upheaval, and protracted civil conflicts, significantly influenced by regional and international dynamics.

3.4.1. North-South Division and Unification

Following Imam Ahmad bin Yahya's death in 1962, a military coup led by nationalist officers under Abdullah al-Sallal overthrew the Mutawakkilite monarchy in North Yemen, establishing the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR). This sparked the North Yemen Civil War (1962-1970), with the royalists, supported by Saudi Arabia and Jordan, fighting against the republicans, who received substantial military backing from Nasser's Egypt. The war ended with a republican victory and Saudi recognition of the YAR.

Meanwhile, in southern Yemen, British colonial rule faced increasing nationalist resistance. The Aden Emergency (1963-1967), a guerrilla campaign by the National Liberation Front (NLF) and the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY), led to the British withdrawal. On November 30, 1967, South Yemen gained independence as the People's Republic of South Yemen. In 1970, it was renamed the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY), adopting a Marxist-Leninist political system and becoming the only communist state in the Arab world, aligning itself with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.

Relations between the YAR (North Yemen) and the PDRY (South Yemen) were often tense, marked by border conflicts in 1972 and 1979. Despite ideological differences, discussions on unification occurred intermittently. In 1978, Ali Abdullah Saleh became president of North Yemen. South Yemen experienced its own internal power struggles, notably the bloody 1986 civil war which led to a change in leadership.

Driven by economic pressures, the diminishing Soviet support for South Yemen, and popular aspirations, the two Yemeni states agreed to merge. On May 22, 1990, the Republic of Yemen was declared, with Ali Abdullah Saleh of the North as president and Ali Salim al-Beidh of the South as vice-president. A unified parliament and a unity constitution were established, marking a hopeful new chapter.

3.4.3. 2011 Revolution and Ongoing Civil War

Inspired by the Arab Spring uprisings across the region, large-scale protests erupted in Yemen in early 2011, demanding an end to President Ali Abdullah Saleh's 33-year rule, fueled by grievances over poverty, unemployment, corruption, and Saleh's attempts to amend the constitution to allow his son to succeed him. The protests, initially peaceful, escalated as government security forces responded with violence, leading to numerous civilian casualties. In March 2011, a particularly deadly crackdown on protesters in Sana'a, where snipers killed over 50 people, intensified the crisis and drew international condemnation. Yemeni human rights activist Tawakkul Karman was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2011 for her role in the peaceful struggle for democracy.

Under mounting domestic and international pressure, Saleh agreed in November 2011 to a transition plan brokered by the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). He formally transferred power to his Vice President, Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, in exchange for immunity from prosecution. Hadi was then elected president in a single-candidate election in February 2012, tasked with overseeing a two-year transitional period, including the drafting of a new constitution and preparations for new parliamentary and presidential elections.

However, the transition process faltered. Hadi's government struggled to address Yemen's deep-seated problems, including the continued influence of Saleh and his allies, the growing strength of AQAP, a resurgent southern separatist movement, and the expansion of the Houthi rebels in the north. The Houthis, feeling marginalized by the proposed federal structure of the state, allied with Saleh and advanced southwards, capturing Sana'a in September 2014. They placed President Hadi and his ministers under house arrest.

In January 2015, Hadi and his government resigned. The Houthis subsequently dissolved parliament and established a Revolutionary Committee to govern. Hadi managed to flee to Aden in February 2015, where he rescinded his resignation and declared Aden the temporary capital. As Houthi forces, allied with military units loyal to Saleh, advanced on Aden, Hadi fled to Saudi Arabia. In March 2015, Saudi Arabia, leading a coalition of Arab states and with logistical support from the United States, launched a military intervention, Operation Decisive Storm, aimed at restoring Hadi's government and countering perceived Iranian influence through the Houthis.

This intervention marked the escalation into a full-blown civil war, which has continued with devastating consequences. The conflict has involved multiple factions, including Hadi-loyalist forces, Houthi-Saleh forces (until Saleh was killed by Houthis in December 2017 after switching allegiances), southern separatists under the Southern Transitional Council (STC, backed by the United Arab Emirates), and various jihadist groups like AQAP and ISIS.

The war has created one of the world's worst humanitarian crises. Millions of Yemenis face starvation, and the collapse of public services has led to widespread outbreaks of diseases like cholera. Civilian infrastructure, including hospitals, schools, and markets, has been repeatedly targeted in airstrikes and ground fighting, leading to thousands of civilian deaths and injuries. Human rights abuses have been committed by all parties to the conflict, including indiscriminate attacks, arbitrary detentions, torture, and restrictions on humanitarian aid. The democratic process has been entirely derailed, and social welfare systems have collapsed. International efforts to mediate a political solution have so far failed to end the conflict.

3.4.4. Impact of Recent International Developments

The ongoing civil war in Yemen has been profoundly shaped by international responses and regional power dynamics. The Saudi-led coalition's military campaign, initiated in March 2015, aimed to reinstate the internationally recognized government of President Hadi and counter the influence of the Houthi movement, which the coalition views as an Iranian proxy. This intervention has involved extensive airstrikes and a naval blockade, which, while intended to prevent arms reaching the Houthis, has severely restricted the flow of essential goods like food, fuel, and medicine, contributing significantly to the humanitarian crisis. Countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, and France have provided military and intelligence support to the coalition, drawing criticism from human rights organizations for their role in a conflict marked by widespread civilian casualties.

Iran has been accused by the coalition and some Western powers of providing support to the Houthis, including weapons and training, though the extent of this support is debated. The conflict is often viewed as a proxy war between Saudi Arabia and Iran, reflecting broader regional rivalries. Oman, which shares a border with Yemen, has maintained a more neutral stance, often facilitating humanitarian aid and acting as a channel for negotiations.

The United Nations has led efforts to mediate a political solution, with Special Envoys attempting to broker ceasefires and peace agreements. However, these efforts have been largely unsuccessful due to the complexity of the conflict, the multiplicity of actors with competing agendas, and the deep mistrust between the warring parties. A significant breakthrough occurred in December 2018 with the Stockholm Agreement, which included a ceasefire in the port city of Al Hudaydah, a critical entry point for aid. While partially implemented, it did not lead to a broader resolution. In April 2022, President Hadi transferred his powers to a newly formed Presidential Leadership Council (PLC), a move aimed at unifying anti-Houthi factions and potentially creating new momentum for peace talks. A UN-brokered truce from April to October 2022 brought a period of relative calm, but it expired without renewal, though some de-escalation has continued.

The 2023 Israel-Hamas war has had repercussions for Yemen. In solidarity with the Palestinians and to pressure Israel, the Houthi movement began launching missiles and drones towards Israel and attacking commercial shipping in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden in late 2023 and into 2024. These attacks disrupted global trade, prompting a military response from the United States and its allies, including airstrikes against Houthi targets in Yemen under Operation Prosperity Guardian. This has raised concerns about a further escalation of regional tensions and the potential for Yemen to be drawn deeper into wider conflicts. The Houthi actions have also been seen domestically by some as an attempt to bolster their legitimacy and divert attention from internal governance challenges and the ongoing humanitarian crisis.

The humanitarian situation remains dire, with international aid agencies struggling to meet the overwhelming needs of the population amid funding shortfalls and access restrictions imposed by various parties to the conflict. Recent developments indicate ongoing pressure from the UAE-backed Southern Transitional Council (STC) on the Port of Aden, with proposed lease agreements to Abu Dhabi Ports sparking opposition and concerns over sovereign control and economic impact, recalling past issues with Dubai Ports World's management of container terminals which ended in 2012 due to unmet commitments.

4.1. Topography and Climate

Yemen is located in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, Oman to the east, the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Aden to the south, and the Red Sea to the west. The country's topography can be broadly divided into four main regions:

1. Coastal Plains (Tihamah): Along the Red Sea coast lies the Tihamah, a hot, arid, and flat coastal plain. Despite its aridity, the presence of lagoons makes parts of it marshy, creating breeding grounds for malaria-carrying mosquitoes. This region features extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes. Evaporation is high, and streams from the highlands often dry up before reaching the sea, though they contribute to significant groundwater reserves exploited for agriculture. Similar but narrower coastal plains exist along the Gulf of Aden.
2. Western Highlands: Inland from the Tihamah, the western highlands rise sharply as an escarpment. This mountainous region, heavily terraced for agriculture, receives the highest rainfall in Arabia, ranging from 3.9 in ^{(100 mm)} annually near the coast to over 30 in ^{(760 mm)} in Taiz and 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} in Ibb. Temperatures are warm during the day but drop significantly at night. Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb, at approximately 12 K ft ^{(3.67 K m)}, is Yemen's highest peak and the highest in the Arabian Peninsula.
3. Eastern Highlands (Central Highlands): This region is an extensive plateau with elevations generally over 6.6 K ft ^{(2.00 K m)}. It is drier than the western highlands due to rain-shadow effects but still receives enough rain in wet years for cropping, especially wheat and barley. Sana'a, the capital, is located in this region.
4. Rub' al Khali (Empty Quarter): The eastern and northeastern parts of Yemen merge into the Rub' al Khali desert, which is characterized by vast sand dunes and extremely arid conditions, with elevations generally below 3.3 K ft ^{(1.00 K m)}. This area receives almost no rain and is sparsely populated, mainly by Bedouin camel herders.

The climate varies significantly across these regions. The Tihamah experiences hot and humid conditions year-round. The western highlands have a more temperate climate, with warm summers and cool winters, and distinct rainy seasons (primarily April-May and July-September). The central and eastern highlands are generally cooler and drier. The Rub' al Khali has a hot desert climate with extreme temperature fluctuations.

Yemen's territory also includes several islands, most notably Socotra in the Arabian Sea, and the Hanish Islands, Kamaran, and Perim in the Red Sea. Many of these islands are volcanic. Socotra, in particular, is geographically and biogeographically distinct, often associated more with Africa due to its proximity to the Horn of Africa.

A significant geographical challenge for Yemen is water scarcity. Dinosaur footprints found near the village of Madar, north of Sana'a, indicate that the area was once a muddy flat, a stark contrast to the present-day aridity faced by much of the country.

4.2. Biodiversity

Yemen possesses a rich and unique biodiversity, largely due to its varied topography and climate, ranging from coastal plains and deserts to high mountains and isolated islands. The country is home to several distinct terrestrial ecoregions, including the Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert, Socotra Island xeric shrublands, Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna, Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands, Arabian Desert, and Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert.

The flora of Yemen is a fascinating mix of elements from the tropical African (Sudanian plant geographical region) and the Saharo-Arabian regions. The Sudanian element, characterized by relatively higher rainfall, dominates the western mountains and parts of the highland plains. Species typical of this element include various Ficus spp., Acacia mellifera, Grewia villosa, Commiphora spp., Rosa abyssinica, and Cadaba farinosa. The Saharo-Arabian element is prevalent in the coastal plains, eastern mountains, and the desert plains of the north and east. Common species here include Panicum turgidum, Aerva javanica, Zygophyllum simplex, Fagonia indica, various Salsola spp., Acacia tortilis, Acacia ehrenbergiana, date palms, doum palms, Capparis decidua, and Salvadora persica (miswak tree). Many Saharo-Arabian species found in the Tihamah coastal plain are endemic to this sandy region.

The Socotra Archipelago is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a global biodiversity hotspot. Its long isolation has led to a high level of endemism. An estimated 37% of Socotra's 825 plant species, 90% of its reptile species, and 95% of its land snail species are found nowhere else on Earth. Iconic endemic plants include the dragon's blood tree, various species of Boswellia (frankincense trees), and the cucumber tree (Dendrosicyos socotrana). The archipelago is also home to 192 bird species (some endemic or breeding endemics), 253 species of reef-building corals, 730 species of coastal fish, and 300 species of crab and lobster.

Mainland Yemen also harbors significant fauna. The Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), critically endangered, is found in the mountainous regions. Other mammals include the Arabian wolf, striped hyena, caracal, sand cat, Nubian ibex, rock hyrax, and various species of gazelles and foxes. Birdlife is diverse, with many resident and migratory species.

Environmental conservation challenges in Yemen are immense, exacerbated by the ongoing conflict, poverty, water scarcity, overgrazing, deforestation, and unsustainable resource use. Protected areas exist, but their management is often hampered by lack of resources and instability. The war has further endangered biodiversity through habitat destruction, pollution, and the breakdown of conservation efforts. The unique ecosystems of Socotra, for example, face threats from climate change, invasive species, and unregulated development.

5.1. Government Structure and System

Under the 1991 constitution (amended in 2001), Yemen is a republic with a presidential system and a bicameral legislature.
The President is the head of state, elected by popular vote for a seven-year term. The president appoints the Prime Minister, who serves as the head of government, and the Council of Ministers (Cabinet).
The Legislature consists of:

• The Assembly of Representatives (Majlis al-Nuwaab): The lower house, with 301 members elected by popular vote for a six-year term. It holds primary legislative authority.
• The Shura Council (Majlis al-Shura): The upper house, with 111 members appointed by the president. It has an advisory role.

The judiciary is, in principle, independent, with the Supreme Court as the highest judicial body. Sharia (Islamic law) is constitutionally recognized as the source of all legislation.

However, this formal structure has been largely non-functional since the Houthi takeover of Sana'a in late 2014 and the ensuing civil war.

• The Internationally Recognized Government: Currently led by the Presidential Leadership Council (PLC), formed in April 2022 when former President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi transferred his powers to this body. The PLC, chaired by Rashad al-Alimi, is based primarily in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and temporarily in Aden. It is recognized by the United Nations and most of the international community. It controls parts of southern and eastern Yemen.
• The Houthi-led Government: Based in Sana'a, the Houthi movement (officially Ansar Allah) controls much of northern Yemen, including the capital and most major population centers. They operate through the Supreme Political Council and an appointed government. This administration is not internationally recognized.

The ongoing conflict has led to a collapse of state institutions, severely undermined the rule of law, and derailed any democratic processes. Elections have not been held nationwide since prior to the conflict. The war has also severely impacted governance, with basic services disrupted in many areas and widespread corruption reported across different controlling authorities. The division of the country into de facto zones of control has crippled national unity and effective administration.

5.2. Major Political Forces

The Yemeni political landscape is dominated by several key armed and political actors involved in the ongoing civil war:

1. The Houthi Movement (Ansar Allah):

• Ideology/Background**: A predominantly Zaidi Shia revivalist movement originating in Saada, northern Yemen. They advocate for greater autonomy for Zaidi regions, oppose foreign interference (particularly from Saudi Arabia and the US), and express anti-Western and anti-Israeli sentiments.
• Objectives**: To consolidate their control over northern Yemen and play a dominant role in any future Yemeni state. They have established their own governing structures in Sana'a, including the Supreme Political Council.
• Areas of Influence**: Control Sana'a, most of northern Yemen, and significant portions of the Red Sea coast. They are often reported to receive support from Iran.

2. The Internationally Recognized Government / Presidential Leadership Council (PLC):

• Ideology/Background**: Comprises a diverse coalition of anti-Houthi factions, including elements of the former government of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, various political parties like Al-Islah (an Islamist party), and military commanders.
• Objectives**: To restore the authority of the legitimate government throughout Yemen, defeat the Houthi movement, and maintain Yemen's unity and territorial integrity.
• Areas of Influence**: Nominally controls parts of southern and eastern Yemen, including Aden (as an interim capital), but its actual on-the-ground authority is often contested or dependent on local allies and coalition support. It is backed by the Saudi-led coalition.

3. The Southern Transitional Council (STC):

• Ideology/Background**: A secessionist movement advocating for the re-establishment of an independent state in southern Yemen (formerly the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen). It draws support from many southerners who feel marginalized since the 1990 unification.
• Objectives**: To achieve independence for South Yemen. The STC has its own armed forces (such as the Security Belt forces) and administrative structures.
• Areas of Influence**: Exercises significant control over Aden and other parts of southern Yemen. It is primarily backed by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and has a complex relationship with the PLC, being formally part of it but often clashing with other government-aligned forces.

4. Other Factions:

• Forces loyal to Tareq Saleh** (nephew of former President Ali Abdullah Saleh): Operating on the western coast, these forces, known as the National Resistance Forces, are also part of the anti-Houthi bloc and are supported by the UAE.
• Tribal Militias**: Various local tribal militias play significant roles in different regions, sometimes aligning with larger factions or operating with considerable autonomy.
• Jihadist Groups**: Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and ISIS-Yemen continue to operate in parts of Yemen, exploiting the power vacuum created by the civil war. They control pockets of territory and carry out attacks, though their influence has been somewhat diminished by counter-terrorism efforts and conflicts with other factions.

These political forces have complex and often shifting alliances, contributing to the protracted nature of the conflict and the immense suffering of the Yemeni people.

5.3. Foreign Relations

Yemen's foreign relations are currently dominated by the ongoing civil war and the deep involvement of regional and international powers. Historically, Yemen has been a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and participated in the Non-Aligned Movement.

Key relationships and international involvement include:

• Saudi Arabia**: Saudi Arabia shares a long border with Yemen and has historically played a significant role in Yemeni politics, often through support for tribal leaders and political factions. Since March 2015, Saudi Arabia has led a military coalition intervening in Yemen to support the internationally recognized government against the Houthi movement. This intervention has involved extensive airstrikes and a blockade, which have had severe humanitarian consequences, drawing international criticism for civilian casualties and the exacerbation of famine and disease. Saudi Arabia views the Houthis as an Iranian proxy threatening its southern border.
• Iran**: Iran is widely accused by Saudi Arabia, the UAE, the US, and the internationally recognized Yemeni government of providing material and financial support to the Houthi movement. Iran denies direct military involvement but expresses political support for the Houthis. The conflict in Yemen is often seen as part of a broader regional rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran.
• United Arab Emirates (UAE)**: The UAE was a key member of the Saudi-led coalition but has pursued its own strategic interests in Yemen, particularly in the south. The UAE has backed and trained southern secessionist forces, including the Southern Transitional Council (STC), leading to tensions with the internationally recognized government, which it nominally supports. The UAE has scaled back its direct military presence but maintains significant influence.
• Oman**: Oman shares a border with Yemen and has maintained a neutral stance in the conflict, often serving as a facilitator for humanitarian aid and a venue for back-channel talks between warring parties.
• United States and Western Powers**: The US, UK, and France have provided military, intelligence, and logistical support to the Saudi-led coalition, though this support has faced increasing scrutiny and some limitations due to concerns about human rights violations and the humanitarian crisis. These countries have also been involved in counter-terrorism operations against AQAP in Yemen.
• United Nations**: The UN has been actively involved in trying to mediate a political solution to the conflict through its Special Envoys. It has also coordinated massive humanitarian aid efforts, though these are often hampered by funding shortages and access restrictions. The UN has repeatedly called for a ceasefire and a return to a political process.
• Arab League**: Yemen is a member, and the Arab League has generally supported the internationally recognized government and the Saudi-led intervention, condemning the Houthi takeover.

The civil war has led to a severe deterioration of Yemen's international standing and has made it heavily reliant on international aid. The perspectives of affected parties, particularly Yemeni civilians, often highlight the devastating impact of foreign interventions and the urgent need for peace and accountability for human rights abuses. The conflict has also become entangled with broader international issues, such as maritime security in the Red Sea, highlighted by Houthi attacks on shipping following the 2023 Israel-Hamas war.

5.4. Military

The military landscape in Yemen is highly fragmented due to the ongoing civil war. Prior to the conflict, the Republic of Yemen Armed Forces consisted of the Yemen Army (which included the Republican Guard), the Yemeni Navy (including Marines), and the Yemeni Air Force (including Air Defense Forces). The President of Yemen is constitutionally the commander-in-chief.

Since the Houthi takeover of Sana'a in 2014-2015 and the subsequent Saudi-led intervention, the formal military structure has effectively collapsed and splintered into several warring factions:

1. **Forces aligned with the Internationally Recognized Government (Presidential Leadership Council - PLC)**: These include remnants of the pre-war national army, various militias, and tribal fighters. They receive significant support, including arms, training, and airpower, from the Saudi-led coalition, primarily Saudi Arabia. Their command structure is often decentralized, and their effectiveness varies across different fronts.
2. **Houthi Forces (Ansar Allah)**: The Houthis command a formidable military force, composed of their core fighters, allied tribal militias, and defected units from the former Yemeni army, including elements of the Republican Guard previously loyal to Ali Abdullah Saleh. They possess a range of weaponry, including ballistic missiles, drones, and anti-ship missiles, some of which are allegedly supplied or supported by Iran. They have proven to be a resilient fighting force, maintaining control over Sana'a and much of northern Yemen despite years of coalition airstrikes.
3. **Southern Forces (affiliated with the Southern Transitional Council - STC)**: These include well-organized and equipped militias such as the Security Belt Forces, Shabwani Elite Forces, and Hadrami Elite Forces. They are primarily trained and funded by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and advocate for the independence of South Yemen. While nominally allied with the PLC against the Houthis, they have frequently clashed with PLC-aligned forces for control of southern governorates, particularly Aden.
4. **National Resistance Forces (led by Tareq Saleh)**: These forces, primarily operating on the western coast, are composed of former Republican Guard units and other fighters. They are also backed by the UAE and are part of the anti-Houthi coalition.
5. **Tribal Militias**: Numerous local tribal militias operate with varying degrees of autonomy, aligning with different major factions based on local interests and allegiances. Their role is significant in controlling territory and providing manpower.
6. **Jihadist Groups**: Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and ISIS-Yemen maintain their own armed elements, though they are often in conflict with both the Houthis and coalition-backed forces.

The total number of active military personnel across all factions is difficult to ascertain accurately. The country is awash with weapons due to decades of conflict and arms proliferation. External military support, primarily from Saudi Arabia and the UAE to their respective allies, and alleged support from Iran to the Houthis, has been a defining feature of the war, fueling the conflict and complicating peace efforts.

5.5. Human Rights Situation

The human rights situation in Yemen is dire, having deteriorated catastrophically due to the ongoing civil war that began in late 2014. All parties to the conflict have been accused of serious violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law.

• Civilian Casualties**: Indiscriminate attacks, including coalition airstrikes and Houthi shelling, have resulted in thousands of civilian deaths and injuries. Civilian infrastructure such as homes, markets, hospitals, and schools have been repeatedly hit.
• Humanitarian Crisis and Access**: The conflict has precipitated one ofthe world's worst humanitarian crises. Millions face starvation, and access to food, clean water, and healthcare is severely restricted. The blockade imposed by the Saudi-led coalition has significantly contributed to this crisis. Humanitarian aid operations are often hampered by restrictions imposed by all parties, ongoing insecurity, and bureaucratic impediments.
• Freedom of Speech and Press**: Freedom of expression is severely curtailed in all areas of Yemen. Journalists, activists, and ordinary citizens face harassment, arbitrary detention, enforced disappearances, and violence for expressing critical views. Media outlets are often controlled or censored by the dominant authorities in their respective areas.
• Arbitrary Detention, Enforced Disappearances, and Torture**: All warring parties have been implicated in arbitrary arrests and detentions, often holding individuals incommunicado for extended periods. Reports of torture and other ill-treatment in detention facilities are widespread. Enforced disappearances are a common tactic.
• Rights of Women and Children**: Women and children are disproportionately affected by the conflict. Child marriage remains prevalent and has reportedly increased. Women face restrictions on their movement and participation in public life, and gender-based violence is a significant concern. Children have been killed, maimed, recruited as child soldiers (particularly by the Houthis), and deprived of education and healthcare. Millions of children suffer from acute malnutrition.
• Displacement**: Millions of Yemenis have been internally displaced by the conflict, living in dire conditions in camps or host communities with inadequate access to basic necessities.
• Violations by Specific Groups**:
  • Houthi Forces**: Accused of indiscriminate shelling of civilian areas, use of landmines, recruitment of child soldiers, arbitrary detentions, torture, and severe restrictions on freedoms in areas under their control.
  • Saudi-led Coalition**: Criticized for numerous airstrikes causing significant civilian casualties and destruction of civilian infrastructure, as well as the impact of the blockade.
  • UAE-backed Forces / STC**: Implicated in running secret prisons, arbitrary detentions, enforced disappearances, and torture in southern Yemen.
  • Internationally Recognized Government Forces**: Also accused of arbitrary detentions and other abuses.
• Minorities and Vulnerable Groups**: Religious minorities, such as the small remaining Jewish community and Christians, as well as marginalized groups like the Al-Akhdam, face discrimination and persecution.
• Accountability**: There is a profound lack of accountability for human rights violations. Efforts by the UN Human Rights Council to investigate abuses have faced political obstacles.

The conflict has led to a near-total collapse of the rule of law, leaving civilians with little to no protection or recourse for abuses. International organizations like Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, and UN bodies consistently document the grave human rights situation in Yemen.

5.6. Administrative Divisions

Yemen is officially divided into twenty-one governorates (muhafazat) and one municipality, Amanat Al-Asimah (which includes the constitutional capital, Sana'a). The most recent governorate, Socotra Governorate, was created in December 2013, separating Socotra Archipelago from Hadhramaut Governorate.

The governorates are further subdivided into 333 districts (muderiah), which are then divided into 2,210 sub-districts, and subsequently into 38,284 villages (as of 2001).

The official governorates are:

• Abyan
• 'Aden
• Al Bayda'
• Al Hudaydah
• Al Jawf
• Al Mahrah
• Al Mahwit
• Amanat Al-Asimah (Sana'a Capital Municipality)
• 'Amran
• Ad Dali'
• Dhamar
• Hadhramaut
• Hajjah
• Ibb
• Lahij
• Ma'rib
• Raymah
• Sa'dah
• Sana'a (governorate)
• Shabwah
• Socotra
• Ta'izz

• Federalism Debates and De Facto Control**:

In 2014, prior to the escalation of the civil war, a constitutional panel involved in the post-2011 transitional process proposed a plan to transform Yemen into a six-region federal state (four regions in the north, two in the south, with Sana'a and Aden having special status). This proposal was highly contentious; the Houthi movement rejected it, fearing it would dilute their power base and disadvantage northern regions, while some southern groups felt it did not adequately address their demands for autonomy or secession. The federalism plan was a contributing factor to the Houthi takeover of Sana'a and has not been implemented due to the ongoing conflict.

Currently, de facto control over Yemen's governorates is fragmented:

• The Houthi movement controls Amanat Al-Asimah (Sana'a city), Sa'dah, 'Amran, Al Mahwit, Sana'a Governorate, Raymah, Dhamar, Ibb, Al Hudaydah, Hajjah, and parts of Al Jawf, Ma'rib, Al Bayda, Dhale, and Taiz governorates.
• The internationally recognized government (PLC) and allied forces nominally control Aden, Lahij, Abyan, Shabwah, Hadhramaut, Al Mahrah, Socotra, and parts of Ma'rib, Al Jawf, Taiz, Dhale, and Al Bayda governorates. However, within these areas, the Southern Transitional Council (STC) exercises significant influence and often direct control, particularly in Aden, Lahij, Dhale, Socotra, and parts of Abyan and Shabwah.

This division of control means that official administrative structures are often non-functional or operate under different de facto authorities, severely hampering governance and service delivery across the country.

6.1. Economic Overview

Prior to the conflict, Yemen's economy was characterized by low GDP per capita, high unemployment, and significant poverty. In 2013, its GDP (PPP) was approximately US$61.63 billion, with an income per capita around $2,500. The services sector was the largest contributor to GDP, followed by industry (heavily reliant on oil) and agriculture.

Since the start of the civil war in 2014, Yemen's GDP has dropped by over 50%. Key economic indicators paint a grim picture:

• GDP**: Drastic reduction due to conflict, blockades, and internal fragmentation.
• Per Capita Income**: Plummeted, exacerbating already high poverty levels. Over 80% of the population was estimated to be living in poverty by 2018.
• Unemployment**: Extremely high, particularly among youth.
• Inflation**: Soared, eroding purchasing power and making basic necessities unaffordable for many. The rial has significantly depreciated, with different exchange rates prevailing in Houthi-controlled and government-controlled areas due to a split in the Central Bank.
• Poverty**: Widespread and deepening, with millions dependent on humanitarian aid for survival.
• Fiscal Situation**: Government revenues have collapsed. The internationally recognized government relies heavily on aid and support from Saudi Arabia, while Houthi authorities in Sana'a have developed their own revenue collection mechanisms, often through taxation and levies in areas under their control.
• Debt**: Public debt has increased significantly.

The blockade imposed by the Saudi-led coalition and restrictions on ports and airports have severely hampered imports of essential goods, including food, fuel, and medicine. Houthi attacks on oil export infrastructure have further damaged the economy. The conflict has also led to massive capital flight and a collapse in foreign investment. The lack of social equity in wealth distribution has become even more pronounced, with resources often controlled by warring factions.

6.2. Major Industries

Yemen's industrial base, already limited before the war, has suffered immensely. Key sectors include agriculture, oil and natural gas, and a small manufacturing and trade sector.

6.2.1. Agriculture

Agriculture has traditionally been a significant employer in Yemen, though its contribution to GDP is relatively small.

• Major Crops**: Key crops include sorghum (a staple food), wheat, barley, vegetables, fruits (especially mangoes), and pulses. Yemen is also known for its high-quality coffee (Coffea arabica), historically a major export. The cultivation of qat (Catha edulis), a psychoactive plant chewed as a stimulant, is widespread and highly profitable but consumes vast amounts of water and displaces food crops.
• Farming Practices**: Traditional farming methods, including terracing in mountainous areas, are common. Irrigation relies heavily on groundwater and rainfall.
• Food Security**: Yemen was a net food importer even before the war. The conflict has devastated agricultural production due to displacement of farmers, lack of access to inputs (seeds, fertilizer, fuel for irrigation pumps), damaged infrastructure, and disrupted markets. This has led to severe food insecurity and famine-like conditions in many parts of the country.
• Water Shortages**: Chronic water scarcity, exacerbated by over-extraction of groundwater (particularly for qat cultivation) and climate change, severely impacts agriculture and rural livelihoods. The war has further damaged water infrastructure.

6.2.2. Oil and Natural Gas

Oil and natural gas have been crucial to Yemen's economy, accounting for a significant portion of GDP and government revenue before the war.

• Reserves and Production**: Yemen has proven reserves of oil and natural gas. Oil production was centered in the Ma'rib and Shabwah governorates. A liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant at Balhaf began exporting in 2009.
• Impact of Conflict**: The civil war has severely disrupted the oil and gas sector. Production facilities, pipelines, and export terminals (like Ras Isa and Balhaf) have been damaged, targeted, or shut down. Control over oil and gas resources is contested, leading to disputes over revenue. Houthi attacks on oil infrastructure and shipping, and coalition restrictions, have further hampered production and exports.
• Distribution of Benefits**: Even before the war, the distribution of benefits from oil and gas wealth was a contentious issue, with accusations of corruption and inequitable allocation. The conflict has exacerbated these issues, with revenues often diverted by warring factions rather than benefiting the population.

6.3. Water Scarcity and Sanitation Issues

Yemen is one of the most water-scarce countries in the world, a crisis that predates the current conflict but has been massively exacerbated by it.

• Causes of Water Scarcity**: These include rapid population growth, over-extraction of groundwater (especially for qat cultivation, which accounts for a large percentage of water use), inefficient irrigation practices, climate change leading to reduced rainfall and increased droughts, and weak water resource management.
• Current State**: Water tables have dropped dramatically in many areas, particularly in the highlands like the Sana'a Basin, where wells have had to be drilled much deeper. Many communities lack access to safe and sufficient drinking water.
• Impact on Public Life, Agriculture, and Health**: Water scarcity directly impacts agricultural output, leading to food insecurity. Lack of access to clean water and sanitation is a major cause of disease, including recurrent cholera outbreaks and other waterborne illnesses. Women and children often bear the burden of fetching water from distant sources.
• Sanitation Infrastructure**: Public sanitation infrastructure is inadequate, especially in rural areas and IDP camps. The war has damaged existing systems and prevented new development, increasing public health risks.
• Conflict Impact**: The civil war has worsened the water crisis by damaging water pipelines, pumping stations, and treatment plants. Fuel shortages, crucial for pumping water, are frequent. Displacement of populations puts additional strain on water resources in host communities.

The interconnected crises of conflict, economic collapse, and water scarcity have created a catastrophic humanitarian situation in Yemen.

7.1. Population

Yemen's population was estimated at over 34 million in 2023. Key demographic features include:

• Growth Rate**: Historically high, contributing to pressure on resources.
• Age Distribution**: A very young population, with approximately 46% under the age of 15 and only about 2.7% over 65. This youth bulge presents both demographic challenges and potential.
• Urbanization**: Increasing, with Sana'a (the capital) and Aden being the largest urban centers. Sana'a's population grew from around 55,000 in 1978 to nearly 1 million by the early 21st century, and has continued to grow despite the conflict.
• Life Expectancy**: Relatively low, and further impacted by the war due to malnutrition, disease, and lack of healthcare.
• Displacement**: The civil war has caused massive internal displacement, with millions forced to flee their homes. These Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) often live in precarious conditions in camps or host communities, facing severe hardship and vulnerability. Yemen also hosts a smaller number of refugees, mainly from Somalia and Ethiopia, though their situation has also worsened.

The war has led to excess mortality due to direct violence, famine, and disease, significantly affecting the demographic structure and creating a lost generation.

7.2. Ethnic Groups and Languages

• Ethnic Groups**: The population is overwhelmingly Arab. There are hereditary caste-like groups, such as the marginalized Al-Akhdam, who face significant social discrimination. Small communities of Persian origin have historically existed, particularly in Aden. Yemenis of Afro-Arab descent are also present, particularly in coastal areas. Some Yemenis trace ancestry to South Asians who migrated for trade or during British colonial rule. The Yemenite Jewish community, once a significant minority with a distinct culture, largely emigrated to Israel in the mid-20th century; only a handful remain. People of Hadhrami descent from southern Yemen (Hadhramaut) form notable diaspora communities in Southeast Asia, East Africa, and India.
• Languages**:
  • Arabic is the official language. Yemeni Arabic, with its various regional dialects (e.g., Sanaani, Ta'izzi, Adeni, Hadhrami), is the vernacular.
  • Modern South Arabian languages: In the eastern governorate of Al Mahrah and on Socotra Island, several non-Arabic Semitic languages are spoken. These include Mehri (the largest, with over 70,000 speakers), Soqotri (spoken on Socotra and facing endangerment), Hobyot, and Bathari. The Razihi language, spoken in the far northwest, is considered by some to be the only surviving Old South Arabian language.
  • English is the most important foreign language, particularly in business and educated circles, and was more widely spoken in the formerly British-controlled south.

  The social integration and rights of minority groups, including ethnic and linguistic minorities like the Al-Akhdam and speakers of Modern South Arabian languages, are of concern, often exacerbated by societal prejudices and the ongoing conflict.

7.3. Religion

Islam is the state religion of Yemen, and the vast majority of the population is Muslim. The Muslim community is primarily divided into two main branches:

• Sunni Muslims**: Constitute the majority, estimated at around 55-65% of the Muslim population. Most Sunnis in Yemen follow the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence, with smaller groups adhering to the Maliki and Hanbali schools. Sunnis are predominant in the southern, eastern, and most central parts of the country.
• Shia Muslims**: Constitute a significant minority, estimated at around 35-45% of the Muslim population. The overwhelming majority of Shia Muslims in Yemen are Zaidis (also known as Fivers). Zaidism is a distinct branch of Shia Islam, historically centered in the northern highlands. The Houthi movement has its roots in Zaidism. There are also very small minorities of Ismaili (Sevener) and Twelver Shia Muslims.

The geographical distribution generally sees Zaidis concentrated in the northwestern highlands (e.g., Saada, Sana'a, Amran, Dhamar) and Sunnis in the south, east, and coastal areas (e.g., Aden, Taiz, Hadhramaut, Al Hudaydah). Larger cities often have mixed communities.

The ongoing civil war has significant sectarian dimensions, although the conflict is also driven by political, economic, and tribal factors. The Houthi movement's rise has been perceived by some as an expansion of Shia influence, contributing to regional tensions, particularly with Sunni-majority Saudi Arabia.

Religious minorities are very small. There are a few thousand Christians, mostly expatriates or refugees, and a tiny, dwindling community of Yemenite Jews, with most having emigrated. A very small number of Hindus and unaffiliated individuals also reside in the country. Freedom of religion is limited, and conversion from Islam is not legally recognized and can face severe social and legal consequences. Religious minorities, particularly the Baha'is and Christians, have faced harassment and detention, especially in Houthi-controlled areas.

7.4. Education

Yemen's education system, already facing significant challenges before the current conflict, has been severely impacted by the war, undermining democratic development and social mobility.

• Structure**: The formal education system generally consists of basic education (grades 1-9) and secondary education (grades 10-12). Higher education institutions include universities like Sana'a University and the University of Aden.
• Literacy Rates**: Adult literacy rates were around 64-70% before the war (with significant gender disparity, men having higher rates than women). The government had set goals to reduce illiteracy, but progress has been reversed by the conflict.
• Challenges**:
  • Low Enrollment and High Dropout Rates**: Particularly for girls and in rural areas. Poverty is a major barrier, forcing children into labor.
  • Poor Quality of Education**: Due to lack of trained teachers, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate learning materials, and outdated curricula.
  • Gender Disparity**: Girls have lower enrollment and completion rates than boys, especially at secondary and higher levels.
  • Lack of Resources**: Insufficient government funding for education.
• Impact of Civil War**:
  • Damaged and Destroyed Schools**: Thousands of schools have been damaged or destroyed by airstrikes and fighting, or are being used as shelters for displaced persons or by armed groups.
  • Teacher Shortages and Unpaid Salaries**: Many teachers have not received regular salaries for years, particularly in Houthi-controlled areas, forcing them to seek alternative livelihoods.
  • Displacement**: Millions of children have been displaced, disrupting their education.
  • Increased Child Labor and Child Marriage**: Economic hardship due to the war forces families to pull children out of school.
  • Psychosocial Impact**: Children are exposed to violence, trauma, and loss, affecting their ability to learn.
  • Curriculum Changes**: In Houthi-controlled areas, there have been reports of alterations to the curriculum to reflect Houthi ideology, raising concerns about indoctrination.

  Access to quality education is a fundamental human right and crucial for Yemen's future recovery, democratic development, and social mobility. The collapse of the education system due to the war will have long-lasting negative consequences for an entire generation. International organizations are providing some support, but the needs are vast.

7.5. Healthcare

Yemen's healthcare system was severely underdeveloped even before the civil war and has virtually collapsed in many areas due to the ongoing conflict, leading to a profound health crisis.

• Pre-War System**: Characterized by insufficient funding (healthcare expenditure was a small percentage of GDP), a shortage of medical personnel (doctors, nurses, specialists), inadequate facilities (especially in rural areas), and limited access to essential medicines and equipment. Only about half the population had access to basic healthcare.
• Major Health Issues (Pre-War and Exacerbated by War)**:
  • Communicable Diseases**: High rates of diseases like malaria, tuberculosis, dengue fever, and diarrheal diseases.
  • Malnutrition**: Chronic malnutrition, especially among children and pregnant/lactating women, was a persistent problem and has reached famine levels during the war.
  • Non-Communicable Diseases**: Increasing burden of diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer, with limited treatment options.
  • Maternal and Child Health**: High rates of maternal and infant mortality.
• Impact of Civil War**:
  • Damaged/Destroyed Health Facilities**: Numerous hospitals and clinics have been damaged or destroyed by airstrikes and fighting, or have become non-functional due to lack of staff, supplies, or power.
  • Shortage of Medical Personnel**: Many healthcare workers have fled the country or have been displaced. Those remaining often work without regular salaries.
  • Lack of Medicines and Medical Supplies**: The blockade and import restrictions have led to severe shortages of essential medicines, vaccines, and medical equipment.
  • Disease Outbreaks**: The collapse of water and sanitation systems has led to massive outbreaks of cholera (one of the largest in modern history) and diphtheria. Polio, previously near eradication, has re-emerged. COVID-19 further strained the system.
  • Famine and Malnutrition**: The conflict-induced economic collapse and restrictions on imports have led to widespread food insecurity and acute malnutrition, affecting millions, particularly children. This has devastating long-term health consequences.
  • Mental Health**: The population has endured immense trauma, leading to a significant mental health crisis with very limited support services.
• Average Life Expectancy**: Was low before the war and has likely decreased further due to the conflict, disease, and malnutrition.
• Humanitarian Aid**: International organizations (WHO, UNICEF, MSF, etc.) and NGOs are providing critical healthcare services and humanitarian aid, but their efforts are often hampered by funding shortfalls, access restrictions imposed by warring parties, insecurity, and the sheer scale of the needs.

The healthcare situation in Yemen is a catastrophic humanitarian emergency, with vulnerable populations (children, women, elderly, displaced persons) bearing the brunt of the system's collapse. Addressing this requires not only an end to the conflict but also massive investment in rebuilding the health infrastructure and workforce.

8.1. Traditional Lifestyle and Customs

Yemeni society is largely tribal, and tribal customs and affiliations continue to play a significant role in social and political life, particularly outside major urban centers.

• Qat Culture**: The chewing of qat (Catha edulis) leaves, a mild stimulant, is a deeply ingrained social custom for a large segment of the male population, and increasingly among women. Qat sessions are important social gatherings for discussion, business, and dispute resolution, typically taking place in the afternoon. However, qat cultivation consumes vast water resources and has significant economic and health implications.
• Jambiya**: The jambiya, a curved dagger worn by men in a belt, is a prominent symbol of Yemeni identity, status, and tribal affiliation. The craftsmanship and materials of the jambiya and its sheath can indicate the wearer's social standing. While often ceremonial, it can also be a weapon.
• Tribal Society**: Tribal law (urf) often coexists with state law and Sharia, particularly in rural areas, influencing dispute resolution, social codes, and allegiances. Hospitality is a highly valued tradition.
• Marriage and Funeral Practices**: Weddings are elaborate, often multi-day celebrations with distinct male and female gatherings, music, and dance. Funeral practices are guided by Islamic traditions, emphasizing communal support for the bereaved.
• Traditional Attire**: Men traditionally wear a fouta (a sarong-like garment), a thawb (long robe), and often a headscarf or turban, along with the jambiya. Women's traditional clothing varies by region but often includes colorful dresses adorned with embroidery and silver jewelry, typically worn under an abaya (black outer cloak) and niqab (face veil) or hijab (headscarf) in public, especially in more conservative areas.

8.2. Cuisine

Yemeni cuisine is distinct from broader Middle Eastern culinary traditions, with regional variations. Generosity in offering food to guests is paramount.

• Staple Dishes**:
  • Saltah**: Considered the national dish, Saltah is a hearty meat stew (often lamb or chicken) cooked with vegetables, fenugreek (hilbeh), and spices, typically served piping hot in a stone pot with fresh flatbread for dipping.
  • Haneeth**: Slow-roasted lamb or goat, traditionally cooked in a taboon (tandoor-like oven) until extremely tender, seasoned with spices.
  • Mandi**: Similar to Haneeth, but the meat (chicken or lamb) is cooked with rice in a tandoor, with the rice absorbing the meat drippings.
  • Aseed**: A savory porridge-like dish made from flour (wheat or sorghum), often served with broth or honey.
  • Fahsa**: A version of Saltah, typically made with lamb cutlets in a lamb broth.
• Breads**: Various types of flatbreads are staples, such as malawach, khobz al-tawa, and lahoh (a spongy, pancake-like bread).
• Spices and Ingredients**: Common ingredients include lamb, goat, chicken, fish (in coastal areas), grains (sorghum, wheat, barley), vegetables (tomatoes, potatoes, okra), lentils, and a wide array of spices like cumin, coriander, turmeric, cardamom, and fenugreek. Zahawiq (a spicy salsa-like condiment) is a common accompaniment.
• Coffee Culture**: Yemen is the historical heartland of Coffea arabica, and Mocha (from the port city of Al-Makha) was once world-renowned. Traditional Yemeni coffee (qishr) is often made from coffee husks, spiced with ginger and cinnamon. Qahwa (brewed coffee beans) is also popular.

The main meal of the day is typically lunch. Eating is often a communal affair, traditionally done while seated on the floor.

8.3. Arts and Architecture

Yemen has a rich artistic and architectural heritage.

• Traditional Music and Dance**: Music often features the oud, drums, and vocals. Traditional dances, like the baraa (a male warrior dance involving jambiyas), vary by region and are performed at celebrations.
• Crafts**: Yemen is known for its intricate silver jewelry (especially bridal jewelry), pottery, stained glass (qamariya windows), and carved wooden doors.
• Architecture**: Yemeni traditional architecture is unique and visually stunning.
  • Sana'a Old City**: Characterized by multi-story tower houses built from baked brick, adorned with intricate geometric patterns of white gypsum (qadad). The Old City is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
  • Shibam (Hadhramaut)**: Another UNESCO site, famous for its ancient mud-brick "skyscrapers," some up to eight stories high, representing early examples of vertical urban planning.
  • Zabid**: The historic town of Zabid, also a UNESCO site, showcases distinct Islamic architecture from its period as a capital and center of learning.
• Regional variations exist, utilizing local materials like stone and mud-brick.

The ongoing conflict has unfortunately led to the damage and destruction of many invaluable historical and architectural sites.

8.4. Media and Sports

• Media**:
  • Mass media includes radio, television, and newspapers. Radio broadcasting began in the 1940s.
  • State-controlled media has traditionally been dominant. Since the conflict, media outlets are often aligned with the various warring factions, leading to a polarized and propagandized information environment.
  • Press freedom is severely restricted, and journalists face significant risks, including harassment, detention, and violence.
  • Satellite television and the internet (though access is limited and often censored) provide alternative sources of information.
• Sports**:
  • Football (soccer)** is the most popular sport. The Yemen national football team participates in international competitions, though the domestic league has been severely disrupted by the war.
  • Camel jumping**: A traditional sport, particularly among the Zaraniq tribe on the western coast, where competitors leap over a line of camels.
• Other traditional sports and outdoor activities like hiking and rock climbing are practiced in mountainous regions, though opportunities are limited by the current security situation.

8.5. World Heritage Sites

Yemen is home to four UNESCO World Heritage Sites, all of which are currently on the List of World Heritage in Danger due to the threats posed by the ongoing civil war:

1. **Old Walled City of Shibam** (inscribed 1982): Located in Wadi Hadhramaut, this 16th-century city is renowned for its towering mud-brick apartment buildings, earning it the nickname "Manhattan of the Desert." It represents an outstanding example of traditional urban planning based on vertical construction.
2. **Old City of Sana'a** (inscribed 1986): Inhabited for over 2,500 years, Sana'a's Old City is a jewel of Islamic architecture, featuring over 100 mosques, 14 hammams (bathhouses), and more than 6,000 traditional tower houses made of baked brick and decorated with intricate gypsum work, all dating from before the 11th century.
3. **Historic Town of Zabid** (inscribed 1993): Located near the Red Sea coast, Zabid was Yemen's capital from the 13th to the 15th century. It was a significant center of Islamic learning, particularly its university, attracting scholars from across the Arab and Islamic world. It is noted for its domestic and military architecture.
4. **Socotra Archipelago** (inscribed 2008): This remote archipelago in the Indian Ocean is a site of exceptional biodiversity with a high degree of endemism in its flora and fauna. It is home to unique species like the dragon's blood tree, various frankincense trees, and a rich marine life. Its cultural heritage includes the unique Soqotri language.

The civil war has caused significant damage to these irreplaceable sites through direct attacks, neglect, and illicit excavation, prompting international concern and calls for their protection.