United Arab Emirates

3.1. Antiquity

The region now known as the United Arab Emirates has a history of human habitation dating back thousands of years. Stone tools recovered reveal settlements by people from Africa approximately 127,000 years ago. A stone tool used for butchering animals, discovered on the Arabian coast, suggests an even older habitation dating back 130,000 years. Archaeological findings at Jebel Faya in Sharjah indicate human presence from this early period.
Over time, the region developed lively trading links with civilizations in Mesopotamia, Iran, and the Indus Valley Civilisation. This contact persisted and expanded, likely motivated by the trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, which commenced around 3,000 BCE. Sumerian sources refer to a civilization called Magan, which has been identified as encompassing the modern UAE and Oman.
Several distinct periods of human settlement with unique cultural behaviors characterized the region before the advent of Islam. These include the Hafit period (3200-2600 BCE), known for its beehive-shaped tombs found at Jebel Hafeet. This was followed by the Umm Al Nar culture (2600-2000 BCE), a Bronze Age culture characterized by circular tombs with finely dressed stones and evidence of sophisticated copper smelting and trade. The Wadi Suq culture (2000-1300 BCE) succeeded the Umm Al Nar period, showing changes in burial practices and pottery styles, possibly due to climatic shifts or migrations.
From 1200 BCE to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, the region experienced three distinctive Iron Ages and the Mleiha period. During this time, the area was variously occupied or influenced by powers such as the Achaemenid Empire. This era saw the construction of fortified settlements and the expansion of agriculture, notably through the development of the falaj (aflaj) irrigation system, which allowed for cultivation in arid areas. Mleiha, in Sharjah, became a significant center during this period, with evidence of trade connections extending to Greece, South Asia, and Southern Arabia.

3.2. Islamic Era

The spread of Islam to the northeastern tip of the Arabian Peninsula is believed to have followed directly from a letter sent by the Islamic prophet Muhammad to the rulers of Oman in 630 CE. This led to a delegation of rulers traveling to Medina, converting to Islam, and subsequently leading a successful uprising against the Sasanian Empire, which dominated the coast at the time.
Following the death of Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf faced threats of disintegration, with insurrections against Muslim leaders. The Caliph Abu Bakr dispatched an army from Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory during the Ridda wars. The Battle of Dibba, in what is now part of Sharjah and Fujairah, is thought to have resulted in 10,000 lives lost, ensuring the integrity of the Caliphate and the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the newly emerging Rashidun Caliphate.
In 637 CE, Julfar, located in the area of present-day Ras Al Khaimah, served as an important port and staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire. The Al Ain/Buraimi Oasis region, known as Tu'am, was a significant trading post for camel routes connecting the coast with the Arabian interior.
Archaeological evidence also points to an early Christian presence in the region. The earliest Christian site in the UAE, an extensive monastic complex on what is now known as Sir Bani Yas Island, was discovered in the 1990s. This site dates back to the 7th century CE, believed to be Nestorian and built around 600 CE. The church appears to have been abandoned peacefully around 750 CE. This discovery provides a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity that is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 CE, following trade routes. By the 5th century, Oman had a bishop named John, and the last known bishop of Oman was Etienne, in 676 CE.

3.3. Portuguese and Ottoman Influence

The harsh desert environment of the Arabian Peninsula led to the emergence of versatile nomadic tribes who subsisted through a variety of economic activities, including animal husbandry, agriculture, and hunting. The seasonal movements of these groups led to frequent clashes but also to the establishment of seasonal and semi-seasonal settlements and centers. These formed tribal groupings whose names are still carried by modern Emiratis, including the Bani Yas confederation (ancestors of the Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi and the Al Maktoum of Dubai) who were prominent in Abu Dhabi, Al Ain, Liwa Oasis, and the west coast. Other groups included the Dhawahir, Awamir, Al Ali, and Manasir of the interior; the Sharqiyin of the east coast; and the Al-Qasimi (Qawasim) to the north.
With the expansion of European colonial empires, Portuguese, English, and Dutch forces appeared in the Persian Gulf region. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a significant presence. In the early 16th century, Afonso de Albuquerque, a Portuguese admiral, led conquests of coastal communities along the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese built forts and trading posts, particularly on the east coast at Muscat, Sohar, and Khor Fakkan, as well as in Julfar and Dibba. Their aim was to control the lucrative spice trade routes that passed through the region. Portuguese influence lasted for about 150 years, marked by conflicts with local powers and other European rivals.
By the 18th century, the Bani Yas confederation had become the dominant force in most of the area now known as Abu Dhabi, while the Al Qawasim in the north dominated maritime commerce. The Ottoman Empire, while not directly ruling the area of the present-day UAE, exerted significant influence in the broader Persian Gulf region. The Ottomans contested Portuguese dominance and later vied with other European powers for influence. However, their direct control was largely limited to parts of Iraq and the western coast of the Arabian Peninsula. The tribal sheikhdoms of the UAE coast largely maintained their autonomy from direct Ottoman rule, though they were part of the wider Islamic world influenced by the Ottomans as the leading Sunni power.

3.4. British Protectorate and Discovery of Oil

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the southern coast of the Persian Gulf became known to the British as the "Pirate Coast" due to the maritime activities of the Al Qawasim federation, who frequently harassed British-flagged shipping. This term is contested by modern Emirati historians, such as Sheikh Sultan Al Qasimi of Sharjah, who argue that the Al Qawasim were defending their traditional waters and trade routes against encroaching British influence.
To protect its Indian trade routes, Britain launched expeditions against Ras Al Khaimah and other harbors. Notable campaigns included the Persian Gulf campaign of 1809 and the more decisive Persian Gulf campaign of 1819. Following the 1819 campaign, Britain and a number of local rulers signed the General Maritime Treaty of 1820. This treaty aimed to suppress piracy and the slave trade, leading to the term Trucial States (or Trucial Oman) which came to define the status of the coastal emirates. Further treaties followed, including a treaty in 1843 and the Perpetual Maritime Truce in 1853. The "Exclusive Agreements" of 1892 solidified the Trucial States' status as a British protectorate. Under these agreements, the trucial sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the British and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the British without their consent. In return, Britain promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to assist in case of land attack.
British maritime policing allowed pearling fleets to operate with relative security. The pearling industry was the mainstay of the local economy during the 19th and early 20th centuries, providing income and employment. However, World War I severely impacted the industry. The economic depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the Japanese invention of cultured pearls, devastated the trade. The decline of pearling resulted in extreme economic hardship in the Trucial States.
In 1922, the British government secured undertakings from the Trucial rulers not to sign concessions with foreign companies for oil exploration without their consent. Following oil discoveries in Persia (from 1908) and Mesopotamia (from 1927), interest in the region's oil potential grew. Petroleum Concessions Ltd (PCL), an associate company of the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), in which the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC, later BP) had a significant share, began seeking concessions. The first onshore concessions were granted by local rulers from 1935. The first boreholes in Abu Dhabi were drilled by IPC's operating company, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd (PDTC), at Ras Sadr in 1950, but this attempt was dry despite significant investment.
The British established a development office that assisted with small developments in the emirates. In 1952, the sheikhs of the emirates formed the Trucial States Council to coordinate matters between them, appointing Adi Al Bitar as secretary general. This council was terminated once the UAE was formed.
In 1953, D'Arcy Exploration Ltd, a subsidiary of BP, obtained an offshore concession from the ruler of Abu Dhabi. BP joined with Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later Total) to form operating companies, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd (ADMA) and Dubai Marine Areas Ltd (DUMA). In 1958, ADMA struck oil in the Umm Shaif oil field, the first commercial discovery in the Trucial Coast, leading to the first oil exports in 1962. Further offshore discoveries followed, such as Zakum by ADMA, the Fateh Oil Field off Dubai, and the Mubarak field off Sharjah (shared with Iran). Onshore, PDTC discovered oil in commercial quantities at the Murban No. 3 well near Tarif in 1960. In 1962, PDTC became the Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company.
As oil revenues increased, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, who became ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1966, undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals, and roads. When Dubai's oil exports commenced in 1969, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the ruler of Dubai, invested revenues to diversify the economy, laying the groundwork for the modern global city of Dubai.
Territorial disputes, such as the Buraimi Oasis dispute between Abu Dhabi, Oman, and Saudi Arabia in 1955 (where the UK represented Abu Dhabi and Oman), sometimes hindered onshore exploration. A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia aimed to settle their border dispute but has not been fully ratified. The UAE's border with Oman was ratified in 2008.

3.5. Independence

By 1966, it became apparent that the British government could no longer afford to administer and protect the Trucial States. On 24 January 1968, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson announced the government's decision, reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime Minister Edward Heath, to end the treaty relationships with the seven trucial sheikhdoms, as well as with Bahrain and Qatar, by the end of 1971. This policy was part of a broader British withdrawal from "East of Suez".
Days after the announcement, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi, fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honor the protection treaties by offering to pay the full costs of keeping the British Armed Forces in the Emirates. The British Labour government rejected the offer.
Following the British announcement, the nine Persian Gulf sheikhdoms (the seven Trucial States plus Bahrain and Qatar) attempted to form a union of Arab emirates. However, by mid-1971, they were still unable to agree on the terms of the union. Bahrain became independent in August 1971, and Qatar followed in September 1971.
Fears of vulnerability were realized on 30 November 1971, the day before the British treaty expired. Iran, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, asserted its claim to three islands in the Persian Gulf: Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs. Iranian forces occupied the Tunb islands by force. On Abu Musa, an agreement was reached with Sheikh Khalid bin Mohammed Al Qasimi of Sharjah for joint administration, though Iran effectively controlled key parts of the island. The UAE still claims these islands. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia also laid claim to swathes of Abu Dhabi territory.
When the British-Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on 1 December 1971, the emirates became fully independent. On 2 December 1971, six of the emirates - Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Sharjah, and Umm Al Quwain - agreed to enter into a union named the United Arab Emirates. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi became the first President, and Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum of Dubai became the Vice President. Ras Al Khaimah initially hesitated but joined the federation on 10 February 1972.
In February 1972, the Federal National Council (FNC) was created as a 40-member consultative body appointed by the seven rulers. The UAE joined the Arab League on 6 December 1971 and the United Nations on 9 December 1971. It was a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in May 1981, with Abu Dhabi hosting the first GCC summit.

3.6. Post-Independence Era

Since its independence in 1971, the United Arab Emirates, under the leadership of Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, embarked on a rapid program of development and modernization. Oil revenues were strategically invested in healthcare, education, and infrastructure, transforming the desert sheikhdoms into a modern nation-state.
The UAE supported military operations by the US and other coalition states, including during the 1991 Gulf War, the war against the Taliban in Afghanistan (2001), and against Saddam Hussein in Iraq (2003). The Al Dhafra Air Base outside Abu Dhabi became a key logistical hub for allied operations. The UAE signed military defense agreements with the U.S. in 1994 and with France in 1995. In January 2008, France and the UAE signed a deal allowing France to set up a permanent military base in Abu Dhabi. The UAE also joined international military operations in Libya in March 2011.
On 2 November 2004, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the UAE's first president, passed away. His son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, succeeded him as ruler of Abu Dhabi and was elected President of the UAE. Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan became the crown prince of Abu Dhabi. In January 2006, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the prime minister of the UAE and ruler of Dubai, died, and his brother, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, assumed both roles.
The first-ever national elections for a portion of the Federal National Council (FNC) were held on 16 December 2006, where a limited electoral college chose half of the FNC's members. The UAE largely avoided the widespread unrest of the Arab Spring that affected other countries in the region. However, the government increased its crackdown on dissent, particularly targeting members of Al Islah, an Islamist group. Around 60 Emirati activists were apprehended for an alleged coup attempt and attempts to establish an Islamist state. In November 2012, the UAE outlawed online mockery of its government and attempts to organize public protests through social media.
The COVID-19 pandemic reached the UAE on 29 January 2020. In March 2020, the government implemented strict measures, including the closure of shopping malls, schools, and places of worship, a 24-hour curfew, and suspension of passenger flights by Emirates. These measures led to a significant economic downturn, resulting in the merger of over 50% of the UAE's federal agencies.
On 13 August 2020, the UAE and Israel announced an agreement to normalize relations, known as the Abraham Accords, brokered by the United States. Bahrain joined the accords shortly thereafter. This marked a significant shift in regional diplomacy.
On 9 February 2021, the UAE's Hope probe successfully entered Mars' orbit, making the UAE the first Arab country and the fifth country globally to reach Mars. It was also the second country, after India, to achieve Martian orbit on its maiden attempt.
On 13 May 2022, President Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan passed away. The Federal Supreme Council elected Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan as the third President of the UAE on 14 May 2022.
The UAE has continued its efforts towards economic diversification, focusing on tourism, technology, renewable energy, and international finance. It hosted Expo 2020 in Dubai (postponed to 2021-2022 due to the pandemic) and COP28 (the UN Climate Change conference) in 2023, further raising its international profile. The nation has also pursued an increasingly assertive foreign policy, engaging in regional conflicts and diplomatic initiatives.

4.1. Topography and Borders

The UAE lies between 22°30' and 26°10' north latitude and between 51° and 56°25′ east longitude. It shares a 329 mile ^{(530 km)} land border with Saudi Arabia to the west, south, and southeast, and a 280 mile ^{(450 km)} border with Oman to the southeast and northeast. The land border with Qatar in the Khor Al Adaid area is about 12 mile ^{(19 km)} in the northwest; however, its exact demarcation has been a source of ongoing dispute, primarily with Saudi Arabia.
The UAE's coastline stretches for nearly 404 mile ^{(650 km)} along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf, briefly interrupted by an isolated outcrop of Oman (Musandam Governorate). Six of the emirates (Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah) are situated along the Persian Gulf. The seventh emirate, Fujairah, is on the eastern coast of the peninsula with direct access to the Gulf of Oman. Most of the coast consists of salt pans that extend 5.0 mile ^{(8 km)} to 6.2 mile ^{(10 km)} inland. The largest natural harbor is at Dubai, although other ports have been dredged at Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, and elsewhere.
Numerous islands are found in the Persian Gulf. The UAE claims the Iranian-occupied islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs. These islands were seized by Iran in 1971, just before the UAE's formation, and this remains an unresolved territorial dispute. The UAE also has disputed claims over other islands with Qatar.
South and west of Abu Dhabi, vast, rolling sand dunes merge into the Rub' al Khali (Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia. This desert area includes important oases such as the extensive Liwa Oasis in the south, near the undefined border with Saudi Arabia. About 62 mile ^{(100 km)} to the northeast of Liwa is the Al-Buraimi oasis, which extends on both sides of the Abu Dhabi-Oman border. Al Ain is a major city in this oasis region. Lake Zakher in Al Ain is a man-made lake created from treated wastewater.
The eastern part of the UAE is dominated by the Hajar Mountains (Al Hajar Al Gharbi), which run north-south and separate the coastal plain of the Gulf of Oman from the desert interior. Jebel Jais in Ras Al Khaimah is the highest point in the UAE, with an elevation of approximately 6.2 K ft ^{(1.89 K m)} (though the true summit is in Oman). These mountains are rugged and create a different ecological zone compared to the deserts.
The internal borders among the seven emirates were largely delineated by Britain before 1971. Some disputes, particularly between Abu Dhabi and Dubai, and between Dubai and Sharjah, were resolved after independence. The most complicated borders are in the Western Hajar Mountains, where five emirates contested jurisdiction over more than a dozen enclaves, such as Madha (an Omani exclave within the UAE) and Nahwa (a UAE exclave within Madha).

4.2. Biodiversity

The UAE's biodiversity reflects its varied ecosystems, which include desert landscapes, mountain wadis, coastal plains, mangrove forests, and marine environments. The country is home to several terrestrial ecoregions: the Al Hajar montane woodlands and shrublands, the Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert, and the Al-Hajar foothill xeric woodlands and shrublands.
Desert flora is sparse, consisting mainly of grasses, thorn bushes, and drought-resistant shrubs. Date palms are extensively cultivated in oases, along with acacia and eucalyptus trees. The Hajar Mountains support a more diverse flora, including species adapted to higher altitudes and wadi environments. Mangrove forests, particularly Avicennia marina (grey mangrove), are found along sheltered coastlines and play a crucial role in coastal ecosystems.
The indigenous fauna of the UAE has faced threats from habitat loss and intensive hunting. Mammals include the Arabian oryx, sand gazelle (reem), mountain gazelle (domani), Arabian tahr, Arabian leopard (critically endangered, possibly extinct in the wild in UAE), sand fox, Rüppell's fox, and various rodent species. A significant conservation program was initiated by Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan on Sir Bani Yas Island in the 1970s. This has been instrumental in the survival and reintroduction of species like the Arabian Oryx and gazelles.
The UAE is an important location for migratory birds along the West Asian-East African flyway. Over 400 bird species have been recorded. Coastal areas and wetlands, such as those in Ras Al Khor in Dubai, are vital habitats for flamingos, herons, and other waders. Falconry is a traditional sport and falcons, though not all native, are highly prized.
Marine life in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman is diverse. Coastal waters support dugongs, several species of dolphins and whales. Coral reefs, though under stress from coastal development and climate change, host a variety of fish. Sea turtles, including the green turtle and hawksbill turtle, nest on UAE beaches, and conservation programs are in place to protect them. Mackerel, grouper (hamour), emperor fish (shaari), and tuna are among the common coastal fish. Sharks are also present in these waters.
Conservation efforts in the UAE include the establishment of protected areas, captive breeding programs for endangered species, and initiatives to preserve critical habitats like mangroves and coral reefs. Organizations like the Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi (EAD) and local environmental groups play a key role in these efforts.

4.3. Climate

The climate of the United Arab Emirates is subtropical-arid, characterized by a desert climate. Summers are extremely hot and humid, while winters are generally mild and pleasant.
The hottest months are July and August, when average maximum temperatures often exceed 113 °F ^{(45 °C)} on the coastal plain. Inland desert areas can experience even higher temperatures. Humidity is particularly high along the coast during the summer months, making the heat feel more oppressive. During this period, a humid southeastern wind known as the "Sharqi" (meaning "Easterner") can make coastal regions especially uncomfortable. In the Hajar Mountains, temperatures are considerably lower due to increased elevation.
Winters, from December to February, are mild, with average minimum temperatures in January and February ranging between 50 °F ^{(10 °C)} and 57.2 °F ^{(14 °C)}. Daytime temperatures in winter are usually pleasant, often in the low to mid-20s Celsius.
Annual rainfall is very low, typically less than 4.7 in ^{(120 mm)} in the coastal areas. In some mountainous areas, annual rainfall can reach up to 14 in ^{(350 mm)}. Rain in the coastal region usually falls in short, torrential bursts during the winter months (November to March), sometimes resulting in flash floods in ordinarily dry wadi beds.
The region is prone to occasional, violent dust storms, particularly during spring and summer, which can severely reduce visibility. Fog is also common, especially in the mornings during the cooler months.
Rarely, snow has been recorded in the UAE, specifically in the Jebel Jais mountain cluster in Ras Al Khaimah, the country's highest peak. The first officially recorded snowfall was on 28 December 2004. Since then, there have been a few other instances of snow and hail in this mountainous region, typically during exceptionally cold winter spells.

5.1. Government Structure

The United Arab Emirates is a federal elective monarchy and a constitutional federation of seven hereditary emirates. The Constitution, adopted in 1971 (made permanent in 1996), outlines the powers of the federal government and the individual emirates. Responsibilities not granted to the federal government are reserved for the individual emirates.
The highest constitutional authority is the Federal Supreme Council (FSC), composed of the rulers of the seven emirates. The FSC is responsible for electing the President and the Vice President from among its members (each serving a five-year term, renewable), ratifying federal laws, and overseeing general policy. By convention, the Ruler of Abu Dhabi holds the presidency, and the Ruler of Dubai holds the vice presidency and the premiership.
The current President is Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Ruler of Abu Dhabi, who assumed office in May 2022. The current Vice President and Prime Minister is Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Ruler of Dubai.
The Council of Ministers (Cabinet) is the executive branch of the federal government, headed by the Prime Minister. Ministers are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is responsible for managing all internal and foreign affairs of the federation under its constitutional and federal laws, drafting laws, and implementing federal policies. The UAE has established unique ministerial portfolios, including a Ministry of Tolerance, a Ministry of Happiness (now part of the Ministry of Community Development), and a Ministry of Artificial Intelligence, reflecting its focus on specific societal and technological goals. There is also a virtual Ministry of Possibilities, designed to find solutions to challenges and improve quality of life, and a National Youth Council represented by the Minister of Youth.
The federal legislature is the Federal National Council (FNC). It is a unicameral body consisting of 40 members. Half of the members are appointed by the rulers of the respective emirates, and the other half are elected by a limited electoral college, whose members are chosen by the rulers. The number of seats for each emirate is based on population and influence: Abu Dhabi and Dubai each have 8 seats; Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah each have 6 seats; and Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, and Fujairah each have 4 seats. The FNC primarily serves an advisory role, with powers to discuss and propose amendments to federal laws, question ministers, and review the federal budget. It does not have full legislative initiative or the power to pass or veto laws independently. Since a 2018 decree, women are intended to occupy 50% of the FNC seats.
Political parties are not permitted in the UAE. The system is often described as a "tribal autocracy" or an "authoritarian monarchy," where decision-making is concentrated within the ruling families. While there are consultative mechanisms, formal democratic institutions with broad citizen participation are limited. The UAE e-Government is the electronic extension of the federal government.

5.2. Administrative Divisions

The United Arab Emirates is a federation composed of seven distinct emirates (إمارات_imārāt^Arabic, singular: إمارة_imārah^Arabic). Each emirate is governed by a hereditary ruler (Emir or Sheikh) and maintains considerable autonomy over its local affairs, including internal security, economic development, and social services, while federal laws apply across the country.
The seven emirates are:
1. Abu Dhabi: The largest emirate by area (approximately 87% of the country's total area) and the second-most populous. Its capital city, Abu Dhabi, is also the federal capital of the UAE. Abu Dhabi holds the vast majority of the UAE's oil and gas reserves and is a major political and economic center.
2. Ajman: The smallest emirate by area, located on the Persian Gulf coast. It is largely surrounded by the Emirate of Sharjah.
3. Dubai: The most populous emirate and a global hub for finance, trade, tourism, and aviation. Its capital city, Dubai, is renowned for its modern architecture, including the Burj Khalifa.
4. Fujairah: The only emirate located entirely on the Gulf of Oman coast (eastern coast of the UAE). It is known for its mountainous terrain and port facilities.
5. Ras Al Khaimah: The northernmost emirate, known for its diverse landscape including mountains, desert plains, and coastal areas. It has a growing industrial and tourism sector.
6. Sharjah: The third-largest emirate by population, bordering Dubai to the south and Ajman and Umm Al Quwain to the north. It is recognized as a cultural capital of the Arab world and has exclaves on the Gulf of Oman coast (Kalba, Khor Fakkan, Dibba Al-Hisn).
7. Umm Al Quwain: One of the smaller emirates, located on the Persian Gulf coast between Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah. It is known for its mangroves and traditional lifestyle.

Some emirates have enclaves and exclaves. For example:

• Madha: An Omani exclave entirely surrounded by UAE territory (specifically within the Emirate of Sharjah).
• Nahwa: A UAE exclave (belonging to Sharjah) located entirely within the Omani exclave of Madha.
• Sharjah has several exclaves on the Gulf of Oman coast: Kalba, Khor Fakkan, and Dibba Al-Hisn.
• Ajman has two small agricultural exclaves: Masfout and Manama.
• Dubai has an exclave, Hatta, located in the Hajar Mountains near the Omani border.

Each emirate has its own local government structure, typically headed by the Ruler and his appointed officials, including executive councils and municipalities.

5.3. Foreign Relations

The United Arab Emirates pursues an active and assertive foreign policy aimed at enhancing its security, promoting economic interests, and increasing its regional and global influence. Its foreign relations are largely motivated by its identity within the Arab world and its strategic location. The UAE maintains broad diplomatic and commercial relations with most countries and is a member of numerous international organizations.
Key memberships include the United Nations (UN) and its specialized agencies (e.g., ICAO, ILO, WHO), the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) - of which it is a founding member, OPEC, the Non-Aligned Movement, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and BRICS (joined in 2024). The UAE is also a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). Most countries have diplomatic missions in Abu Dhabi, with many consulates located in Dubai.
The UAE's foreign policy objectives include regional stability, counter-terrorism, economic diversification through international partnerships, and humanitarian aid. However, its approach to foreign relations has also been criticized, particularly concerning its involvement in regional conflicts and the impact on human rights.
A significant aspect of UAE foreign policy is its strategic alliances. It has strong ties with Saudi Arabia, often coordinating on regional security issues, although differences have emerged at times. The UAE also maintains close relationships with Western powers, particularly the United States (with which it has a defense cooperation agreement) and France (which has a military base in the UAE).
Relations with Iran are complex due to geographical proximity, historical ties, significant trade, and ongoing disputes, primarily the Iranian occupation of the islands of Abu Musa, Greater Tunb, and Lesser Tunb, which the UAE claims.
In recent years, the UAE has taken notable diplomatic steps, including the Abraham Accords in 2020, which normalized relations with Israel. This agreement, brokered by the U.S., marked a significant shift in Middle Eastern geopolitics.
The UAE has been actively involved in several regional conflicts, including in Yemen, Libya, and the Horn of Africa. Its role in these conflicts, often involving military intervention and support for specific factions, has drawn international attention and criticism regarding humanitarian consequences and regional stability. For example, its support for the Southern Transitional Council in Yemen and Khalifa Haftar's forces in Libya has been controversial.
The UAE also engages in "soft power" diplomacy through humanitarian aid, cultural initiatives, and hosting international events. It is a significant donor of foreign aid. However, organizations like Human Rights Watch have raised concerns that the UAE's foreign policy and international engagements sometimes overlook or contribute to human rights abuses in other countries or are used to deflect criticism of its own human rights record. The impact of these relations on human rights and regional stability remains a subject of ongoing debate and scrutiny from a social liberal perspective.
In January 2025, the UAE signed an economic partnership with Kenya, which some observers linked to Kenya's subsequent hosting of a meeting involving the UAE-backed Rapid Support Forces (RSF) from Sudan, raising questions about the UAE's broader strategic aims in Africa and the potential impact on regional conflicts and human rights.

5.4. Military

The United Arab Emirates Armed Forces consist of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and the Presidential Guard. As of 2023, active personnel numbered around 44,000. The UAE has invested heavily in modernizing its military, acquiring advanced weaponry primarily from Western countries like the United States, France, and the United Kingdom. Defense spending in 2022 was approximately 20.40 B USD, about 4% of its GDP. The UAE military is often regarded as one of the most capable among Gulf Arab states and has been nicknamed "Little Sparta" by some US military officials due to its active and effective military role despite its relatively small size.
The UAE has been involved in various international military deployments and interventions, including:

• UN peacekeeping in Somalia (UNOSOM II) in 1993.
• Kosovo (KFOR).
• Kuwait during the Iraq War.
• Demining operations in Lebanon.
• Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan.
• The NATO-led intervention in Libya (2011), supporting anti-Gaddafi forces and later, General Khalifa Haftar's Libyan National Army against the internationally recognized Government of National Accord.
• The US-led intervention against ISIL in Syria.
• The Saudi-led intervention in Yemen against Houthi forces, beginning in 2015. This has been one of its most significant and controversial deployments, leading to accusations of war crimes and contributing to a humanitarian crisis. The UAE officially reduced its presence in Yemen in 2019 but continues to support local proxies.

The UAE has also focused on developing its domestic defense industry. Companies like Abu Dhabi Shipbuilding (ADSB), Caracal International (small arms), NIMR Automotive (military vehicles), and EDGE Group (a broader defense conglomerate) are part of this effort. The UAE Air Force operates advanced aircraft, including a unique variant of the F-16 fighter jet (F-16E/F Block 60 "Desert Falcon") and the Leclerc tank (the only operator besides France).
Since 2014, the UAE has implemented mandatory military service for adult males (16 months) to expand its reserve force. The largest single loss of life for the UAE military occurred on September 4, 2015, when 52 soldiers were killed in Marib, Yemen, by a missile attack.
The UAE's military assertiveness and interventions, particularly in Yemen and Libya, have raised concerns about regional stability and humanitarian impacts, prompting calls for greater accountability.

5.5. Law

The United Arab Emirates has a dual legal system based on civil law principles (influenced by French, Roman, and Egyptian law) and Sharia law. The federal court system applies across all emirates, but Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Ras Al Khaimah also maintain their own local court systems for certain matters.
Sharia courts primarily deal with personal status matters for Muslims, such as marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance. For non-Muslims, recent legal reforms, particularly Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022 on Civil Personal Status, allow them to opt for civil laws based on secular principles for family matters, including civil marriage, divorce, joint child custody, and inheritance, rather than Sharia. This was a significant change from the previous system where Sharia often applied by default even to non-Muslim expatriates in personal status cases.
In criminal law, the UAE Penal Code (Federal Law No. 3 of 1987, as amended by Federal Decree Law No. 15 of 2020 and subsequent updates) applies. While largely based on civil law, certain offenses, particularly those related to hudud (crimes with prescribed punishments in Islamic law), can be influenced by Sharia principles. However, Federal Decree Law No. 15 of 2020 specified that Islamic law applies only to retribution (qisas) and blood money (diya) punishments; other crimes and their punishments are defined by the penal code and other applicable laws.
Recent legal reforms have decriminalized several acts for non-Muslims, including the consumption of alcohol without a license (though specific emirate-level regulations still apply regarding sale and public consumption) and cohabitation of unmarried couples. Honor killings are no longer treated with leniency.
Corporal punishment, such as flogging, was historically a legal penalty for offenses like adultery, premarital sex, and alcohol use by Muslims. While provisions for such punishments existed, their application, especially to non-Muslims, had become rare. Federal Decree Law No. 15 of 2020 effectively phased out flogging as a primary punishment for many offenses previously covered, replacing it with fines or imprisonment. Stoning, amputation, and crucifixion, while technically possible under older interpretations for severe hudud crimes, were not carried out in recent history.
Apostasy from Islam is technically a capital crime, though no executions for apostasy have been documented. Blasphemy against Islam is illegal and can lead to imprisonment and deportation for expatriates.
Homosexual acts remain illegal and are punishable by imprisonment, fines, or deportation. Public displays of affection, especially between unmarried or same-sex individuals, can lead to legal action. Dancing in public is also restricted.
The UAE has also moved towards legalizing gambling in specific contexts. In September 2023, the General Commercial Gaming Regulatory Authority (GCGRA) was established, signaling plans to create a regulatory framework for commercial gaming. Wynn Resorts was granted a license to develop a luxury resort with a casino component in Ras Al Khaimah. The GCGRA framework includes licenses for casinos, slot machines, poker, lotteries, internet gaming, and sports wagering, with an emphasis on responsible gaming programs. However, gambling remains a cultural taboo for local citizens, who are generally not permitted to gamble.
The legal system continues to evolve, with ongoing reforms aiming to modernize laws and align them with international standards while maintaining a framework influenced by Islamic principles.

5.6. Human Rights

The human rights situation in the United Arab Emirates is a subject of significant concern for international human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. While the UAE government projects an image of modernity and tolerance, reports consistently highlight substantial limitations on fundamental freedoms and abuses by state security apparatus.
Freedom of Expression, Assembly, and Press: These freedoms are severely restricted. Criticism of the government, ruling families, or state policies is not tolerated. The penal code and cybercrime laws are used to criminalize peaceful dissent, online activism, and journalism critical of the authorities. Journalists and activists face risks of arrest, prosecution, and imprisonment. Media outlets, both state-owned and private, practice self-censorship, and the government heavily influences media content. International NGOs like Freedom House consistently rate the UAE as "Not Free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties, and it ranks poorly in press freedom indices.
Treatment of Dissidents and Activists: The UAE authorities have been accused of systematically targeting human rights defenders, political activists, and government critics. Reports document cases of arbitrary arrest, incommunicado detention, forced disappearances, and torture and other ill-treatment of detainees, particularly by state security agencies. The "UAE94" trial, in which 94 individuals were prosecuted for allegedly plotting to overthrow the government, drew international criticism for due process violations. Many of those convicted remain imprisoned, and some have faced further charges upon completion of their sentences. Families of detainees often face harassment and intimidation.
Due Process and Fair Trial: Concerns exist regarding the independence of the judiciary and the fairness of trials, especially in state security cases. Defendants often report being denied access to legal counsel, forced confessions obtained under duress, and lengthy pre-trial detention.
Women's Rights: While women in the UAE have made significant strides in education and workforce participation, and hold positions in government, discrimination persists in law and practice. Personal status laws, influenced by Sharia, can disadvantage women in matters of marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance. For instance, a woman may require a male guardian's permission to marry. Domestic violence is also a concern, though recent legal changes aim to provide more protection.
LGBT Rights: Homosexual acts are criminalized in the UAE, with penalties including imprisonment, fines, and deportation. There is no legal recognition of same-sex relationships, and societal discrimination against LGBT individuals is prevalent.
Foreign Interventions and Human Rights: The UAE's involvement in regional conflicts, notably in Yemen and Libya, has led to accusations of complicity in human rights abuses and violations of international humanitarian law, including indiscriminate attacks and support for abusive local forces. Its role in arming and supporting the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in Sudan has drawn severe criticism for contributing to the humanitarian crisis and atrocities there.
From a social liberal perspective, the UAE's human rights record presents a stark contrast to its economic achievements and modern image. The lack of political freedoms, suppression of dissent, and concerns about the rule of law and fair trial standards are significant issues. While the government has undertaken some legal reforms, particularly regarding personal status laws for non-Muslims and decriminalizing certain social behaviors, systemic issues related to fundamental human rights and civil liberties remain largely unaddressed. International calls for transparency, accountability for abuses, and meaningful reforms to protect human rights continue.

5.7. Migrant Workers

Migrant workers constitute the vast majority of the UAE's workforce and population, playing a crucial role in its economy, particularly in sectors like construction, domestic work, hospitality, and services. However, their rights and welfare have been a persistent area of concern for human rights organizations and labor activists.
The Kafala (sponsorship) system has historically governed the relationship between employers and migrant workers. Under this system, a worker's legal status and residency are tied to their employer (kafeel or sponsor). This has created a significant power imbalance, making workers vulnerable to exploitation and abuse, as leaving an employer or changing jobs without permission could result in penalties, including deportation. While the UAE has introduced reforms aimed at mitigating the harshest aspects of Kafala, such as allowing workers to change jobs under certain conditions and introducing standard employment contracts, elements of employer control remain.
Working and Living Conditions: Many migrant workers, especially in low-wage sectors, face challenging working conditions, including long hours, low pay, and delayed or non-payment of wages. Despite the existence of a Wage Protection System (WPS) designed to ensure timely payment of salaries through electronic transfers, issues persist. Living conditions in labor accommodations can be overcrowded and unhygienic, although the government has set standards for such housing. Workers in the construction sector, particularly during high-profile projects like Expo 2020, have faced risks related to heat stress and unsafe working environments.
Freedom of Association and Strikes: Trade unions are banned in the UAE, and workers are not permitted to engage in collective bargaining or strikes. Workers who participate in strikes or labor protests risk arrest, imprisonment, and deportation. This lack of collective representation limits their ability to advocate for better rights and conditions.
Reforms and Criticisms: The UAE government has implemented several reforms in recent years to address concerns about migrant worker rights. These include measures to improve wage protection, regulate recruitment agencies, combat human trafficking, and provide some mechanisms for dispute resolution. For domestic workers, who were previously excluded from federal labor law protections, a specific law was introduced in 2017 to provide some rights, though enforcement remains a challenge.
Despite these reforms, critics argue that they do not go far enough to dismantle the exploitative elements of the Kafala system and ensure comprehensive protection for all migrant workers. Issues such as passport confiscation by employers (though illegal), exorbitant recruitment fees paid by workers (leading to debt bondage), and inadequate access to justice continue to be reported. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the vulnerability of many migrant workers, with widespread job losses, wage cuts, and difficulties in accessing healthcare or repatriation.
From a social liberal viewpoint, the situation of migrant workers in the UAE highlights a significant gap between the country's economic prosperity and its commitment to social justice and labor rights. Ensuring decent work, fair treatment, and fundamental rights for this large segment of the population is crucial for sustainable and equitable development.

5.8. Environmental Policy

The United Arab Emirates faces significant environmental challenges, primarily due to its status as a major oil and gas producer, its arid climate leading to high reliance on water desalination, and its rapid urbanization and economic development. The country has one of the highest per capita carbon footprints and ecological footprints globally. However, the UAE government has increasingly recognized these challenges and has launched several initiatives aimed at promoting sustainability and mitigating environmental impact.
Climate Change and Emissions: As a major hydrocarbon exporter, the UAE is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. It has ratified the Paris Agreement and submitted Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). The UAE launched its "Net Zero by 2050 Strategic Initiative," becoming the first country in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region to announce such a target. This initiative focuses on transitioning to renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and investing in carbon capture technologies. The UAE hosted COP28 (the UN Climate Change conference) in Dubai in 2023, which underscored its commitment to global climate action, although its role as an oil producer hosting the event also drew scrutiny.
Renewable Energy: The UAE has made substantial investments in renewable energy, particularly solar power. Key projects include:

• Masdar City in Abu Dhabi: A planned sustainable urban development powered largely by renewable energy.
• Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park in Dubai: One of the world's largest solar parks, aiming to significantly increase the share of solar power in Dubai's energy mix.
• Noor Abu Dhabi Solar Plant: One of the world's largest single-site solar projects.

Nuclear Energy: The Barakah nuclear power plant in Abu Dhabi is the first commercial nuclear power station in the Arab world. It aims to provide a significant portion of the UAE's electricity needs with a low-carbon energy source once fully operational.
Water Desalination and Conservation: Given its arid climate and scarce freshwater resources, the UAE heavily relies on desalination for its water supply, which is an energy-intensive process. Efforts are underway to improve the efficiency of desalination plants (e.g., using reverse osmosis) and to promote water conservation through public awareness campaigns and technological solutions.
Waste Management: Rapid economic growth has led to high waste generation. The UAE is investing in modern waste management infrastructure, including recycling facilities, waste-to-energy plants (e.g., in Dubai and Sharjah), and initiatives to reduce landfill waste.
Green Building Standards: Regulations and rating systems like Estidama (in Abu Dhabi) and Al Sa'fat (in Dubai) promote sustainable building practices, focusing on energy efficiency, water conservation, and the use of sustainable materials in new constructions.
Biodiversity Conservation: The UAE has established protected areas to conserve its terrestrial and marine biodiversity, including mangrove forests, coral reefs, and habitats for endangered species like the Arabian Oryx and sea turtles.
Despite these initiatives, the UAE's environmental performance continues to face challenges. Balancing economic development with environmental protection, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, managing water scarcity sustainably, and addressing high consumption patterns remain critical priorities. From a social liberal perspective, the effectiveness of these policies will depend on their rigorous implementation, continued investment in green technologies, and a societal shift towards more sustainable lifestyles, alongside ensuring that the transition to a greener economy is just and equitable.

6.1. Economic Overview

The United Arab Emirates has one of the most diversified economies in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was approximately 414.20 B USD (nominal) in 2018, and has seen fluctuations due to oil prices and global economic conditions. Per capita income is among the highest in the world.
Key features of the UAE's economic overview include:

• Economic Diversification: A core strategy has been to reduce reliance on oil and gas revenues. This has involved significant investment in sectors like tourism, real estate, aviation, trade, financial services, and renewable energy. Dubai, in particular, has led this diversification drive.
• Free Zones: The UAE has numerous free-trade zones (e.g., JAFZA, DIFC, ADGM) that offer incentives like 100% foreign ownership, tax exemptions, and streamlined regulations to attract foreign investment and businesses.
• Taxation: Historically, the UAE was a tax-free environment. However, to diversify government revenue, a 5% Value Added Tax (VAT) was introduced in 2018. A federal corporate tax (generally 9% on profits exceeding 375.00 K AED) was implemented in June 2023, marking a significant shift in fiscal policy. Personal income remains tax-free.
• Business Environment: The UAE generally ranks favorably in global competitiveness and ease of doing business indices, attributed to its modern infrastructure, stable political environment (within the ruling families' context), strategic location, and pro-business policies.
• Socio-Economic Considerations: While the UAE boasts high average incomes and living standards, wealth distribution is a relevant consideration, especially given the large expatriate population, many of whom are low-wage workers. The government provides extensive social welfare programs and benefits for its citizens, including housing, education, and healthcare. However, these benefits are generally not extended to the expatriate majority.
• Inflation and Growth Trends: Economic growth has been influenced by oil price volatility, global economic trends, and regional geopolitical factors. Inflation has generally been managed, though the introduction of VAT and other policy changes can have temporary impacts.
• Investment and Development Funds: The UAE, particularly Abu Dhabi, has substantial sovereign wealth funds (e.g., ADIA, Mubadala Investment Company) that invest globally and play a role in national development projects.

From a social liberal perspective, while the economic achievements are notable, concerns remain regarding income inequality (particularly between nationals and expatriates), labor rights for the vast migrant workforce, and the environmental sustainability of rapid development. The shift towards taxation is seen as a positive step for fiscal sustainability and potentially for broader social contract development.

6.2. Oil and Natural Gas

The oil and natural gas sector has been the cornerstone of the UAE's economy since the first commercial discoveries in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The country holds substantial hydrocarbon reserves, ranking among the world's largest.

• Reserves: The UAE possesses the world's seventh-largest proven oil reserves and the seventh-largest proven natural gas reserves. The majority of these reserves are located in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.
• Production and Exports: The UAE is a major global producer and exporter of crude oil and natural gas. It is a prominent member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and often plays a significant role in OPEC's production policies. Hydrocarbon exports remain a critical source of government revenue and foreign exchange earnings, although their share of the overall GDP has decreased due to diversification efforts.
• State-Owned Enterprises: The Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) is the primary state-owned enterprise responsible for the exploration, production, refining, and distribution of oil and gas in Abu Dhabi. It is one of the world's largest oil companies. Other emirates, like Dubai and Sharjah, have smaller reserves and production levels.
• Economic Impact: Oil revenues have funded the UAE's rapid development, including its modern infrastructure, social welfare programs for citizens, and investments in non-oil sectors. However, the economy's exposure to oil price volatility remains a challenge, underscoring the ongoing importance of economic diversification.
• Downstream Activities: The UAE has also invested significantly in downstream activities, including refining and petrochemicals, to add value to its hydrocarbon resources. The Ruwais Refinery in Abu Dhabi is one of the largest refining complexes in the world.
• Energy Transition: While hydrocarbons remain vital, the UAE is also actively pursuing strategies for an energy transition, including investments in renewable energy (solar, nuclear) and efforts to improve energy efficiency, partly to ensure the long-term sustainability of its energy sector and to meet climate change commitments.

The oil and gas sector's dominance presents a complex picture from a social liberal viewpoint. While it has enabled immense development and high living standards for citizens, it also contributes to global carbon emissions and raises questions about long-term environmental sustainability and the equitable distribution of resource wealth, especially considering the large non-citizen workforce.

6.3. Tourism

Tourism is a vital and rapidly growing sector of the UAE economy, a key pillar of its diversification strategy away from oil and gas. The country, particularly Dubai and Abu Dhabi, has established itself as a major global tourism destination.

• Growth and Contribution: The tourism sector contributes significantly to the UAE's GDP and employment. Dubai is the leading emirate in tourism, attracting millions of international visitors annually for leisure, business, and shopping. Abu Dhabi has also heavily invested in tourism, focusing on cultural attractions, luxury resorts, and international events. Other emirates like Sharjah (cultural tourism) and Ras Al Khaimah (adventure and nature tourism) are also developing their tourism offerings.
• Major Attractions: The UAE boasts a wide range of attractions:
  • Modern Architecture: Burj Khalifa (the world's tallest building), Dubai Mall (one of the world's largest shopping malls), Palm Jumeirah (man-made island), Museum of the Future, Dubai Frame.
  • Cultural Sites: Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi, Louvre Abu Dhabi, Qasr Al Watan (Presidential Palace), heritage districts in Dubai (Al Fahidi) and Sharjah.
  • Entertainment and Theme Parks: Dubai Parks and Resorts, Ferrari World Abu Dhabi, Yas Waterworld, IMG Worlds of Adventure.
  • Luxury Hospitality: World-renowned luxury hotels and resorts, such as the Burj Al Arab.
  • Shopping Festivals and Events: Events like the Dubai Shopping Festival and Dubai Summer Surprises attract large numbers of visitors.
  • Natural and Adventure Tourism: Desert safaris, dune bashing, beaches, diving, and mountain activities in places like Jebel Jais and Hatta.
• Tourism Infrastructure: The UAE has invested heavily in world-class tourism infrastructure, including international airports (e.g., Dubai International Airport - DXB, one of the world's busiest), airlines (Emirates, Etihad Airways), cruise terminals, hotels, and public transport.
• Visitor Trends: The UAE attracts a diverse range of visitors from across the globe, with key source markets including India, Saudi Arabia, the UK, China, Russia, and other European countries. The government has implemented policies to ease visa requirements for many nationalities, including a five-year multiple-entry tourist visa.
• MICE Tourism: Meetings, Incentives, Conferences, and Exhibitions (MICE) tourism is also a significant segment, with world-class convention centers like the Dubai World Trade Centre and ADNEC.
• COVID-19 Impact and Recovery: The tourism sector was heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic but has shown a strong recovery, supported by government initiatives and the successful hosting of events like Expo 2020 (held in 2021-2022).

From a social liberal perspective, the growth of tourism has brought economic benefits and international exposure. However, it also raises questions about the environmental impact of large-scale tourism development, the working conditions of migrant workers in the hospitality sector, and the potential effects on local culture and social norms. Sustainable tourism practices and ensuring fair labor standards are important considerations.

6.4. Transport

The United Arab Emirates has developed a modern, extensive, and highly efficient transport infrastructure, which is a key enabler of its economic growth and its status as a global hub for trade, tourism, and logistics.

• Airports:
  • Dubai International Airport (DXB): One of the world's busiest airports by international passenger traffic and a major hub for Emirates.
  • Abu Dhabi International Airport (AUH): The hub for Etihad Airways, the national airline of the UAE. Significant expansion projects have increased its capacity.
  • Al Maktoum International Airport (DWC): Located in Dubai South, it is planned to become one of the world's largest airports in the future, handling both passenger and cargo traffic. The UAE government announced in April 2024 that operations from DXB will eventually be transferred to DWC upon completion of its expansion.
  • Other international airports serve Sharjah, Ras Al Khaimah, and Fujairah.
• Airlines:
  • Emirates: Based in Dubai, it is one of the world's largest international airlines.
  • Etihad Airways: The flag carrier of the UAE, based in Abu Dhabi.
  • Low-cost carriers like Flydubai, Air Arabia, and Wizz Air Abu Dhabi also operate extensively.
• Road Network: The UAE has a high-quality and comprehensive road network, including multi-lane highways connecting all major cities and emirates. The E11 highway is the longest and most significant road in the country, running along the coast. Salik, an electronic toll collection system, is implemented on major roads in Dubai to manage traffic congestion.
• Urban Public Transport:
  • Dubai Metro: The first urban train network in the Arabian Peninsula, it is a driverless, fully automated system serving key areas of Dubai.
  • Dubai Tram: Connects key areas like Dubai Marina and Jumeirah Beach Residence with the Metro.
  • Palm Jumeirah Monorail: Connects the Palm Jumeirah island to the mainland.
  • Extensive public bus networks operate in Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and other cities.
  • Taxis and ride-hailing services are widely available.
  • Traditional abra (water taxi) services operate on Dubai Creek.
• Seaports: The UAE has several major deep-water seaports that are crucial for international trade:
  • Jebel Ali Port (Dubai): One of the world's largest man-made harbors and the busiest port in the Middle East. It is a key transshipment hub.
  • Khalifa Port (Abu Dhabi): A major deep-water port with advanced facilities, serving as a key gateway for Abu Dhabi and a hub for regional trade.
  • Port Rashid (Dubai): Primarily serves cruise tourism now, with cargo operations largely moved to Jebel Ali.
  • Port Khalid and Khor Fakkan Port (Sharjah), and Fujairah Port are also significant.
• Rail Projects:
  • Etihad Rail: A national railway network under development, planned to connect major industrial centers, ports, and cities within the UAE and eventually link with the GCC railway network. Phase one (freight) is operational, focusing on transporting granulated sulphur. Phase two aims to connect freight and passenger services across the emirates.

  The development of this extensive transport infrastructure has been a strategic priority for the UAE, facilitating economic diversification and positioning the country as a critical node in global supply chains and travel networks.

6.5. Telecommunications

The telecommunications sector in the United Arab Emirates is characterized by high penetration rates for mobile and internet services, advanced network infrastructure including widespread 5G deployment, and a regulatory environment overseen by the Telecommunications and Digital Government Regulatory Authority (TDRA), formerly the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA).

• Main Operators: The market is primarily served by two main operators:
  • Etisalat by e& (formerly Etisalat): The incumbent operator, it has a significant presence in the UAE and has expanded internationally.
  • Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company (du): Launched mobile services in February 2007, ending Etisalat's monopoly in that segment.
• Market Penetration: The UAE has one of the highest mobile phone penetration rates in the world, with many residents owning multiple SIM cards. Internet penetration is also very high, with widespread access to high-speed broadband and mobile internet services.
• Network Development: Both Etisalat by e& and du have invested heavily in upgrading their networks. The UAE was among the first countries globally to launch commercial 5G services, with extensive coverage now available in major urban areas. Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) connectivity is also widely deployed, providing high-speed fixed broadband. Huawei has been a key partner in the development of 5G infrastructure.
• Regulation and Censorship: The TDRA is responsible for regulating the telecommunications sector, including licensing operators, managing spectrum, and setting policies. The UAE government implements internet filtering and censorship, blocking access to content deemed to be inconsistent with religious, moral, political, or security values. This includes content related to pornography, gambling, criticism of Islam or the government, and certain VoIP services. The use of VPNs to bypass these restrictions is illegal if used for illicit purposes.
• Surveillance: Concerns have been raised by human rights organizations regarding government surveillance of telecommunications and internet activity. The legal framework allows for monitoring in the interest of national security and public order.
• Digital Transformation: The telecommunications sector is a key enabler of the UAE's digital transformation strategy, supporting the development of smart cities, e-government services, and a digital economy.

The advanced telecommunications infrastructure supports the UAE's ambition to be a leading global hub for business and technology. However, issues related to internet censorship and surveillance are points of concern from a civil liberties perspective.

6.6. Trade and Finance

The United Arab Emirates has established itself as a major global trading hub and a leading regional and international financial center, leveraging its strategic location, modern infrastructure, and pro-business policies.

• Trade Hub: The UAE, particularly Dubai, serves as a significant entrepôt, facilitating trade flows between Asia, Europe, and Africa. Key import and export partners include China, India, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Japan, and European nations. Major exports (beyond oil and gas) include refined petroleum products, precious metals (especially gold), aluminum, and re-exported goods. Imports include machinery, transport equipment, consumer goods, and food products.
• Free-Trade Zones: The UAE has numerous specialized free-trade zones that are crucial to its trade and investment landscape. These zones offer benefits such as 100% foreign ownership, exemption from import/export duties, no corporate or personal income taxes (though federal corporate tax now applies outside free zones that meet certain criteria), and streamlined administrative procedures. Prominent examples include:
  • Jebel Ali Free Zone (JAFZA) in Dubai: One of the world's largest free zones, focused on logistics and manufacturing.
  • Dubai Multi Commodities Centre (DMCC): A major hub for commodities trade, including gold, diamonds, and tea.
  • Dubai Airport Freezone (DAFZA): Focuses on aviation and logistics.
• Financial Centers: The UAE hosts two internationally recognized financial free zones that operate under independent regulatory frameworks based on common law:
  • Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC): A leading financial hub in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia (MEASA) region, home to banks, asset managers, insurance companies, and fintech firms. It has its own courts and regulator (Dubai Financial Services Authority - DFSA).
  • Abu Dhabi Global Market (ADGM): A financial free zone in Abu Dhabi, also operating under English common law, with its own courts and regulator (Financial Services Regulatory Authority - FSRA). It focuses on areas like asset management, private banking, and fintech.
• Low-Tax Environment: Historically, the UAE offered a virtually tax-free environment. While Value Added Tax (VAT) was introduced in 2018 and a federal corporate tax in 2023, the overall tax burden remains relatively low compared to many other developed economies, attracting businesses and wealthy individuals. However, NGOs like the Tax Justice Network have classified the UAE as a tax haven.
• Banking Sector: The UAE has a well-developed banking sector with a mix of local and international banks. The Central Bank of the United Arab Emirates is the regulatory authority for financial institutions operating outside the DIFC and ADGM.
• Financial Technology (FinTech): The UAE is actively promoting the development of the FinTech sector, with initiatives and regulatory sandboxes in both DIFC and ADGM to support innovation in financial services.
• Monetary Policy: The UAE dirham is pegged to the US dollar, which provides monetary stability. The Central Bank generally follows the interest rate movements of the US Federal Reserve.

The UAE's success as a trade and finance hub is a key component of its economic diversification strategy. However, its status as a low-tax jurisdiction and the opacity of some financial dealings have also attracted scrutiny regarding issues like money laundering and tax avoidance, prompting increased regulatory oversight in recent years.

7.1. Population Composition

According to World Bank estimates, the UAE's population in 2020 was approximately 9.89 million. Of this total, Emirati nationals constituted about 11.48%, with immigrants accounting for the remaining 88.52%. This makes the UAE one of the countries with the highest proportion of expatriates globally. The country has experienced rapid population growth, primarily driven by immigration, resulting in one of the world's highest net migration rates (21.71 per 1,000 population in some estimates).
Key demographic features include:

• High Urbanization: Approximately 88% of the population lives in urban areas, with major concentrations in Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Sharjah.
• Population Density: Varies significantly, with high density in major cities and sparse population in desert regions.
• Age Structure: The population has a relatively young age structure due to the influx of working-age expatriates.
• Gender Imbalance: There is a significant gender imbalance, with a much higher number of males than females (a sex ratio of roughly 2.2 males per female, and even higher in the 15-65 age group). This is primarily due to the large number of male migrant workers.
• Ethnic Diversity: The expatriate population is highly diverse. The largest groups typically come from South Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh), followed by other Arab nations (Egypt, Jordan, Syria), Southeast Asia (Philippines, Indonesia), Iran, and smaller numbers from Europe, the Americas, Africa, and East Asia. Indians and Pakistanis alone constitute a significant portion of the population, particularly in Dubai, Sharjah, and Ajman.
• Citizenship: UAE citizenship is very difficult to obtain other than by descent from an Emirati father. Naturalization is rare and granted only under special circumstances, often by decree. In 2021, a law was passed allowing for the granting of citizenship to select foreign investors, professionals, and individuals with special talents, but this remains highly restricted. Many long-term residents without citizenship are sometimes referred to as Bidun, although this term more specifically applies to stateless Arabs in the region.

7.2. Largest Cities

The UAE is highly urbanized, with most of its population residing in a few major cities that serve as economic, cultural, and administrative centers.

Population figures are approximate and can vary significantly based on the source and year of estimation. The figures provided are indicative of relative size.

7.3. Language

Arabic is the official language of the United Arab Emirates. The dialect spoken by Emirati nationals is a variant of Gulf Arabic.
However, due to the large and diverse expatriate population and the country's role as an international business and tourism hub, English is widely spoken and functions as a lingua franca. It is extensively used in business, education, media, tourism, and daily communication between different ethnic groups. Most road signs, official documents, and commercial information are available in both Arabic and English.
Given the multicultural makeup of the UAE, a multitude of other languages are spoken by various expatriate communities. These include, but are not limited to:

• Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam, Tamil, Bengali, and other languages from South Asia.
• Tagalog (Filipino) from the Philippines.
• Persian (Farsi) due to the Iranian community and historical ties.
• Pashto, Balochi.
• Languages from other Arab countries (e.g., Egyptian Arabic, Levantine Arabic).
• European languages such as French, German, and Russian.
• Chinese languages due to the growing Chinese community.

While Arabic is the official language and central to Emirati national identity and government affairs, English proficiency is essential for most professional roles and for navigating daily life in the UAE's cosmopolitan urban centers.

7.4. Religion

Islam is the official state religion of the United Arab Emirates. The vast majority of Emirati citizens are Muslims, predominantly Sunni of the Maliki or Hanbali schools of jurisprudence, with a minority of Shia Muslims, who are concentrated in Dubai and Sharjah. Among Omani expatriates, Ibadi Islam is common. Sufi influences also exist.
The government follows a policy of religious tolerance towards other faiths, and non-Muslims are generally free to practice their religion privately. The construction of places of worship for other religions is permitted with government approval.
The religious landscape includes:

• Christianity: Christians make up a significant minority, estimated at around 9-13% of the population, primarily composed of expatriates. There are numerous churches of various denominations, including Roman Catholic, Protestant (Anglican, Evangelical, etc.), and Orthodox churches. The UAE is part of the Apostolic Vicariate of Southern Arabia.
• Hinduism: Hindus constitute another large religious minority, estimated at around 7-10%, mainly from the Indian expatriate community. There are Hindu temples in Dubai and Abu Dhabi (the BAPS Hindu Mandir in Abu Dhabi being a recent prominent addition).
• Buddhism: Buddhists, primarily from East and Southeast Asian expatriate communities, make up around 2% of the population. There is a Buddhist temple in Dubai.
• Sikhism: The Sikh community, largely from India, has a prominent Gurdwara (Guru Nanak Darbar Sikh Temple) in Jebel Ali, Dubai.
• Judaism: A small but growing Jewish community exists, primarily composed of expatriates. Following the Abraham Accords, the community has become more visible. The Moses Ben Maimon Synagogue was completed in 2023 as part of the Abrahamic Family House complex in Abu Dhabi, which also houses a mosque and a church, symbolizing interfaith dialogue.
• Other Religions: Smaller communities practicing other faiths, such as the Baháʼí Faith and Jainism, also exist.

The government actively promotes an image of religious tolerance and interfaith harmony. Initiatives like the Abrahamic Family House and the Ministry of Tolerance and Coexistence aim to foster understanding among different faiths. However, proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal, and there are restrictions on public religious expression for faiths other than Islam. Blasphemy against Islam is a punishable offense.

10.1. Lifestyle and Traditions

Traditional Emirati lifestyle is deeply rooted in Arab and Islamic traditions, with a strong emphasis on family, hospitality, and respect for elders.

• Clothing:
  • Men traditionally wear the kandura (also known as dishdasha), an ankle-length, loose-fitting robe, usually white, made of cotton or wool. This is often accompanied by the ghutra (a headscarf, typically white or checkered red/white) held in place by an agal (a black cord).
  • Women traditionally wear the Abaya, a long, black, flowing cloak worn over their clothing, and a headscarf called a Shayla. Some women also wear a niqab (face veil). While traditional attire is common among Emiratis, Western clothing is widely worn in daily life, especially in cosmopolitan cities like Dubai. However, modesty in dress is generally expected in public places.
• Social Customs: Hospitality (حفاوة_ḥafāwah^Arabic) is a cornerstone of Emirati culture. Guests are typically welcomed warmly, often with Arabic coffee (قهوة_qahwah^Arabic) and dates. Respect for elders and maintaining family honor are highly valued. Traditional greetings involve handshakes (between members of the same sex) and sometimes a nose-to-nose touch (khashm-makh) among close male friends or relatives as a sign of respect.
• Family and Tribal Affiliations: Family is the central unit of Emirati society. Extended families often live together or in close proximity. Tribal affiliations and lineage remain important, influencing social standing and relationships, though their role in daily governance has diminished with modernization.
• Bedouin Heritage: Many Emiratis trace their ancestry to Bedouin tribes, and Bedouin traditions of resilience, resourcefulness, poetry, storytelling, and desert survival skills are part of the cultural heritage.
• Islamic Traditions: Islam permeates daily life. The five daily prayers, fasting during Ramadan, and adherence to Islamic principles guide social conduct. Mosques are prominent in every neighborhood.
• Festivals and Holidays:
  • Religious festivals like Eid al-Fitr (marking the end of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (Festival of Sacrifice) are major celebrations involving prayers, family gatherings, feasting, and acts of charity.
  • UAE National Day on December 2nd commemorates the formation of the federation and is celebrated with parades, fireworks, and cultural events.
  • Other holidays include the Islamic New Year (Hijri New Year) and the Prophet's Birthday (Mawlid).
• Traditional Arts and Crafts: These include Sadu weaving (geometric patterns woven by Bedouin women), pottery, metalwork (e.g., intricate coffee pots or dallah), and boat building (traditional dhows).
• Music and Dance: Traditional Emirati music often features percussion instruments like drums (طبل_ṭabl^Arabic) and tambourines (دف_daff^Arabic). Folk dances like the Yowla (a men's dance involving sticks or replica rifles) and Khaliji (a women's hair dance) are performed at celebrations.

While modern lifestyles, particularly in urban areas, are heavily influenced by global trends, there is a conscious effort to maintain and celebrate these traditional aspects of Emirati culture through festivals, heritage villages, and educational programs.

10.2. Cuisine

Traditional Emirati cuisine reflects the region's history, climate, and cultural influences, drawing from Bedouin traditions, coastal fishing communities, and trade links with Persia, India, and the Levant. It is characterized by the use of aromatic spices, rice, meat, fish, and dates.

• Common Ingredients:
  • Meat: Lamb and mutton are preferred, followed by goat and chicken. Camel meat is also consumed, especially on special occasions.
  • Fish: Given the long coastline, fish is a staple. Popular varieties include hamour (grouper), sabaayad (emperor fish), kingfish (kanaad), and tuna. Dried fish (مالح_maleh^Arabic) is also used.
  • Grains: Rice is a central part of most meals. Wheat is used for bread.
  • Dairy: Yogurt (لبن_laban^Arabic), cheese, and ghee (clarified butter) are common.
  • Vegetables and Legumes: Chickpeas, lentils, eggplant, zucchini, onions, and tomatoes are widely used.
  • Fruits: Dates are highly significant, consumed fresh, dried, or as an ingredient in sweets. Other fruits include figs, mangoes, and citrus.
  • Spices: Aromatic spices like cardamom, saffron, turmeric, cinnamon, cloves, and black pepper are essential. A common spice blend is bezar.
• Popular Dishes:
  • Machboos (Majboos): A spiced rice dish, often considered the national dish, cooked with meat (lamb, chicken, or fish) and a blend of aromatic spices.
  • Harees: Wheat cooked slowly with meat (usually chicken or lamb) until it forms a porridge-like consistency, often served during Ramadan and special occasions.
  • Tharid (Thereed): A stew of meat and vegetables served over a thin flatbread (رقاق_reqaq^Arabic).
  • Balaleet: Sweet vermicelli noodles cooked with cardamom, saffron, and rose water, often topped with an omelet. Typically eaten for breakfast or as a dessert.
  • Luqaimat (Logma): Sweet dumplings, similar to doughnuts, deep-fried and drizzled with date syrup (دبس_dibs^Arabic) or honey.
  • Khubz (Bread): Various types of bread are eaten, including khubz tannour (tandoor bread), reqaq (thin, crispy bread), and chebab (a type of pancake).
• Beverages:
  • Qahwa (Arabic coffee): Lightly roasted coffee flavored with cardamom and sometimes saffron, served in small cups without sugar. It is a symbol of hospitality.
  • Tea (شاي_chai^Arabic): Often served with mint or milk.
• Influence of Other Cuisines: Due to its history as a trading hub and its diverse expatriate population, the UAE has a vibrant food scene with wide availability of international cuisines, including Persian, Indian, Levantine, and Western food.
• Regulations:
  • Alcohol: Consumption is regulated. Non-Muslims can purchase and consume alcohol in licensed venues (hotels, restaurants, clubs) and, with a permit, from specialized stores. Public intoxication is illegal.
  • Pork: Consumption is forbidden for Muslims. Non-Muslims can purchase pork products in designated sections of some supermarkets.

  Emirati cuisine is increasingly being promoted through food festivals and fine-dining restaurants that offer traditional dishes with a modern twist.

10.3. Sports

Sports play a significant role in the culture and lifestyle of the United Arab Emirates, encompassing both traditional and modern international disciplines. The government and ruling families often support and promote sporting activities and events.

• Traditional Sports:
  • Camel racing: A highly popular and culturally significant traditional sport. Races are held at dedicated tracks, and in modern times, small robotic jockeys are used instead of child jockeys, following international criticism and legal bans on the use of children.
  • Falconry: An ancient Bedouin tradition, falconry is a revered sport and part of the UAE's intangible cultural heritage. It involves training falcons to hunt prey.
  • Endurance riding: Horse endurance racing over long desert distances is a popular equestrian sport, reflecting the historical importance of Arabian horses.
  • Dhow Sailing: Traditional wooden dhow sailing races are held, preserving maritime heritage.
• Modern International Sports:
  • Football (Soccer): The most popular spectator sport in the UAE. The domestic UAE Pro League has a strong following, and the national team competes in regional and international tournaments. (More details in a dedicated subsection).
  • Cricket: Very popular, especially among the large South Asian expatriate community. The UAE hosts international cricket matches and tournaments. (More details in a dedicated subsection).
  • Horse racing: The UAE is a major center for thoroughbred horse racing, renowned for prestigious events like the Dubai World Cup, one of the richest horse races globally, held at the Meydan Racecourse.
  • Formula One: The Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, held at the Yas Marina Circuit on Yas Island, is a prominent event on the Formula One calendar. It was the first F1 race to start in daylight and finish at night.
  • Golf: The UAE hosts several international golf tournaments (e.g., DP World Tour Championship, Abu Dhabi HSBC Championship) and has world-class golf courses designed by renowned architects, such as the Emirates Golf Club and Dubai Golf Club.
  • Tennis: Major professional tennis tournaments like the Dubai Tennis Championships attract top international players.
  • Jiu-Jitsu: Has gained significant popularity, with strong government support and the hosting of international championships like the Abu Dhabi World Professional Jiu-Jitsu Championship.
  • Other popular sports include basketball, swimming, cycling, and various water sports.

  The UAE has invested heavily in state-of-the-art sports facilities and regularly hosts major international sporting events, contributing to its image as a global sports hub.

  10.3.1. Football

  

  Football (soccer) is widely regarded as the most popular sport in the United Arab Emirates, both in terms of participation and spectatorship.

  • Domestic League: The premier domestic football competition is the UAE Pro League (formerly known as the UAE Football League). It features professional clubs from across the emirates. Prominent and historically successful clubs include Al Ain FC, Shabab Al Ahli Dubai FC (formed from a merger including Al Ahli, Al Shabab, and Dubai CSC), Al Jazira SC, Al Nasr SC, Al Wahda FC, and Sharjah FC. These clubs have strong fan bases and compete for domestic titles like the league championship and the UAE President's Cup.
  • National Team: The United Arab Emirates national football team, nicknamed "Al Abyad" (The Whites), represents the UAE in international competitions. Its most significant achievement was qualifying for the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy. The team has also had success in regional tournaments, winning the Arabian Gulf Cup twice (in 2007 and 2013). In the AFC Asian Cup, the UAE finished as runners-up when they hosted the tournament in 1996 and reached the semi-finals when they hosted again in 2019.
  • Governing Body: The United Arab Emirates Football Association (UAEFA), established in 1971, is the governing body for football in the UAE. It is responsible for organizing domestic competitions, managing the national teams, and promoting the development of the sport at all levels, including youth programs.
  • Hosting International Tournaments: The UAE has a strong track record of hosting major international football tournaments, including:
    • AFC Asian Cup (1996, 2019)
    • FIFA Club World Cup (multiple editions, e.g., 2009, 2010, 2017, 2018, 2021)
    • FIFA U-20 World Cup (2003)
    • FIFA U-17 World Cup (2013)
  • Youth Development: Significant investment is made in youth academies and development programs by clubs and the UAEFA to nurture local talent.

  The sport enjoys passionate support across the country, with matches drawing large crowds and extensive media coverage. The success of local clubs in competitions like the AFC Champions League (e.g., Al Ain FC won in 2003 and 2024) further boosts its popularity.

  10.3.2. Cricket

  

  Cricket is one of the most followed and played sports in the United Arab Emirates, largely due to the significant expatriate population from South Asian cricket-playing nations such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, as well as from the United Kingdom and Australia.

  • ICC Headquarters: The International Cricket Council (ICC), the global governing body for cricket, relocated its headquarters from London to Dubai in 2005. The ICC Academy, a state-of-the-art cricket training facility, is also located in Dubai Sports City, established in 2009.
  • International Venues: The UAE boasts several world-class cricket stadiums that frequently host international matches, including bilateral series for teams unable to play in their home countries (e.g., Pakistan historically), and major ICC tournaments. Notable grounds include:
    • Sharjah Cricket Stadium in Sharjah: Famous for hosting a large number of One Day Internationals (ODIs).
    • Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium in Abu Dhabi.
    • Dubai International Cricket Stadium in Dubai.
  • Hosting Tournaments: The UAE has been a prominent neutral venue and host for various international cricket tournaments:
    • Asia Cup (1984, 1995, 2018, 2022).
    • ICC Men's T20 World Cup (co-hosted the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup with Oman).
    • Under-19 Cricket World Cup (2014).
    • Portions of the Indian Premier League (IPL) were held in the UAE in 2014, 2020 (full season), and 2021 due to circumstances in India.
    • The Pakistan Super League (PSL) has also been frequently played in the UAE.
  • National Team: The United Arab Emirates national cricket team is an Associate Member of the ICC. The Emirates Cricket Board (ECB) became an ICC member in 1990. The national team has qualified for the Cricket World Cup on two occasions (1996 and 2015) and the ICC Men's T20 World Cup also on two occasions (2014 and 2022). The women's national team is also active and participates in international competitions.
  • Domestic Cricket: While international cricket takes prominence, efforts are being made to develop domestic cricket structures to nurture local talent.
  • Franchise Leagues: In 2023, the UAE launched its own franchise T20 league, the International League T20 (ILT20), attracting international players.

  Cricket's popularity is evident in the numerous amateur leagues and matches played across the country, particularly by expatriate communities.

10.4. Media

The media landscape in the United Arab Emirates includes a mix of state-linked and privately-owned newspapers, magazines, television and radio stations, and a rapidly growing digital media sector. The government maintains significant influence over media content.

• Print Media: Several daily newspapers are published in both Arabic and English. Prominent English-language dailies include Gulf News, Khaleej Times, and The National. Arabic dailies include Al Khaleej, Al Bayan, and Emarat Al Youm. Magazines covering various interests are also widely available.
• Broadcast Media:
  • Television: State-linked broadcasters like Abu Dhabi Media and Dubai Media Incorporated operate multiple channels. Pan-Arab broadcasters such as the Middle East Broadcasting Center (MBC) and OSN (Orbit Showtime Network) have significant operations or headquarters in the UAE, particularly in Dubai Media City.
  • Radio: Numerous radio stations broadcast in Arabic, English, Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam, and other languages catering to the diverse population.
• Digital Media: Internet penetration is very high, and social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter (X), Instagram, Snapchat, and TikTok are widely used by both the public and government entities for communication. Online news portals and digital content creators are increasingly influential.
• Media Free Zones: Dubai Media City (DMC), established in 2001, is a major hub for media organizations, attracting international news agencies, broadcasters, advertising agencies, and production companies. Twofour54 in Abu Dhabi is another media free zone. These zones offer infrastructure and incentives for media businesses.
• Government Influence and Censorship: The UAE government exercises significant control over media content through licensing, regulation, and informal guidance. While a 2007 decree by Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum stated that journalists could no longer be imprisoned for reasons relating to their work, laws related to national security, public order, defamation, and criticism of the government or Islam are used to restrict freedom of expression. Self-censorship is common among journalists and media outlets.
• Press Freedom: International organizations like Freedom House and Reporters Without Borders consistently rank the UAE poorly in terms of press freedom. Freedom House annually classifies the UAE's media as "not free." Online content is subject to filtering, and access to certain websites and VoIP services can be restricted.
• Official Communications: The UAE government utilizes various media platforms, including official social media accounts, to communicate with the public and disseminate information about its policies and initiatives.

While the UAE has a technologically advanced media infrastructure and hosts a diverse range of media outlets, the operating environment is characterized by significant government oversight and limitations on freedom of expression and the press.