Cambodia

3.1. Prehistory

Evidence of Pleistocene human occupation in Cambodia includes quartz and quartzite pebble tools found in terraces along the Mekong River in Stung Treng and Kratié provinces, and in Kampot Province. Archaeological evidence shows communities of hunter-gatherers inhabited the region during the Holocene. The oldest archaeological discovery site in Cambodia is the cave of Laang Spean in Battambang Province, belonging to the Hoabinhian period. Excavations in its lower layers produced radiocarbon dates around 6000 BC. Upper layers in the same site yielded evidence of a transition to the Neolithic period, containing the earliest dated earthenware ceramics in Cambodia.

Archaeological records for the period between the Holocene and Iron Age remain limited. A significant prehistoric event was the arrival of the first rice farmers from the north, beginning in the third millennium BC. "Circular earthworks" discovered in the red soils near Memot and in adjacent regions of Vietnam in the late 1950s are other prehistoric evidence. Their function and age are still debated, with some possibly dating from the second millennium BC. Other prehistoric sites of uncertain date include Samrong Sen, near the ancient capital of Oudong, where investigations began in 1875, and Phum Snay in Banteay Meanchey Province.

Iron was worked by about 500 BC, with supporting evidence from the Khorat Plateau in present-day Thailand. In Cambodia, some Iron Age settlements were found beneath Baksei Chamkrong and other Angkorian temples, while circular earthworks were discovered at Lovea, northwest of Angkor. Burials from this period testify to improved food availability, trade (evidenced by glass beads from sites like Phum Snay and Prohear, suggesting two main trading networks that shifted around the 2nd-4th century AD), and the existence of a social structure and labor organization. Excavations at Phum Snay revealed 21 graves with iron weapons and cranial trauma, possibly indicating past conflicts.

3.2. Funan and Chenla

During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries AD, the Indianized states of Funan and its successor, Chenla, coalesced in what is now Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. These early kingdoms were characterized by their absorption of influences from India, including Hinduism and Buddhism, political structures, and script, which they, in turn, passed on to other Southeast Asian civilizations. Funan, with its capital likely near Óc Eo in modern Vietnam, was a significant maritime trading power. Chenla, initially a vassal of Funan, eventually conquered its overlord by the 7th century and expanded its territory. The societal structure of these kingdoms was hierarchical, with a king at the apex, supported by an aristocracy and a priesthood. They developed sophisticated irrigation systems for rice cultivation, which formed the basis of their economy. The transition from Funan to Chenla marked a shift in power inland, laying the groundwork for the rise of the Khmer Empire.

3.3. Khmer Empire (Angkorian Period)

The Khmer Empire, also known as the Angkorian period, emerged from the remnants of Chenla. It was firmly established in 802 AD when Jayavarman II declared himself king, unifying the warring Khmer princes of Chenla under the name "Kambuja" and proclaiming independence from Java. He instituted the cult of the Devaraja (God-king), which became a central tenet of Khmer kingship. This marked the beginning of an empire that flourished from the 9th to the 15th centuries, becoming Southeast Asia's largest empire during the 12th century.

The empire's center of power was Angkor, where a series of magnificent capitals were constructed. Major rulers like Suryavarman II, who commissioned the iconic Angkor Wat in the early 12th century, and Jayavarman VII, who built Angkor Thom (including the Bayon temple) in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, oversaw vast territorial expansion and monumental construction projects. These temples were not only religious centers but also symbols of royal power and cosmological order. The empire facilitated the spread of first Hinduism and then Mahayana Buddhism, and later Theravada Buddhism, which was reintroduced from Sri Lanka around the 13th century and became the state religion under Indravarman III in 1295.

The Khmer Empire developed a sophisticated society with a complex administration, extensive irrigation systems (such as the barays) supporting large-scale rice cultivation, and a powerful military. In 2007, research using satellite imagery concluded that Angkor had been the largest pre-industrial city in the world, with an urban sprawl of nearly 1.2 K mile^{2 (3.00 K km2)} that could have supported a population of up to one million people. During the reign of Jayavarman VIII, the Angkor empire was attacked by the Mongol army of Kublai Khan, but the king managed to secure peace.

3.4. Post-Angkor Period (Dark Ages)

The decline of the Khmer Empire began in the 14th century and accelerated in the 15th century, leading to what is often termed the "Dark Ages" of Cambodia. This period, stretching roughly from the 15th to the 19th century, was characterized by a significant loss of territory, increased foreign influence, and periods of political instability. After a series of wars with neighboring kingdoms, particularly the rising Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya, Angkor was sacked by Ayutthaya in 1431 and subsequently abandoned as the capital in 1432. Factors contributing to the decline included ecological failure, breakdown of the complex irrigation infrastructure, internal power struggles, and continuous external pressures.

The capital was moved several times, eventually settling at Longvek and later Oudong. While Longvek initially thrived as a port, it too fell to Ayutthaya in 1594. Cambodia found itself increasingly squeezed between the expanding powers of Siam (Thailand) to the west and Vietnam to the east. Both neighbors frequently intervened in Cambodian affairs, supporting rival claimants to the throne and annexing Cambodian territory. The Mekong Delta, formerly part of the Khmer Empire, gradually came under Vietnamese control from the 17th century, a process facilitated by King Chey Chettha II granting Vietnamese permission to settle in the area decades earlier. During this period, the Khmer Leu (hill tribe) people were reportedly hunted and enslaved by Siamese, Annamites (Vietnamese), and Cambodians. The constant warfare and political turmoil severely weakened the Cambodian state and led to a decline in its cultural and economic vibrancy compared to the Angkorian zenith.

3.5. French Colonization

In 1863, King Norodom, who had been installed by Thailand, sought protection from France to escape the pressures from both Siam (Thailand) and Vietnam. This led to the signing of a treaty that established Cambodia as a French protectorate. By 1887, Cambodia was incorporated into the French Indochina union. The French colonial administration largely preserved the Cambodian monarchy but stripped it of real power, with French residents effectively governing the country. Colonial rule brought some infrastructure development, such as roads and some public buildings, and the French codified Cambodian law and reorganized its administration. However, the economy was primarily geared towards serving French interests, with an emphasis on rubber plantations and resource extraction.

French policies also had significant social impacts. They introduced a Western education system, albeit limited, and French became the language of administration and the elite. The French also manipulated royal successions; after King Norodom's death in 1904, his brother Sisowath was placed on the throne. When Sisowath's son, Monivong, died in 1941, the French bypassed Monivong's son, Monireth, deeming him too independent-minded, and instead enthroned the young Norodom Sihanouk, a maternal grandson of King Sisowath, believing he would be easier to control.

During World War II, Cambodia was occupied by the Japanese Empire from 1941 to 1945, though French administration was largely left in place until March 1945. In the final months of the war, Japan encouraged Cambodia to declare independence under King Sihanouk, which it briefly did as the Kingdom of Kampuchea. After Japan's defeat, France reasserted its control. However, the war had weakened French authority and fueled Cambodian aspirations for independence. Early independence movements began to form, drawing on both nationalist sentiment and disillusionment with colonial rule. Between 1874 and 1962, the total population increased from about 946,000 to 5.7 million. Cambodia gained full independence from France on November 9, 1953, under King Norodom Sihanouk.

3.6. Independence and Civil War

The period following Cambodia's independence in 1953 was marked by political maneuvering, the towering figure of Norodom Sihanouk, the Cold War's escalating influence in Southeast Asia, and ultimately, a devastating civil war and genocide. This era witnessed Cambodia's struggle to maintain neutrality amidst regional conflicts, followed by its descent into chaos.

3.6.1. Sihanouk Era (1953-1970)

After achieving independence, King Norodom Sihanouk played a dominant role in Cambodian politics. In 1955, he abdicated in favor of his father, Norodom Suramarit, to directly participate in politics, founding the Sangkum Reastr Niyum (People's Socialist Community) movement and becoming Prime Minister. Upon his father's death in 1960, Sihanouk became Head of State with the title of Prince.

Sihanouk pursued a foreign policy of neutrality in the Cold War, attempting to steer Cambodia clear of the escalating conflict in neighboring Vietnam. He skillfully balanced relations with major powers, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and China. However, his neutral stance became increasingly difficult to maintain. He allowed North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces to use Cambodian territory as sanctuaries and supply routes (the "Sihanouk Trail," part of the Ho Chi Minh Trail) for their war efforts in South Vietnam. This led to covert US bombing campaigns in eastern Cambodia starting in 1969 (Operation Menu), aimed at disrupting these communist bases. Sihanouk publicly denounced the bombings but privately indicated to US officials he would not object if Cambodians were not harmed.

Internally, Sihanouk's rule was characterized by a personalized style of leadership. While his Sangkum movement dominated politics, suppressing opposition, he also oversaw periods of relative peace and some social development, including advances in education and healthcare. However, economic problems, corruption, and growing discontent among both right-wing and left-wing factions created an increasingly unstable political environment.

3.6.2. Khmer Republic and Civil War (1970-1975)

While Prince Sihanouk was on a trip abroad in March 1970, he was overthrown in a coup led by his Prime Minister, General Lon Nol, and Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak. The coup leaders established the Khmer Republic, a pro-US regime. The coup was partly motivated by dissatisfaction with Sihanouk's tolerance of Vietnamese communist presence and a desire for closer ties with the United States. The US government provided significant military and economic aid to the new republic.

The overthrow of Sihanouk plunged Cambodia deeper into the Vietnam War and ignited a full-scale civil war. From his exile in Beijing, Sihanouk formed an alliance (the GRUNK - Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea) with his former enemies, the Khmer Rouge, a radical Maoist insurgent group led by Pol Pot. Sihanouk urged his followers to fight against the Lon Nol government. North Vietnamese forces, already present in Cambodia, launched attacks against the Khmer Republic's forces.

The civil war intensified, with Lon Nol's forces, supported by US airpower and occasional incursions by South Vietnamese and US troops, battling the Khmer Rouge and their North Vietnamese allies. The US bombing campaign (Operation Freedom Deal) expanded significantly, causing widespread destruction and civilian casualties, and is argued by some historians to have inadvertently fueled support for the Khmer Rouge by radicalizing the peasantry. Despite US aid, the Lon Nol government was plagued by corruption, inefficiency, and military setbacks. By early 1975, the Khmer Rouge had surrounded Phnom Penh. The US mission evacuated in April 1975 (Operation Eagle Pull), and on April 17, 1975, Phnom Penh fell to the Khmer Rouge, marking the end of the Khmer Republic and the beginning of a horrific new chapter.

3.6.3. Khmer Rouge Regime (Democratic Kampuchea) and the Killing Fields (1975-1979)

The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, seized power in April 1975 and renamed the country Democratic Kampuchea. Their rule ushered in one of the darkest periods in Cambodian history, marked by an extremist agrarian communist ideology and the Cambodian genocide, often referred to as the "Killing Fields." The regime aimed to create a utopian, classless, agricultural society by forcibly evacuating urban populations to rural communes for collective farming. Cities were emptied, money and private property abolished, and religion, education, and family structures systematically dismantled.

The consequences were catastrophic. An estimated 1.7 to 2 million Cambodians, roughly a quarter of the population, perished from starvation, disease, overwork, torture, and execution. Intellectuals, professionals (doctors, lawyers, teachers), former government officials, ethnic minorities (particularly Vietnamese and Cham Muslims, with up to half the Cham population exterminated), and anyone perceived as an enemy of the revolution were targeted. Eyeglasses were seen as a sign of intellectualism and could be a death sentence. The infamous Tuol Sleng prison (S-21) in Phnom Penh became a center for interrogation, torture, and execution, where thousands were murdered. Choeung Ek is one of the most well-known of the mass grave sites. Religious institutions were systematically destroyed, with an estimated 95% of Cambodia's Buddhist temples demolished.

The Khmer Rouge's extreme policies, xenophobia, and brutal enforcement led to immense suffering and a complete societal collapse. The regime's paranoia also led to internal purges and border clashes with neighboring Vietnam. The devastating impact on Cambodian democracy, human rights, social fabric, and civilian life was immeasurable, leaving deep scars that continue to affect the nation.

3.7. Modern Cambodia (1993-Present)

The period from 1993 marks Cambodia's journey towards peace, reconstruction, and development after decades of conflict, though it has been fraught with political challenges, human rights concerns, and struggles for democratic consolidation.

3.7.2. Hun Sen Government and Political Situation

The fragile power-sharing arrangement collapsed in July 1997 when violent clashes erupted between forces loyal to Hun Sen and Prince Ranariddh. Hun Sen effectively ousted Ranariddh in what many observers considered a coup, consolidating power for the CPP. Hun Sen has remained Prime Minister since then (until his son's succession in 2023), making him one of the world's longest-serving leaders. Cambodia was admitted into ASEAN on April 30, 1999. King Norodom Sihanouk abdicated in 2004 due to ill health, and his son, Norodom Sihamoni, was crowned the new King.

Under Hun Sen's long rule, Cambodia experienced significant economic growth, driven by garment manufacturing, tourism, construction, and agriculture, with considerable investment from China as part of its Belt and Road Initiative. Reconstruction efforts progressed, leading to improved infrastructure. However, this period has also been marked by persistent concerns about democratic development, human rights, and governance. Critics and human rights organizations have consistently pointed to authoritarian tendencies, the suppression of political opposition, restrictions on freedom of expression and assembly, land grabbing, and widespread corruption.

The Khmer Rouge Tribunal (Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia), a UN-backed court, was established to prosecute senior leaders of the Khmer Rouge for atrocities committed during their rule. In 2010, Kaing Guek Eav (Comrade Duch), head of the S-21 prison, was convicted. In 2014, Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan were sentenced to life imprisonment. Hun Sen's government, however, expressed opposition to more extensive trials of former Khmer Rouge officials.

The 2013 general election saw a strong challenge from the newly formed opposition Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP), co-led by Sam Rainsy and Kem Sokha. The CPP was declared the winner amidst widespread allegations of voter fraud, leading to large-scale anti-government protests that were eventually suppressed by government forces. In the lead-up to the 2018 general election, the CNRP was controversially dissolved by the Supreme Court, and its leader Kem Sokha was arrested on treason charges (Sam Rainsy was already in self-exile). Media outlets critical of the government also faced increased pressure. With no significant opposition, the CPP won all 125 seats in the National Assembly in the 2018 election, effectively solidifying Cambodia as a de facto one-party state. This drew criticism from Western governments and human rights groups regarding the erosion of democracy and civil liberties.

The COVID-19 pandemic, starting in early 2020, put a strain on Cambodia's health system and severely impacted its economy, particularly the tourism sector. Prime Minister Hun Sen announced in December 2021 his support for his son, Hun Manet, to succeed him. The 2023 general election was again held in a restrictive environment with the main opposition Candlelight Party (successor to the CNRP) disqualified, leading to another landslide victory for the CPP. On August 22, 2023, Hun Manet was sworn in as the new Prime Minister. Hun Sen subsequently became President of the Senate in 2024, a role that allows him to act as head of state in the King's absence. Ongoing challenges for Cambodia include strengthening democratic institutions, protecting human rights, combating corruption, ensuring equitable development, and navigating complex geopolitical dynamics.

4.1. Topography

Cambodia's landscape is dominated by a large, low-lying central alluvial plain, which includes the Tonlé Sap (Great Lake), the Mekong River floodplain, and the Bassac River plain. This plain is surrounded by more mountainous or upland regions.
The Tonlé Sap is Southeast Asia's largest freshwater lake and a unique hydrological feature. During the dry season, it drains into the Mekong River at Phnom Penh. However, during the rainy season, the swollen Mekong River reverses the flow of the Tonlé Sap River, causing the lake to expand dramatically in size, from about 1.0 K mile^{2 (2.59 K km2)} to as much as 9.5 K mile^{2 (24.61 K km2)}. This seasonal flooding deposits fertile silt in the surrounding plains, making it a crucial area for rice cultivation and fisheries.

The Mekong River flows from north to south through the eastern part of Cambodia before fanning out into its delta in Vietnam.
Major mountain ranges include the Dângrêk Mountains along the northern border with Thailand, forming a steep escarpment. In the southwest, the Cardamom Mountains (Krâvanh Mountains) and the Dâmrei Mountains (Elephant Mountains) form a significant highland region. Cambodia's highest peak, Phnom Aural, at 5.9 K ft ^{(1.81 K m)}, is located in the Cardamom Mountains. East of the Mekong, the terrain gradually rises to the eastern highlands, a region of forested mountains and plateaus that extend into Laos and Vietnam.

4.2. Climate

Cambodia has a tropical monsoon climate, characterized by two distinct seasons: the wet season and the dry season.
The wet season, brought by the southwest monsoon winds from the Gulf of Thailand and the Indian Ocean, lasts from May to October. This period sees high humidity and significant rainfall, with September and October typically being the wettest months.
The dry season, ushered in by the northeast monsoon, lasts from November to April. This season is generally cooler at the beginning (November-December) and becomes hotter towards the end (March-April), with January and February being the driest months.
Average annual temperatures range from 69.8 °F ^{(21 °C)} to 95 °F ^{(35 °C)}. April is usually the hottest month, with temperatures sometimes exceeding 104 °F ^{(40 °C)}.
Rainfall varies regionally, with the coastal areas and the southwestern highlands receiving the heaviest precipitation, while the central plains receive less. Disastrous flooding has occurred in some years, notably in 2001, 2002, and 2020. Cambodia is considered highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, facing risks such as increased flooding, droughts, water shortages, and impacts on agriculture and the Tonlé Sap ecosystem.

4.3. Biodiversity and Environmental Issues

Cambodia boasts rich biodiversity, largely supported by its seasonal tropical forests and riparian ecosystems. The country is home to 212 mammal species, 536 bird species, 240 reptile species, 850 freshwater fish species (particularly in the Tonlé Sap Lake area), and 435 marine fish species. Key biodiversity hotspots include the Tonlé Sap Lake and its surrounding biosphere reserve (a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve), the evergreen and dry Dipterocarp forests of Mondulkiri Province (protected by Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, and Srepok Wildlife Sanctuary), Ratanakiri Province, and the Cardamom Mountains ecosystem (including Preah Monivong National Park, Botum-Sakor National Park, Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary, and Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary). The Worldwide Fund for Nature recognizes six distinct terrestrial ecoregions in Cambodia.

Despite this richness, Cambodia faces significant environmental challenges. Deforestation is a critical issue, with one of the highest rates globally. Primary forest cover fell dramatically from over 70% in 1969 to just 3.1% in 2007, and the annual rate of deforestation was 1.3% between 2010-2015. In 2020, forest cover was around 46% of total land area, down from nearly 61% in 1990. Naturally regenerating forest covered 7,464,400 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 603,970 hectares (ha) in 2020. Only 4% of the naturally regenerating forest was reported as primary forest. Causes include illegal logging, large-scale land clearing for agriculture (such as rubber plantations) and development projects, and weak governance. This habitat loss threatens many endangered and endemic species with extinction.

Hydropower development in the Mekong River Basin, particularly by upstream countries like Laos, poses a significant threat to Cambodia's fisheries, which are vital for food security and livelihoods, especially those dependent on the Tonlé Sap Lake. Upstream dams can alter water flow, sediment deposition, and fish migration patterns.

Another severe environmental and humanitarian issue is the legacy of landmines and unexploded ordnance (UXO) from decades of conflict. Cambodia was one of the most heavily mined countries in the world, and UXO continues to cause casualties and hinder agricultural development and safe land use. Significant demining efforts are ongoing, with the goal of being landmine-free by 2025, but the human and economic toll remains substantial.

Conservation efforts are underway, involving government initiatives like the National Environmental Strategy and Action Plan (NESAP) and cooperation with national and international environmental groups to promote sustainable development and protect remaining biodiversity.

5.1. Government Structure

Cambodia's political system is defined by the 1993 constitution.
The King is the Head of State. The monarchy is elective; the King is chosen by the Royal Council of the Throne from eligible descendants of the Norodom and Sisowath royal lines. The King's role is largely ceremonial, symbolizing national unity and continuity, but he also formally appoints the Prime Minister and signs laws. The current King is Norodom Sihamoni, who ascended the throne in 2004 after the abdication of his father, King Norodom Sihanouk.

The Prime Minister is the Head of Government and holds executive power. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the party with the majority in the National Assembly and is appointed by the King after a vote of confidence from the Assembly. The Prime Minister leads the Council of Ministers (cabinet), which is responsible for implementing laws and running the day-to-day affairs of the state. Hun Manet became Prime Minister in August 2023, succeeding his father Hun Sen.

The Parliament of Cambodia is bicameral, consisting of:

• The National Assembly (រដ្ឋសភា_{Rôdthâsâphéa}^{Central Khmer}): This is the lower house and the primary legislative body. It has 125 members elected for five-year terms through a system of proportional representation in 25 multi-member constituencies based on provinces.
• The Senate (ព្រឹទ្ធសភា_{Prœtthôsâphéa}^{Central Khmer}): This is the upper house. It has 62 members. Two members are appointed by the King, two are elected by the National Assembly, and the remaining 58 are elected by commune councillors from the 24 provinces and the capital. Senators serve six-year terms. The Senate reviews and offers opinions on legislation passed by the National Assembly but has limited power to block it.

While officially a multi-party democracy, the Cambodian People's Party (CPP) has dominated the political system for decades. Critics and human rights organizations have described the government as increasingly authoritarian, particularly following the dissolution of the main opposition party, the Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP), in 2017.

5.2. Major Political Parties and Elections

The dominant political party in Cambodia is the Cambodian People's Party (CPP). Originally formed from factions of the Khmer Rouge who defected and later led the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of Kampuchea, the CPP has been in power, with Hun Sen as its central figure, since the 1980s (initially as Prime Minister from 1985, then in various coalition or dominant roles). After the 1997 clashes, the CPP consolidated its power significantly.

The main opposition party for a period was the Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP), formed in 2012 by the merger of the Sam Rainsy Party and the Human Rights Party. The CNRP made significant gains in the 2013 general election and the 2017 commune elections, posing a substantial challenge to the CPP. However, in November 2017, the Supreme Court dissolved the CNRP following government accusations of a foreign-backed plot to overthrow it, a move widely condemned internationally as politically motivated and a severe blow to democratic competition. Many CNRP leaders were banned from politics, and its leader, Kem Sokha, was arrested for treason.

The electoral system for the National Assembly is based on proportional representation. General elections are held every five years. The 2018 general election, held after the dissolution of the CNRP, saw the CPP win all 125 seats in the National Assembly, effectively creating a one-party state. This election was criticized by many Western governments and international observers as not being free or fair due to the absence of a credible opposition. The subsequent 2023 general election also saw the CPP win a landslide in a similarly constrained environment, with the main opposition Candlelight Party (successor to the CNRP) being disqualified from participating.

The political situation is characterized by the CPP's entrenched power, limitations on political opposition and dissent, and concerns about the shrinking space for civil society and independent media. These developments raise serious questions about the state of democratic development in Cambodia.

5.3. Judicial System and Legal Framework

Cambodia's judicial system is based on a civil law tradition, influenced by French law and, more recently, by efforts to rebuild the legal system after its complete destruction during the Khmer Rouge era. The court system is hierarchical, consisting of courts of first instance (provincial/municipal courts), an Court of Appeal, and a Supreme Court. There is also a Constitutional Council responsible for interpreting the constitution and reviewing the constitutionality of laws.

The development of Cambodia's legal framework has been a significant challenge post-conflict. Many laws had to be drafted anew. Japan, among other international partners, has provided significant assistance in legal and judicial reform, including support for drafting key civil and criminal codes and training legal professionals. The Cambodian legal profession itself was decimated during the Khmer Rouge period, with only a handful of lawyers surviving. The Bar Association of the Kingdom of Cambodia was re-established in 1995 to regulate the profession.

Despite reforms, the judiciary faces challenges related to independence, capacity, corruption, and political influence. The rule of law is often described as weak, with concerns about impunity and unequal application of the law. Fair trial standards and access to justice remain areas of concern for human rights organizations.

5.4. Human Rights and Corruption

The human rights situation in Cambodia is a subject of ongoing concern for local and international observers. Key issues include:

• Freedom of Expression, Assembly, and Association: There are significant restrictions on these fundamental freedoms. Critical journalists, human rights defenders, and political activists often face harassment, intimidation, and legal action. The government has been accused of using the judiciary to silence dissent. Laws on NGOs and trade unions have been criticized for potentially restricting civil society activities.
• Political Participation: The dissolution of the main opposition party, the CNRP, in 2017 severely curtailed genuine multi-party democracy. Subsequent elections have been held in an environment lacking fair competition.
• Land Rights: Forced evictions and land grabbing, often linked to development projects and economic land concessions granted to private companies (sometimes with foreign investment), have affected hundreds of thousands of Cambodians. Disputes over land are common, and those who protest often face reprisal. An estimated 770,000 people have been adversely affected by land grabbing covering at least four million hectares.
• Labor Rights: While the garment industry is a major employer, concerns persist regarding working conditions, wages, and the right to organize and strike. The 2016 Law on Trade Unions has been criticized by labor groups and the ILO for imposing restrictions on union formation and activities.
• Impunity and Rule of Law: Lack of accountability for past and present human rights abuses remains a problem. The judiciary's independence is often questioned.

Government responses often involve denials of politically motivated actions and assertions that legal measures are taken to maintain public order and national security. Civil society organizations play a crucial role in documenting abuses and advocating for rights, though they operate in an increasingly challenging environment.

Corruption is a pervasive problem in Cambodia, affecting all levels of government and society. Transparency International consistently ranks Cambodia poorly in its Corruption Perceptions Index. Corruption hampers economic development, undermines the rule of law, and disproportionately affects the poor. It is prevalent in areas such as public service delivery, resource management (e.g., logging, mining), and the judicial system. The Anti-Corruption Law adopted in 2010 has been criticized for lacking robust protection for whistle-blowers and for insufficient enforcement. Despite the establishment of an Anti-Corruption Unit, progress in tackling high-level corruption has been limited. Favouritism and impunity for well-connected individuals are commonly reported.

6.1. Relations with Key Countries

• Vietnam: Historically complex, relations with Vietnam are crucial. Vietnam was instrumental in ousting the Khmer Rouge and backing the subsequent PRK/SOC government. While there are strong economic ties, underlying historical sensitivities and border demarcation issues persist. From a human rights perspective, the situation of ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia and Cambodian migrant workers in Vietnam are occasional points of concern.
• Thailand: Relations with Thailand have also been multifaceted, marked by periods of cooperation and tension. Border disputes, particularly concerning the Preah Vihear Temple (which the International Court of Justice affirmed belongs to Cambodia), have led to military clashes in the past. Economic and cultural ties are significant.
• China: China has become Cambodia's most important strategic and economic partner. Chinese investment, particularly under the Belt and Road Initiative, has funded extensive infrastructure projects. Cambodia has been a strong supporter of China's positions on issues like the South China Sea disputes, sometimes leading to divisions within ASEAN. This close relationship has raised concerns among Western countries about Cambodia's growing dependence on China and its impact on human rights and governance, as Chinese investment has sometimes been linked to projects with negative social and environmental consequences.
• United States: Relations with the US have been strained at times due to concerns over human rights, democratic backsliding, and Cambodia's close ties with China. The US has provided development aid and has been involved in efforts to promote democracy and human rights. However, it has also imposed some sanctions and restrictions in response to political developments in Cambodia.
• France: As the former colonial power, France maintains cultural and educational ties with Cambodia. It is a member of La Francophonie and has provided development assistance.
• Japan: Japan is a major aid donor and investor in Cambodia, contributing significantly to infrastructure development, demining efforts, and legal reforms. Relations are generally positive.
• South Korea: South Korea has also become an important economic partner, with investments in various sectors and growing tourism and cultural exchange.

Cambodia has also cultivated relations with other countries in Asia, Europe, and beyond. In describing these relationships, it's important to consider the perspectives of parties affected by international policies and economic projects, as well as any related human rights implications, such as those arising from large-scale development projects or resource exploitation involving foreign entities.

6.2. Membership in International Organizations

Cambodia is an active member of several international and regional organizations, which play a significant role in its foreign policy and development:

• United Nations (UN): Cambodia became a UN member in 1955. It has participated in UN peacekeeping operations and hosts various UN agencies working on development, human rights, and health. The UN was heavily involved in the peace process and transition in the early 1990s through UNTAC.
• Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): Cambodia joined ASEAN on April 30, 1999. Membership in ASEAN is a cornerstone of its foreign policy, providing a platform for regional cooperation on political, economic, and security issues. Cambodia has chaired ASEAN on several occasions.
• World Trade Organization (WTO): Cambodia joined the WTO in October 2004. Membership has facilitated its integration into the global economy and provided a framework for its trade policies.
• Other memberships include the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Asian Development Bank (ADB), and the East Asia Summit (EAS). Cambodia is also a member of La Francophonie.

Its participation in these organizations reflects its commitment to multilateralism and regional integration, although its stance on certain issues, particularly within ASEAN concerning the South China Sea, has sometimes been seen as aligning closely with China's interests.

9.1. Major Industries

Key sectors driving the Cambodian economy include:

• Agriculture: This sector is the mainstay for a large portion of the population. Rice is the principal commodity; in 1985, agriculture accounted for 90% of GDP and employed approximately 80% of the workforce. While its share of GDP has declined, it remains vital. Major secondary crops include maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, soybeans, sesame seeds, dry beans, and rubber. Rubber was historically an important primary commodity and a source of foreign exchange. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has reintroduced traditional rice varieties. Social aspects include land rights issues for farmers and the impact of climate change on agricultural productivity.
• Textiles and Garments: The garment industry is the largest manufacturing sector, accounting for 80% of the country's exports in some years. In 2012, exports grew to 4.61 B USD. The sector employs hundreds of thousands of workers, predominantly women. Labor rights, working conditions, and wage levels are significant social concerns within this industry. Initiatives like "Better Factories Cambodia" (a partnership between the ILO and IFC) aim to improve conditions and competitiveness. However, Cambodia has faced criticism regarding labor rights, as reflected in the ITUC Global Rights Index.
• Tourism: Tourism is the country's second-greatest source of hard currency. International visitor arrivals saw a tenfold increase in the early 21st century, reaching over 6 million in 2018. Major attractions include Angkor Wat, Phnom Penh, and coastal areas like Sihanoukville. The industry employs a significant portion of the workforce. However, it is vulnerable to global events (like the COVID-19 pandemic) and local security concerns. The rapid growth of tourism, including a proliferation of casinos, also raises questions about sustainable development and social impacts.
• Construction: The construction sector has boomed, particularly in Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville, fueled by foreign investment, especially from China. This has led to rapid urbanization but also concerns about environmental impact, displacement of communities, and the quality and sustainability of development.
• Oil and Natural Gas: Deposits were found beneath Cambodia's territorial waters in 2005, offering potential for future revenue, but development has been slow, partly due to territorial disputes with Thailand and complexities in extraction.

9.2. Trade and Investment

Cambodia's economy is heavily reliant on international trade and foreign direct investment (FDI).

• Exports: The primary export commodities are garments and textiles, footwear, agricultural products (rice, rubber, cassava), and, to a lesser extent, fish and timber. The United States and European Union countries have been major markets for garments, benefiting from preferential trade schemes, although these have sometimes been threatened by concerns over human rights and labor standards.
• Imports: Key imports include petroleum products, raw materials for the garment industry (fabrics, accessories), construction materials, machinery, vehicles, and consumer goods.
• Trading Partners: Major trading partners include China, the United States, European Union countries, Vietnam, Thailand, Japan, and Singapore. China has become an increasingly dominant economic partner.
• Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Cambodia has actively sought FDI to drive economic growth. Investment has flowed into sectors like garment manufacturing, tourism infrastructure, real estate and construction, agriculture, and, more recently, light manufacturing. China is the largest source of FDI. The investment climate offers incentives but is also hampered by corruption, bureaucratic hurdles, and concerns about the rule of law. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) have been established to attract investment.

9.3. Transport and Communications

Decades of conflict severely damaged Cambodia's transport system, but significant upgrades have occurred since the early 2000s, often with international assistance.

• Roads: Most main highways are now paved and have been upgraded to international standards. Key routes connect Phnom Penh to major provincial cities and international borders. However, rural road networks still require substantial improvement. Road traffic accident rates remain high.
• Railways: Cambodia has two main rail lines totaling about 380 mile ^{(612 km)} of single, 3.3 ft ^{(1 m)} gauge track: one running from Phnom Penh to Sihanoukville (southern coast) and another from Phnom Penh to Poipet (Thai border). Services on these lines were largely suspended for years but have been gradually rehabilitated and reopened. A US$141 million project, largely funded by the Asian Development Bank, aimed to revitalize the rail system to link Cambodia with industrial centers in Bangkok and Ho Chi Minh City.
• Air Transport: Cambodia has three main commercial airports: Phnom Penh International Airport (PNH), Siem Reap-Angkor International Airport (REP), and Sihanouk International Airport (KOS). These airports handled a record 10 million passengers in 2018. A new, larger airport, Techo Takhmao International Airport, is under construction to serve Phnom Penh.
• Inland Waterways: The Mekong River, Tonlé Sap River, and their tributaries provide extensive navigable waterways, historically important for trade. Phnom Penh is a major river port capable of receiving sizable ships.
• Urban Transport: Motorcycles are the predominant mode of transport. Automobiles are increasing. Traditional cyclos (rickshaws) are being replaced by motor-powered remorques and auto-rickshaws.
• Communications: Telecommunications infrastructure, including mobile phone services and internet access, has developed rapidly. Mobile penetration is high, and internet usage is growing, particularly in urban areas.

9.4. Science, Technology, and Energy

Cambodia's scientific and technological development is still in its nascent stages. A National Committee for Science and Technology has been in place since 1999, and the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports approved a Policy on Research Development in the Education Sector in 2010. The country's first National Science and Technology Master Plan (2014-2020) was launched with support from the Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA), aiming to promote industrial innovation, with a focus on agriculture, primary industry, and ICTs. Cambodia was ranked 103rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

Regarding energy, Cambodia has high potential for developing renewable energy resources, particularly solar power. The country has conducted solar power auctions and serves as a model in this regard for other ASEAN nations. However, attracting significant international investment in renewable energy remains a challenge. Improving governance, adopting clear targets, developing an effective regulatory framework, and facilitating market entry for international investors are key to unlocking this potential. Given its vulnerability to climate change, developing renewable energy is crucial for Cambodia's climate change mitigation efforts. Traditionally, the country has relied on hydropower and imported fossil fuels for its energy needs.

10.1. Demographics

As of 2024, Cambodia has a population of approximately 17 million people. The population growth rate has been significant, though fertility rates have declined. The 2019 census recorded a population of 15.55 million. The country has a very young population, with about half being younger than 22 years old as of 2010. The sex ratio is slightly female-biased (1.04 females to 1 male), particularly among those over 65 (1.6 females to 1 male), a legacy of conflict.
The total fertility rate was 2.5 children per woman in 2018, down from 4.0 in 2000. Urban women have fewer children on average (2.2) than rural women (3.3). Population density varies, with the central plains and areas around Phnom Penh being the most densely populated. Urbanization is increasing, with Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, and Battambang being the largest urban centers.

Major Urban Centers (2019 Population):

10.2. Ethnic Groups

Cambodia's population is largely homogeneous, with the vast majority (around 95.8% according to the 2019 census) being ethnic Khmer. The Khmer people are indigenous to the lowland Mekong subregion.
Minority groups include:

• Cham: Constituting about 1.8% of the population, the Cham are descendants of the Austronesian people of the former Champa kingdom. Most Cham in Cambodia are Muslim and often live in distinct villages, particularly in the southeast. They faced severe persecution under the Khmer Rouge.
• Vietnamese: Making up about 0.5% of the population, ethnic Vietnamese are concentrated in the southeast, adjacent to the Mekong Delta, and in urban areas. Historically, relations between Khmers and Vietnamese have been complex, and ethnic Vietnamese have faced discrimination and violence at various points in Cambodian history.
• Chinese: Approximately 0.6% of the population, most Chinese Cambodians are descendants of 19th and 20th-century settlers, primarily involved in trade and commerce in urban areas.
• Khmer Loeu (Highland Khmer): This is a collective term for various indigenous highland groups, estimated to be around 1-2% of the population. They are descendants of Mon-Khmer and Austronesian migrations and have distinct cultures and languages. They often face challenges related to land rights, resource access, and cultural preservation.

Addressing the rights and welfare of ethnic minorities and indigenous groups, ensuring their participation in society, and protecting their cultural heritage are important aspects of social development in Cambodia.

10.3. Languages

The official language of Cambodia is Khmer, which is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Khmer is a member of the Mon-Khmer sub-family of the Austroasiatic language group. The Khmer script is derived from the South Indian Pallava script.

French, once the language of government in French Indochina, is still spoken by some older Cambodians and is taught in some French-funded schools and universities. Cambodia is a member of La Francophonie. Cambodian French, a dialect with local characteristics, is sometimes used in government, particularly in courts.

Since the 1993, English has been gaining prominence and has largely replaced French as the main foreign language. English is widely taught in universities and schools, and is increasingly used in business, tourism, and international relations. Street signs are often bilingual in Khmer and English.

Minority languages are spoken by various ethnic groups, including Cham, Vietnamese, Chinese dialects, and the languages of the Khmer Loeu groups. The preservation of these minority languages is a concern.

10.4. Religion

Theravada Buddhism is the official state religion of Cambodia and is practiced by more than 97% of the population (as of 2013 estimates). There are an estimated 4,392 monastery temples (wats) throughout the country. Cambodian Buddhism is deeply intertwined with the national identity, culture, and daily life. It is influenced by elements of Hinduism (evident in Angkorian-era temples and some deities) and indigenous animistic beliefs (such as the veneration of neak ta spirits). Key practices include merit-making (bonn), observing precepts, and participating in temple festivals. The Khmer Rouge regime severely repressed religion, destroying most temples and killing many monks; however, Buddhism has experienced a strong revival since then.

Islam is the religion of most Cham people and some Malays, accounting for about 2% of the population. Most Cambodian Muslims are Sunni.

Christianity is practiced by a small minority, around 0.5% to 1.3% of the population, including Catholics and various Protestant denominations.

Other faiths include Mahayana Buddhism (practiced by some Chinese and Vietnamese communities), Chinese folk religion, Confucianism, Taoism, and the traditional beliefs of Khmer Loeu groups. While the constitution guarantees freedom of religion, Theravada Buddhism holds a privileged position.

10.5. Education

The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport is responsible for national education policy. The Cambodian education system is heavily decentralized, with management at central, provincial, and district levels. The constitution mandates free compulsory education for nine years.

The 2019 census estimated that 88.5% of the population aged 15 and over was literate (91.1% of men and 86.2% of women). For youth (15-24 years), literacy rates were 89% for males and 86% for females.
The education system has faced many challenges, including the destruction of infrastructure and loss of educated personnel during the Khmer Rouge era. However, significant improvements have been made in recent decades, particularly in primary net enrollment and the development of policies to support disadvantaged children. Challenges remain in terms of quality of education, teacher training, resources, and dropout rates, especially at secondary and tertiary levels. Child labor also impacts school attendance and learning outcomes.

The education structure includes:

• Primary education (6 years)
• Lower secondary education (3 years)
• Upper secondary education (3 years)
• Tertiary education (universities and vocational training institutes)

The Royal University of Phnom Penh is one of the oldest and largest universities. Vocational education has received increased investment to address poverty and unemployment. Traditionally, education was often provided by Buddhist temples (wats), primarily for males.

10.6. Health and Healthcare

Cambodia has made significant strides in improving public health indicators, though challenges persist. Life expectancy was 75 years in 2021, a major improvement from 55 years in 1995. The infant mortality rate decreased from 86 per 1,000 live births in 1998 to 24 in 2018.
Healthcare is provided by both public and private practitioners. Trust in health providers is a key factor in service uptake, especially in rural areas. The government plans to improve healthcare quality by raising awareness of HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases. Malaria cases have significantly declined.

However, access to quality healthcare, particularly in rural areas, remains limited. Disparities exist, with provinces like Ratanakiri having much poorer health indicators (e.g., 22.9% of children dying before age five, according to older data). Common health issues include infectious diseases, malnutrition, and maternal and child health problems.

A critical and long-lasting health and humanitarian issue is the prevalence of landmines and unexploded ordnance (UXO) remaining from decades of conflict. Cambodia was one of the most heavily mined countries. Since 1970, landmines are estimated to have caused over 60,000 civilian deaths and many more injuries. The number of casualties has sharply decreased (from 800 in 2005 to 111 in 2013, with 22 deaths). Survivors often require amputations and face lifelong disabilities. Demining efforts are ongoing, with Cambodia aiming to be landmine-free by 2025. Between 1979 and 2013, landmines and UXO caused 44,630 injuries. One in 290 Cambodians is an amputee, reflecting the severe legacy of these weapons.

In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Cambodia ranked 68th out of 127 countries, with a GHI score of 14.7, indicating a moderate level of hunger.

10.7. Public Safety and Crime

The general security situation in Cambodia has improved since the end of major conflicts, but crime remains a concern. Common types of crime include petty theft (pickpocketing, bag snatching), residential burglary, and, less frequently, more violent crimes. In 2017, Cambodia had a homicide rate of 2.4 per 100,000 population.

Law enforcement agencies, including the Cambodian National Police and the Gendarmerie, are responsible for maintaining public safety. However, the effectiveness of law enforcement is sometimes hampered by issues such as corruption, lack of resources, and insufficient training.

Prostitution is illegal in Cambodia but is known to be prevalent, particularly in some urban areas and tourist spots. Human trafficking, especially for sexual exploitation and forced labor, is also a serious problem that the government and NGOs are working to combat.

In August 2019, Prime Minister Hun Sen signed a directive banning the issuance of new online gambling licenses, citing concerns about crime and social problems associated with the industry. Existing licenses were allowed to operate until expiration. Prior to this, over 150 such licenses had been issued, leading to a boom in casino towns like Sihanoukville, which also brought social and security challenges.

11.1. Traditional Arts

Cambodia's traditional arts are renowned for their elegance and spiritual depth.

• Classical Dance (Royal Ballet of Cambodia): Known as របាំព្រះរាជទ្រព្យ_{Robam Preah Reach Troap}^{Central Khmer} ("theater of royal wealth"), this highly stylized dance form was traditionally performed in royal courts for ceremonial and entertainment purposes. It often depicts scenes from epic poems like the Reamker (the Khmer version of the Ramayana). The Apsara dance, characterized by its graceful hand gestures and elaborate costumes, is a prominent example. It was recognized by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
• Traditional Music: Cambodian music features various ensembles. The Pinpeat ensemble, consisting of xylophones, gongs, drums, and oboes, typically accompanies classical dance and religious ceremonies. Mahori music, often played with stringed instruments, accompanies folk dances and lighter entertainment. Folk music forms like Chapei Dang Veng (a narrative form with a long-necked lute) and Ayai (lyrical, often comedic, call-and-response singing) are also important.
• Architecture: The most iconic architectural achievements are the temple complexes of the Angkorian period, such as Angkor Wat, Bayon, and Ta Prohm. These structures are characterized by their massive scale, intricate carvings (bas-reliefs depicting mythological scenes and daily life), sandstone construction, and distinctive prasat (tower) designs. Traditional Khmer houses are typically built on stilts.

11.2. Literature and Film

Traditional Cambodian literature includes epic poems like the Reamker, Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha's previous lives), and various folk tales and legends. These were often recorded on tra (palm-leaf manuscripts). Modern Cambodian literature has developed since the colonial period, though it suffered greatly during the Khmer Rouge era when many writers and intellectuals were killed and literary works destroyed. Efforts to revive and promote literature are ongoing.

The Cambodian film industry had a "golden age" in the 1960s and early 1970s before being decimated by the Khmer Rouge. Since the 1990s, there has been a gradual resurgence, with filmmakers exploring both historical themes (including the Khmer Rouge period) and contemporary social issues. Notable figures in music who brought new styles include singers Sinn Sisamouth and Ros Serey Sothea from the 1960s-70s, and later artists like Preap Sovath and Sokun Nisa.

11.3. Cuisine

Cambodian cuisine features a delicate balance of flavors, often using fresh herbs and spices. Rice is the staple food, typically served with multiple accompanying dishes. Fish, especially freshwater fish from the Tonlé Sap and Mekong River, is a primary source of protein.

• Key Ingredients: Lemongrass, galangal, turmeric, kaffir lime leaves, garlic, shallots, and prahok (a pungent fermented fish paste) are fundamental. Coconut milk is used in many curries and desserts.
• Characteristic Dishes:
  • Amok trey: A steamed fish curry, often cooked in banana leaves.
  • Kuy teav: A popular noodle soup, typically with pork or beef broth, rice noodles, and various toppings.
  • Num banhchok: Rice noodles served with a fish-based green curry or other sauces.
  • Lok lak: Stir-fried beef, often served with rice, a fried egg, and a dipping sauce of lime juice and pepper.
  • Prahok ktis: A dip made from prahok, minced pork, coconut milk, and kroeung (a spice paste).
• Fruits and Snacks: Tropical fruits like mango, rambutan, durian, and longan are abundant. Street food is popular, offering a variety of snacks and light meals, including grilled meats, spring rolls, and desserts. Aping (deep-fried tarantulas) are a notable, if less common, delicacy.

French influence is seen in the popularity of baguettes, often eaten with curries or pâté. Kampot pepper is renowned globally.

11.4. Sports

Football (soccer) is one of the most popular sports in Cambodia. The Cambodia national football team achieved fourth place in the 1972 Asian Cup. Volleyball is also widely played and considered by some to be the most popular sport.
Traditional Cambodian sports include:

• Pradal Serey (Khmer boxing): A form of kickboxing similar to Muay Thai.
• Bokator: An ancient Khmer martial art that includes strikes, grappling, and weapon techniques, believed to be a precursor to Pradal Serey.
• Traditional boat racing: A major event during the Bon Om Touk (Water Festival).
• Buffalo racing.
• Khmer traditional wrestling.

Cambodia first participated in the Summer Olympics in 1956. The country hosted the GANEFO (Games of the New Emerging Forces) in 1966 and, more recently, the Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games) in 2023 for the first time.

11.5. Clothing

Traditional Cambodian clothing reflects the country's cultural heritage and social customs.

• Krama (ក្រមា^{Central Khmer}): A sturdy, versatile checked scarf made of cotton or silk. It is worn by people of all ages and genders and serves multiple purposes: as a head covering, a towel, a baby carrier, a belt, or for decoration. It is a strong symbol of Cambodian identity.
• Sampot (សំពត់^{Central Khmer}): A lower body wrap, similar to a sarong, worn by both men and women. There are many variations of the sampot, differing in fabric, color, pattern, and how they are worn, often indicating social status or the occasion.
  • Sampot Chang Kben: A unisex lower body garment resembling trousers, created by wrapping and tucking a long piece of cloth. Historically worn by royalty and officials, it is still used for formal occasions and traditional performances.
  • Sampot Hol: A type of ikat silk skirt.
  • Sampot Phamuong: A type of woven silk fabric often used for sampots.

  For formal occasions, such as weddings or traditional ceremonies, Cambodians wear elaborate silk outfits. Women might wear a sampot with a matching silk blouse (av pak) and often a sbai (a shawl-like garment draped over one shoulder). Men may wear a sampot chang kben with a formal shirt or jacket. Contemporary fashion in Cambodia often blends traditional elements with modern styles.

11.6. Festivals and Holidays

Cambodia observes numerous festivals and public holidays, many of which are rooted in Buddhist traditions and agricultural cycles.

• Chol Chnam Thmey (Cambodian New Year): Typically celebrated over three days in mid-April, it marks the end of the harvest season and the traditional start of a new year. Festivities include temple visits, traditional games, special foods, and cleaning homes.
• Pchum Ben (Ancestors' Day): A 15-day religious festival, usually in September or October, dedicated to honoring deceased ancestors. Cambodians visit pagodas to offer food and prayers to monks and the spirits of their relatives. It is a significant time for family reunions and acts of merit.
• Bon Om Touk (Water Festival and Moon Festival): Celebrated usually in October or November at the end of the rainy season, when the Tonlé Sap River reverses its flow. It features exciting boat races on the Mekong and Tonlé Sap rivers in Phnom Penh, illuminated floats, fireworks, and offerings to the moon.
• Visak Bochea: Commemorates the birth, enlightenment, and passing of the Buddha.
• Royal Ploughing Ceremony (ព្រះរាជពិធីបុណ្យច្រត់ព្រះនង្គ័ល_{Preah Reach Pithi Chrot Preah Neangkol}^{Central Khmer}): An ancient royal ritual held in May to mark the traditional beginning of the rice-growing season.

Other public holidays include International New Year's Day (January 1), Victory Over Genocide Day (January 7), International Women's Day (March 8), International Labor Day (May 1), King Norodom Sihamoni's Birthday (May 14), former Queen Mother Norodom Monineath Sihanouk's Birthday (June 18), Constitution Day (September 24), Commemoration Day of former King Norodom Sihanouk (October 15), King Norodom Sihamoni's Coronation Day (October 29), and Independence Day (November 9).

11.7. World Heritage Sites

Cambodia is home to several sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, recognizing their outstanding universal value:

• Angkor Archaeological Park: Inscribed in 1992, this vast complex near Siem Reap contains the magnificent remains of the different capitals of the Khmer Empire from the 9th to the 15th century. It includes iconic temples such as Angkor Wat (the world's largest religious monument), Angkor Thom (with the Bayon temple and its giant stone faces), Ta Prohm (famous for the trees growing out of its ruins), and numerous other temples and hydraulic structures.
• Temple of Preah Vihear: Inscribed in 2007, this temple is situated on the edge of a plateau that dominates the plain of Cambodia, on the border with Thailand. Dedicated to Shiva, the temple dates back to the first half of the 11th century AD and is an outstanding masterpiece of Khmer architecture in terms of its plan, decoration, and relationship to the spectacular landscape.
• Temple Zone of Sambor Prei Kuk, Archaeological Site of Ancient Ishanapura: Inscribed in 2017, this site covers the archaeological remains of Ishanapura, the capital of the Chenla Empire that flourished in the late 6th and early 7th centuries AD. It predates Angkor and comprises numerous temples, ten of which are octagonal, unique examples of their type in Southeast Asia.

These sites represent Cambodia's rich cultural and historical legacy and are major attractions for visitors from around the world. Other significant cultural and natural properties are on Cambodia's tentative list for future World Heritage nomination.