Laos

3.1. Prehistory and Early Kingdoms

Evidence of early human habitation in the region of modern-day Laos is significant. In 2009, a human skull was recovered from the Tam Pa Ling Cave in the Annamite Mountains of northern Laos. This skull, dated to be at least 46,000 years old, represents the oldest modern human fossil found in Southeast Asia to date. Stone artifacts, including Hoabinhian types, have been discovered at sites dating to the Pleistocene epoch in northern Laos.

Archaeological evidence suggests that an agriculturist society developed in Laos during the 4th millennium BC. Burial jars and other types of sepulchers indicate a complex society where bronze objects appeared around 1500 BC, and iron tools were known from 700 BC. The proto-historic period is characterized by contact with Chinese and Indian civilizations. According to linguistic and other historical evidence, Tai-speaking tribes migrated southwestward from Guangxi (in present-day southern China) into the territories of modern Laos and Thailand sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. Prior to the rise of Lan Xang, the region was controlled by various local chiefdoms, the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati, and the Khmer Empire.

3.2. Lan Xang Kingdom (1353-1707)

Laos traces its direct historical and cultural identity to the kingdom of Lan Xang (ລ້ານຊ້າງ_{Lan Xang}^Lao, meaning "Million Elephants"), founded in the 14th century by a Lao prince, Fa Ngum. Fa Ngum's father had his family exiled from the Khmer Empire. With the support of 10,000 Khmer troops, Fa Ngum conquered various Lao principalities in the Mekong river basin, culminating in the capture of Vientiane and the establishment of Lan Xang in 1353, with its capital at Muang Sua (present-day Luang Prabang). Fa Ngum was descended from a line of Lao kings that traced its lineage back to the mythical Khoun Boulom. He established Theravada Buddhism as the state religion, which profoundly shaped Lao culture and society.

Fa Ngum's reign was marked by expansion, but his ruthlessness led to his ministers forcing him into exile in the Nan Province of present-day Thailand in 1373, where he later died. His eldest son, Oun Heuan, ascended the throne under the name Samsenethai (meaning 300,000 Tai people, referring to a census) and reigned for 43 years. During Samsenethai's rule, Lan Xang became a significant trade center. After his death in 1421, the kingdom entered a period of instability and warring factions that lasted for nearly a century.

In 1520, Photisarath came to the throne. He moved the capital from Luang Prabang to Vientiane in 1560 to avoid potential Burmese invasion and to better administer the expanding kingdom. His son, Setthathirath, became king in 1548 after his father's death and ordered the construction of That Luang in Vientiane, which became a symbol of Lao sovereignty and Buddhism. Setthathirath also built Wat Xieng Thong in Luang Prabang. He disappeared in the mountains in 1571 during a military expedition into Cambodia, and Lan Xang subsequently fell into more than 70 years of instability, involving Burmese invasions, occupations, and civil war.

The kingdom experienced a golden age under King Sourigna Vongsa (1637-1694), who ascended the throne in 1637. During his reign, Lan Xang expanded its frontiers, fostered arts and culture, and engaged in diplomacy with neighboring states. However, when Sourigna Vongsa died in 1694 without a designated heir, a succession crisis ensued, leading to the kingdom's fragmentation. By 1707, Lan Xang had split into three rival kingdoms: the Kingdom of Luang Prabang in the north, the Kingdom of Vientiane in the center, and the Kingdom of Champasak in the south. This division weakened the Lao states, making them vulnerable to external pressures.

3.3. Siamese Suzerainty and Division (18th-19th centuries)

Following the fragmentation of Lan Xang, the three Lao kingdoms of Luang Prabang, Vientiane, and Champasak increasingly fell under the influence and eventual suzerainty of Siam (present-day Thailand). Between 1763 and 1769, Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexed Luang Prabang, while Champasak eventually came under Siamese suzerainty. The Kingdom of Vientiane also became a Siamese vassal.

Chao Anouvong was installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese. He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature and improved relations with Luang Phrabang. However, under perceived Vietnamese encouragement and seeking to restore Lan Xang's former glory, he launched a rebellion against Siamese rule in 1826 (the Lao Rebellion). The rebellion ultimately failed; Siamese forces sacked Vientiane in 1828, devastating the city and forcibly relocating large numbers of its population to Siamese-controlled territories on the west bank of the Mekong. Anouvong was captured and taken to Bangkok as a prisoner, where he died. The failed rebellion led to a significant depopulation of the Vientiane region and solidified Siamese control over the Lao territories.

During this period, warfare in pre-modern Southeast Asia often revolved around capturing people and resources rather than solely land ownership. A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale," highlighting the harsh impact of regional power struggles on the Lao population. The Lao principalities remained under Siamese influence, with varying degrees of autonomy, until the arrival of the French.

3.4. French Laos (1893-1953)

In the late 19th century, the French colonial empire expanded into Indochina. Luang Prabang was ransacked by Chinese Black Flag Haw bandits. France, seeking to counter British influence from Burma and Siamese expansion, intervened. Through diplomatic pressure and military force (culminating in the Franco-Siamese War of 1893), France compelled Siam to cede all territories east of the Mekong River. These territories, along with the Kingdom of Luang Prabang (which became a French protectorate), were consolidated to form French Laos in 1893, administered as part of French Indochina. The Kingdom of Champasak and the territory of Vientiane were also added to the protectorate. King Sisavangvong of Luang Phrabang nominally became the ruler of a unified Laos under French oversight, and Vientiane was re-established as the administrative capital.

French rule in Laos was characterized by a relatively light administrative footprint compared to Vietnam. The French focused on resource extraction, primarily tin, rubber, and coffee, though Laos never accounted for more than 1% of French Indochina's exports. By 1940, only around 600 French citizens lived in Laos. The colonial administration imposed taxes and a corvée labor system, requiring Lao men to contribute unpaid labor, which caused resentment. To address labor shortages and facilitate administration, the French encouraged Vietnamese migration to Laos. By 1943, the Vietnamese population stood at nearly 40,000, forming the majority in some urban centers like Vientiane (53%), Thakhek (85%), and Pakse (62%), though Luang Prabang remained predominantly Lao. This demographic shift had long-term social and political implications. French colonial architecture also left a visible mark on Laotian towns. Nationalist sentiments began to stir, although organized resistance was initially limited.

3.5. Independence, Civil War, and Communist Rule (1953-present)

After gaining full independence in 1953, Laos was engulfed in a devastating civil war closely linked to the Vietnam War, which concluded with the victory of the Pathet Lao and the formation of the Lao People's Democratic Republic in 1975, ushering in an era of one-party socialist rule and subsequent economic reforms.

3.5.1. Laotian Civil War (1959-1975)

Laos gained full independence from France on October 22, 1953, as the Kingdom of Laos, a constitutional monarchy under King Sisavang Vong. However, the country was immediately plunged into a complex internal conflict known as the Laotian Civil War, which became intertwined with the broader Cold War and the Vietnam War. The war pitted the Royal Lao Government (RLG), supported by the United States, France, and Thailand, against the communist Pathet Lao, which was backed by North Vietnam, the Soviet Union, and China. Neutralist factions, led by figures like Prince Souvanna Phouma, attempted to navigate a middle path but were often caught between the two main warring sides.

A key factor in the conflict was the strategic importance of Laos in the Vietnam War. North Vietnam utilized eastern Laos for the Ho Chi Minh trail, a crucial supply route for its forces and allies in South Vietnam. In response, the United States conducted a massive covert bombing campaign, largely run by the CIA, against Pathet Lao and North Vietnamese targets in Laos from 1964 to 1973. This campaign, known as the "Secret War," made Laos the most heavily bombed country per capita in history. The U.S. dropped over two million tons of bombs on Laos, with the aim of interdicting the Ho Chi Minh trail and supporting the Royal Lao Government. This bombing caused widespread devastation, civilian casualties, and displacement, particularly impacting rural and ethnic minority populations. An estimated 80 million bombs failed to explode, and these unexploded ordnance (UXO) continue to maim and kill Laotians and hinder development to this day.

The war also saw the involvement of various ethnic groups, notably the Hmong, many of whom were recruited by the CIA to fight against the Pathet Lao and North Vietnamese forces. Several attempts to form coalition governments failed due to deep-seated mistrust and continued foreign intervention. The fighting caused immense suffering, with estimates of Laotians killed during the civil war ranging from 20,000 to over 62,000. The war's impact was particularly severe on vulnerable groups and ethnic minorities, many of whom were displaced or became refugees.

3.5.2. Lao People's Democratic Republic (1975-present)

Following the communist victories in Vietnam and Cambodia in April 1975, the Pathet Lao rapidly consolidated power. On December 2, 1975, the monarchy was abolished, King Sisavang Vatthana was forced to abdicate, and the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) was proclaimed. Souphanouvong became the first President, while Kaysone Phomvihane, leader of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP), became Prime Minister and the de facto paramount leader. King Savang Vatthana and other members of the royal family later died in re-education camps.

The new government aligned itself closely with Vietnam and the Soviet Bloc. Vietnam stationed tens of thousands of troops in Laos and exerted significant influence over Lao political and economic life, formalized by a 1977 treaty. This alignment led to Laos ending relations with China in 1979 (until they were later restored) and isolation from the United States and other Western countries. The LPRP established a one-party state and implemented socialist policies, including nationalization and collectivization, which initially led to economic hardship and an exodus of refugees, including many Hmong who had fought for the RLG. An estimated 250,000 Lao refugees, including 130,000 Hmong, were resettled in the United States from Thailand between 1975 and 1996.

The conflict with Hmong rebels continued in isolated areas for many years. The government's human rights record came under scrutiny, with reports of repression of dissent and persecution of those associated with the former regime.

Starting in the late 1980s, particularly after the collapse of the Soviet Union which had been a major aid provider, Laos began to implement economic reforms known as the "New Economic Mechanism" (NEM) in 1986. These reforms gradually introduced market-oriented principles, encouraged private enterprise, and opened the country to foreign investment. Laos joined ASEAN in 1997 and the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2013.

Despite economic growth, driven by natural resource exploitation (hydropower, mining), agriculture, and tourism, Laos remains one of the poorest countries in Southeast Asia. Challenges include widespread poverty, especially in rural areas, corruption, a weak legal system, and environmental degradation. The LPRP maintains its monopoly on political power, and restrictions on freedom of speech, assembly, and the press persist. Efforts towards greater democratic participation and human rights protections have been limited. The legacy of the "Secret War" continues to affect the country, with ongoing efforts to clear unexploded ordnance. The opening of the Laos-China Railway in 2021, part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, signifies increasing Chinese influence and aims to boost regional connectivity and trade, but has also raised concerns about debt sustainability and social impacts.

4.1. Topography and Climate

Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. It lies mostly between latitudes 14° and 23°N (with a small area south of 14°N), and longitudes 100° and 108°E. The country's landscape is predominantly mountainous, with the Annamite Range forming most of the eastern border with Vietnam and the Luang Prabang Range defining the northwestern border with the Thai highlands. The highest peak in Laos is Phou Bia, at 9.3 K ft ^{(2.82 K m)}. The northern part of the country is characterized by rugged mountains and steep river valleys. Central Laos features karstic limestone landscapes, while the south includes the fertile Bolaven Plateau. Plains are primarily found along the Mekong River and its tributaries.

Laos can be broadly divided into three geographical areas: north, central, and south. The northern region is mountainous and forested. The central region includes the Xiangkhouang Plateau (also known as the Plain of Jars) and important agricultural areas. The southern region is home to the Bolaven Plateau and the Mekong River's widest expanses within Laos, including the Si Phan Don (Four Thousand Islands) area.

The climate of Laos is primarily tropical savanna and is significantly influenced by the monsoon pattern. There is a distinct rainy season from May to October, driven by the southwest monsoon, which brings heavy rainfall and high humidity. This is followed by a dry season from November to April. Local tradition often divides the year into three seasons: a hot season (March to May), a rainy season (June to October), and a cool dry season (November to February). Temperatures vary with altitude, being cooler in the highlands. Average annual rainfall ranges from 0.1 K in ^{(1.50 K mm)} to 0.1 K in ^{(2.50 K mm)}, with some southern areas receiving over 0.1 K in ^{(3.00 K mm)}.

4.2. Major Rivers and Natural Resources

The Mekong River is the most important geographical feature of Laos. It flows through the country for approximately 1.1 K mile ^{(1.83 K km)}, forming a significant part of its western border with Thailand and Myanmar. The Mekong and its tributaries are vital for agriculture (especially rice cultivation), fishing, transportation, and increasingly, hydroelectricity generation. Major tributaries within Laos include the Nam Ou, Nam Ngum, Sebanghieng, and Sekong. The Mekong's seasonal flooding enriches alluvial plains, supporting fertile agricultural land.

Laos is rich in natural resources. Water resources are abundant, with significant potential for hydropower development, making Laos a key electricity exporter in the region ("the battery of Southeast Asia"). However, the rapid construction of dams on the Mekong and its tributaries has raised serious environmental and social concerns, including impacts on fisheries, sediment flow, local livelihoods, and displacement of communities.

Forests cover a large portion of Laos, providing timber and other forest products. However, deforestation due to logging (both legal and illegal), agricultural expansion (including slash-and-burn cultivation), and infrastructure projects is a major environmental issue. Mineral deposits in Laos include gold, copper, tin, bauxite, potash, iron ore, and gemstones. The mining sector has attracted significant foreign investment, but concerns exist regarding environmental damage, revenue transparency, and the impact on local communities, including land rights and fair compensation.

4.3. Wildlife and Environmental Issues

Laos possesses significant biodiversity, with a rich array of flora and fauna, including many endemic and endangered species. Notable wildlife includes Asian elephants, tigers, leopards, various primate species (such as gibbons and langurs), gaur, banteng, and a diverse birdlife. The Saola, a critically endangered forest-dwelling bovine, was discovered in the Annamite Range on the Laos-Vietnam border in 1992. The country has also seen the discovery or rediscovery of species like the Annamite striped rabbit and the Laotian rock rat (kha-nyou).

In 1993, the Lao government set aside 21% of the nation's land area as National Biodiversity Conservation Areas (NBCAs) to protect its rich biodiversity. However, these protected areas face challenges from poaching, illegal logging, agricultural encroachment, and infrastructure development.

Pressing environmental concerns in Laos include:

• Deforestation and habitat loss: Driven by logging, conversion of forests to agriculture (especially for cash crops like rubber and cassava), and large-scale development projects. This leads to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and impacts on watersheds.
• Impact of hydropower dams: Alteration of river ecosystems, disruption of fish migration, impacts on downstream communities, and displacement.
• Wildlife trafficking and poaching: Laos is part of the illegal wildlife trade network, affecting species like tigers, elephants (for ivory), pangolins, and bears.
• Unsustainable resource extraction: Poorly regulated mining activities can lead to water and soil pollution.
• Unexploded ordnance (UXO): A legacy of the Vietnam War-era bombing, UXO contaminates large areas of agricultural land and forests, hindering development and posing a constant threat to human life and wildlife.
• Golden Triangle: Laos is one of the four countries in the opium poppy growing region known as the "Golden Triangle." While poppy cultivation has decreased from previous highs, it remains a concern, along with related issues of drug trafficking and its impact on communities.

Laos had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.59/10, ranking it 98th globally out of 172 countries, indicating moderate integrity of its forest landscapes. Efforts towards sustainable development and environmental protection are ongoing but face significant economic and institutional challenges.

5.1. Government and Political System

The Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) is one of the world's remaining states openly endorsing communism. The sole legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). As a one-party state, the General Secretary of the LPRP holds ultimate power and authority over the state and government, effectively serving as the supreme leader.

The current head of state is the President, who is elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term. As of 2021, Thongloun Sisoulith holds the positions of both President and General Secretary of the LPRP. The head of government is the Prime Minister, appointed by the President with the approval of the National Assembly. Sonexay Siphandone has served as Prime Minister since 2022.

Laos's first constitution was French-written and monarchical, promulgated on May 11, 1947, declaring Laos an independent state within the French Union. A revised constitution in 1957 omitted reference to the French Union. This document was abrogated in December 1975 when the communist people's republic was proclaimed. A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and amended in 2003 and 2015. It enshrines the "leading role" of the LPRP, solidifying its political dominance. The constitution provides for a National Assembly (Sapha Heng Xat) as the highest organ of state power and the sole legislative body. Its members are elected for five-year terms, though elections are not considered free and fair by international standards due to the LPRP's control over the process. The judiciary is not independent and is subject to LPRP influence.

The government structure includes the President, the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers, the National Assembly, and the judiciary. Policy is largely determined by the LPRP's Politburo and Central Committee. While the constitution nominally guarantees certain rights, in practice, political dissent is not tolerated, and freedoms of speech, assembly, and the press are severely restricted.

5.2. Foreign Relations

The foreign relations of Laos following the Pathet Lao takeover in December 1975 were initially characterized by a close alignment with the Soviet Bloc, particularly Vietnam and the Soviet Union. Vietnam exerted significant influence over Lao foreign policy and internal affairs, with a substantial military presence in the country for many years. Laos was heavily dependent on Soviet foreign assistance.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the decline of Soviet aid, Laos gradually began to diversify its foreign relations and emerge from international isolation. Key principles of Lao foreign policy include peace, independence, friendship, and cooperation with all countries based on mutual respect for sovereignty and non-interference.

Laos maintains strong ties with its neighbors:

• Vietnam: Remains a key strategic partner, with close political, economic, and military cooperation.
• China: Has become an increasingly dominant economic and political partner, particularly through large-scale investments in infrastructure (such as the Laos-China Railway under the Belt and Road Initiative), mining, and hydropower. This growing dependence on China has raised concerns about debt sustainability and sovereignty.
• Thailand: A major trading partner and source of investment, sharing linguistic and cultural ties, though historical tensions occasionally surface.
• Cambodia and Myanmar: Relations are generally stable, focused on border management and regional cooperation.

Beyond the region, Laos has expanded relations with countries such as Russia, Australia, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Switzerland. Relations with the United States have improved, with trade relations normalized in November 2004. The U.S. provides assistance for UXO clearance, health, and education.

Laos is an active member of international and regional organizations:

• Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): Joined in July 1997.
• World Trade Organization (WTO): Acceded in 2013 (applied in 1997, formally became member Feb 2013).
• United Nations (UN) and its agencies.
• La Francophonie.
• East Asia Summit.
• Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement.
• Non-Aligned Movement.

Laos generally maintains a non-confrontational foreign policy, seeking to balance its relationships with major powers. In international disputes, it often aligns with ASEAN consensus. Humanitarian aspects, such as refugee issues and UXO clearance, feature in its foreign relations. The government's stance on human rights is often criticized internationally, which can affect its diplomatic ties.

5.3. Military

The Lao People's Armed Forces (LPAF) are the military forces of the Lao People's Democratic Republic. They are under the command of the Ministry of National Defence and politically controlled by the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. The LPAF consists of the Lao People's Army (LPA), the Lao People's Navy (LPN), and the Lao People's Liberation Army Air Force (LPLAAF).

• Organization and Strength: The LPA is the largest component, primarily an infantry-based force. The LPN operates on the Mekong River and has a very limited capacity. The LPLAAF is small and equipped mainly with transport aircraft and helicopters, with limited combat capability. The total active military personnel is estimated to be around 29,000-30,000. There is also a significant paramilitary force, including militia and self-defense forces. Conscription is in place, with males aged 18 eligible for military service for a minimum of 18 months.
• Primary Equipment: Much of the LPAF's equipment is aging and of Soviet or Chinese origin, including tanks (e.g., T-54/55, PT-76), armored personnel carriers, artillery, and small arms. The air force operates older Soviet-era aircraft like An-26 transports and Mi-17 helicopters. There have been some efforts to modernize, often with assistance from countries like Russia and China.
• Defense Policy: Lao defense policy focuses on national sovereignty, territorial integrity, and internal security, including countering perceived threats from insurgent groups or political dissent. The military plays a significant role in internal security and border control. It is also involved in some economic activities and infrastructure development.
• External Military Cooperation: Laos has historically had very close military ties with Vietnam, which provided extensive training and support. In recent years, military cooperation with China has increased significantly, including arms supplies, training, and joint exercises. Russia also continues to provide some military assistance and training. Laos participates in ASEAN defense and security forums.

The LPAF's budget is modest, and its capabilities are primarily defensive and focused on internal security challenges rather than significant external power projection. The military's role in political and economic affairs remains substantial within the one-party state structure.

5.4. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Laos is a subject of significant concern for international organizations and observers. The Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP) maintains strict control over all aspects of life, and fundamental freedoms are severely curtailed.

• Freedom of Expression, Assembly, and Association: The government heavily restricts these freedoms. Criticism of the LPRP, the government, or its policies is not tolerated. Media is state-controlled, and independent journalism does not exist. Censorship is pervasive, including on the internet. Peaceful protests are rare and often met with suppression. Independent non-governmental organizations (NGOs) face significant restrictions.
• Political Prisoners and Dissidents: Individuals who express dissenting political views or advocate for democratic reforms risk arbitrary arrest, detention, and imprisonment. The case of Sombath Somphone, a prominent civil society leader who disappeared in Vientiane in 2012 after being stopped at a police checkpoint, remains unresolved and highlights the risks faced by activists. Other activists and government critics have also faced enforced disappearances or lengthy prison sentences after unfair trials.
• Conditions of Detention and Due Process: Prison conditions are harsh, often life-threatening, with inadequate food, medical care, and sanitation. Torture and other ill-treatment of detainees have been reported. The justice system lacks independence, and fair trial standards are often not met. Arbitrary detention without charge is a problem.
• Freedom of Religion: While the constitution nominally protects religious freedom, the government restricts religious practices, particularly for unregistered Christian groups and other minority religions. Proselytizing by non-approved groups can lead to arrest and imprisonment.
• Rights of Minorities and Vulnerable Groups: Ethnic minorities, particularly the Hmong, have faced discrimination and persecution (see Hmong Conflict section). Land disputes, often related to development projects or land concessions to foreign companies, disproportionately affect rural and ethnic minority communities, who may be forcibly evicted without adequate compensation or consultation. Rights of LGBT individuals are not explicitly protected, though same-sex relations are not criminalized. Women face discrimination, particularly in rural areas, with limited access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities.
• Death Penalty: The death penalty remains on the books, though executions have been rare in recent years.
• Labor Rights: Independent trade unions are not permitted. Workers' rights to organize, bargain collectively, and strike are severely restricted. Child labor and forced labor remain concerns, particularly in certain sectors.
• Human Trafficking: Laos is a source, transit, and destination country for human trafficking, with Laotians, especially women and girls, trafficked for sexual exploitation and forced labor.

The Lao government often dismisses international criticism of its human rights record as interference in its internal affairs. Access for independent human rights monitors is limited. In The Economist's Democracy Index 2016, Laos was classified as an "authoritarian regime," ranking lowest among the nine ASEAN nations included.

5.5. Hmong Conflict

The Hmong conflict refers to the long-standing and often violent relationship between some Hmong groups and the Lao government, rooted in the Laotian Civil War (1959-1975) and its aftermath.

• Historical Background: During the Laotian Civil War, a significant number of Hmong, particularly those under the leadership of General Vang Pao, were recruited and armed by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to fight against the communist Pathet Lao and North Vietnamese forces. This "Secret Army" played a crucial role in the conflict. When the Pathet Lao emerged victorious and established the Lao People's Democratic Republic in 1975, many Hmong who had sided with the Royal Lao Government and the U.S. faced severe reprisals.
• Post-1975 Persecution and Insurgency: The new communist government viewed the Hmong who fought against them as traitors. Reports emerged of widespread human rights abuses, including killings, forced relocations, and detention in "re-education camps." Many Hmong fled to the mountains, continuing an armed insurgency against the Lao government for decades. Others sought refuge in Thailand. A communist newspaper in 1977 promised the party would hunt down "American collaborators" and their families "to the last root."
• Refugee Issues and Repatriation: Tens of thousands of Hmong refugees fled to Thailand, living in camps along the border. From 1975 to 1996, the United States resettled some 130,000 Hmong refugees. However, many remained in Thailand. In 1989, the UNHCR, with U.S. support, instituted the Comprehensive Plan of Action to address Indochinese refugees. Laos agreed to repatriate Lao refugees, including Hmong, from Thailand. While some returns were voluntary, allegations of forced repatriation and mistreatment of returnees by Lao authorities surfaced. The disappearance of Vue Mai, a former Hmong soldier recruited by the U.S. Embassy to promote the repatriation program, in Vientiane in 1993 intensified concerns.
• Ongoing Human Rights Concerns: Small groups of Hmong rebels and their families remained hidden in remote jungle areas of Laos for many years, facing difficult conditions and alleged persecution by the Lao military. Reports from NGOs and journalists documented human rights violations against these groups. The Thai government periodically attempted to repatriate Hmong asylum seekers, sometimes forcibly, drawing international condemnation. In 2009, Thailand forcibly repatriated over 4,000 Hmong asylum seekers from the Huay Nam Khao camp back to Laos despite international outcry.
• International Perspectives: The situation of the Hmong in Laos has been a point of contention in Laos's relations with Western countries, particularly the United States, and with international human rights organizations. Advocacy groups have consistently called for an end to alleged persecution, respect for human rights, and access for independent monitors to assess the situation of Hmong communities in Laos. While large-scale armed conflict has largely subsided, concerns remain about discrimination, lack of access to resources, and political rights for Hmong people in Laos.

The Hmong conflict underscores the complex legacy of the Cold War in Laos and the enduring challenges faced by ethnic minorities in the context of a one-party state with a poor human rights record.

7.1. Economic Structure and Policy

The Lao economy relies heavily on investment and trade with its neighbors, particularly Thailand, Vietnam, and, increasingly, China. Pakse has experienced growth based on cross-border trade with Thailand and Vietnam. In 2009, the Obama administration in the US declared Laos was no longer a Marxist-Leninist state and lifted bans on Laotian companies receiving financing from the US Export-Import Bank.

The transition from a centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented one, known as the "New Economic Mechanism" (NEM) initiated in 1986, has driven economic activity. Key drivers of economic growth have included the exploitation of natural resources (hydropower and mining), agriculture, tourism, and foreign direct investment (FDI). The government has actively sought FDI, particularly from China, Thailand, and Vietnam. China was the biggest foreign investor in Laos as of 2016, having invested 5.39 B USD since 1989, followed by Thailand (4.49 B USD) and Vietnam (3.11 B USD).

Macroeconomic conditions have seen periods of high growth, with annual GDP growth averaging 7.4% between 2009 and 2019. However, Laos faces significant challenges, including high levels of poverty and inequality, particularly between urban and rural areas and among different ethnic groups. The country is classified as a least developed country (LDC) by the United Nations. The reliance on natural resource exports makes the economy vulnerable to commodity price fluctuations. Concerns have also been raised about rising public debt, particularly related to large infrastructure projects financed by China under the Belt and Road Initiative, potentially leading to a "debt trap."

Policy efforts aim to achieve sustainable economic growth, poverty reduction, and graduation from LDC status. However, a UN Special Rapporteur in 2019 noted that the country's top-down approach to economic growth and poverty alleviation was "all too often counterproductive, leading to impoverishment and jeopardising the rights of the poor and marginalised." Ensuring that economic development is inclusive, equitable, and environmentally sustainable remains a critical challenge.

7.2. Major Sectors

The Laotian economy is supported by several key sectors. Agriculture, historically the mainstay, remains crucial for employment, while mining and hydropower have become significant for revenue and export. Tourism has emerged as an important source of foreign exchange, and the manufacturing and services sectors are gradually developing.

7.2.2. Mining and Energy

The mining and energy sectors are crucial to Laos's economy, particularly for export revenue and foreign investment, but also present significant social and environmental challenges.

Mining: Laos has considerable mineral resources, including gold, copper, tin, bauxite, zinc, lead, potash, iron ore, and gemstones. More than 540 mineral deposits have been identified. The mining industry has attracted substantial foreign direct investment. Large-scale mining operations, such as the Sepon copper and gold mine and various potash mines, contribute significantly to exports. However, the sector has faced criticism regarding environmental degradation (e.g., water pollution, deforestation), inadequate regulation and oversight, transparency in revenue management, and the displacement of local communities with insufficient compensation and consultation. Ensuring that mining benefits are shared equitably and that social and environmental safeguards are upheld is a major concern. Labor rights and safety standards in the mining sector also require attention.

Energy: Laos has significant hydropower potential due to its mountainous terrain and abundant water resources, particularly from the Mekong River and its tributaries. The government has pursued a strategy to become the "battery of Southeast Asia" by developing numerous hydropower dams to export electricity, primarily to Thailand, Vietnam, and increasingly, China. Of an estimated potential capacity of 18,000 megawatts, around 8,000 megawatts had been committed for export as of the early 2010s. While hydropower generates substantial revenue, its development has profound social and environmental impacts. These include the displacement of communities, loss of agricultural land and fisheries, disruption of river ecosystems and sediment flows, and concerns about dam safety. The cumulative impact of multiple dams on the Mekong basin is a particular worry. As of 2021, Laos continues to rely on fossil fuels, particularly coal, for some domestic electricity production, despite its hydropower exports. The push for renewable energy needs to be balanced with robust environmental and social impact assessments and meaningful community participation.

7.2.3. Tourism

The tourism sector in Laos has grown significantly since the country opened up to international visitors, becoming an important source of foreign exchange and employment. Visitor numbers increased from 80,000 in 1990 to 1.876 million in 2010, and reached nearly 4.7 million in 2015 before declining due to factors like the COVID-19 pandemic.

Key tourist attractions include:

• Cultural heritage sites like the ancient capital of Luang Prabang (a UNESCO World Heritage site), known for its temples, traditional architecture, and alms-giving ceremony.
• Vat Phou, another UNESCO World Heritage site, a pre-Angkorian Khmer temple complex in southern Laos.
• The Plain of Jars in Xiangkhouang Province, an archaeological landscape with thousands of large stone jars.
• Natural attractions such as the Kuang Si Falls and Tad Sae waterfalls near Luang Prabang, the Kong Lor Cave, the Si Phan Don (Four Thousand Islands) area on the Mekong River, and various National Biodiversity Conservation Areas offering opportunities for ecotourism and trekking.
• The capital city of Vientiane, with sites like Pha That Luang (the national symbol), Wat Si Saket, and Patuxai (Victory Gate).
• Adventure tourism in places like Vang Vieng, known for its karst landscapes, though it has undergone changes to improve safety and sustainability.

The economic contribution of tourism is substantial. In 2010, one in every eleven jobs was in the tourism sector. Export earnings from international visitors were significant. The European Council on Trade and Tourism awarded Laos the "World Best Tourist Destination" for architecture and history in 2013.

The Lao National Tourism Administration and related agencies work with the private sector to promote tourism, with an emphasis on ecotourism and sustainable development. Strategies aim to:

• Decrease the environmental and cultural impact of tourism.
• Increase awareness of the importance of ethnic groups and biological diversity.
• Provide income for the conservation and management of protected areas and cultural heritage sites.
• Emphasize tourism zoning and management plans for key destinations.

Challenges for sustainable tourism development include managing environmental impacts, ensuring benefits reach local communities, preserving cultural integrity, improving infrastructure, and enhancing service quality. The COVID-19 pandemic severely impacted the sector, highlighting the need for resilience and diversification.

7.3. Transportation and Infrastructure

Laos, a landlocked and mountainous country, has historically faced significant challenges in developing its transportation and infrastructure. However, recent years have seen major investments, particularly in roads and railways, aimed at transforming the country into a "land-linked" hub.

• Roads: The road network is the primary mode of transport. National Road 13 is the main north-south artery. While major routes connecting urban centers have been upgraded, many rural roads remain unpaved and can become impassable during the rainy season. Efforts are ongoing to improve road connectivity both domestically and with neighboring countries.
• Railways: For a long time, Laos had only a 2.2 mile ^{(3.5 km)} railway link connecting Thanaleng (near Vientiane) to the Thai railway network across the First Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge. A major development is the Laos-China Railway, a 257 mile ^{(414 km)} standard-gauge electrified railway connecting Vientiane with Boten on the Chinese border, which opened in December 2021. Built as part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, it aims to boost trade and tourism but has also raised concerns about debt and socio-environmental impacts. Plans exist for other railway lines to connect with Vietnam and further integrate Laos into regional networks.
• Air Transport: Major international airports are Wattay International Airport in Vientiane, Luang Prabang International Airport, and Pakse International Airport. Lao Airlines is the national carrier. Air transport is crucial for tourism and connecting remote areas.
• Waterways: The Mekong River and its tributaries are important for local transportation and freight, especially in areas with limited road access, though navigability can be affected by seasons and dams.
• Telecommunications: Mobile phone penetration is high. Internet access has been expanding, particularly in urban areas, but quality and affordability can be issues in rural regions.
• Power Infrastructure: Laos has extensively developed hydropower for electricity export. Domestic electrification has improved, with electricity available to 93% of the population by some estimates, but ensuring reliable and affordable access for all, especially in remote areas, remains a goal. The development of the national power grid is ongoing.

These infrastructure developments are critical for economic growth and poverty reduction. However, it is important to ensure they are implemented sustainably, with due consideration for environmental impacts, equitable access for all communities (avoiding displacement without fair compensation), and long-term financial viability.

7.4. Foreign Trade

Laos's foreign trade is characterized by a reliance on a few key export commodities and strong trade links with its neighboring countries and other Asian partners.

• Major Exports:
  • Electricity:** Hydropower exports, primarily to Thailand and Vietnam, are a major source of foreign exchange.
  • Minerals:** Copper, gold, potash, and other mineral products.
  • Agricultural Products:** Coffee, rubber, cassava, maize, bananas, and rice.
  • Wood and Wood Products:** Timber, processed wood, and furniture (though sustainability is a concern).
  • Garments and Textiles:** An important manufactured export.
• Beerlao, a popular Laotian beer, was exported to over 20 countries as of 2017.

• Major Imports:
  • Petroleum products:** Laos is dependent on imported fuel.
  • Machinery and Equipment:** For industry, agriculture, and infrastructure development.
  • Vehicles and Parts.**
  • Construction Materials.**
  • Consumer Goods.**
  • Food products** not sufficiently produced domestically.
  • Key Trading Partners:
    • Thailand:** A primary trading partner for both exports (especially electricity, agricultural products) and imports (consumer goods, machinery).
    • China:** A rapidly growing trading partner, particularly for resource exports and imports of manufactured goods and equipment. China is also a major source of investment.
    • Vietnam:** An important partner for trade in agricultural products, electricity, and other goods.
  • Other significant partners include countries in ASEAN, Japan, and European nations.
  • Trade Balance: Laos typically runs a trade deficit, meaning it imports more than it exports, although this can fluctuate based on commodity prices and large project imports/exports.
  • Trade Agreements and Participation:
    • Member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 2013.
    • Member of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and other ASEAN-led trade agreements (e.g., with China, Korea, Japan, India, Australia/New Zealand).
    • Signatory to the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP).
    • Beneficiary of preferential trade schemes from some developed countries (e.g., Generalized System of Preferences).

    Efforts to diversify exports, improve trade facilitation (e.g., through better infrastructure and customs procedures), and enhance competitiveness are ongoing. The landlocked nature of Laos presents logistical challenges for trade, making regional connectivity crucial.

8.1. Population and Ethnic Groups

As of 2023, the population of Laos is estimated to be around 7.6 million people. The population density is relatively low, particularly compared to its neighbors. The population growth rate has been moderate. Population distribution is uneven, with most people living in the fertile plains along the Mekong River and its tributaries, especially in and around the capital, Vientiane.

Laos is an ethnically diverse country, with the government officially recognizing 50 ethnic groups, though anthropological classifications often list more. These groups are traditionally and sometimes officially categorized based on their predominant living altitudes, which often correlates with linguistic and cultural distinctions:

1. Lao Loum (Lowland Lao):

• Constituting about 53.2% of the population (2015 census), this group primarily includes the ethnic Lao, who are the politically and culturally dominant group.
• They mainly inhabit the fertile lowlands along the Mekong River and its valleys.
• They speak Lao and other closely related Tai languages.
• Traditionally wet-rice cultivators, they are predominantly Theravada Buddhists.
• Other lowland groups include various Tai-speaking peoples like Phouthai, Tai Daeng, Tai Dam, and Lue.

2. Lao Theung (Midland Lao or Upland Lao):

• Making up around 24-30% of the population (estimates vary, Khmou alone are 11%), these groups inhabit the slopes of hills and lower mountains, generally at altitudes between 984 ft ^{(300 m)} and 2953 ft ^{(900 m)}.
• They are primarily of Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) linguistic stock and are considered among the earliest inhabitants of the region.
• Major groups include the Khmu (the largest Lao Theung group), Katang, Makong, Laven, Brau, and others.
• Traditionally, they practice swidden (slash-and-burn) agriculture, supplemented by hunting and gathering. Many have transitioned to more settled agriculture.
• Their religious practices often involve animism and ancestor worship, though some have adopted Buddhism or Christianity.
• Historically, some Lao Theung groups were pejoratively referred to as "Kha," meaning "slave," reflecting past social stratification and exploitation. This term is now considered offensive.

3. Lao Soung (Highland Lao):

• Comprising about 9-15% of the population (Hmong alone are 9.2%), these groups typically live in the higher mountainous regions, often above 2953 ft ^{(900 m)}.
• They include peoples of Hmong-Mien (e.g., Hmong, Yao/Mien) and Tibeto-Burman (e.g., Akha, Lisu, Lahu) linguistic families.
• Many of these groups migrated into Laos from southern China and neighboring countries over the past few centuries.
• They traditionally practice swidden agriculture, cultivating crops like upland rice, maize, and formerly, opium poppy in some areas.
• They often maintain distinct cultural traditions, social structures, and religious beliefs, commonly animistic or shamanistic, though some have converted to Christianity.

The socio-economic positions of these groups vary. Lao Loum generally have better access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities due to their concentration in more developed lowland areas. Lao Theung and Lao Soung communities often face greater poverty, marginalization, and challenges in accessing basic services. Government policies aim to promote national unity, but issues of ethnic identity, land rights, and equitable development persist. There are also small communities of Vietnamese and Chinese, particularly in urban areas, involved in commerce and business.

8.2. Languages

The official language of Laos is Lao (also referred to as Laotian). It is a tonal language belonging to the Tai branch of the Kra-Dai language family. Lao is spoken as a first language by over half the population, primarily the ethnic Lao (Lao Loum), and serves as the lingua franca for communication between different ethnic groups, in government, education, and media. The Lao script, derived from the ancient Khmer script, is used for writing. Lao is closely related to Thai and Isan (spoken in northeastern Thailand), and speakers of these languages can often understand each other to a considerable extent.

Beyond the official language, Laos is linguistically diverse, with scores of minority languages spoken across the country. These languages belong to several language families:

• Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer)**: Spoken by Lao Theung groups such as the Khmu, Katang, Bru, and others.
• Hmong-Mien**: Spoken by Lao Soung groups like the Hmong and Iu Mien (Yao).
• Tibeto-Burman**: Spoken by other Lao Soung groups such as Akha, Lisu, and Lahu.
• Other Kra-Dai languages**: Various Tai languages distinct from Lao are spoken by other Lao Loum and some upland groups.

The government promotes Lao as the national language, but efforts are also made to preserve minority languages, though their use in official domains is limited.

French has a historical presence due to the colonial period. It is still used in some governmental and commercial contexts, and Laos is a member of the La Francophonie. In 2010, an estimated 173,800 people in Laos spoke French.
English has become increasingly important, especially in business, tourism, and education, and is widely studied as a foreign language, particularly among younger generations and in urban areas. It is also the working language of ASEAN.

A number of Laotian sign languages are used in areas with higher rates of congenital deafness.

8.3. Religion

Theravada Buddhism is the dominant religion in Laos and plays a significant role in the country's culture and society. According to estimates (e.g., Pew Research 2010, 2015 census data), approximately 60-67% of the population are Theravada Buddhists. Buddhism was introduced to the region centuries ago and became prominent during the Lan Xang kingdom. Buddhist temples (wat) are central to community life, serving not only as places of worship but also as centers for education, social gatherings, and festivals. Monks are highly respected, and many Lao males traditionally spend some time as novice monks.

Animist beliefs and practices, often referred to as Satsana Phi, are widespread and deeply ingrained, particularly among many ethnic minority groups (Lao Theung and Lao Soung) but also coexisting with Buddhism among the Lao Loum. These beliefs involve the worship of spirits (phi) associated with natural elements, ancestors, and specific locations. Rituals are performed to appease these spirits and ensure well-being and good fortune. Around 30% of the population primarily follows these traditional animist beliefs, though many Buddhists also incorporate animist practices into their lives.

Christianity is practiced by a small minority, estimated at around 1.5-1.7% of the population. This includes both Protestant and Catholic communities, with some concentration among certain ethnic minority groups. While the constitution provides for freedom of religion, Christian groups, especially those not officially registered with the government, have faced restrictions and, at times, persecution.

Islam is practiced by a very small community, mainly consisting of Cham people and South Asian immigrants, primarily in urban areas. There are also followers of other faiths like the Baháʼí Faith. A small percentage of the population may identify as having no religion.

The Lao government officially recognizes Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and the Baháʼí Faith. Religious activities are generally monitored, and the government seeks to ensure they align with national policies and social order. The interplay between Buddhism and traditional animist beliefs forms a unique spiritual landscape in Laos.

8.4. Education

The education system in Laos has made progress but continues to face significant challenges in providing equitable and quality education for all citizens. The system is largely state-controlled and structured as follows:

• Preschool Education:** Increasingly recognized but not universally available.
• Primary Education:** Typically 5 years, compulsory by law, though enforcement can be difficult, especially in remote areas.
• Lower Secondary Education:** 4 years.
• Upper Secondary Education:** 3 years.
• Vocational and Technical Education:** Offered as an alternative to upper secondary or post-secondary education.
• Higher Education:** Provided by universities, colleges, and teacher training institutions. The National University of Laos in Vientiane is the country's main public university. Other institutions include Souphanouvong University in Luang Prabang and Champasack University in Pakse.

• Key Indicators (vary by source and year):**
  • Literacy Rate:** The adult literacy rate has improved. For 2017, it was reported as 62.9% for women and 78.1% for men. Overall literacy is around 85% for those aged 15-24.
  • Enrollment Rates:** Net primary enrollment was around 84% in 2004 and has generally increased, but completion rates and transition to secondary school remain challenges. Gross enrollment in tertiary education is relatively low.
  • Challenges:**
    • Quality of Education:** Issues include inadequately trained teachers, outdated curricula, lack of teaching materials, and overcrowded classrooms in some areas.
    • Equity and Access:** Significant disparities exist between urban and rural areas, and among different ethnic groups. Children in remote, impoverished, and ethnic minority communities often have limited access to schools, face language barriers (as Lao is the language of instruction), and experience higher dropout rates.
    • Infrastructure:** Many schools, especially in rural areas, lack basic facilities such as proper buildings, sanitation, and electricity.
    • Funding:** Public expenditure on education is limited, though international aid plays a role.
    • Teacher Shortages and Training:** A need for more qualified teachers, particularly in specialized subjects and in remote areas.
    • Relevance:** Ensuring that education equips students with skills relevant to the job market is an ongoing concern.
    • Brain Drain:** Laos was ranked 111th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. The country faces a challenge where educated individuals may seek opportunities abroad.

    The Lao government, with support from international partners, is working to address these challenges through various reforms and initiatives aimed at improving access, quality, and relevance of education. However, progress is often slow due to resource constraints and systemic issues.

8.5. Health and Sanitation

Laos faces significant health challenges, characteristic of a least developed country, though progress has been made in some areas.

• Major Health Indicators (estimates vary by source and year):**
  • Life Expectancy:** As of 2017, male life expectancy at birth was around 62.6 years and female life expectancy was around 66.7 years. Healthy life expectancy was estimated at 54 years in 2007.
  • Infant and Child Mortality:** These rates have declined but remain relatively high compared to more developed countries in the region. Malnutrition is a contributing factor.
  • Maternal Mortality:** Also a concern, linked to limited access to skilled birth attendance and emergency obstetric care, especially in rural areas.
  • Common Diseases:**
    • Communicable diseases are prevalent, including respiratory infections (like pneumonia), diarrheal diseases, dengue fever, malaria (though declining), and tuberculosis.
    • HIV/AIDS prevalence is relatively low but remains a concern among specific populations.
    • Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer are increasingly becoming a public health issue.
  • Unexploded Ordnance (UXO):** A unique and severe health risk, causing death and disability, particularly in heavily bombed provinces.
  • State of Medical Services and Facilities:**

• Public Health Initiatives:**

• Sanitation Conditions:**

Addressing these health and sanitation challenges requires sustained investment in infrastructure, human resources, public health programs, and efforts to improve socio-economic conditions, particularly for vulnerable populations.

8.6. Marriage, Family, and Gender

Marriage customs, family structures, and gender roles in Laos are shaped by a blend of traditional beliefs, Buddhist influences, ethnic diversity, and contemporary socio-economic changes. A social liberal perspective emphasizes equality, individual rights, and the need to address social issues impacting women and families.

• Traditional Marriage Customs:**

• Family Structures:**

• Contemporary Changes:**

• Gender Roles:**

• Social Issues and Women's Rights (from a social liberal perspective):**
  • Polygamy:** While officially a crime in Laos, with the constitution and Family Code barring legal recognition of polygamous marriages and stipulating monogamy as the principal form, polygamy (specifically polygyny) is still practiced customarily among some groups, notably certain Hmong communities. As of 2017, 3.5% of women and 2.1% of men aged 15-49 were reported to be in polygamous unions. From a rights-based perspective, polygamy can raise concerns about gender equality, women's autonomy, and potential exploitation, particularly if it is not entered into freely by all parties or if it leads to unequal distribution of resources and emotional support.
  • Domestic Violence:** Domestic violence against women remains a concern, often underreported and inadequately addressed by the legal system.
  • Women's Political Participation:** While women are active in many spheres, their representation in high-level political decision-making remains limited.
  • Economic Empowerment:** Women face barriers to accessing credit, land ownership (despite legal provisions), and higher-paying employment. They are often concentrated in lower-paid or informal sector work.
  • Education and Health:** While progress has been made, disparities in access to education and healthcare persist for girls and women, particularly in rural and ethnic minority areas.
  • Human Trafficking:** Lao women and girls are vulnerable to trafficking for sexual exploitation and forced labor.

  Efforts to promote gender equality and protect women's rights require strengthening legal frameworks, improving enforcement, challenging discriminatory social norms, and ensuring women's equal access to education, economic opportunities, and political participation.

9.1. Cuisine

Lao cuisine is characterized by its fresh ingredients, aromatic herbs, and often spicy flavors. The undisputed staple food of Laos is sticky rice (ເຂົ້າໜຽວ_{khao niao}^Lao), which is typically steamed and eaten by hand. It is served with almost every meal and holds deep cultural significance.

Representative Laotian dishes include:

• Larb (also spelled laap or laab): A spicy minced meat or fish salad, often considered the national dish. It is typically made with chicken, beef, duck, pork, or fish, mixed with roasted ground rice, lime juice, fish sauce, chili, mint, and other herbs. It can be eaten cooked or raw (especially with fish).
• Tam Mak Hoong (ຕຳໝາກຫຸ່ງ^Lao): Lao green papaya salad, similar to Thai som tam, but often with a stronger fermented fish sauce (padaek) flavor and sometimes crab paste. It's a pungent and spicy salad made with shredded unripe papaya, chili, garlic, tomatoes, lime juice, sugar, and fish sauce.
• Khao poon: A popular soup made with vermicelli rice noodles, meat (often chicken or fish), and a flavorful coconut milk-based or clear broth, seasoned with herbs like galangal, lemongrass, and kaffir lime leaves.
• Or Lam: A mildly spicy and slightly bitter stew originating from Luang Prabang, typically made with dried buffalo skin or beef, eggplant, wood ear mushrooms, yardlong beans, and seasoned with chili wood (sakhaan) and herbs.
• Ping Kai: Grilled chicken, marinated with garlic, black pepper, coriander root, and fish sauce.
• Sai Oua: Lao sausage, typically made with pork, seasoned with herbs like lemongrass, galangal, kaffir lime leaves, and chili.
• Jaew bong: A sweet and savory chili paste, often made with roasted chilies, garlic, shallots, galangal, and sometimes dried buffalo skin.

Common ingredients include galangal, lemongrass, kaffir lime leaves, Lao basil, mint, coriander, chili peppers, and the distinctive Lao fermented fish sauce called padaek. Fresh vegetables and herbs are abundant.

Dining etiquette traditionally involves sharing several dishes communally. Sticky rice is often kneaded into small balls with the fingers of the right hand and used to scoop up other foods. Soups are also common. Meals are a social affair, emphasizing hospitality.

9.2. Traditional Attire

Traditional Laotian clothing reflects the country's cultural heritage and varies slightly by region and ethnic group.

For women, the most distinctive traditional garment is the sinh (ສິ້ນ^Lao). The sinh is a tube-like skirt made of silk or cotton, often intricately woven with colorful patterns and motifs.

• Structure:** A sinh typically consists of three parts: the hua sinh (waistband), phuen sinh (main body, often patterned), and tin sinh (hem, usually elaborately decorated).
• Patterns and Motifs:** The patterns can indicate the region of origin, the weaver's skill, and the wearer's social status. Common motifs include geometric designs, animals (like nagas or birds), and mythical figures.
• Occasions:** Women wear sinhs for daily life, work, and special occasions like weddings, temple visits, and festivals. More elaborate and expensive silk sinhs are reserved for formal events.
• Accompaniments:** The sinh is typically worn with a matching or complementary blouse (suea pat - a long-sleeved blouse that wraps around the front) and a sash or scarf (pha biang) draped over one shoulder for formal occasions.

For men, traditional attire is simpler:

• A salong or sampot (a lower body cloth similar to a sarong or pants) made of silk or cotton was traditionally worn.
• This was often paired with a shirt or jacket, sometimes a Nehru jacket^English-style collared shirt.
• For formal occasions, men might wear a white silk shirt with a salong and a sash.

In contemporary Laos, especially in urban areas, Western-style clothing is common for daily wear. However, traditional attire, particularly the sinh for women, is still widely worn, especially for cultural events, official functions, and by government employees on certain days. The sinh remains a strong symbol of Lao cultural identity and pride. Different ethnic minority groups also have their own distinctive traditional clothing, often featuring unique weaving techniques, embroidery, and embellishments like silver jewelry.

9.3. Music and Performing Arts

Laotian music and performing arts are rich traditions, deeply intertwined with cultural life, festivals, and religious ceremonies.

Traditional Music:

• The most iconic traditional Laotian musical instrument is the khaen (ແຄນ^Lao). It is a free-reed mouth organ made of bamboo pipes of varying lengths, bound together in a double row. The khaen produces a distinctive, resonant sound and is used to accompany singers (mor lam) and in ensemble music. Skilled khaen players (mor khaen) are highly respected.
• Lao classical music ensembles, known as piphat or sep noi, are similar to those in Thailand and Cambodia. They feature percussion instruments like xylophones (ranat ek), gong circles (khong wong), drums (taphon, klong that), and oboes (pi nai). This music is often performed at court ceremonies, religious events, and traditional theater.
• Mor lam is a popular form of Lao folk song and storytelling, featuring a singer accompanied by the khaen and sometimes other instruments. Mor lam can be witty, romantic, or satirical, often improvising lyrics based on current events or audience interaction. There are various regional styles of mor lam.

Traditional Dance and Theater:

• Classical Laotian dance-drama, known as Lam Luang or Lakhon phipath, shares roots with Thai and Cambodian court dance. It often depicts scenes from the Ramayana (known as Phra Lak Phra Lam in Laos) and Jataka tales. Dancers wear elaborate costumes and masks, and their movements are highly stylized and graceful.
• Folk dances are diverse, varying by region and ethnic group. These dances are often performed at festivals and social gatherings, accompanied by traditional music. Examples include the Lam Vong (circle dance), a popular social dance.
• Shadow puppet theater (Nang Talung or Nang Sbek) was also a traditional form of entertainment, though less common today.

The Lao People's Democratic Republic government has made efforts to preserve and promote traditional music and performing arts as part of the national cultural heritage. However, like many traditional art forms globally, they face challenges from modernization and the popularity of contemporary music and entertainment.

9.4. Cinema

The Laotian film industry is small and has developed slowly, facing challenges such as limited funding, infrastructure, and a small domestic market.

• Early History:** Film was introduced during the French colonial period, primarily through screenings of foreign films. After independence, filmmaking efforts were sporadic.
• Post-1975:** After the establishment of the Lao PDR in 1975, the government controlled film production and distribution. Films often served propagandistic purposes. The first feature-length film made after the monarchy was abolished is reportedly Gun Voice from the Plain of Jars, directed by Somchith Pholsena in 1983, though its release was said to have been prevented by a censorship board.
• Contemporary Developments:**
  • The 2000s saw a slight revival with some internationally co-produced films. Sabaidee Luang Prabang (2008), a Thai-Lao co-production, was a commercially successful feature film that helped to raise the profile of Lao locations.
  • A new wave of independent Lao filmmakers has emerged more recently.
    • Australian filmmaker Kim Mordaunt's The Rocket (2013), shot in Laos with a Laotian cast speaking their native language, received international acclaim, winning awards at the Berlin International Film Festival.
    • Lao-American director Mattie Do has become a prominent figure in contemporary Lao cinema, known for her genre films. Her films include Chanthaly (2013), considered Laos' first horror film, and Dearest Sister (Nong Hak, 2016), which was Laos's first submission for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film in 2017. Her film The Long Walk (2019) also received international attention.
    • Anysay Keola's At the Horizon (2011) was another notable Lao film that screened at international festivals.
  • The 2017 documentary feature film Blood Road, predominantly shot and produced in Laos with government assistance, won a News and Documentary Emmy Award in 2018.
• Challenges and Infrastructure:** As of 2018, Laos reportedly had only three theaters dedicated to showing films. The industry struggles with distribution, funding, and censorship. Many Laotians consume foreign films, particularly from Thailand, China, and Hollywood.

Despite the challenges, there is a growing interest in Lao cinema, both domestically and internationally, with filmmakers exploring local stories and perspectives.

9.5. Festivals

Laos has a vibrant calendar of festivals (boun), which are deeply rooted in Buddhist traditions, agricultural cycles, and animist beliefs. These festivals are important social and cultural events, bringing communities together.

Major traditional festivals include:

• Pi Mai Lao (Lao New Year):
  • Celebrated annually from April 13th to 15th (or 14th to 16th), coinciding with Songkran in Thailand and similar New Year festivals in other Southeast Asian countries.
  • It is a time for purification, renewal, and celebration. Activities include cleaning houses and villages, visiting temples to make offerings and listen to sermons, and respectfully pouring water on Buddha images, monks, elders, and each other as a cleansing ritual and to wish for good fortune.
  • Water throwing (often playful) is a prominent feature, symbolizing washing away the old year's misfortunes.
  • Parades, traditional music and dance performances, beauty pageants (Miss Sangkhan), and family gatherings are common. Luang Prabang is particularly famous for its elaborate Pi Mai celebrations.
• Boun Bang Fai (Rocket Festival):
  • Held in various communities across Laos, typically in May or June, before the start of the rainy season.
  • It is an ancient pre-Buddhist rain-making festival, intended to ask the spirits for plentiful rain for the rice-growing season.
  • The highlight is the launching of large, elaborately decorated homemade rockets into the sky. There are competitions for the highest and most beautifully decorated rockets.
  • The festival is characterized by boisterous and often bawdy celebrations, including music, dancing, parades, and consumption of rice wine.
• Boun Khao Phansa (Beginning of Buddhist Lent):
  • Marks the start of the three-month Buddhist rains retreat, usually in July. Monks remain in their temples during this period to study and meditate. Laypeople make offerings to the temples, listen to sermons, and observe more strictly the Buddhist precepts.
• Boun Awk Phansa (End of Buddhist Lent):
  • Celebrated at the end of the three-month rains retreat, usually in October. It is marked by alms-giving, temple ceremonies, and boat races.
• Boun Suang Heua (Boat Racing Festival):
  • Often held in conjunction with Boun Awk Phansa or shortly thereafter, particularly in towns along the Mekong River like Vientiane, Luang Prabang, and Savannakhet.
  • Long, narrow racing boats, often decorated with naga (mythical serpent) motifs and crewed by many paddlers, compete in exciting races. The festival includes fairs, food stalls, and evening candlelight processions along the river.
• Boun That Luang:
  • Held in Vientiane around the full moon of the twelfth lunar month (usually November), centered on the national symbol, Pha That Luang.
  • It is one of the most important religious festivals in Laos, attracting devotees from all over the country and neighboring regions.
  • Activities include a large international trade fair, alms-giving, candlelight processions (wien thien) around the stupa, traditional music and games, and fireworks.
• Hmong New Year (Nopejao): Celebrated by the Hmong ethnic group, typically in December or January, after the harvest season. It involves traditional music, courtship games (like pov pob - a ball-tossing game), feasting, and shamanistic rituals.

Other festivals include Magha Puja, Visakha Puja (Buddha's birth, enlightenment, and passing), Boun Khoun Khao (rice harvest festival), and Haw Khao Padap Din (ancestor remembrance day). These festivals are integral to Lao cultural identity and social cohesion.

9.6. Sports

Sports in Laos blend traditional martial arts with popular modern sports.

• Muay Lao (Lao Boxing):
  • This is the national sport of Laos and a traditional martial art.
  • It is a form of kickboxing similar to Muay Thai in Thailand, Lethwei in Myanmar, and Pradal Serey in Cambodia, involving strikes with fists, elbows, knees, and shins.
  • Matches are often held during festivals and are a popular form of entertainment.
  • Kataw (Sepak Takraw):
    • A popular traditional sport played throughout Southeast Asia. It involves players using their feet, knees, chest, and head to kick a rattan ball over a net.
    • Modern Sports:
      • Football (Soccer)**: The most popular modern sport in Laos. The Lao League is the top professional football league. The Laos national football team participates in regional competitions like the AFF Championship and FIFA World Cup qualification, though with limited success on the international stage.
      • Volleyball, Basketball, Badminton**: Also played and gaining popularity.
      • Athletics and Other Olympic Sports**: Laos participates in the Olympic Games, Asian Games, and Southeast Asian Games, though medal achievements are modest.
      • Traditional Boat Racing** (Suang Heua): Popular during festivals, especially Boun Awk Phansa, with teams competing in longboats on rivers like the Mekong.

      The government supports sports development, and there are efforts to improve facilities and training for athletes. The New Laos National Stadium in Vientiane is a key venue for national and international sporting events.

9.7. World Heritage Sites

Laos is home to three sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, recognized for their outstanding cultural and historical value:

1. Town of Luang Prabang (Inscribed 1995):

• Located in northern Laos at the confluence of the Mekong and Nam Khan rivers, Luang Prabang is an ancient royal capital.
• It is recognized for its exceptionally well-preserved townscape, which blends traditional Lao wooden houses with European colonial architecture from the 19th and 20th centuries.
• The town is renowned for its numerous historic Buddhist temples (wats), such as Wat Xieng Thong, Wat Mai, and Wat Visoun, which showcase exquisite Lao religious art and architecture.
• The daily alms-giving ceremony (tak bat), where monks collect sticky rice from devotees, is a significant cultural tradition. The surrounding natural landscape, including Phou Si hill, also contributes to the site's charm.

2. Vat Phou and Associated Ancient Settlements within the Champasak Cultural Landscape (Inscribed 2001):

• Located in Champasak Province in southern Laos, near the Mekong River.
• This site features the ruins of a remarkable Khmer temple complex, Vat Phou (meaning "mountain temple"), dating back to the 5th century, with most surviving structures from the 11th to 13th centuries. It predates Angkor Wat and was part of the Khmer Empire.
• The cultural landscape includes the temple complex, which is dramatically situated on the slopes of Phu Kao (Phu Pasak) mountain, as well as associated ancient settlements, roads, and water management systems along the banks of the Mekong River.
• The site illustrates the development of Khmer architecture and the historical links between the Khmer Empire and the region.

3. Megalithic Jar Sites in Xiengkhouang - Plain of Jars (Inscribed 2019):

• Located on the Xiangkhouang Plateau in north-central Laos.
• This serial property comprises 15 distinct sites containing over 2,100 large, mysterious stone jars, carved from sandstone or conglomerate. These jars, dating from the Iron Age (500 BCE to 500 CE), are arranged in clusters across the landscape.
• The purpose of the jars is still debated, with theories suggesting they were used for prehistoric burial practices or for food and water storage.
• The sites also bear witness to the impacts of the Indochina Wars, with unexploded ordnance still present in some areas and bomb craters visible.

These World Heritage Sites are crucial for Laos's cultural identity and tourism, and efforts are ongoing for their conservation and management.