Sri Lanka

3.1. Prehistory

The prehistory of Sri Lanka dates back as far as 125,000 years, possibly even 500,000 years, spanning the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and early Iron Ages. Significant archaeological findings come from sites such as Pahiyangala (dating back 37,000 years BP, named after the Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian), Batadombalena (28,500 BP), and Belilena (12,000 BP). These caves have yielded remains of anatomically modern humans, termed Balangoda Man. Evidence suggests these early inhabitants may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for hunting.

The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka are believed to be ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous group with a current population of approximately 2,500. During the protohistoric period (1000-500 BCE), Sri Lanka shared cultural similarities with southern India, including megalithic burial practices, pottery styles, iron technology, farming techniques, and megalithic graffiti symbols. This cultural complex likely spread from southern India with Dravidian clans like the Velir, prior to the migration of Prakrit-speaking groups.

One of the earliest written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which details a kingdom named Lanka created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma for Kubera, the God of Wealth. It is said that Kubera was later overthrown by his half-brother, the Rakshasa king Ravana.

3.2. Ancient history

Sinhalese history traditionally begins in 543 BCE with the arrival of Prince Vijaya, a semi-legendary figure who, after being expelled from the Vanga kingdom (present-day Bengal), sailed to Sri Lanka with 700 followers. He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern-day Mannar. Vijaya is considered the first of approximately 189 monarchs of Sri Lanka chronicled in texts like the Dīpavaṃsa, Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and Rājāvaliya. The Mahāvaṃsa also recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the Tamil Pandya kingdom to the Anuradhapura Kingdom in the early historic period.

The Anuradhapura period (377 BCE-1017 CE) commenced with the establishment of the Anuradhapura Kingdom under King Pandukabhaya. Anuradhapura served as the island's capital for nearly 1,400 years. During this era, ancient Sri Lankans excelled in constructing impressive structures, including vast irrigation tanks (reservoirs), stupas (dagobas), and palaces. A pivotal transformation occurred during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa with the introduction of Buddhism from India. Around 250 BCE, Mahinda, a bhikkhu and son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, arrived in Mihintale and converted the king, leading to the widespread adoption of Buddhism among the Sinhalese people. Succeeding kingdoms maintained numerous Buddhist schools and monasteries, supporting the propagation of Buddhism to other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan bhikkhus also studied at Nalanda, the famous ancient Buddhist university in India. In 245 BCE, bhikkhunī Sanghamitta arrived with a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree, under which Gautama Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. This tree, planted in Anuradhapura, is considered the oldest human-planted tree with a continuous historical record.

Sri Lanka experienced its first foreign invasion during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders from South India, Sena and Guttika. Another invasion occurred in 205 BCE by Elara, a Chola prince, who ruled for 44 years before being defeated by Dutugamunu, a Sinhalese king from the south. Over its long history, the Sinhalese kingdom faced at least eight major invasions from neighboring South Indian dynasties like the Cholas, Pandyas, and Pallavas, as well as incursions from Kalinga (modern Odisha) and the Malay Peninsula.

The Fourth Theravāda Council was held at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka under the patronage of King Valagamba in 25 BCE. This council was convened in response to a period of famine and hardship that threatened the oral transmission of the Pali Canon. The monks decided to commit the teachings to writing on palm-leaf manuscripts to preserve them, a significant event in Buddhist history. These written scriptures were later disseminated to other Buddhist countries.

Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler, Anula of Anuradhapura (reigned 47-42 BCE). Notable construction projects from this era include Sigiriya, the "Fortress in the Sky," built by King Kashyapa I (477-495 CE). This rock fortress featured an extensive network of ramparts, moats, gardens, ponds, pavilions, and palaces.

In 993 CE, an invasion by the Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the Sinhalese ruler Mahinda V to flee south. In 1017, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a larger invasion, capturing Mahinda V and sacking Anuradhapura. This marked the fall of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, and the Cholas moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.

3.3. Post-classical and Early modern period

The post-classical period began with the Polonnaruwa Kingdom, followed by a transitional phase with shifting capitals, and eventually the early modern period marked by European colonial arrivals. This era saw both flourishing local kingdoms and increasing foreign intervention.

After a 17-year campaign, King Vijayabahu I successfully expelled the Cholas in 1070, reuniting the country. He requested ordained monks from Burma (now Myanmar) to re-establish Buddhism, which had declined during Chola rule. During this medieval period, Sri Lanka was often divided into three regions: Ruhuna, Pihiti, and Maya Rata.

Sri Lanka's extensive irrigation system was significantly expanded during the reign of King Parākramabāhu I (1153-1186), a period considered a golden age for the Polonnaruwa Kingdom. He built 1,470 reservoirs, repaired 165 dams, and constructed numerous canals. His most famous work is the Parakrama Samudra, the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu I also launched military campaigns in South India and against the kings of Ramanna (Burma).

Following Parākramabāhu I's death, Sri Lanka's power gradually declined. In 1215, Kalinga Magha, an invader of uncertain origin sometimes identified as the founder of the Jaffna Kingdom, captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa. Unlike previous invaders, Kalinga Magha extensively looted and destroyed the ancient capitals of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, causing severe damage to the cultural and religious heritage. His reign led to a massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south, west, and the mountainous interior.

The island never fully recovered from Kalinga Magha's invasion. Subsequent Sinhalese kingdoms established capitals in various locations, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte, Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy. The north, meanwhile, evolved into the Jaffna Kingdom. The Jaffna Kingdom remained largely independent, except for a brief period in the mid-15th century when it was conquered by Prince Sapumal, adopted son of King Parākramabāhu VI. Sapumal ruled the north from 1450 to 1467 CE.

In 1247, the Malay kingdom of Tambralinga, a vassal of Srivijaya, led by King Chandrabhanu, briefly invaded Sri Lanka from Insular Southeast Asia but was expelled by the South Indian Pandyan dynasty. This period saw a continued presence of various Austronesian merchant groups in Sri Lanka. In 1409, Chinese admiral Zheng He landed at Galle and engaged in a battle with the local king, Vira Alakesvara of Gampola. Zheng He captured the king, later releasing him, and erected the Galle Trilingual Inscription, a stone tablet in Chinese, Tamil, and Persian to commemorate his visit.

The early modern period in Sri Lanka began with the arrival of Portuguese explorer Lourenço de Almeida in 1505. The Portuguese established a fort in Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over coastal areas. In 1592, King Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his capital to the inland city of Kandy, seeking a more defensible location. In 1619, the Jaffna Kingdom fell to Portuguese attacks, ending its independent existence.

During the reign of King Rajasinha II, the Dutch arrived. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to expel the Portuguese. The ensuing Dutch-Portuguese War resulted in Dutch control over the areas previously held by the Portuguese, with Colombo falling in 1656. The Dutch, however, retained these territories, violating the treaty. The Burgher people, a distinct ethnic group, emerged from the intermingling of Dutch settlers and native Sri Lankans.

The Kingdom of Kandy remained the last independent Sinhalese monarchy. In 1595, Vimaladharmasuriya I brought the sacred Tooth Relic-a traditional symbol of royal and religious authority-to Kandy and built the Temple of the Tooth. Despite intermittent warfare with European powers, the Kandyan Kingdom survived. A succession crisis arose in 1739 upon the death of King Vira Narendra Sinha, who was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India but had no children with her. The crown eventually passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, Sri Vijaya Rajasinha, overlooking Narendrasinha's son by a Sinhalese concubine. The Nayakkar dynasty kings launched several unsuccessful attacks on Dutch-controlled areas.

3.4. Colonial period

The colonial period under British rule transformed Sri Lanka's economy and society, introducing plantation agriculture and laying the groundwork for modern administrative and political structures, while also fueling nationalist sentiments that led to independence.

During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing French control of the Netherlands might lead to Sri Lanka falling to the French, the British Empire occupied the coastal areas of the island, then called Ceylon, with little difficulty in 1796. In 1798, Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, the third Nayakkar king, died, and his nephew, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned as Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. The young king faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated, leading to the First Kandyan War ending in a stalemate.

By then, the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. On 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in the Second Kandyan War, ending Sri Lanka's independence. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha was exiled to India. The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were suppressed by Governor Robert Brownrigg.

The modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833. These reforms introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces into a single unit of government. An executive council and a legislative council were established, forming the basis for a representative legislature. Coffee plantations became highly successful, making coffee the primary commodity export. However, falling coffee prices due to the Panic of 1847 and subsequent taxes imposed by the governor led to the Matale rebellion in 1848. A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix (coffee leaf rust), struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the industry within fifteen years. The British quickly shifted to tea cultivation, which thrived. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.

By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class emerged, transcending race and caste, as the British sought to staff the Ceylon Civil Service and various professions with locals. Buddhist and Hindu revivalist movements arose in reaction to Christian missionary activities. The early 20th century saw a period of unique harmony between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders. The 1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylon began in the early 1900s, with the first documented case in 1906.

In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under Ponnambalam Arunachalam, pressing for more constitutional reforms. However, due to lack of massive popular support and the governor's encouragement of "communal representation," the Congress lost momentum by the mid-1920s.

The Donoughmore Constitution of 1931 repudiated communal representation and introduced universal suffrage. This move was criticized by Tamil political leadership, who feared becoming a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon. In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded 50-50 representation (50% for Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups), but this was not met by the Soulbury Commission reforms of 1944-45.

3.5. Contemporary history

Sri Lanka's contemporary history, from independence in 1948, has been marked by significant political and social transformations, including the establishment of a republic, a long and devastating civil war, periods of economic development, and recent struggles with economic crisis and political instability. The pursuit of social justice, democratic governance, and human rights has been a recurring theme, often challenged by ethnic tensions and political power struggles.

The Soulbury Constitution ushered in Dominion status, with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948. D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon, and prominent Tamil leaders like Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet. The Royal Navy remained stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. A nationwide popular demonstration in 1953 against the withdrawal of rice rations led to the resignation of Prime Minister Dudley Senanayake.

S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule profoundly influenced the nation, with his self-proclaimed role as "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture." He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognizing Sinhala as the sole official language. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill caused grave concern among the Tamil community, who saw it as a threat to their language and culture, contributing significantly to ethnic tensions. The Federal Party (FP) launched non-violent resistance, leading to the Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam. However, the pact was ineffective due to opposition protests. Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, his widow, became prime minister in 1960, the world's first elected female head of government. She withstood an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term, her government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthened ties with the Soviet Union and China, and promoted a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection by the JVP, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism by political leaders fueled Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s. The policy of standardisation for university enrolment, intended as affirmative action for geographically disadvantaged students, reduced the proportion of Tamil students and acted as a catalyst for rising militancy. The assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) marked a crisis point.

The government of J. R. Jayewardene came to power in 1977, introducing a new constitution, a free-market economy, and a powerful executive presidency. This made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalize its economy.

4.1. Climate

Sri Lanka's climate is tropical and warm due to its location near the equator, moderated by ocean winds. The Köppen climate classification map shows predominantly tropical rainforest (Af) and tropical monsoon (Am) climates.

Mean temperatures range from 62.6 °F ^{(17 °C)} in the Central Highlands, where frost may occur for several days in winter, to a maximum of 91.4 °F ^{(33 °C)} in low-altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from 82.4 °F ^{(28 °C)} to nearly 87.8 °F ^{(31 °C)}. Day and night temperatures may vary by 25 °F ^{(14 °C)} to 32 °F ^{(18 °C)}.

The rainfall pattern is significantly influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal.

• The Southwest Monsoon (Yala season) brings rain to the western and southern parts of the island, including the Central Highlands, from May to September. This is known as the "wet zone," which can receive up to 0.1 K in ^{(2.50 K mm)} of rain annually.
• The Northeast Monsoon (Maha season) brings rain to the eastern and northern parts from December to February.
• Inter-monsoonal periods (March-April and October-November) can bring convectional rains and thunderstorms, sometimes heavy, to various parts of the island.

Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka constitute the "dry zone," receiving between 0.0 K in ^{(1.20 K mm)} and 0.1 K in ^{(1.90 K mm)} of rain annually. The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least rain, between 31 in ^{(800 mm)} and 0.0 K in ^{(1.20 K mm)} per year. Periodic squalls occur, and occasionally, tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and heavy rains, particularly to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island.

Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on seasonal rainfall patterns. An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damage to infrastructure, utility supply, and the urban economy.

4.2. Flora and fauna

Sri Lanka boasts rich biodiversity with a high degree of endemism, though it faces conservation challenges. Its diverse ecosystems range from rainforests to dry zones, hosting unique species.

The Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka were recognized among the first 18 global biodiversity hotspots due to high levels of species endemism; this number has since increased to 34. Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity per unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups except birds. A remarkably high proportion of its species are endemic: 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals.

Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna of 453 species, including 240 breeding species. Ornithologists recognize 33 species as endemic, with an additional six considered proposed endemics. The country's protected areas are managed by the Department of Forest Conservation and the Department of Wildlife Conservation. The latter administers 61 wildlife sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor. The Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. In total, 26.5% of Sri Lanka's land area is legally protected, a higher percentage compared to many other Asian countries.

Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests, Sri Lanka montane rain forests, Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests, and Deccan thorn scrub forests. Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Trees in the dry-land forests include valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood (Na tree, the national tree), mahogany, and teak. The wet zone is characterized by tropical evergreen forests with tall trees, broad foliage, and dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests, resembling temperate climates, are found at higher altitudes. The national flower is the Blue Water Lily (Nil Mānel).

Yala National Park, in the southeast, protects herds of elephants, deer, and peacocks. Wilpattu National Park, the largest national park, located in the northwest, preserves habitats for many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. Sri Lanka has four biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya (KDN) complex, and Sinharaja. Sinharaja is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive red-faced malkoha, the green-billed coucal, and the Sri Lanka blue magpie. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within Sinharaja, 139 (66%) are endemic. The Minneriya National Park is famous for "The Gathering," a large congregation of elephants on the tank bed during the late dry season (August to October).

Forest cover in Sri Lanka has seen a rapid decline from 44.2% in 1956 to 29.6% in 1999 and 28.7% in 2010, highlighting significant environmental challenges due to deforestation. Conservation efforts are vital to protect the island's natural heritage and address issues like habitat loss and human-wildlife conflict.

5.1. Politics and political parties

The political landscape of Sri Lanka has historically been dominated by a contest between two major coalitions: one led by the centre-left Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) and its offshoots like the United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), and another by the comparatively centre-right and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP). Since 2018, significant realignments have occurred, with the Samagi Jana Balawegaya (SJB) splitting from the UNP to become the main opposition force, and the Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna (SLPP) emerging from the UPFA, largely associated with the Rajapaksa family, to become a dominant political power.

Sri Lanka is a multi-party democracy featuring numerous smaller parties representing Buddhist, socialist, and Tamil nationalist interests. As of July 2011, there were 67 registered political parties. The Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest. The Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP), a Marxist-Leninist party, has also played a significant role, sometimes as a third force, and recently gained prominence leading the National People's Power (NPP) coalition.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike of the SLFP made history in 1960 as the world's first elected female head of government. Tamil political representation has evolved, with the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK) or Federal Party being prominent for decades, later forming part of the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF), and more recently, the Tamil National Alliance (TNA) becoming the primary voice for Tamil political aspirations. The Sri Lanka Muslim Congress (SLMC), founded in 1981, is the largest Muslim political party.

Recent political history includes the end of Mahinda Rajapaksa's ten-year presidency in 2015, with Maithripala Sirisena succeeding him. The Rajapaksa family returned to power in 2019 with Gotabaya Rajapaksa as president and Mahinda Rajapaksa as prime minister, their SLPP party securing a landslide victory in the 2020 parliamentary elections. However, a severe economic crisis starting in 2019 led to widespread protests in 2022, culminating in President Gotabaya Rajapaksa's resignation. Ranil Wickremesinghe (UNP) was then elected president by parliament.

In a significant political shift, Anura Kumara Dissanayake of the JVP-led NPP won the 2024 presidential election, advocating for systemic change and anti-corruption measures. His coalition subsequently achieved a two-thirds majority in the November 2024 parliamentary election, indicating a major realignment in the country's political dynamics and a mandate for his reform agenda.

5.2. Recent political situation

In the 21st century, Sri Lanka has experienced significant political volatility, including the end of a long civil war, shifts in executive power, major constitutional amendments, and profound economic crises leading to popular uprisings and changes in government. Issues of democratic governance, minority rights, accountability for past human rights violations, and economic stability have remained central challenges.

The end of the civil war in 2009 under President Mahinda Rajapaksa brought a period of political consolidation for his government but also raised concerns about human rights and the rule of law. The 2015 election saw Mahinda Rajapaksa defeated by Maithripala Sirisena, who, with Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe, initiated reforms including the 19th Amendment to curtail presidential powers and strengthen parliamentary oversight. However, progress on promised transitional justice and reconciliation measures was slow.

The 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings had a profound impact, leading to heightened security concerns and contributing to a political shift. Gotabaya Rajapaksa won the presidential election in November 2019, and his party, the SLPP, secured a strong majority in the 2020 parliamentary elections. His administration controversially passed the 20th Amendment, which reversed many of the democratic checks and balances introduced by the 19th Amendment, reconcentrating power in the executive presidency.

From 2019 onwards, Sri Lanka spiraled into its worst economic crisis since independence, leading to severe shortages, hyperinflation, and widespread public hardship. This triggered massive anti-government protests in 2022 (the Aragalaya), forcing President Gotabaya Rajapaksa to resign in July 2022. Parliament then elected Ranil Wickremesinghe as president. His government focused on economic stabilization, securing an IMF bailout, and implementing austerity measures. However, his administration also faced criticism for suppressing dissent and delaying local elections.

The presidential election in September 2024 marked a significant political departure. Anura Kumara Dissanayake, leader of the JVP-led National People's Power (NPP) coalition, won a decisive victory on an anti-corruption and systemic change platform. This was followed by the NPP achieving a historic two-thirds majority in the parliamentary elections in November 2024. This outcome signals a potential for major policy shifts focusing on governance reform, economic restructuring, social equity, and addressing longstanding issues of accountability and minority rights, reflecting a public demand for a new political direction.

6.1. Provinces

Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces. Provinces have existed since the 19th century but gained legal status with the establishment of provincial councils under the 13th Amendment to the Constitution in 1987. This was a response to demands for decentralization of government. Each provincial council is an autonomous body, though some of its intended functions, particularly concerning land and police powers, have often remained under central government control, leading to ongoing debates about the extent of devolution. Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province, but this merger was later de-merged by a Supreme Court ruling. Prior to 1987, provincial administration was handled by a district-based civil service.

The nine provinces, their capitals, and some key data are:

6.2. Districts and local authorities

Each of the nine provinces is further subdivided into districts. There are 25 districts in total. Each district is administered by a District Secretariat headed by a District Secretary (formerly known as a Government Agent). Districts are known in Sinhala as disa and in Tamil as māwaddam.

The districts are further divided into Divisional Secretariats, of which there are 256. These were originally based on feudal counties called korale and rata, and were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the Divisional Revenue Officer. Later, these became "A.G.A. divisions" when D.R.O.s became Assistant Government Agents. Currently, Divisional Secretariats are administered by a Divisional Secretary.

Below the Divisional Secretariats are approximately 14,008 Grama Niladhari Divisions, which are the smallest administrative units. Each is headed by a Grama Niladhari (village officer).

There are three types of local authorities:

• Municipal Councils: (Sinhala: Mahanagara Sabha, Tamil: Managaratchi Sabai) - There are 18 Municipal Councils.
• Urban Councils: (Sinhala: Nagara Sabha, Tamil: Nagaratchi Sabai) - There are 13 Urban Councils.
• Pradeshiya Sabhas: (Sinhala: Pradeshiya Sabha, Tamil: Piratesa Sabai) - There are 256 Pradeshiya Sabhas, which function at a level similar to parish councils or townships.

These local authorities handle local governance functions such as public health, utilities, and local roads.

7.1. Relations with major countries

Sri Lanka's foreign policy has historically involved navigating complex relationships with major global and regional powers, most notably India and China, whose influences have significantly shaped its diplomatic, economic, and strategic landscape.

India:
Relations with India are deeply rooted in geographical proximity, shared cultural heritage (including Buddhism and Hinduism), and historical ties spanning millennia. India is Sri Lanka's closest neighbor and a significant trading partner. Post-independence, relations have been multifaceted, encompassing political, economic, security, and cultural dimensions.
Key aspects include:

• Economic Ties:** India is a major source of imports, investment, and tourism for Sri Lanka. A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) has been in place since 2000.
• Political and Security Cooperation:** India played a controversial role during the Sri Lankan Civil War, including the deployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) from 1987-1990. Post-war, India has supported reconstruction and reconciliation efforts, often emphasizing the need for political solutions addressing Tamil minority concerns, particularly the full implementation of the 13th Amendment to the Sri Lankan Constitution regarding provincial devolution.
• Cultural Links:** Strong people-to-people connections exist, fueled by shared religious traditions, linguistic ties (Tamil), and educational exchanges.
• Geostrategic Concerns:** India views Sri Lanka as strategically important within its sphere of influence in the Indian Ocean and has at times expressed concerns over growing Chinese influence on the island.

China:
Relations with China have significantly expanded in the 21st century, primarily driven by economic cooperation and infrastructure development.
Key aspects include:

• Economic and Infrastructure Development:** China has become a major lender and investor in Sri Lanka, funding large-scale infrastructure projects such as the Hambantota Port, Colombo Port City, Mattala Rajapaksa International Airport, and numerous highways. The Rubber-Rice Pact of 1952 was an early cornerstone of bilateral trade.
• Debt and Geopolitical Implications:** The scale of Chinese loans has led to concerns about debt sustainability for Sri Lanka, famously exemplified by the 99-year lease of the Hambantota Port to a Chinese state-owned company in 2017 due to Sri Lanka's inability to service its debt. This has fueled international debate about China's "debt-trap diplomacy."
• Political Support:** China has generally provided Sri Lanka with diplomatic support in international forums, particularly concerning human rights issues raised in the post-civil war context.
• Strategic Partnership:** The growing economic ties have translated into a closer strategic partnership, which is watched closely by India and other international actors due to China's increasing presence in the Indian Ocean region as part of its Belt and Road Initiative.

Sri Lanka strives to maintain a balanced approach in its relations with both India and China, leveraging opportunities for economic development while navigating the complex geopolitical dynamics of the region. The influence of these and other major countries (such as the United States, Japan, and European nations, who are also significant development and trading partners) continues to impact Sri Lanka's domestic policies, economic trajectory, and its stance on international issues, including human rights and democratic governance.

9.1. Economic structure and main industries

Sri Lanka's economy has a diverse structure, with significant contributions from services, industry, and agriculture.
The services sector is the largest contributor to the GDP (59.7% in 2020). Key service industries include:

• Tourism:** A major foreign exchange earner, attracting visitors to its beaches, historical sites, and natural parks.
• Information Technology (IT) and Business Process Outsourcing (BPO):** A growing sector with increasing export revenues.
• Finance and Banking:** Colombo serves as a financial hub with a well-established banking system and stock exchange.
• Telecommunications:** The country has a relatively developed telecommunications infrastructure.
• Wholesale and Retail Trade:** A significant employer and contributor to economic activity.

The industrial sector (26.2% of GDP in 2020) is led by:

• Apparel and Textiles:** Sri Lanka is a major global exporter of garments, known for high-quality manufacturing. This is a critical source of export revenue and employment, particularly for women.
• Food Processing:** Value addition to agricultural products for both domestic consumption and export.
• Construction:** Driven by infrastructure development and urban expansion.
• Mining and Quarrying:** Extraction of minerals like graphite (Sri Lanka is a leading global producer), gemstones (sapphires, rubies), ilmenite, and limestone.

The agriculture sector (8.4% of GDP in 2020) remains vital for rural employment and food security, although its share of GDP has declined. Main agricultural products include:

• Tea:** Ceylon tea is world-renowned and a primary export. Sri Lanka is one of the world's largest tea exporters.
• Rubber:** Another traditional plantation crop, with significant export value.
• Coconuts:** Widely cultivated, with products like desiccated coconut, coconut oil, and coir fiber being important exports.
• Rice:** The staple food crop, primarily cultivated for domestic consumption.
• Spices:** Cinnamon (Sri Lanka is the world's largest producer of true cinnamon), pepper, cloves, nutmeg, and cardamom are significant exports.
• Fisheries:** An important sector for domestic consumption and export, with both marine and inland fisheries.

Overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, also contributes significantly to the economy through worker remittances, although this has faced volatility. The government has focused on promoting export-oriented industries and attracting foreign direct investment, though economic challenges, including debt and inflation, have impacted these efforts.

9.2. Transport

Sri Lanka has an extensive road network, which is the primary mode of inland transportation. The country has over 62 K mile ^{(100.00 K km)} of paved roads, resulting in one of the highest road densities in the world (approximately 0.9 mile ^{(1.5 km)} of paved road per 0.4 mile^{2 (1 km2)} of land). The road network comprises 35 A-Grade highways and several controlled-access expressways, including the Southern Expressway (Colombo to Matara/Hambantota), the Colombo-Katunayake Expressway, and the Outer Circular Highway around Colombo. A-Grade and B-Grade roads are national highways administered by the Road Development Authority, while C and D grade roads are provincial roads managed by Provincial Road Development Authorities. Local roads fall under local government authorities. Buses, both state-run (Sri Lanka Transport Board - SLTB) and privately operated, are the most common form of public transport.

The railway network, operated by the state-run national operator Sri Lanka Railways, spans 0.9 K mile ^{(1.45 K km)}. The network largely radiates from Colombo and connects major towns and cities. While much of the infrastructure is colonial-era and requires modernization, train travel remains popular, especially for scenic routes through the hill country. The track gauge is predominantly 1676 mm (broad gauge).

Sri Lanka has three major deep-water ports: the Port of Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee. The Port of Colombo is the largest and busiest, serving as a major transshipment hub in the Indian Ocean. The Hambantota Port in the south is a newer development, constructed with Chinese investment, and also aims to be a significant maritime hub.

In terms of aviation, Bandaranaike International Airport (CMB) in Katunayake, near Colombo, is the country's primary international gateway. Mattala Rajapaksa International Airport (HRI) in Hambantota is the second international airport. SriLankan Airlines is the national flag carrier. Ratmalana Airport near Colombo also handles some domestic and regional flights.

9.3. Tourism

Tourism is a vital sector for Sri Lanka's economy, contributing significantly to foreign exchange earnings and employment. The country attracts visitors with its diverse offerings, including pristine beaches, ancient historical and UNESCO World Heritage Sites, lush tea plantations, wildlife national parks, and vibrant cultural festivals.

Major tourist attractions include:

• Cultural Triangle:** Featuring the ancient cities of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, and Sigiriya (Lion Rock), along with the cave temples of Dambulla and the sacred city of Kandy (home to the Temple of the Tooth Relic).
• Coastal Areas:** Popular beach destinations include Negombo, Bentota, Hikkaduwa, Unawatuna, Mirissa (for whale watching), and Arugam Bay (for surfing).
• Hill Country:** Known for its scenic tea estates, cool climate, and towns like Nuwara Eliya ("Little England"), Ella, and Haputale. Adam's Peak is a significant pilgrimage site.
• Wildlife Sanctuaries:** Yala National Park (famous for leopards), Wilpattu National Park, Udawalawe National Park (for elephants), Minneriya National Park (for "The Gathering" of elephants), and Sinharaja Forest Reserve (a biodiversity hotspot).
• Cities:** Colombo offers a mix of colonial architecture, modern developments, shopping, and dining. Galle is known for its historic Galle Fort.

The tourism industry faced significant setbacks due to the 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the subsequent economic crisis in 2022. However, it has shown signs of recovery. In the first half of 2024, tourism revenue reached over 1.50 B USD, a 78% increase year-on-year, with tourist arrivals increasing to 1.01 million, up 62% from the same period in 2023. This growth is attributed to proactive government measures, including global marketing campaigns and visa-free entry programs for visitors from several countries (allowing stays up to 30 days), as well as improvements from the national carrier, SriLankan Airlines.

The government and industry stakeholders are focused on promoting sustainable tourism practices to ensure the long-term viability of the sector and minimize negative impacts on the environment and local communities. Efforts are also being made to diversify tourism products, attract higher-spending tourists, and improve infrastructure and service quality.

9.4. Recent economic situation and challenges

Beginning in 2019, Sri Lanka experienced its most severe economic crisis since independence, culminating in a sovereign debt default in April 2022. The crisis was a result of multiple compounding factors:

• National Debt:** Years of borrowing for large-scale infrastructure projects, often with unfavorable terms and questionable economic viability, led to an unsustainable debt burden.
• Fiscal Mismanagement:** Significant tax cuts implemented in late 2019 by the Gotabaya Rajapaksa administration drastically reduced government revenue, widening the budget deficit.
• Agricultural Policies:** A sudden and poorly planned ban on chemical fertilizers and pesticides in April 2021, aimed at transitioning the country to organic farming, caused a catastrophic decline in agricultural output, particularly for staple crops like rice and export earners like tea. This led to food shortages, increased food import bills, and severe hardship for farmers. The ban was later partially reversed.
• External Shocks:** The 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings and the COVID-19 pandemic devastated the tourism industry, a crucial source of foreign exchange. Remittances from overseas Sri Lankan workers also declined.
• Dwindling Foreign Reserves:** The combination of these factors led to a rapid depletion of foreign exchange reserves, making it difficult to pay for essential imports like fuel, food, and medicine.

The crisis manifested in:

• Hyperinflation:** Prices of essential goods skyrocketed, eroding purchasing power.
• Shortages:** Long queues for fuel, cooking gas, and essential food items became commonplace.
• Power Cuts:** Extended daily power outages due to fuel shortages for power generation.
• Social Unrest:** Widespread public protests (Aragalaya) erupted, demanding the resignation of the president and government, leading to significant political upheaval in mid-2022.

In response, Sri Lanka sought assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). An Extended Fund Facility (EFF) was approved in March 2023, contingent on implementing significant economic reforms, including fiscal consolidation (raising taxes, cutting expenditure), monetary policy tightening to control inflation, debt restructuring with bilateral and private creditors, and governance reforms to address corruption and improve economic management.

Challenges remain significant:

• Debt Restructuring:** Negotiations with creditors, including major bilateral lenders like China, India, and Japan, as well as private bondholders, are complex and ongoing.
• Impact of Reforms:** Austerity measures and tax hikes, while necessary for macroeconomic stability, have placed additional burdens on the population, particularly vulnerable groups, potentially exacerbating social inequalities.
• Economic Recovery:** Restoring sustainable economic growth, attracting investment, and rebuilding foreign reserves will be a long-term process.
• Governance and Corruption:** Addressing underlying issues of poor governance and corruption is crucial for long-term economic health and public trust.

While there have been some signs of macroeconomic stabilization since the IMF program began (e.g., reduced inflation, improved foreign reserves from critically low levels), the path to full recovery is arduous and requires sustained reform efforts and careful management of social impacts.

10.1. Ethnic groups

Sri Lanka is a multi-ethnic society with a complex history of inter-group relations. The promotion of minority rights and social cohesion is a key aspect of national development.

• Sinhalese**: Constitute the largest ethnic group, comprising approximately 75% of the total population (2012 census). They are predominantly Buddhist and their language, Sinhala, is one of the official languages. Their cultural heartlands are historically in the central and southern parts of the island.
• Tamils**: Are the second largest ethnic group. They are further divided into:
  • Sri Lankan Tamils** (or Ceylon Tamils): Comprising about 11% of the population, they are descendants of Tamils who have lived on the island for centuries, primarily concentrated in the Northern and Eastern provinces. They are predominantly Hindu, with a significant Christian minority.
  • Indian Tamils** (or Up-Country Tamils): Comprising about 4% of the population, they are descendants of laborers brought from Tamil Nadu, India, by the British in the 19th and early 20th centuries to work on tea, coffee, and rubber plantations in the central highlands. They are also predominantly Hindu.
• Moors**: Make up about 9% of the population. They are descendants of Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka and intermarried with local populations, as well as migrants from other Muslim communities. They are predominantly Muslim and primarily speak Tamil, though some also use Sinhala. They are dispersed throughout the island, with significant concentrations in the Eastern Province and urban areas.
• Burghers**: A small community (around 0.2%) of mixed European descent, primarily from Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonial settlers who intermarried with local Sri Lankans. They traditionally speak English and have contributed significantly to various professions.
• Malays**: Another small community (around 0.2%), descended from migrants from Southeast Asia (present-day Indonesia and Malaysia), often brought by the Dutch or British as soldiers or exiles. They are predominantly Muslim and have maintained distinct cultural traditions and a form of Creole Malay.
• Veddas**: The indigenous people of Sri Lanka, with a very small population (around 2,500). They have a unique culture and language, though many have assimilated into Sinhalese or Tamil communities. Their rights and cultural preservation are ongoing concerns.
• Other groups**: Include small numbers of Chinese and other expatriate communities.

Inter-ethnic relations have been a central theme in Sri Lanka's contemporary history, notably culminating in the Sri Lankan Civil War (1983-2009) between the government and Tamil separatist groups. Post-war reconciliation, addressing grievances of minority communities, ensuring equal rights, and fostering social cohesion remain critical challenges for the nation.

10.2. Languages

Sri Lanka has two official languages:

• Sinhala**: Spoken by the majority Sinhalese community (approximately 75% of the population). It is an Indo-Aryan language with its own unique script derived from Brahmi.
• Tamil**: Spoken by the Sri Lankan Tamil and Indian Tamil communities, as well as by a significant portion of the Moor community (totaling around 25% of the population who use Tamil as a primary or secondary language). It is a Dravidian language with its own script.

The Constitution of Sri Lanka also recognizes:

• English**: As the link language. English is widely used in government administration, business, legal proceedings, higher education, and by the urban elite. It serves as a bridge between the Sinhala and Tamil-speaking communities and facilitates international communication. Many Sri Lankans, especially in urban areas and younger generations, are bilingual or trilingual.

Other minority languages include:

• Sri Lankan Malay**: A Creole language spoken by the Malay community.
• Vedda**: The language of the indigenous Vedda people, though it is critically endangered with many Veddas now speaking Sinhala or Tamil.
• Portuguese Creoles and Dutch variants**: Spoken to varying degrees by some members of the Burgher community, though English is now more common.

Language policy has been a sensitive issue in Sri Lanka's history, particularly the Sinhala Only Act of 1956, which made Sinhala the sole official language and contributed to ethnic tensions. The 13th Amendment (1987) and subsequent legislation recognized both Sinhala and Tamil as official languages, and English as the link language, aiming to promote linguistic equality and access to services for all communities. However, practical implementation of trilingual policies remains an ongoing challenge.

10.3. Religion

Sri Lanka is a multi-religious country, with Buddhism playing a prominent role in its history and society. The constitution, under Chapter II, Article 9, states: "The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana, while assuring to all religions the rights granted by Articles 10 and 14(1)(e)." This provision grants Buddhism a special status while also guaranteeing freedom of religion.

According to the 2012 census, the religious composition of Sri Lanka is predominantly Buddhist (70.2%), followed by Hinduism (12.6%), Islam (9.7%), and Christianity (7.4%). A small percentage (0.05%) adheres to other beliefs.

The main religions practiced in Sri Lanka are:

• Buddhism**: Practiced by approximately 70.2% of the population (2012 census), predominantly by the Sinhalese ethnic group. The Theravada school of Buddhism is the dominant form. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Arhant Mahinda, son of Emperor Ashoka of India. Sri Lanka has one of the longest continuous histories of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation and has played a significant role in preserving and propagating Theravada teachings. Important Buddhist sites include the Temple of the Tooth Relic in Kandy, Anuradhapura, and Polonnaruwa.
• Hinduism**: Practiced by about 12.6% of the population, primarily by the Sri Lankan Tamil and Indian Tamil communities. Shaivism is the dominant tradition. Hinduism has ancient roots in Sri Lanka, with many temples and traditions, particularly in the Northern and Eastern provinces, and the Central Highlands. Kataragama temple is a significant pilgrimage site revered by both Hindus and Buddhists.
• Islam**: Practiced by about 9.7% of the population. Most Muslims in Sri Lanka are Sunni and follow the Shafi'i school of thought. They are primarily from the Moor and Malay ethnic communities, descendants of Arab traders and Southeast Asian migrants.
• Christianity**: Practiced by about 7.4% of the population. About 82% of Christians are Roman Catholics, whose religious heritage largely traces back to Portuguese colonial influence. The remaining Christians are primarily Anglican (Church of Ceylon) and other Protestant denominations, with Dutch and British colonial influences. Christians are found among both Sinhalese and Tamil communities, as well as the Burgher community.

There is also a very small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled during the British colonial period, though their numbers have dwindled.

Religion plays a significant role in the daily life and culture of Sri Lankans. Religious festivals of all faiths are widely celebrated. Interfaith relations have generally been peaceful, but there have been instances of tension and conflict, particularly in the context of ethno-religious nationalism. Religious freedom is constitutionally guaranteed, but challenges related to the protection of minority religious rights and interfaith harmony persist.

10.4. Education

Sri Lanka has one of the highest literacy rates among developing nations, standing at 92.9% (2020). The youth literacy rate is 98.8%, and the primary school enrollment rate is over 99%. Computer literacy was reported at 35% in 2020. The country has a system of nine years of compulsory education.

The foundation of Sri Lanka's modern education system is the free education policy established in 1945, an initiative led by Dr. C. W. W. Kannangara, then Minister of Education, and A. Ratnayake. Sri Lanka is one of the few countries in the world providing universal free education from primary to tertiary (university) level. Dr. Kannangara also spearheaded the establishment of Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (Central Schools) across the country to provide quality education to rural children.

The education system is structured into:

• Primary Education (Grades 1-5)
• Junior Secondary Education (Grades 6-9)
• Senior Secondary Education (Grades 10-11, leading to GCE Ordinary Level)
• Collegiate Level (Grades 12-13, leading to GCE Advanced Level)
• Tertiary Education (Universities and other higher education institutes)

There are approximately 10,155 government schools, 120 private schools, and 802 Pirivenas (Buddhist monastic schools that also provide formal education). Schools are generally administered by either the central government (National Schools, often considered elite) or provincial governments (Provincial Schools).

Sri Lanka has 17 public universities under the University Grants Commission (UGC). However, access to public universities is highly competitive due to limited capacity. This has led to the emergence of numerous private higher education institutions, some offering degrees from foreign universities. Despite free education, participation in tertiary education was around 5.1% in earlier years, though this figure has likely increased.

Challenges in the education sector include:

• Disparities in access to quality education between urban and rural areas, and between different types of schools.
• The need to align the education system more closely with labor market requirements to address youth unemployment and underemployment.
• Ensuring an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education.
• Providing equitable access and resources for students from disadvantaged backgrounds and those with special needs.
• Modernizing curricula and teaching methods to foster critical thinking, innovation, and skills relevant to a globalized economy.

Sri Lanka was ranked 89th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. Efforts continue to improve the quality, relevance, and equity of the education system to support national development and social progress.

10.5. Health

Sri Lanka has achieved commendable health indicators for a developing country, largely due to its universal "pro-poor" healthcare system which provides free or subsidized healthcare to its citizens. Life expectancy at birth is approximately 75.5 years (2020), which is higher than the world average. The infant mortality rate stands at around 8.5 per 1,000 live births, and the maternal mortality rate is approximately 0.39 per 1,000 live births. These figures are comparable to those of some developed countries and reflect a strong emphasis on primary healthcare, maternal and child health services, and widespread immunization programs.

The healthcare system comprises both public and private sectors. The public sector provides the majority of services, particularly at the primary and secondary care levels, through a network of government hospitals, rural health centers, and specialized clinics. Tertiary care is available in larger cities. The private sector has grown, offering services primarily in urban areas and catering to those who can afford to pay.

Major health issues include a rising burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases, which account for a significant proportion of morbidity and mortality. This is linked to lifestyle changes, an aging population, and dietary factors. Infectious diseases like dengue fever remain a public health concern. Malnutrition, including stunting and wasting among children, and micronutrient deficiencies, persist in some segments of the population, highlighting ongoing challenges in nutritional status despite overall improvements in food security.

Mental health is an area of growing concern. Sri Lanka has historically had a high suicide rate, though efforts are being made to improve mental health services and reduce stigma. The causes are complex, often linked to socio-economic pressures, past conflict trauma, and access to mental healthcare.

Public health policies focus on preventive care, health education, and strengthening primary healthcare infrastructure. The country has successfully eliminated diseases like measles and rubella ahead of WHO targets (declared in July 2020). However, the healthcare system faces challenges such as resource constraints, an aging population requiring more complex care, and the need to ensure equitable access to quality services across all regions and socioeconomic groups. The recent economic crisis has put additional strain on the public healthcare system due to shortages of medicines and medical supplies. Social determinants of health, including poverty, education, and environmental factors, continue to influence health outcomes.

11.1. Cuisine

Sri Lankan cuisine is known for its vibrant flavors, extensive use of local spices, and rice as a staple. Key dishes and ingredients include:

• Rice and Curry:** The centerpiece of Sri Lankan meals, typically consisting of a large serving of rice accompanied by several curries. These curries can be made with fish, chicken, mutton, or vegetables like lentils (parippu), jackfruit (polos), or beetroot. Coconut milk is a common base for many curries.
• Kiribath (Milk Rice):** Rice cooked with coconut milk, often served on auspicious occasions and for breakfast, usually with lunu miris (a spicy onion relish) or jaggery.
• Hoppers (Appa):** Bowl-shaped pancakes made from fermented rice flour and coconut milk, crispy around the edges and soft in the center. Egg hoppers (with a cooked egg in the middle) are also popular.
• String Hoppers (Indi Appa):** Steamed noodles made from rice flour, typically eaten with curries or pol sambol (coconut relish).
• Kottu Roti (Kottu):** A popular street food made by chopping up godamba roti (a flatbread) with vegetables, egg, and/or meat, and spices on a hot griddle.
• Puttu**: Steamed cylinders of ground rice layered with coconut.
• Sambols:** Spicy relishes that accompany meals, such as pol sambol (grated coconut, chili, lime juice, and onion) and seeni sambol (sweet and spicy caramelized onion relish).
• Watalappam**: A rich steamed pudding of Malay origin, made with coconut milk, jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices like cinnamon and nutmeg.
• Fruits and Sweets:** Tropical fruits like mango, pineapple, banana, and rambutan are abundant. Traditional sweets (rasa kavili) like kevum, kokis, and aluwa are popular during festive seasons.

Dishes often incorporate local spices such as cinnamon (Sri Lanka is a major producer of true cinnamon), cardamom, cloves, turmeric, chili, curry leaves, and pandan leaves. Jackfruit is sometimes used as a rice substitute. Traditionally, food is often served on a plantain leaf or lotus leaf and eaten by hand. Middle Eastern influences are found in Moorish dishes, while the Burgher community preserves Dutch and Portuguese culinary traditions like lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), breudher (Dutch holiday biscuit), and Bolo fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).

11.2. Festivals

Sri Lanka's multicultural society celebrates a wide array of religious and cultural festivals throughout the year, reflecting the diverse faiths and traditions of its people.

• Sinhala and Tamil New Year (Aluth Avurudda / Puthandu)**: Celebrated in April (usually April 13th or 14th), this is the most important cultural festival for both Sinhalese Buddhists and Tamil Hindus. It marks the end of the harvest season and the beginning of the traditional new year, involving numerous rituals, traditional games, festive foods, and family gatherings.
• Vesak Poya**: Commemorates the birth, enlightenment, and passing away (Parinirvana) of Gautama Buddha. Celebrated on the full moon day in May, it is the most significant religious festival for Buddhists. Homes and streets are decorated with lanterns (Vesak kudu), and pandals (thorana) depicting scenes from Buddha's life are erected. Observers engage in religious activities, meditation, and acts of charity (dansal - giving free food and drink).
• Poson Poya**: Celebrated on the full moon day in June, Poson commemorates the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka by Arhant Mahinda. Mihintale, where Mahinda first preached, becomes a major pilgrimage site.
• Kandy Esala Perahera (Festival of the Tooth)**: A grand and ancient Buddhist festival held in Kandy over ten days in July or August, culminating on the Esala full moon. It honors the sacred Tooth Relic of the Buddha and features elaborate processions with majestically decorated elephants, traditional dancers (Kandyan, fire, whip), drummers, and flag bearers.
• Thai Pongal**: A Tamil Hindu harvest festival celebrated in January, dedicated to the sun god Surya. It involves cooking a special dish called pongal (sweetened rice) and offering prayers for a bountiful harvest.
• Maha Shivaratri**: A major Hindu festival dedicated to Lord Shiva, observed by Tamils with fasting, night-long vigils, and prayers at temples.
• Deepavali (Diwali)**: The Hindu festival of lights, celebrated by Tamils, symbolizing the victory of light over darkness and good over evil. Homes are lit with oil lamps (diyas), and families share sweets and wear new clothes.
• Eid al-Fitr (Ramazan Festival)**: Marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting. Muslims celebrate with prayers, feasting, and giving charity.
• Eid al-Adha (Hajj Festival)**: Commemorates Prophet Ibrahim's willingness to sacrifice his son. Muslims celebrate with prayers and the sacrifice of animals, sharing the meat with family, friends, and the needy.
• Christmas**: Celebrated on December 25th by the Christian community to commemorate the birth of Jesus Christ, involving church services, carol singing, festive decorations, and family gatherings.
• Good Friday and Easter**: Important Christian observances commemorating the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ.

In addition to these major festivals, numerous local temple festivals (kovil thiruvila for Hindus, palli perunnal for some Christian communities) and village celebrations occur throughout the year, showcasing the rich cultural diversity of Sri Lanka. Poya days (full moon days) are public holidays, primarily observed by Buddhists for religious activities.

11.3. Arts

Sri Lankan arts encompass a rich heritage of visual arts, literature, music, dance, and theatre, reflecting millennia of cultural evolution and diverse influences.

• Visual Arts:**

The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture dates back to at least the 2nd or 3rd century BCE. Early artistic expressions are found in Buddhist stupas and monastic residences.

• Ancient Murals and Sculptures:** Famous examples include the frescoes at Sigiriya, rock-cut Buddha statues at Gal Vihara in Polonnaruwa, the Avukana Buddha statue, and paintings in cave temples like Dambulla. These works often depict Jataka stories (tales of Buddha's previous lives) and Buddhist iconography.
• Traditional Crafts:** Sri Lanka is known for its traditional crafts such as pottery, wood carving (especially masks used in rituals and performances), lacquerware, brassware, and handloom textiles (e.g., Dumbara mats, batiks).
• Modern and Contemporary Art:** A vibrant modern art scene has developed, with artists exploring new themes and styles while sometimes drawing inspiration from traditional forms. The 43 Group was a significant modernist art movement in the mid-20th century.

• Literature:**

Sri Lankan literature spans over two millennia, with roots in the Aryan literary tradition.

• Ancient Chronicles and Scriptures:** The Pāli Canon was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 29 BCE. Historical chronicles like the Mahāvaṃsa (6th century CE) provide detailed accounts of Sri Lankan dynasties. The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya (9th century CE).
• Medieval Literature:** This period saw the flourishing of Sandesha Kāvya (poetic messages like Girā Sandeshaya) and significant poetic works like Kavsilumina and prose like Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya.
• Modern Literature:** The first modern novel, Meena by Simon de Silva, appeared in 1905. Martin Wickramasinghe (author of Madol Doova) is considered an iconic figure. Contemporary literature exists in Sinhala, Tamil, and English, with authors exploring diverse themes, including social issues, conflict, and identity. Sri Lankan-Canadian poet Rienzi Crusz and naturalized Canadian author Michael Ondaatje (known for The English Patient) have international recognition.

• Music:**

Early Sri Lankan music was associated with theatrical performances like Kolam, Sokari, and Nadagam, featuring traditional instruments like Béra (drum), Thammátama (kettledrum), Daŭla (cylindrical drum), and Răbān (hand drum).

• Folk and Ritual Music:** Includes drumming traditions, chants, and music accompanying folk dances and religious ceremonies.
• Popular Music:** Songwriters like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon (composer of the national anthem), and musicians like W. D. Amaradeva, Victor Ratnayake, Nanda Malini, and Clarence Wijewardene have made significant contributions. Baila, with origins in the Kaffir (Afro-Sinhalese) community and Portuguese influences, is a popular genre known for its upbeat rhythm. Modern pop, rock, and hip-hop scenes also thrive.

• Dance:**

There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance:

• Kandyan dances:** The most prominent and sophisticated form, originating from the Kandyan kingdom. It includes five sub-categories: Ves dance (sacred, performed by elaborately costumed male dancers with headdresses), Naiyandi dance, Udekki dance (using a small hourglass-shaped drum), Pantheru dance (using a tambourine-like instrument), and 18 Vannam (dances depicting animals, nature, or legends). The Geta Béraya (bossed drum) is the primary accompanying instrument.
• Low Country Dances (Pahatharata Natum):** From the southern coastal regions, often associated with rituals to exorcise evil spirits and heal illnesses (e.g., Sanni Yakuma, Kolam Maduwa). These dances often involve masks and energetic movements. The Yak Béra is a key drum.
• Sabaragamuwa Dances (Sabaragamu Natum):** A blend of Kandyan and Low Country styles, found in the Sabaragamuwa province.

• Theatre:**

Traditional theatre forms include Kolam (masked folk plays), Sokari (folk drama), and Nadagam (a form of stylized musical drama influenced by South Indian traditions). Modern Sri Lankan theatre was significantly influenced by the arrival of Parsi theatre companies from Mumbai in the 19th century, introducing Nurti (a blend of European and Indian conventions). The golden age of modern Sinhala drama began with Ediriweera Sarachchandra's play Maname in 1956, followed by other influential works like Sinhabāhu. Contemporary theatre continues to explore social and political themes.

The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The Broken Promise), produced in 1947, marked the beginning of Sri Lankan cinema. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of Treasures) was the first color film. Filmmaker Lester James Peries gained international acclaim with movies like Rekava (1956), Gamperaliya (1964), and Nidhanaya (1970).

11.4. Sport

Sport plays a significant role in Sri Lankan society, with cricket being by far the most popular sport, followed with passion across the nation.

• Cricket**: Sri Lanka has a strong international presence in cricket. The national team achieved its greatest success by winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup. They also won the 2014 ICC World Twenty20. Additionally, Sri Lanka were runners-up in the 2007 and 2011 Cricket World Cups, and the 2009 and 2012 ICC World Twenty20s. The country has produced world-renowned cricketers such as Muttiah Muralitharan (holder of world records for most wickets in Test and ODI cricket), Kumar Sangakkara, Sanath Jayasuriya, and Mahela Jayawardene. Sri Lanka has won the Asia Cup multiple times (1986, 1997, 2004, 2008, 2014, 2022). The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996 and 2011, and hosted the 2012 ICC World Twenty20.
• Volleyball**: Officially recognized as the national sport of Sri Lanka.
• Rugby Union**: Enjoys extensive popularity, particularly in schools and clubs in Colombo and Kandy.
• Association Football (Soccer)**: Has a growing following. The national team won the 1995 SAFF Gold Cup.
• Netball**: Popular among women, with the national team achieving success at the Asian level.
• Athletics**: Sri Lanka has produced athletes who have competed at the Olympic level. Duncan White won a silver medal in the men's 400 metres hurdles at the 1948 London Olympics. Susanthika Jayasinghe won a silver medal in the women's 200 metres at the 2000 Sydney Olympics.
• Aquatic Sports**: Given its island nature, sports like boating, surfing (especially in Arugam Bay), swimming, kitesurfing, and scuba diving are popular among locals and tourists.
• Martial Arts**: Traditional Sri Lankan martial arts include Angampora and Cheena di.
• Other Sports**: Other sports played include tennis, badminton (the Sri Lankan National Badminton Championships were held annually from 1953 to 2011), and cue sports. In 1973, Muhammad Lafir won the World Billiards Championship. Sri Lanka has also won the Carrom World Championship titles twice (men's team champions in 2012, 2016, and 2018).

Major sporting events are held at venues like the R. Premadasa Stadium and Sinhalese Sports Club Ground in Colombo.

11.5. World Heritage Sites

Sri Lanka is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, testifying to its rich cultural and natural legacy spanning over two millennia. These sites are major attractions for both local and international visitors and are crucial for understanding the island's history and biodiversity.

• Cultural Heritage Sites (6):**

1. **Sacred City of Anuradhapura** (Inscribed 1982): The first ancient capital of Sri Lanka, Anuradhapura was a major center of Theravada Buddhism for centuries. It features vast dagobas (stupas) like Ruwanwelisaya and Jetavanaramaya, ancient monasteries, and the sacred Sri Maha Bodhi tree.
2. **Ancient City of Polonnaruwa** (Inscribed 1982): The second ancient capital, Polonnaruwa flourished after the decline of Anuradhapura. Its well-preserved ruins include royal palaces, council chambers, temples, and impressive Buddha statues at Gal Vihara.
3. **Ancient City of Sigiriya** (Inscribed 1982): A spectacular 5th-century rock fortress and palace complex built by King Kashyapa. It is famous for its "Lion Gate," ancient frescoes of celestial maidens (Sigiriya Apsaras), and water gardens.
4. **Sacred City of Kandy** (Inscribed 1988): The last capital of the Sri Lankan kings before British colonial rule. Kandy is home to the Temple of the Tooth Relic (Sri Dalada Maligawa), which houses a sacred tooth relic of the Buddha, making it a major pilgrimage site. The annual Esala Perahera festival is a grand cultural pageant.
5. **Old Town of Galle and its Fortifications** (Inscribed 1988): A historic fortified city built first by the Portuguese and extensively fortified by the Dutch from the 17th century onwards. Galle Fort is a remarkable example of European colonial architecture and town planning in South Asia, with a vibrant multicultural community.
6. **Golden Temple of Dambulla (Dambulla Cave Temple)** (Inscribed 1991): A complex of five cave temples situated under a vast overhanging rock, dating back to the 1st century BCE. It contains numerous Buddha statues and elaborate murals depicting Buddhist themes, showcasing centuries of artistic development.

• Natural Heritage Sites (2):**

1. **Sinharaja Forest Reserve** (Inscribed 1988): A tropical lowland rainforest and a biodiversity hotspot, Sinharaja is Sri Lanka's last viable area of primary tropical rainforest. It is home to a high proportion of endemic species of flora and fauna, including trees, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
2. **Central Highlands of Sri Lanka** (Inscribed 2010): This site comprises the Peak Wilderness Protected Area, the Horton Plains National Park, and the Knuckles Conservation Forest. These montane forests, rising to over 8.2 K ft ^{(2.50 K m)} above sea level, are exceptionally rich in biodiversity, with many endemic species. Horton Plains is famous for "World's End," a sheer precipice.

These sites represent the pinnacle of Sri Lanka's ancient civilizations, artistic achievements, and unique natural environments, underscoring the importance of their conservation for future generations.