Myanmar

3.1. Prehistory

Archaeological evidence indicates that Homo erectus inhabited the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with finds ceasing after 75,000 years ago. The earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Myanmar dates to approximately 25,000 BP, with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. The Padah-Lin Caves have yielded evidence of Neolithic culture, including cave paintings, polished stone tools, and signs of plant and animal domestication dating to between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE.

The Bronze Age is believed to have arrived around 1500 BCE. People in the region during this period were known to turn copper into bronze, cultivate rice, and domesticate poultry and pigs, making them among the earliest groups in the world to do so. Human remains and artifacts from this era have been uncovered in the Monywa District of the Sagaing Region. The Iron Age commenced around 500 BCE with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay. Evidence from between 500 BCE and 200 CE also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements, including large villages and small towns that engaged in trade with surrounding areas, extending as far as China. These Iron Age cultures in Myanmar also showed influences from external sources such as India and Thailand, particularly visible in funerary practices related to child burials, indicating communication and trade between different groups.

3.2. Early city-states

Around the second century BCE, the first known city-states began to emerge in central Myanmar. These states were founded by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, who migrated southward from present-day Yunnan. The Pyu are the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar for whom written records exist. Pyu culture was significantly influenced by trade with India, leading to the adoption of Buddhism and other cultural, architectural, and political concepts from the subcontinent. These Indian influences had a lasting impact on later Burmese culture and political organization.

By the 9th century, several distinct city-states had developed across the land. The Pyu established themselves in the central dry zone, the Mon kingdoms flourished along the southern coastline, and Arakanese states emerged along the western littoral. This balance of power was disrupted when the Pyu faced repeated attacks from the Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century, the Bamar (Burmans) founded a small settlement at Bagan in the upper Irrawaddy valley. Initially one of several competing city-states, Bagan gradually grew in authority and grandeur by the late 10th century, setting the stage for a major unification.

3.3. Pagan Kingdom

The settlement of Bagan (Pagan) steadily grew in power, absorbing surrounding states. In the 1050s-1060s, King Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, achieving the first unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. By the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire, alongside the Khmer Empire, stood as one of the two dominant powers in mainland Southeast Asia.

During this period, the Burmese language and Bamar culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, overshadowing Pyu, Mon, and Pali influences by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly spread to the village level, although Vajrayana Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, and indigenous folk religions remained deeply entrenched. The rulers and wealthy elite of Pagan commissioned the construction of over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone, many of which still stand today.

The Pagan Kingdom, which had flourished for over four centuries, eventually fell due to repeated Mongol invasions from the north. The kingdom collapsed in 1287, leading to a period of political fragmentation.
Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437. The kingdom was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava fought wars of unification but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, the Mon-speaking Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.
Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged. Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.

3.4. Taungoo and Konbaung dynasties

Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, through the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious King Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo-Hanthawaddy War. His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).

The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim. The restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features continued well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.

After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung-Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos and fought and won the Burmese-Siamese War against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War against Qing China.
With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.
In 1826, Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War. In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.
Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females). Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.

3.5. British rule and colonial period

In the 19th century, Burmese rulers sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next 60 years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as the Anglo-Burmese Wars, continued until Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma. With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886.
Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore. Burmese resentment was strong, and was vented in violent riots that periodically paralysed Rangoon until the 1930s. Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike.
On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Britain, and Ba Maw became the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he opposed the participation of Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the war, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.
As a major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II by the Japanese invasion. Within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.
Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Overall, 170,000 to 250,000 Burmese civilians died during World War II.
Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historic Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.

3.6. Independence and early democratic period (1948-1962)

On January 4, 1948, the nation became an independent republic, under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947. The new country was named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U Nu as its first prime minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities, and multi-party elections were held in 1951-1952, 1956 and 1960.
The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.
In 1961, U Thant, the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the prime minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.
When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d'état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term 'federalism' as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.

3.7. Military rule (1962-2011)

On March 2, 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism, which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning.
A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the general and other military officers resigning and ruling through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries. There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.
In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989. SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" on 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation of the expression law.
In May 1990, the government held free multiparty elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won earning 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power and continued to rule the nation, first as SLORC and, from 1997, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011. General Than Shwe took over the Chairmanship - effectively the position of Myanmar's top ruler - from General Saw Maung in 1992 and held it until 2011.
On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".
In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government. The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.
In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division. It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10.00 B USD, and as many as 1 million were left homeless. In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts. Humanitarian aid was requested, but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.
In early August 2009, a conflict broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese, Wa, and Kachin. During 8-12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China.

3.8. Democratic transition and reforms (2011-2021)

The military-backed Government had promulgated a "Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy" in 1993, but the process appeared to stall several times, until 2008 when the Government published a new draft national constitution, and organised a (flawed) national referendum which adopted it. The new constitution provided for election of a national assembly with powers to appoint a president, while practically ensuring army control at all levels.
A general election in 2010 - the first for twenty years - was boycotted by the NLD. The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory, stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of the votes; fraud, however, was alleged. A nominally civilian government was then formed, with retired general Thein Sein as president.
A series of liberalising political and economic actions - or reforms - then took place. By the end of 2011 these included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permitted labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices. In response, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Myanmar in December 2011 - the first visit by a US Secretary of State in more than fifty years - meeting both President Thein Sein and opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi.
Aung San Suu Kyi's NLD party participated in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred it. In the April 2012 by-elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.
Myanmar's improved international reputation was indicated by ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the position of ASEAN chair in 2014.
General elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since the 1990 general election (which was annulled). The results gave the NLD an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.
The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016, and on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962. On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed the newly created role of state counsellor, a role akin to a prime minister.

3.9. 2021 coup d'état and ongoing civil war

In Myanmar's 2020 parliamentary election, the ostensibly ruling National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi, competed with various other smaller parties – particularly the military-affiliated Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP). Suu Kyi's NLD won the 2020 Myanmar general election on 8 November in a landslide. The USDP, regarded as a proxy for the military, suffered a "humiliating" defeat – even worse than in 2015 – capturing only 33 of the 476 elected seats.
As the election results began emerging, the USDP rejected them, urging a new election with the military as observers. More than 90 other smaller parties contested the vote, including more than 15 who complained of irregularities. However, election observers declared there were no major irregularities. However, despite the election commission validating the NLD's overwhelming victory, the USDP and Myanmar's military persistently alleged fraud.
In January, 2021, just before the new parliament was to be sworn in, the NLD announced that Suu Kyi would retain her State Counsellor role in the upcoming government.

In the early morning of 1 February 2021, the day parliament was set to convene, the Tatmadaw, Myanmar's military, detained Suu Kyi and other members of the ruling party. The military handed power to military chief Min Aung Hlaing and declared a state of emergency for one year and began closing the borders, restricting travel and electronic communications nationwide. The military announced it would replace the existing election commission with a new one, and a military media outlet indicated new elections would be held in about one year – though the military avoided making an official commitment to that. The military expelled NLD party Members of Parliament from the capital city, Naypyidaw. By 15 March 2021 the military leadership continued to extend martial law into more parts of Yangon, while security forces killed 38 people in a single day of violence.
By the second day of the coup, thousands of protesters were marching in the streets of Yangon, and other protests erupted nationwide, largely halting commerce and transportation. Despite the military's arrests and killings of protesters, the first weeks of the coup found growing public participation, including groups of civil servants, teachers, students, workers, monks and religious leaders – even normally disaffected ethnic minorities.
The coup was immediately condemned by the United Nations Secretary General, and leaders of democratic nations. The U.S. threatened sanctions on the military and its leaders, including a "freeze" of 1.00 B USD of their assets in the U.S. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Russia, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines and China refrained from criticizing the military coup. A United Nations Security Council resolution called for the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and the other detained leaders – a position shared by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.
International development and aid partners – business, non-governmental, and governmental – hinted at suspension of partnerships with Myanmar. Banks were closed and social media communications platforms, including Facebook and Twitter, removed Tatmadaw postings. Protesters appeared at Myanmar embassies in foreign countries. The National Unity Government then declared the formation of an armed wing on 5 May 2021, a date that is often cited as the start of a full-scale civil war. This armed wing was named the People's Defence Force (PDF) to protect its supporters from military junta attacks and as a first step towards a Federal Union Army. The civil war is ongoing as of 2024. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), there are over 1.3 million people counted as refugees and asylum seekers, and 3.5 million people displaced internally as of December 2024.

4.1. Administrative divisions

Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်_pyinè^Burmese) and seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး_{taìñ deithácì}^Burmese), formerly called divisions. Regions are predominantly inhabited by the Bamar ethnic group, while states are regions primarily home to particular ethnic minorities. Additionally, there is one Union Territory, Naypyidaw, which is the capital. There are also five Self-Administered Zones and one Self-Administered Division for certain ethnic groups. These divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are then subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.

As of a 2001 count, the administrative divisions included:

The seven states are: Chin State, Kachin State, Kayin State (Karen State), Kayah State (Karenni State), Mon State, Rakhine State (Arakan State), and Shan State.
The seven regions are: Ayeyarwady Region, Bago Region, Magway Region, Mandalay Region, Sagaing Region, Tanintharyi Region, and Yangon Region.

4.2. Climate

Myanmar has a tropical monsoon climate, characterized by significant seasonal variations. Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It is situated in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal areas receiving over 0.2 K in ^{(5.00 K mm)} of rain annually. The annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 0.1 K in ^{(2.50 K mm)}, while the dry zone in central Myanmar receives less than 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} on average.

The climate is generally divided into three seasons:
1. The rainy season: From May to October, influenced by the southwest monsoon, bringing heavy rainfall, especially to coastal and delta regions.
2. The cool dry season: From November to February, characterized by milder temperatures and less rainfall. The northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest during this period, with average temperatures around 69.8 °F ^{(21 °C)}.
3. The hot dry season: From March to April, with high temperatures before the onset of the monsoon. Coastal and delta regions can experience average maximum temperatures of 89.6 °F ^{(32 °C)}.

Climate change is predicted to have serious consequences for Myanmar, affecting its economic, social, and environmental sectors. The country has shown interest in expanding renewable energy use and lowering carbon emissions. Efforts to combat climate change involve collaboration with international bodies like the United Nations Environment Programme and national bodies like the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation. Initiatives include teaching new farming methods, rebuilding infrastructure with disaster-resilient materials, and transitioning various sectors towards reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In 2015, the World Bank and Myanmar entered a partnership framework aimed at improving access to electricity and other basic services, expected to benefit millions.

4.3. Biodiversity

Myanmar is a highly biodiverse country, home to more than 16,000 plant species, 314 mammal species, 1,131 bird species, 293 reptile species, and 139 amphibian species. It encompasses 64 terrestrial ecosystems, including tropical and subtropical vegetation, seasonally inundated wetlands, shoreline and tidal systems, and alpine ecosystems. Myanmar hosts some of the largest intact natural ecosystems in Southeast Asia, but these are under threat from land use intensification and over-exploitation. According to the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems, over a third of Myanmar's land area has been converted to anthropogenic ecosystems over the last 2-3 centuries, and nearly half of its ecosystems are threatened.

Myanmar's slow economic growth historically contributed to the preservation of much of its environment. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak, cover over 49% of the country. These forests include species like acacia, bamboo, ironwood, and Magnolia champaca. Coconut, betel palm, and rubber have been introduced. In the northern highlands, oak, pine, and various rhododendrons are prevalent. However, heavy logging since the 1995 forestry law has significantly reduced forest area and wildlife habitat. Coastal lands support various tropical fruits and once had extensive mangrove forests, much of which have disappeared. In central Myanmar's dry zone, vegetation is sparse.

Typical jungle animals, including tigers, are found sparsely. Upper Myanmar is home to rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boar, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed for work in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals like gibbons, monkeys, and flying foxes are numerous. Birdlife is abundant, with over 800 species, including parrots, mynas, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and owls. Reptile species include crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of freshwater fish species are widespread and important food sources.

Despite its rich biodiversity, Myanmar performs poorly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI), ranking 153 out of 180 countries in 2016. It scores particularly low in air quality, health impacts of environmental issues, and biodiversity and habitat protection. However, it performs relatively well in the environmental impacts of fisheries, though fish stocks are declining, and scores well in managing the nitrogen cycle in agriculture. The country is highly vulnerable to climate change, posing significant challenges.

5.1. Executive

Following the 2021 coup, the executive power is effectively wielded by the Chairman of the State Administration Council (SAC), currently Senior General Min Aung Hlaing, who also holds the title of Prime Minister. The role of the President, as defined in the 2008 Constitution, has been filled by an acting President, Myint Swe, who was the military-appointed First Vice President before the coup. The SAC functions as the de facto government, making key executive decisions and appointments. The cabinet consists largely of military officials and SAC appointees.

Under the 2008 Constitution (pre-coup), the President was the head of state and head of government, elected by the Presidential Electoral College, which consisted of members from both houses of parliament and military-appointed legislators. The President appointed the cabinet members. Aung San Suu Kyi, though barred from the presidency, held the influential post of State Counsellor, a position created for her that was akin to a prime minister.

5.2. Legislature

The bicameral Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw), as established by the 2008 Constitution, consisted of the House of Nationalities (Amyotha Hluttaw, the upper house) with 224 seats and the House of Representatives (Pyithu Hluttaw, the lower house) with 440 seats. In both houses, 25% of the seats were reserved for military appointees, with the remaining 75% filled through general elections.

Following the 2021 coup, the legitimately elected parliament from the 2020 elections was prevented from convening. The SAC has assumed legislative functions. A group of ousted lawmakers, primarily from the NLD, formed the Committee Representing Pyidaungsu Hluttaw (CRPH), which operates as a parallel legislative body in opposition to the junta.

5.3. Judiciary

Myanmar's judicial system, as outlined in the 2008 Constitution, consists of a Supreme Court, High Courts of Regions and States, and lower courts (District Courts, Township Courts). The Chief Justice of the Union is the head of the Supreme Court. However, judicial independence has been a long-standing concern in Myanmar, with the judiciary often perceived as being influenced by the executive and, historically, the military.

Since the 2021 coup, the state of the rule of law and judicial independence has deteriorated further. The military junta has used the courts to prosecute political opponents, activists, and protesters. Many trials have been criticized for lacking due process and fairness. There are ongoing concerns about the use of the legal system to suppress dissent and human rights. Special military tribunals have also been established, further undermining the regular judicial process.

5.4. Political culture

Myanmar's political culture is deeply marked by a historical tension between aspirations for democratic governance and periods of authoritarian military rule. Since independence, the country has experienced brief democratic phases interspersed with long stretches of military dictatorship. This has fostered a complex political environment where civil society organizations, student groups, and ethnic minority movements have often played a significant role in advocating for political change and human rights, frequently facing severe repression.

The Bamar majority has historically dominated the political landscape, leading to feelings of marginalization among the country's numerous ethnic minorities, many of whom have sought greater autonomy or self-determination through political means or armed struggle. This has contributed to one of the world's longest-running civil wars. Buddhist nationalism has also been an influential, and sometimes divisive, force in political discourse.

Patterns of political participation have varied. Elections, when held, have generally seen high turnout, indicating a public desire for democratic representation. However, these have often been marred by restrictions or, as in 1990 and 2020, their results overturned or ignored by the military. Dissent and protest, while frequently suppressed, have been recurring features, notably the 8888 Uprising in 1988, the Saffron Revolution in 2007, and the nationwide protests following the 2021 coup. The political culture is also characterized by a deep-seated distrust of state institutions among large segments of the population due to decades of military rule and human rights abuses. The role of international actors and sanctions has also significantly influenced domestic political dynamics.

6.1. Ethnic armed organizations

Myanmar has a long and complex history of conflict involving numerous ethnic armed organizations (EAOs). These groups represent various ethnic minorities who have sought greater political autonomy, self-determination, cultural rights, and control over local resources since the country's independence in 1948. The failure to establish a truly federal system that accommodates ethnic aspirations has been a primary driver of these conflicts.

Major EAOs include, but are not limited to, groups representing the Karen (KNU), Kachin (KIA), Shan (e.g., RCSS/SSA, SSPP/SSA), Karenni (KNPP), Chin (CNF), Mon (NMSP), Rakhine (Arakan Army), and Wa (UWSA). These groups vary significantly in size, strength, objectives, and areas of operation, which are typically in the border regions corresponding to their ethnic homelands.

The relationship between the EAOs and the central government/Tatmadaw has fluctuated over decades, characterized by periods of intense fighting, ceasefire agreements (some bilateral, some part of broader initiatives like the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement - NCA), and political dialogue. However, many ceasefires have been fragile and have broken down. The objectives of EAOs range from outright independence (historically for some) to federalism and greater autonomy within the Union of Myanmar.

The EAOs play a significant role in the political and security landscape of Myanmar. Many control substantial territory, operate their own administrative systems, and are involved in local economies, sometimes including resource extraction and border trade. The 2021 military coup significantly altered the dynamics, with many EAOs, including some NCA signatories, renewing or intensifying their fight against the Tatmadaw, often in alliance with newly formed People's Defence Forces (PDFs) aligned with the National Unity Government. The ongoing civil war involves complex and shifting alliances among these groups.

7.1. Relations with neighboring countries

• China:** China is Myanmar's most important neighbor, sharing a long border and significant economic and strategic ties. China is a major investor and trading partner, particularly in infrastructure projects (under its Belt and Road Initiative) and natural resource extraction. Beijing has historically maintained relations with both the Myanmar government and some ethnic armed organizations along the border. China's stance on Myanmar's internal affairs is often guided by its own strategic interests, emphasizing stability and non-interference, though it has expressed concerns over border security and refugee flows during intense conflict periods. In the aftermath of the 2021 coup, China has avoided strong condemnation of the junta, focusing on regional stability and its economic interests.
• Thailand:** Thailand shares a long border with Myanmar and hosts a large number of Myanmar migrants and refugees. Relations are complex, involving trade, investment, labor issues, border security (including drug trafficking), and management of refugee populations. Thailand, as an ASEAN member, often plays a role in regional responses to Myanmar's political situation, though its approach to the post-coup crisis has been relatively cautious.
• India:** India also shares a border and has been strengthening its ties with Myanmar under its "Act East" policy. Cooperation includes trade, connectivity projects, defense, and counter-insurgency efforts along their shared border. India seeks to counterbalance China's influence in the region and has also adopted a pragmatic approach towards the post-2021 junta, balancing its democratic values with strategic and security concerns.
• Bangladesh:** Relations with Bangladesh have been significantly strained by the Rohingya crisis, with hundreds of thousands of Rohingya refugees fleeing from Myanmar's Rakhine State into Bangladesh. This has created a major humanitarian challenge and a point of diplomatic tension. Border security and repatriation efforts are key issues, though little progress has been made on repatriation.
• Laos:** Myanmar shares a shorter border with Laos. Relations are generally stable, with some cooperation within ASEAN frameworks.

7.2. Relations with Western countries

Myanmar's relationships with Western countries, including the United States and European Union (EU) nations, have fluctuated dramatically. During long periods of military rule, Western nations imposed extensive sanctions due to human rights abuses and lack of democracy. Following the political reforms starting in 2011, these sanctions were largely eased, and engagement, development aid, and investment increased. High-level visits, including by U.S. President Barack Obama, symbolized this thaw. The US announced the resumption of diplomatic relations in January 2012.

However, the Rohingya crisis beginning in 2016-2017 led to renewed criticism and targeted sanctions from Western countries due to widespread human rights violations. The 2021 military coup prompted a much stronger and broader international response from Western nations, including comprehensive sanctions against military leaders and military-controlled entities, arms embargoes, and calls for a return to democracy and accountability for human rights abuses. Development aid from many Western donors has been redirected or suspended from junta-controlled channels. The US and EU continue to advocate for the release of political prisoners and a peaceful resolution to the crisis. In May 2013, Thein Sein became the first Myanmar president to visit the White House in 47 years, where agreements on bilateral trade and investment were discussed.

7.3. Activities in international organizations

Myanmar has been a member of the United Nations since its independence. The UN has been actively involved in addressing Myanmar's political and human rights situation, with various UN agencies providing humanitarian aid and special envoys attempting to mediate conflicts and promote dialogue. UN General Assembly resolutions and UN Human Rights Council reports have frequently condemned human rights violations in the country. Until 2005, the UN General Assembly annually adopted resolutions on Myanmar by consensus, but from 2006, some resolutions strongly calling for an end to human rights violations faced divisions, with countries like Russia and China sometimes vetoing or voting against stronger measures in the UN Security Council.

Myanmar joined ASEAN in 1997. ASEAN's approach to Myanmar has traditionally been guided by its principles of non-interference and consensus. However, the 2021 coup has severely tested ASEAN's unity and effectiveness. While ASEAN has formulated a "Five-Point Consensus" aimed at resolving the crisis, its implementation has been largely stalled due to the junta's lack of cooperation. Myanmar's representation at high-level ASEAN meetings has been restricted since the coup. Despite giving up its turn to host the ASEAN Summit in 2006, it chaired the forum and hosted the summit in 2014.

Myanmar is also a member of BIMSTEC and the East Asia Summit. It is a Dialogue Partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Myanmar's adherence to international norms and conventions, particularly concerning human rights and humanitarian law, remains a significant point of scrutiny in its international engagements. In January 2025, ASEAN urged Myanmar's military government to prioritize a ceasefire, dialogue, and unhindered humanitarian access.

8.1. Economic history

Under British administration, the people of Burma were at the bottom of the social hierarchy, with Europeans at the top, Indians, Chinese, and Christianized minorities in the middle, and Buddhist Burmese at the bottom. Forcefully integrated into the world economy, Burma's economy grew by involving itself with extractive industries and cash crop agriculture. However, much of the wealth was concentrated in the hands of Europeans. The country became the world's largest exporter of rice, mainly to European markets. The British opened the country to large-scale immigration, with Rangoon exceeding New York City as the greatest immigration port in the world in the 1920s. By then, in most of Burma's largest cities, Indian immigrants formed a majority. The Burmese under British rule felt helpless, reacting with a "racism that combined feelings of superiority and fear."
Crude oil production, an indigenous industry of Yenangyaung, was taken over by the British and put under Burmah Oil monopoly. British Burma began exporting crude oil in 1853. European firms produced 75% of the world's teak. In the 1930s, agricultural production fell dramatically as international rice prices declined. During the Japanese invasion of Burma in World War II, the British followed a scorched earth policy, destroying major government buildings, oil wells, and mines. Myanmar was bombed extensively by the Allies.
After independence, the country was in ruins. Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation, and the state was declared the owner of all land. An attempt to implement an eight-year plan financed by injecting money into the economy caused inflation. The 1962 coup d'état was followed by the Burmese Way to Socialism, nationalising all industries except agriculture. The economy grew slowly, but by the 1980s, Myanmar was left behind by capitalist East Asian economies. Myanmar requested least developed country status in 1987 for debt relief.

8.2. Agriculture

The major agricultural product is rice, which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute, 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas. In 2008 rice production was estimated at 50 million tons. Other important agricultural products include pulses, beans, sesame, groundnuts, sugarcane, fish, and timber (especially teak). Myanmar is also known for producing high-quality spices. The agricultural sector faces challenges such as outdated farming methods, limited access to credit, poor infrastructure, and the impacts of climate change.

8.3. Mining and energy

Myanmar produces precious stones such as rubies, sapphires, pearls, and jade. Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Myanmar's "Valley of Rubies", the mountainous Mogok area, 124 mile ^{(200 km)} north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires.
Many U.S. and European jewellery companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany and Cartier, refuse to import these stones based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines. Human Rights Watch has encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining activity in the country is government-run. The government of Myanmar controls the gem trade by direct ownership or by joint ventures with private owners of mines.
Rare-earth elements are also a significant export, as Myanmar supplies around 10% of the world's rare earths. Conflict in Kachin State has threatened the operations of its mines as of February 2021.
Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas. Myanmar Engineering Society has identified at least 39 locations capable of geothermal power production and some of these hydrothermal reservoirs lie quite close to Yangon which is a significant underutilised resource for electrical production. The country also has considerable oil and natural gas reserves, primarily offshore, with exports being a significant source of government revenue.

8.4. Tourism

The government receives a significant percentage of the income of private-sector tourism services. The most popular available tourist destinations in Myanmar include big cities such as Yangon and Mandalay; religious sites in Mon State, Pindaya, Bago and Hpa-An; nature trails in Inle Lake, Kengtung, Putao, Pyin Oo Lwin; ancient cities such as Bagan and Mrauk-U; as well as beaches in Nabule, Ngapali, Ngwe-Saung, and Mergui. Nevertheless, much of the country is off-limits to tourists, and interactions between foreigners and the people of Myanmar, particularly in the border regions, are subject to police scrutiny. They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment and, in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.
The most common way for travellers to enter the country is by air. According to the website Lonely Planet, getting into Myanmar is problematic: "No bus or train service connects Myanmar with another country, nor can you travel by car or motorcycle across the border - you must walk across." They further state that "It is not possible for foreigners to go to/from Myanmar by sea or river." There are a few border crossings that allow the passage of private vehicles, such as the border between Ruili (China) to Mu-se, the border between Htee Kee (Myanmar) and Phu Nam Ron (Thailand)-the most direct border between Dawei and Kanchanaburi, and the border between Myawaddy and Mae Sot, Thailand. At least one tourist company has successfully run commercial overland routes through these borders since 2013.
Flights are available from most countries, though direct flights are limited to mainly Thai and other ASEAN airlines. According to Eleven magazine, "In the past, there were only 15 international airlines and increasing numbers of airlines have begun launching direct flights from Japan, Qatar, Taiwan, South Korea, Germany and Singapore." Tourist arrivals grew significantly during the 2011-2020 reform period but have drastically fallen since the 2021 coup and the COVID-19 pandemic.

8.5. Trade and investment

Myanmar's international trade has been significantly influenced by its political situation and international relations. Major export commodities include natural gas, agricultural products (rice, pulses, beans), garments, jade and gemstones, and timber products (though restrictions on raw timber exports have increased). Key import commodities include petroleum products, machinery, vehicles, consumer goods, and construction materials.

China has traditionally been Myanmar's largest trading partner and a major source of foreign direct investment (FDI), particularly in infrastructure, energy, and mining. Other significant trading partners and investors include Thailand, Singapore, Japan, and South Korea. Western investment increased during the 2011-2021 reform period but has sharply declined since the 2021 coup due to sanctions and political instability. Myanmar has established several Special Economic Zones (SEZs), such as Thilawa (near Yangon), Kyaukphyu, and Dawei, to attract FDI and promote export-oriented industries, though their development has faced various challenges. The country became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995.

8.6. Transport

Myanmar's transportation infrastructure remains underdeveloped, posing a significant obstacle to economic growth and national integration.

• Roads:** The road network is extensive but often in poor condition, especially in rural and mountainous areas. Many roads are unpaved and become impassable during the rainy season. Major highways connect key cities, but connectivity to border regions and remote areas is limited. The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway is a notable ongoing project.
• Railways:** The railway system, largely built during the colonial era, is outdated and slow. It connects major cities but suffers from old rolling stock and poorly maintained tracks. Efforts to upgrade the network have been slow.
• Inland Waterways:** Rivers, particularly the Irrawaddy, have historically been crucial for transport and remain important for moving goods and people, especially in areas with poor road access.
• Ports:** Yangon is the main port city, handling the majority of maritime trade. The Thilawa SEZ also has port facilities. Deep-sea port projects, such as at Kyaukphyu and Dawei, have been planned or are under development, often with foreign investment, to enhance trade connectivity.
• Aviation:** Yangon International Airport is the primary international gateway. Mandalay and Naypyidaw also have international airports. Domestic air travel connects major cities and some tourist destinations, but services can be limited. Myanmar National Airlines is the state-owned flag carrier.

Ongoing development projects, often funded by international partners or foreign investment, aim to improve transportation infrastructure, but progress is frequently hampered by funding constraints, conflict, and political instability.

8.7. Economic issues

Myanmar faces a multitude of deep-seated economic challenges that have been exacerbated by political instability and the 2021 coup:

• Poverty and Inequality:** Widespread poverty persists, particularly in rural areas and among ethnic minority populations. Income inequality is among the highest in the world, with wealth concentrated in the hands of a few, often those connected to the military or crony businesses.
• Corruption:** Corruption is pervasive at all levels of government and business, undermining economic development, deterring legitimate investment, and diverting public resources.
• Illicit Economy:** Myanmar is a major producer of opium and methamphetamine, particularly in border regions controlled by ethnic armed groups or where state control is weak. The illicit drug trade fuels conflict, corruption, and social problems. Other illicit activities include illegal logging and wildlife trafficking. A cyber-scam industry involving human trafficking and forced labor has also emerged in borderlands.
• Inadequate Infrastructure:** As mentioned, poor transport, energy, and communication infrastructure severely limits economic activity and development. Access to reliable electricity is a major constraint for businesses and households.
• Internal Conflicts and Instability:** Decades of civil war have devastated local economies, displaced populations, and prevented development in many parts of the country. The post-2021 conflict has further crippled the economy, disrupting trade, agriculture, and investment.
• International Sanctions:** Sanctions imposed by Western countries, particularly after the 2021 coup, have targeted military-owned enterprises and restricted access to international financial systems, impacting foreign trade and investment.
• Weak Institutions and Rule of Law:** Weak governance, an unreliable legal system, and lack of transparency hinder business development and public trust.
• Human Capital:** Despite historical strengths in literacy, the education and healthcare systems are underdeveloped, leading to a shortage of skilled labor and poor public health outcomes, which in turn affect productivity and economic potential.
• Currency Instability:** The Myanmar kyat has experienced significant depreciation, particularly since the 2021 coup, leading to high inflation and erosion of purchasing power.

Addressing these complex and interconnected issues requires comprehensive political and economic reforms, national reconciliation, and a stable environment conducive to sustainable and equitable growth.

9.1. Population and demographics

The provisional results of the 2014 Myanmar Census indicated a total population of 51,419,420. This figure included an estimated 1,206,353 persons in parts of northern Rakhine State, Kachin State, and Kayin State who were not counted directly due to conflict or accessibility issues. Millions of Myanmar citizens also work abroad, particularly in Thailand. The population density is relatively low for Southeast Asia, averaging around 76 people per square kilometer.
Myanmar's fertility rate has seen a significant decline, from 4.7 children per woman in 1983 to 2.23 in 2011, just above replacement level. This decline is attributed to factors such as delayed marriage (average age of marriage for women is 26.4, for men 27.5), the prevalence of illegal abortions, and a high proportion of unmarried adults of reproductive age. Urbanization is increasing, though a majority of the population still resides in rural areas.
The largest cities in Myanmar are:

• Yangon (former capital and largest city): Population approximately 5,211,431
• Mandalay: Population approximately 1,225,546
• Naypyidaw (current capital): Population approximately 1,160,242
• Bago: Population approximately 491,434
• Hpa-An: Population approximately 421,575
• Taunggyi: Population approximately 381,636
• Monywa: Population approximately 372,095
• Myitkyina: Population approximately 306,949
• Mawlamyine: Population approximately 289,388
• Magway: Population approximately 289,247

(Population figures are based on older estimates and may have changed significantly.)

9.2. Ethnic groups

Myanmar is an ethnically diverse nation, with the government officially recognizing 135 distinct ethnic groups. However, this classification is often seen as politically constructed and does not always align with linguistic or anthropological groupings. The main ethnic groups include:

• The Bamar (Burmans), who form the majority, estimated at around 68% of the population. They primarily inhabit the central plains and Irrawaddy Delta.
• The Shan, the largest ethnic minority, constituting about 10% of the population, mainly reside in Shan State in the east.
• The Karen (Kayin), making up about 7%, live predominantly in Kayin State and other areas in the southeast.
• The Rakhine (Arakanese), about 3.5-4%, are concentrated in Rakhine State on the western coast.
• Overseas Chinese form approximately 3% of the population, mostly in urban centers.
• The Mon, around 2%, are one of the earliest inhabitants of the region, primarily living in Mon State.
• Overseas Indians are 2%, descendants of migrants during the British colonial era, mainly in cities.
• Other significant groups include the Kachin (1.5%), Chin (1%), Karenni (Kayah) (0.8%), Wa, Lahu, and Kokang, with other smaller groups making up the remaining approximately 5%.

The Rohingya, a Muslim minority primarily from Rakhine State, are not recognized as one of the 135 official ethnic groups and have faced severe persecution and statelessness.

Ethnic minority groups often prefer the term "ethnic nationality" rather than "ethnic minority," as the latter can imply subordination. The relationship between the Bamar-dominated central government and various ethnic nationalities has been fraught with tension and conflict, often stemming from demands for greater autonomy, federalism, and protection of cultural and resource rights. This has fueled decades of internal armed conflict. The policy of "Burmanisation," or the perceived imposition of Bamar culture and language, has also been a source of resentment for many minority groups. After the 1962 military coup, the persecution of Burmese Indians, Burmese Chinese, and other ethnic groups led to the expulsion or emigration of 300,000 people. Anglo-Burmese also largely left the country from 1958 onwards.

9.3. Languages

Myanmar is home to a multitude of languages belonging to several major language families. The Sino-Tibetan family is the most dominant, followed by Tai-Kadai, Austroasiatic, and Indo-European.

• Burmese**: The official language of Myanmar and the mother tongue of the majority Bamar people. It is a Sino-Tibetan language, related to Tibetan and Chinese. Burmese is written using the Burmese script, which evolved from the Mon script, ultimately derived from ancient Indian scripts (Brahmi). The earliest Burmese inscriptions date back to the 11th century.
• Ethnic Minority Languages**: Each of the numerous ethnic groups typically speaks its own language.
  • Sino-Tibetan languages include various Karen languages (S'gaw, Pwo), Kachin (Jinghpaw), Chin languages (numerous and diverse), Lisu, Lahu, Akha, etc.
  • Tai-Kadai languages include Shan (closely related to Thai and Lao), Khün, and Tai Lue.
  • Austroasiatic languages include Mon, Wa, Palaung (Ta'ang), and Danaw.
• Other Languages**:
  • Pali: The liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, studied by monks and devout Buddhists.
  • English: Introduced during the colonial period, English was once widely used in administration and higher education. Its prevalence declined after 1962 but has seen a resurgence in recent decades, especially in business, tourism, and among the educated urban population.
  • Chinese dialects (such as Hokkien, Cantonese, Mandarin) and Indian languages (such as Tamil, Hindi, Bengali) are spoken within their respective communities.

  The Burmese script is used not only for Burmese and Pali but has also been adapted to write several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, some Karen dialects, and Kayah, often with additional characters or diacritics. The linguistic diversity reflects the country's complex ethnic makeup. While Burmese is the language of government and education, many ethnic groups strive to maintain and promote their native languages as part of their cultural identity. Over a hundred languages are spoken in total, though many are known only within small tribes and may be endangered.

9.4. Religion

Theravada Buddhism is the predominant religion in Myanmar, profoundly influencing its culture, society, and politics. According to the 2014 census, approximately 87.9% of the population identifies as Buddhist. The country has a large and revered monastic community (Sangha), with an estimated 500,000 monks and 75,000 nuns. Buddhist temples (pagodas) and monasteries are central to community life, and religious practices are deeply integrated into daily routines and festivals. Buddhism is practiced alongside Nat worship, an indigenous form of spirit worship, by many Bamars. This involves rituals to propitiate a pantheon of 37 principal Nats.

Christianity is practiced by about 6.2% of the population, primarily among ethnic minority groups such as the Karen, Kachin, Chin, and Kayah, as well as the Anglo-Burmese community. Protestant denominations, particularly Baptists, are prevalent, a legacy of missionary work during the colonial era.

Islam is followed by approximately 4.3% of the population. Muslims in Myanmar include people of diverse ethnic backgrounds, such as Burmese Muslims (descendants of Indian, Arab, Persian, and Chinese Muslim migrants who intermarried with Bamars), the Kaman (a recognized ethnic group in Rakhine), and the Rohingya in Rakhine State.

Hinduism is practiced by about 0.5% of the population, mainly by Burmese Indians. Historically, Hinduism was a major religion in parts of ancient Myanmar.

Animist or traditional folk beliefs are followed by about 0.8% of the population, particularly among some hill tribes, though elements of these beliefs are often syncretized with Buddhism. A small percentage (0.2%) follows other religions, and 0.1% identify as having no religion. Jehovah's Witnesses have been present since 1914 and have about 80 congregations. A tiny Jewish community in Yangon has a synagogue but no resident rabbi.

While the constitution notionally provides for religious freedom, religious minorities, particularly Muslims (especially the Rohingya) and some Christian communities, have faced discrimination and persecution. Issues of religious freedom and inter-religious relations, often intertwined with ethnic identity and political dynamics, remain significant challenges. The Ma Ba Tha movement, a nationalist Buddhist organization, has been controversial for its anti-Muslim rhetoric. It is often difficult for non-Buddhists to join the army or obtain government jobs.

9.5. Education

Myanmar's education system is operated by the government's Ministry of Education. Historically, Myanmar had high literacy rates, partly due to monastic education. The modern system was influenced by the British colonial model. Schooling is compulsory until the end of elementary school (around age 9).

The structure generally includes:

• Primary Education (5 years)
• Middle School (4 years)
• High School (2 years)
• Higher Education: Myanmar has numerous universities, institutes, and colleges. Prominent institutions include Yangon University and Mandalay University. There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges, and 24 colleges, totaling 146 higher education institutions. There are also 10 technical training schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sports academy, and 20 midwifery schools. Four international schools are acknowledged by WASC and College Board.

Challenges in the education sector include:

• Access and Equity:** Disparities in access to quality education exist between urban and rural areas, and between the Bamar majority and ethnic minority regions, which are often affected by conflict and underdevelopment.
• Quality:** The quality of education has suffered due to decades of underfunding, outdated curricula, rote learning methods, and a shortage of qualified teachers.
• Funding:** Government expenditure on education has historically been low, though there were efforts to increase it during the reform period (2011-2021).
• Higher Education:** Universities faced significant disruption and control under military rule, impacting academic freedom and research capacity.
• Language of Instruction:** While Burmese is the primary language of instruction, this can be a barrier for students from ethnic minority backgrounds whose first language is not Burmese.

Reforms initiated during the 2011-2021 period aimed to modernize the curriculum, improve teacher training, and increase investment. However, the 2021 military coup has severely impacted the education system, with widespread teacher and student participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement, school closures, and the establishment of parallel education systems by opposition groups. According to UNESCO, Myanmar's official literacy rate was around 90% in 2000, but current figures may be affected by ongoing disruptions. Myanmar was ranked 125th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

9.6. Health

The general state of health care in Myanmar is poor. The government has historically spent a small percentage of its GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world (0.5% to 3%). Although health care is nominally free in public facilities, patients often have to pay for medicines, supplies, and treatment. Public hospitals frequently lack basic facilities, equipment, and sufficient medical staff.

Common health issues include infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and dengue fever, as well as malnutrition and maternal and child health problems. The maternal mortality rate in 2010 was 240 per 100,000 births. The under-5 mortality rate was 73 per 1,000 births, with neonatal mortality accounting for 47% of these deaths. Life expectancy is lower than in many neighboring countries.

HIV/AIDS is a significant public health concern, particularly prevalent among sex workers and intravenous drug users. In 2005, the estimated adult HIV prevalence rate was 1.3%. Access to antiretroviral therapy and proper treatment has been limited, leading to preventable deaths. Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) reported that 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007 who could have potentially been saved with adequate treatment.

Access to healthcare services is particularly challenging in rural and remote areas, especially in conflict-affected ethnic minority regions. The ongoing civil war since the 2021 coup has further devastated the public health system, with attacks on healthcare facilities and personnel, displacement of populations, and disruption of essential health services. International aid for health has also been affected.

9.7. Crime and law enforcement

Crime in Myanmar encompasses a range of issues, significantly influenced by political instability, economic hardship, and long-standing internal conflicts. Common types of crime include petty theft, robbery, and, in some areas, more organized criminal activities.
The Myanmar Police Force is the primary law enforcement agency responsible for maintaining public order and safety. However, its effectiveness is often hampered by corruption, lack of resources, and inadequate training. In conflict-affected regions and areas controlled by ethnic armed organizations or militias, state law enforcement may be weak or non-existent, with various non-state actors exercising de facto control and administering their own forms of justice.

A major challenge is the illicit drug trade. Myanmar is part of the Golden Triangle and is the world's second-largest producer of opium (after Afghanistan) and a major producer of methamphetamine. The drug trade fuels corruption, violence, and addiction, particularly in border areas and Shan State. It also provides significant funding for some armed groups.

Human trafficking is another serious issue, with victims, particularly women and children, trafficked for sexual exploitation and forced labor, both domestically and to neighboring countries like China and Thailand. Forced labor has also been a persistent problem, historically involving state-sponsored projects and military-linked entities.

The 2021 military coup has led to a significant deterioration in law and order. Reports indicate a rise in crime due to economic collapse and a breakdown of state services. The junta's crackdown on dissent has also involved arbitrary arrests, detentions, and extrajudicial killings, which themselves constitute severe violations of law and human rights. The widespread availability of weapons due to the civil war further exacerbates insecurity. Cybercrime, including online scams operated from enclaves often linked to militias, has also become a prominent issue, frequently involving trafficked individuals forced to work in these operations. In 2012, Myanmar had a high murder rate of 15.2 per 100,000 population. Transparency International's 2012 Corruption Perceptions Index ranked the country at 171 out of 176.

10.1. Rohingya crisis and allegations of genocide

The Rohingya people, a Muslim ethnic minority primarily residing in Rakhine State, have faced decades of systematic discrimination and persecution. They are officially denied citizenship under the 1982 Citizenship Law, rendering them stateless. Their freedom of movement, access to education, healthcare, and employment are severely restricted. The regime has attempted to forcibly expel Rohingya and replace them with non-Rohingyas.

The situation escalated dramatically in 2012 with outbreaks of communal violence in Rakhine State. In August 2017, attacks by Rohingya militants on security posts triggered a brutal military crackdown described by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights as a "textbook example of ethnic cleansing." This led to the mass exodus of over 730,000 Rohingya into neighboring Bangladesh, fleeing widespread killings, rape, and the burning of their villages. An estimated 23,000-43,700 Rohingya were killed. Numerous reports by human rights organizations and UN bodies have documented atrocities amounting to crimes against humanity and potentially genocide.

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is currently hearing a case brought by The Gambia accusing Myanmar of genocide against the Rohingya. The International Criminal Court (ICC) has also authorized an investigation into alleged crimes against humanity committed against the Rohingya, specifically deportation and persecution, with an arrest warrant application filed for Senior General Min Aung Hlaing in November 2024. Despite international pressure, the situation for the Rohingya remaining in Rakhine State is dire, with many confined to squalid displacement camps, and conditions for the refugees in Bangladesh remain challenging.

10.2. Other ethnic conflicts and internal displacement

Beyond the Rohingya crisis, Myanmar has been plagued by decades-long civil wars involving numerous other ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) and the Myanmar military (Tatmadaw). These conflicts are rooted in demands for greater political autonomy, ethnic rights, control over natural resources, and an end to discrimination and military abuses by groups such as the Karen, Kachin, Shan, Karenni, Chin, Mon, and others. For example, the Kachin conflict involves the pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army. There are also conflicts involving Shan, Lahu, and Karen minority groups in the eastern part of the country. Al-Qaeda had also signaled an intention to become involved. The 2015 Kokang offensive involved ethnic Chinese rebels and forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee to China.

The fighting has resulted in immense suffering for civilian populations in these ethnic states, including widespread internal displacement. Millions of people have been forced to flee their homes, often multiple times, living in precarious conditions in IDP camps or remote areas with limited access to humanitarian aid. The conflicts are characterized by human rights violations committed by all sides, though the Tatmadaw is frequently cited for systematic abuses such as extrajudicial killings, torture, sexual violence, forced labor, and indiscriminate attacks on civilian areas. Over 3,000 villages have reportedly been destroyed in eastern Myanmar over the past decade due to such conflicts.

Efforts towards peace and reconciliation, including ceasefire agreements (such as the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement - NCA) and political dialogues, have been made over the years but have largely failed to achieve lasting peace. The 2021 military coup shattered the fragile peace process, leading many EAOs, including some NCA signatories, to resume or intensify armed struggle against the junta, often in alliance with newly formed People's Defence Forces (PDFs). This has plunged the country into an even more widespread and complex civil war, with a devastating humanitarian impact.

10.3. Child soldiers

The recruitment and use of child soldiers has been a persistent problem in Myanmar, perpetrated by both the Tatmadaw (state armed forces) and various non-state armed groups (EAOs). Children, some as young as 10, have been forcibly recruited, abducted, or coerced into joining armed forces, where they are used as combatants, porters, messengers, or in other support roles. Reports from 2012 indicated children were sold as conscripts for as little as $40 and a bag of rice or a can of petrol. They are exposed to extreme violence, deprived of education, and suffer severe physical and psychological trauma.

International organizations like the UN and Human Rights Watch have documented this issue extensively. While the Myanmar government and some EAOs have made commitments to end child recruitment and have participated in demobilization programs (such as a Joint Action Plan with the UN signed in 2012 to end and prevent recruitment and use of children), progress has been slow and inconsistent. The Tatmadaw released a number of child soldiers in the years leading up to 2021 (e.g., 42 in September 2012). However, the renewed conflict since the 2021 coup has raised concerns about an increase in child recruitment as all sides seek to bolster their forces. Protecting children's rights in conflict zones and ensuring their demobilization, rehabilitation, and reintegration remains a significant challenge.

10.4. Forced labor and human trafficking

Forced labor has been a long-standing and widespread human rights violation in Myanmar, historically used by the military and government authorities for infrastructure projects (roads, bridges, dams), portering for the army, and in state-owned or military-linked enterprises. Civilians, particularly in ethnic minority areas and rural communities, have been compelled to work without pay under threat of violence or other penalties. While legal reforms and engagement with the International Labour Organization (ILO) led to some reduction in state-sponsored forced labor prior to 2021, the problem persists, especially in conflict zones.

Human trafficking is also a severe issue. Myanmar is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking for forced labor and sexual exploitation. Victims are trafficked both domestically and internationally, with common destinations including Thailand, China, Malaysia, and other countries in the region. Women and girls from all ethnic groups and foreigners have been victims, forced into prostitution, marriages, or pregnancies. Factors contributing to trafficking include poverty, lack of economic opportunities, conflict, displacement, land confiscation, poor border management, and government restrictions on travel documents. The illicit drug trade and online scam operations, particularly in border areas and often in territories controlled by junta allies like Border Guard Forces, have also become heavily reliant on trafficked and forced labor in recent years. In August 2023, a UN report noted at least 120,000 people in Myanmar were trapped in such scam centers. Government efforts to combat trafficking have been criticized as insufficient, with reports of complicity by government and Tatmadaw officials in sex and labor trafficking.

10.5. Freedoms and political prisoners

Fundamental freedoms, including freedom of expression, assembly, association, and the press, have been severely restricted for much of Myanmar's modern history, particularly under military rule. Journalists, activists, human rights defenders, and political opponents have faced harassment, intimidation, arbitrary arrest, and imprisonment for exercising these rights.

During the political reform period (2011-2021), there was a notable relaxation of censorship, the release of many political prisoners (approximately 100 remained in July 2013, with releases occurring periodically), and the growth of independent media and civil society. Expatriates were invited to return. However, restrictive laws remained on the books, and challenges to these freedoms persisted. Reporting laws, though relaxed, remained restrictive. Banned websites like YouTube and Voice of America were unblocked in September 2011.

The 2021 military coup brought about a drastic reversal of these gains. The junta has reimposed severe censorship, shut down independent media outlets, arrested scores of journalists, and violently suppressed peaceful protests. Laws on sedition, incitement, and telecommunications have been used to criminalize dissent. Thousands of individuals, including NLD leaders, activists, students, and ordinary citizens, have been arrested and detained for their opposition to the coup, becoming a new generation of political prisoners. Reports of torture and ill-treatment of detainees are widespread. The right to a fair trial and due process is routinely denied in political cases, with many tried in secret military tribunals. Campaigns for the release of all political prisoners and the restoration of fundamental freedoms are central to the pro-democracy movement. Homosexual acts remain illegal in Myanmar and can be punishable by life imprisonment.

11.1. Traditional arts

Myanmar's traditional arts are rich and diverse, deeply interwoven with religious beliefs and royal court traditions.

• Music:** Traditional Burmese music is characterized by its unique ensemble called the Saing Waing, which includes a circle of drums (pat waing), a circle of gongs (kyi waing), wind instruments like the hnè (a type of oboe), and various percussion instruments. The Saung Gauk, an arched harp, is another iconic Burmese instrument. Music plays a vital role in religious ceremonies, festivals, and theatrical performances.
• Dance:** Burmese dance is intricate and expressive, often depicting stories from the Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha's previous lives) and the Yama Zatdaw (the Burmese version of the Ramayana). There are various forms, including court dances, folk dances, and Nat (spirit) dances. Movements are characterized by graceful hand gestures, agile footwork, and expressive facial contortions. The Kinnayi Kinnaya dance, depicting mythical bird-human figures, is a well-known example.
• Puppetry (Yoke thé):** Burmese marionette puppetry, or Yoke thé, is a highly refined art form. Elaborately crafted puppets, often representing royalty, heroes, spirits, and animals, are used to enact classical plays and Jataka stories. It was traditionally a popular form of entertainment and moral instruction.
• Crafts:** Myanmar is renowned for its traditional crafts:
  • Lacquerware (Yun-de):** Originating from Bagan, lacquerware involves applying layers of lacquer sap from the Thitsi tree onto bamboo or wooden objects, which are then intricately engraved or painted, often with gold leaf.
  • Wood Carving (Panbu):** Elaborate wood carvings adorn temples, monasteries, and traditional houses, depicting mythical creatures, floral motifs, and scenes from Buddhist scriptures.
  • Textiles (Acheik):** Traditional textiles include handwoven silk and cotton fabrics. Acheik (Luntaya Acheik) is a highly prized patterned silk, often worn for special occasions, characterized by its intricate wave-like or zigzag designs. Ethnic groups also have their own unique textile traditions.
• Other crafts include silverware, bronze casting, stone carving, and umbrella making.

These traditional arts continue to be practiced, though some face challenges in the modern era. Contemporary artists include Lun Gywe, Aung Kyaw Htet, MPP Yei Myint, Myint Swe, Min Wai Aung, Aung Myint, Kin Maung Yin, Po Po, and Zaw Zaw Aung.

11.2. Cuisine

Burmese cuisine is characterized by extensive use of fish products such as fish sauce, ngapi (fermented seafood) and dried prawn. Mohinga is the traditional breakfast dish and is Myanmar's national dish. Seafood is a common ingredient in coastal cities, while meat and poultry are more commonly used in landlocked cities like Mandalay. Freshwater fish and shrimp have been incorporated into inland cooking as a primary source of protein and are used in a variety of ways, fresh, salted whole or filleted, salted and dried, made into a salty paste, or fermented sour and pressed. Burmese cuisine also includes a variety of salads (a thoke), centred on one major ingredient, ranging from starches like rice, wheat and rice noodles, glass noodles and vermicelli, to potato, ginger, tomato, kaffir lime, long bean, and lahpet (pickled tea leaves).

11.3. Sport

The Lethwei (Burmese boxing), Bando (unarmed combat), Banshay (armed combat), and Pongyi thaing (monk-style martial art) along with chinlone (caneball) are traditional sports in Myanmar. Football (soccer) is widely popular across the country, with the Myanmar national football team competing internationally under the Myanmar Football Federation. Myanmar hosted the Southeast Asian Games in 1961, 1969, and 2013.

11.4. Media and cinema

Because of Myanmar's political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country's population. Some are privately owned. All programming must meet with the approval of the censorship board. The Burmese government announced on 20 August 2012 that it would stop censoring media before publication. Following the announcement, newspapers and other outlets no longer required approved by state censors; however, journalists in the country can still face consequences for what they write and say. In April 2013, international media reports were published to relay the enactment of the media liberalisation reforms that were announced in August 2012. For the first time in numerous decades, the publication of privately owned newspapers commenced in the country.
Myanmar's first film was a documentary of the funeral of Tun Shein-a leading politician of the 1910s, who campaigned for Burmese independence in London. The first Burmese silent film Myitta Ne Thuya (Love and Liquor) in 1920 which proved a major success, despite its poor quality. During the 1920s and 1930s, many Burmese-owned film companies made and produced several films. The first Burmese sound film was produced in 1932 in Bombay, India with the title Ngwe Pay Lo Ma Ya (Money Can't Buy It). After World War II, Burmese cinema continued to address political themes. Many of the films produced in the early Cold War era had a strong propaganda element.
In the era that followed the political events of 1988, the film industry has been increasingly controlled by the government. Film stars who had been involved in the political activities were banned from appearing in films. The government issues strict rules on censorship and largely determines who produces films, as well as who gets academy awards.
Over the years, the movie industry has also shifted to producing many lower-budget direct-to-video films. Most of the movies produced nowadays are comedies. In 2008, only 12 films worthy of being considered for an Academy Award were made, although at least 800 VCDs were produced. Myanmar is the primary subject of a 2007 graphic novel titled Chroniques Birmanes by Québécois author and animator, Guy Delisle. The graphic novel was translated into English under the title Burma Chronicles in 2008. In 2009, a documentary about Burmese videojournalists called Burma VJ was released. This film was nominated for Best Documentary Feature at the 2010 Academy Awards. The Lady had its world premiere on 12 September 2011 at the 36th Toronto International Film Festival.

11.5. Architecture

Myanmar's architecture is diverse, reflecting indigenous traditions, Buddhist influences, and colonial legacies.

• Buddhist Pagodas and Temples:** This is the most iconic form of Burmese architecture.
  • Shwedagon Pagoda** in Yangon is the country's most sacred and famous pagoda, a massive, gold-plated stupa believed to contain relics of past Buddhas. Its distinctive bell-shaped structure is a hallmark of Burmese stupas.
• The ancient city of **Bagan** is home to thousands of temples and pagodas built between the 11th and 13th centuries, showcasing a variety of architectural styles, from massive brick temples with intricate stucco work and murals (like Ananda Temple) to smaller, elegant stupas.
  • Other notable pagodas include the Kyaiktiyo Pagoda (Golden Rock), Mahamuni Buddha Temple in Mandalay, and numerous stupas across the country, often gilded and topped with a hti (umbrella-like spire). Traditional monasteries (kyaung) are typically made of wood, often elaborately carved, like the Shwenandaw Monastery in Mandalay.
• Colonial Architecture:** During British rule, especially in major cities like Yangon and Mandalay, numerous colonial-era buildings were constructed. These include administrative buildings, courts, schools, and residences, often featuring Victorian, Edwardian, and Art Deco styles. Yangon, in particular, was known for having one of the most impressive collections of colonial architecture in Southeast Asia, though many buildings have faced neglect or redevelopment pressures.
• Traditional Housing:** Traditional Burmese houses vary by region and ethnicity but often utilize local materials like bamboo and timber. Houses on stilts are common in rural and flood-prone areas.
• Royal Palaces:** Historic royal palaces, such as the Mandalay Palace (a reconstruction of the Konbaung Dynasty palace), showcase traditional Burmese royal architecture with tiered roofs and ornate wood carvings.

The architectural heritage of Myanmar is a significant part of its cultural identity, though preservation and conservation efforts face ongoing challenges.

11.6. Festivals and public holidays

Festivals (pwe) are an integral part of life in Myanmar, often tied to Buddhist traditions, agricultural cycles, or Nat (spirit) worship.

• Thingyan (Water Festival/New Year):** This is the most famous and widely celebrated festival, marking the Burmese New Year, typically held in mid-April (usually April 13-16). It involves several days of enthusiastic water-throwing, meant to cleanse and bring good luck for the new year. It is a time for celebration, religious observances (like visiting pagodas and offering alms), and family gatherings. The Burmese New Year itself falls around April 17.
• Thadingyut (Festival of Lights):** Celebrated on the full moon day of the seventh Burmese month (Wagaung, usually October, around October 6 in the example table). It marks the end of the Buddhist Lenten period (Vassa). It commemorates the Buddha's descent from heaven after preaching to his mother. Homes, streets, and pagodas are decorated with lights (candles, lanterns, electric lights). It is a time for paying respects to elders, teachers, and parents.
• Tazaungdaing Festival**: Also a festival of lights, it occurs on the full moon day of the eighth Burmese month (Tazaungmon, usually November, around November 4 in the example table). It is marked by various activities, including the Kahtein robe-offering ceremony for monks and, in some areas like Taunggyi, spectacular hot-air balloon (မီးပုံးပျံ_meebounbyan^Burmese or မီးပုံ_meeboun^Burmese) competitions.
• Pagoda Festivals (Paya Pwe):** Almost every pagoda has its own annual festival, usually held on or around a full moon day. These are major social and religious events, often featuring food stalls, traditional entertainment (music, dance, puppetry), markets, and religious ceremonies. The Tabaung full moon (around March 13) is often associated with pagoda festivals.
• Nat Festivals**: Dedicated to the worship of local spirits (Nats), these festivals involve vibrant rituals, music, dance, and offerings to appease the Nats and seek their favor. The Taungbyone Nat Festival near Mandalay is one of the largest.
• Shinbyu (Novitiation Ceremony):** While not a public holiday, this is a crucial rite of passage where young boys are ordained as novice monks for a period. It is a significant family and community event, often celebrated with elaborate processions and festivities. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies (နားသ_{na tha}^Burmese) at the same time.
• National Holidays:**
  • Independence Day**: January 4 (commemorating independence in 1948).
  • Union Day**: February 12 (commemorating the 1947 Panglong Agreement).
  • Peasants' Day**: March 2.
  • Armed Forces Day**: March 27 (commemorating the 1945 anti-Japanese resistance).
  • Labour Day**: May 1.
  • Waso Full Moon Day (Start of Buddhist Lent)**: Around July 9.
  • Martyrs' Day**: July 19 (commemorating the 1947 assassination of Aung San and others).
  • National Day**: Around November 14 (commemorating the 1920 student strike).
  • Karen New Year**: Around December 19.
  • Christmas Day**: December 25.
• Islamic holidays like Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha (November-January in the example table, but dates vary based on lunar calendar) are also observed by the Muslim community.
  • Diwali (Deepavali): Observed by the Hindu community (October-November).
  • Kason Full Moon Day (Vesak): Around May 11, commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and passing of the Buddha.

  These festivals and holidays reflect the blend of Buddhist traditions, indigenous beliefs, and historical events that shape Myanmar's cultural identity.