Japan

3.1. Prehistory and classical antiquity

Modern humans are believed to have arrived in the Japanese archipelago around 38,000 years ago (circa 36,000 BCE), marking the beginning of the Japanese Paleolithic period. This era was followed by the Jōmon period, starting around 14,500 BCE, characterized by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture. The Jōmon people developed pit dwellings, rudimentary agriculture, and created some of the world's oldest known pottery.

Around 300 BCE, the Yayoi period began with the arrival of the Yayoi people, who are thought to have migrated from the Korean Peninsula. They introduced new technologies such as wet-rice farming, a new style of pottery, and metallurgy (iron and bronze working) from China and Korea, intermingling with the indigenous Jōmon population. This period saw the formation of numerous small states or "kuni."

The Kofun period (circa 250 CE - 538 CE) is named after the large burial mounds (kofun) constructed for the ruling elite. During this time, the Yamato polity (also known as the Yamato kingdom) emerged in central Japan, gradually consolidating power and laying the foundations for an early Japanese state. According to legend, Emperor Jimmu, a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, founded this kingdom in 660 BCE, initiating the continuous imperial line. Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese Book of Han, completed in 111 CE. The Chinese Records of the Three Kingdoms mentions Yamatai, a powerful country in the archipelago during the 3rd century ruled by Queen Himiko.

From the 5th and 6th centuries, Buddhism was introduced to Japan from the Korean kingdom of Baekje, along with the Chinese writing system and other aspects of Chinese culture. Despite initial resistance from those adhering to native Shinto beliefs, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class, including figures like Prince Shōtoku, and gained widespread acceptance starting in the Asuka period (592-710). This period also saw significant political and administrative reforms influenced by Chinese models. In 645 CE, the Taika Reforms, led by Prince Naka no Ōe and Fujiwara no Kamatari, aimed to centralize the state by nationalizing land and establishing a new taxation system based on household registries, inspired by Confucian ideas. These reforms culminated in the Taihō Code of 701 CE, which established a system of centralized government (the ritsuryō state) that would last for centuries. The Jinshin War of 672 was a critical conflict that further spurred these administrative reforms.

The Nara period (710-784) marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). This era is characterized by the flourishing of literary culture with the completion of the Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720), as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and architecture. A smallpox epidemic in 735-737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population. In 784, Emperor Kanmu moved the capital, eventually settling on Heian-kyō (modern-day Kyoto) in 794. This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794-1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged, particularly in literature, art, and poetry. Works such as Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem, "Kimigayo," were written during this time. However, the centralized ritsuryō system gradually weakened as powerful aristocratic families, particularly the Fujiwara clan, gained influence and large, tax-exempt private estates (shōen) developed, undermining imperial authority.

3.2. Feudal era

Japan's feudal era, lasting from the late 12th century to the mid-19th century, was characterized by the dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai, and the establishment of military governments known as shogunates. This system had a profound impact on social structures, with power largely decentralized among feudal lords.

The Kamakura period (1185-1333) began after Minamoto no Yoritomo defeated the Taira clan in the Genpei War (1180-1185). Yoritomo established a military government, the Kamakura shogunate, in Kamakura. While the Emperor remained the nominal ruler in Kyoto, actual political power was wielded by the shogun. After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan effectively controlled the shogunate as regents (shikken). During this period, Zen Buddhism was introduced from China and became popular among the samurai. The Kamakura shogunate successfully repelled two Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, but the costs of defense weakened the shogunate, leading to its overthrow by Emperor Go-Daigo in the Kenmu Restoration (1333-1336).

Go-Daigo's attempt to restore direct imperial rule was short-lived. Ashikaga Takauji, a powerful samurai general, turned against Go-Daigo and established the Ashikaga shogunate (also known as the Muromachi shogunate) in Kyoto in 1336, which lasted until 1573. The early Muromachi period was marked by conflict between rival imperial courts (the Northern and Southern Courts), which ended in 1392. While the Ashikaga shoguns patronized arts and culture, including the development of Noh theater and the tea ceremony, their control over the regional feudal lords (daimyo) gradually weakened. The Ōnin War (1467-1477), a devastating civil war, marked the breakdown of central authority and ushered in the Sengoku period (c. 1467 - c. 1600), an era of intense internal warfare and social upheaval as daimyo vied for power. This period also saw the arrival of the first Europeans-Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries-in the mid-16th century, introducing firearms and Christianity.

The late Sengoku period saw the emergence of powerful daimyo who sought to unify Japan. Oda Nobunaga made significant progress in conquering rival daimyo using European firearms and innovative tactics, beginning the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1573-1603). After Nobunaga's assassination in 1582, his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, completed the unification of Japan in the early 1590s. Hideyoshi implemented land surveys (kenchi) and disarmed the peasantry (katanagari), solidifying the feudal social order. He also launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597.

Following Hideyoshi's death in 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu emerged victorious from the ensuing power struggle, notably at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. In 1603, Ieyasu was appointed shogun by the emperor and established the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo (modern Tokyo). The Edo period (1603-1868) brought over two centuries of relative peace and stability. The Tokugawa shogunate implemented a strict social hierarchy and controlled the daimyo through policies like sankin-kōtai (alternate attendance). A key policy was sakoku ("closed country"), which severely restricted foreign relations and trade from the 1630s, primarily allowing contact only with the Dutch through the port of Dejima in Nagasaki and with China and Korea. This isolationist policy aimed to prevent foreign influence and maintain social order. Despite isolation, domestic trade, agriculture, and urban culture flourished. A vibrant merchant class emerged, and arts like ukiyo-e (woodblock prints) and kabuki theater became popular. The study of Western sciences (rangaku) continued through Dutch sources, and indigenous scholarship (kokugaku) also developed. However, the feudal system imposed rigid social structures that limited individual mobility and rights for much of the populace.

3.3. Modern era

Japan's modern era began in the mid-19th century with the forced end of its isolationist policy and the subsequent overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate, leading to the Meiji Restoration. This period was characterized by rapid modernization, industrialization, and the rise of Japan as an imperial power. However, it also involved significant social upheaval, the suppression of dissent, and eventually, devastating involvement in World War II. The post-war era saw Japan's transformation into a democratic nation and an economic powerhouse, alongside ongoing efforts to address its wartime past and promote human rights.

In 1853, Commodore Matthew C. Perry of the United States Navy arrived with a fleet of "Black Ships" and compelled Japan to open to foreign trade, leading to the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. Subsequent treaties with other Western powers further exposed the shogunate's weakness and fueled anti-foreign sentiment and calls for political change. Dissatisfied samurai from domains like Chōshū and Satsuma led a movement to "revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians" (Sonnō jōi). This culminated in the Boshin War (1868-1869), the resignation of the last shogun, and the restoration of direct imperial rule under Emperor Meiji in 1868.

The Meiji period (1868-1912) was a time of transformative change. The new government embarked on a program of rapid modernization, adopting Western political, judicial, military, and industrial models. Feudal domains were abolished and replaced with prefectures (Abolition of the han system). A national army was created, and a modern education system was established. The Meiji Constitution was promulgated in 1889, establishing a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature, the Imperial Diet. Industrialization progressed swiftly, with the development of railways, telegraph lines, and new industries. However, this rapid change also brought social tensions, harsh working conditions for many, and the suppression of early labor movements and political dissent. Japan also pursued imperial expansion, defeating China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), gaining control of Taiwan, Korea (annexed in 1910), and southern Sakhalin. This expansion was often achieved through military force and resulted in the colonization and oppression of local populations.

The Taishō period (1912-1926) saw a brief flourishing of democratic movements, known as "Taishō democracy." However, this period was also marked by economic instability, social unrest, and the rise of militarism and ultranationalism. Japan joined the Allies in World War I and expanded its influence in China and the Pacific. The Great Kantō earthquake of 1923 devastated Tokyo and led to massacres of Koreans and leftists amidst widespread panic. In the 1930s, during the early Shōwa period, military factions increasingly dominated the government. Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo, and withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933 following international condemnation. Political assassinations and attempted coups further destabilized civilian government.

In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China, initiating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). This conflict was marked by widespread atrocities, including the Nanjing Massacre. Japan's expansionist ambitions led it to sign the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in 1940, forming the Axis powers. In 1941, after the U.S. imposed an oil embargo, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, bringing the United States into World War II. Japan achieved rapid military successes in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. However, the tide turned against Japan following the Battle of Midway in 1942. The war inflicted immense suffering on both Japanese civilians and the populations of occupied territories, where millions were subjected to forced labor, exploitation, and violence, including the systematic use of "comfort women" (sex slaves). After years of brutal fighting and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the U.S. in August 1945, coupled with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, Japan surrendered unconditionally on August 15, 1945.

The Allied occupation, led by the United States under General Douglas MacArthur, lasted from 1945 to 1952. During this period, Japan underwent sweeping democratic reforms. A new constitution was enacted in 1947, establishing a parliamentary democracy, guaranteeing fundamental human rights, and renouncing war (Article 9). The Emperor was reduced to a symbolic role. Land reforms, the dissolution of zaibatsu (large industrial conglomerates), and the promotion of labor unions were also implemented. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal) prosecuted Japanese leaders for war crimes, though Emperor Hirohito was not indicted, a decision that remains controversial. Millions of Japanese settlers and soldiers were repatriated from former colonies.

After the occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952, Japan focused on economic reconstruction. Aided by U.S. support and global economic expansion, Japan experienced a period of remarkable economic growth known as the Japanese economic miracle, becoming the world's second-largest economy by the late 1960s. This era saw significant improvements in living standards but also environmental pollution problems. Japan rejoined the international community, becoming a member of the United Nations in 1956. The 1964 Tokyo Olympics symbolized its post-war recovery.

The late 20th century saw Japan solidify its status as an economic superpower, though the bursting of an asset price bubble in the early 1990s led to a prolonged period of economic stagnation known as the "Lost Decade." Socially, Japan continued to grapple with issues of gender equality, the rights of minorities like the Ainu and Koreans in Japan, and the implications of its aging population. Politically, the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) dominated for most of the post-war period. In 2011, Japan was struck by the devastating Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, which triggered the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, prompting a national debate on nuclear energy and disaster preparedness. On May 1, 2019, Emperor Akihito abdicated, and his son Naruhito ascended the Chrysanthemum Throne, beginning the Reiwa era. Japan continues to navigate complex domestic challenges and its role in an evolving East Asian and global landscape, with ongoing discussions about constitutional reform, historical memory, and the promotion of a more inclusive and rights-respecting society.

4.1. Topography

Japan's topography is predominantly mountainous, with mountains covering approximately 75% of its land area. These mountain ranges are typically steep and heavily forested. The most prominent mountain ranges are the Japanese Alps (Nihon Arupusu), located in central Honshu, which consist of the Hida Mountains (Northern Alps), Kiso Mountains (Central Alps), and Akaishi Mountains (Southern Alps). Many peaks in the Japanese Alps exceed 9.8 K ft ^{(3.00 K m)} in elevation. The highest peak in Japan is Mount Fuji, an active stratovolcano located on Honshu island, southwest of Tokyo, with an elevation of 12 K ft ^{(3.78 K m)}. Mount Fuji is an iconic symbol of Japan and a major tourist attraction. Other significant volcanoes include Mount Ontake, Mount Aso, and Sakurajima.

Plains in Japan are relatively small and scattered, mostly found along the coastlines or in river valleys. The largest plain is the Kantō Plain on Honshu, where Tokyo is situated. Other notable plains include the Nōbi Plain (around Nagoya), the Osaka Plain, and the Ishikari Plain in Hokkaido. These plains are the primary areas for agriculture, industry, and urban development.

Japan's coastlines are long and varied. The Pacific coast is generally more indented, featuring numerous bays, inlets, and peninsulas, forming complex ria coastlines. The Sea of Japan coast tends to be straighter. The Seto Inland Sea, situated between Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, is a shallow body of water dotted with many small islands.

The formation of the Japanese archipelago is a result of complex tectonic processes. The islands are part of several volcanic arcs formed by the subduction of the Pacific Plate and the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the Eurasian and North American (Okhotsk) plates. The Fossa Magna, a major geological rift valley, transects central Honshu, dividing Japan geologically into Northeast Japan and Southwest Japan. The Median Tectonic Line is another significant fault system running through southwestern Japan. These geological features contribute to the country's seismic activity and the abundance of onsen (hot springs). Lake Biwa, located in Shiga Prefecture, is Japan's largest freshwater lake and an ancient lake, formed by tectonic activity.

4.2. Climate

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south due to its considerable latitudinal extent and diverse topography. The country experiences four distinct seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter.

• Hokkaido (Northern Region):** This region has a humid continental climate characterized by long, cold, and snowy winters, and warm to cool summers. Precipitation is not excessively heavy, but the island often sees deep snowbanks in winter.
• Sea of Japan Coast (Western Honshu):** Northwest winter winds crossing the Sea of Japan bring heavy snowfall to this region during winter. Summers can be hot, and the area sometimes experiences extremely high temperatures due to the Foehn effect.
• Central Highland (Inland Honshu):** This area has a typical inland humid continental climate with significant temperature differences between summer and winter, as well as between day and night.
• Seto Inland Sea Region (Chūgoku and Shikoku coasts):** The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter this area from seasonal winds, resulting in mild weather throughout the year with relatively low precipitation.
• Pacific Coast (Eastern and Southern Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu):** This region features a humid subtropical climate with milder winters (occasional snowfall) and hot, humid summers influenced by the southeast seasonal wind.
• Ryukyu and Nanpō Islands (Southwestern Islands):** These islands have a subtropical climate and tropical rainforest climate (in parts of the Ryukyus like Ishigaki Island), with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common in this region.

The main rainy season (tsuyu or baiu) typically begins in early May in Okinawa and gradually moves north, reaching most of Honshu in June and lasting for about six weeks. It generally does not affect Hokkaido. Late summer and early autumn (August to October) are prone to typhoons, which often bring heavy rain and strong winds, particularly to the southern and western parts of the country.

Temperatures vary significantly. The highest temperature ever recorded in Japan was 105.98 °F ^{(41.1 °C)}, observed in Kumagaya (Saitama Prefecture) on July 23, 2018, and later in Hamamatsu (Shizuoka Prefecture) on August 17, 2020. Winters can be very cold in the north and in mountainous areas, with temperatures dropping well below freezing. Climate change impacts, such as increased frequency of heavy rainfall and rising temperatures, are causing concerns for agriculture and other sectors in Japan.

4.3. Biodiversity

Japan boasts a rich and diverse range of flora and fauna, a result of its varied climate zones, complex topography, and island geography, which has led to a high degree of endemism. The country is recognized as one of the world's 36 biodiversity hotspots. As of 2019, over 90,000 species of wildlife have been recorded in Japan, with around 6,342 of these being endemic.

Japan has nine distinct forest ecoregions. These range from tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands (Ogasawara Islands) to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the milder climate regions of the main islands, and temperate coniferous forests in the colder, northern parts of Hokkaido and mountainous areas of Honshu. Approximately 67% of Japan's land area is covered by forests.

Notable endemic or characteristic fauna include the brown bear (Ursus arctos yesoensis in Hokkaido, and the Asiatic black bear, Ursus thibetanus japonicus, in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu), the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata, also known as the snow monkey), the Japanese raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides viverrinus or tanuki), the small Japanese field mouse (Apodemus argenteus), the Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus), and the Japanese giant salamander (Andrias japonicus), one of the largest amphibians in the world. Japan is also home to a variety of bird species, including the Blakiston's fish owl, copper pheasant, and the Japanese crane.

The flora is equally diverse, with approximately 5,560 species of vascular plants. Endemic plants include species like the Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica or sugi) and various types of cherry blossom (sakura) trees, which hold significant cultural importance.

To protect its biodiversity, Japan has established numerous protected areas, including national parks, quasi-national parks, and wildlife protection areas. There are 53 Ramsar wetland sites in Japan, recognized for their international importance for waterfowl and wetland ecosystems. Additionally, five sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value: Yakushima, Shirakami-Sanchi, Shiretoko, the Ogasawara Islands, and Amami-Oshima Island, Tokunoshima Island, northern part of Okinawa Island, and Iriomote Island.

Despite these conservation efforts, Japan's biodiversity faces threats from habitat loss due to development, deforestation and afforestation with single species, the decline of traditional rural landscapes (satoyama), and the impact of invasive alien species. The importance of biodiversity for environmental and social well-being is increasingly recognized, with ongoing efforts to promote sustainable use of natural resources and conservation.

4.4. Environmental issues

Japan faces several significant environmental challenges, stemming from its high population density, industrial activities, and vulnerability to natural disasters, which are exacerbated by climate change. Historically, during the period of rapid economic growth after World War II (1950s-1960s), environmental protection was often secondary to industrial development, leading to severe pollution problems, famously exemplified by the Four Big Pollution Diseases (Minamata disease, Niigata Minamata disease, Itai-itai disease, and Yokkaichi asthma).

Public concern and activism led to the enactment of comprehensive environmental protection laws in 1970 and the establishment of the Environment Agency (now the Ministry of the Environment) in 1971. The oil crisis of 1973 also spurred efforts towards energy efficiency due to Japan's reliance on imported energy resources.

Current major environmental issues include:

• Air pollution:** Urban areas, particularly large metropolitan regions, still struggle with air pollution from vehicle emissions and industrial activities, including nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter, and toxics.
• Waste management:** As a densely populated and highly consumerist society, Japan generates a large volume of waste. Efforts are focused on reducing waste, promoting recycling (3R initiative - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle), and developing advanced waste treatment technologies, including incineration with energy recovery. However, issues with plastic waste and illegal dumping persist.
• Water pollution and eutrophication:** While industrial water pollution has significantly decreased, eutrophication of enclosed water bodies like lakes and bays due to nutrient runoff from agriculture and domestic wastewater remains a concern.
• Climate change:** Japan is the world's fifth-largest emitter of carbon dioxide. It is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol (hosting the 1997 conference) and the Paris Agreement. The government announced a target of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Key challenges include transitioning to renewable energy sources, reducing reliance on fossil fuels (especially coal), and adapting to the impacts of climate change, such as increased frequency of extreme weather events. The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011 also significantly impacted its energy policy and public debate on nuclear power.
• Loss of biodiversity and nature conservation:** Habitat destruction, fragmentation due to development, and the impact of invasive alien species threaten Japan's rich biodiversity. Conservation of natural ecosystems, forests, and marine environments is ongoing.
• Chemical management:** Control and management of hazardous chemical substances from industrial processes and consumer products are important for public health and environmental safety.
• International cooperation:** Japan actively participates in international environmental cooperation, providing technical assistance and funding for environmental projects in developing countries.

Japan ranked 20th in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index. Environmental policies aim to balance economic development with environmental sustainability, with increasing emphasis on creating a circular economy and addressing global environmental problems. However, the social and equitable implications of these policies, such as the impact on local communities or the fair distribution of environmental burdens and benefits, are also important considerations from a social liberal perspective.

5.1. Government structure

The government of Japan operates under the framework established by the 1947 Constitution. This structure comprises the Emperor as the symbolic head of state, and three distinct branches of government: the legislative (National Diet), the executive (Cabinet), and the judicial (Courts), ensuring a system of checks and balances.

5.1.1. Emperor

The Emperor of Japan (天皇_Tennō^Japanese) is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people, as defined in Article 1 of the Constitution. The Emperor performs ceremonial duties as stipulated by the Constitution, such as appointing the Prime Minister (as designated by the Diet) and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (as designated by the Cabinet), convoking the Diet, and promulgating laws and treaties. However, the Emperor does not possess any powers related to government; all acts of the Emperor in matters of state require the advice and approval of the Cabinet.

The current Emperor is Naruhito, who ascended to the Chrysanthemum Throne on May 1, 2019, following the abdication of his father, Emperor Akihito. Succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne is hereditary and currently limited to male descendants in the male line of the Imperial lineage, as stipulated by the Imperial Household Law. The role of the Emperor and the Imperial Family in modern Japan is primarily focused on public appearances, cultural preservation, and representing the nation in ceremonial contexts. The functioning and status of the Imperial system are sometimes subjects of public discussion, particularly regarding issues of succession and the role of women in the Imperial Family, reflecting broader societal debates about tradition and modernity.

5.1.2. National Diet

The National Diet (国会_Kokkai^Japanese) is Japan's bicameral parliament and serves as the sole law-making organ of the state. It consists of two houses: the lower House of Representatives (衆議院_Shūgiin^Japanese) and the upper House of Councillors (参議院_Sangiin^Japanese).

The House of Representatives currently has 465 members who are elected for a four-year term, although the house can be dissolved earlier by the Prime Minister, leading to a general election. The House of Councillors has 245 members who serve six-year terms, with half of its members elected every three years. Universal suffrage is granted to all adult citizens aged 18 and over, and elections are conducted by secret ballot.

The Diet's primary powers include enacting laws, approving the national budget, ratifying treaties, and designating the Prime Minister. Both houses participate in the legislative process, but the House of Representatives holds precedence in several key areas. For example, if the two houses disagree on a bill, the House of Representatives can override the House of Councillors' decision with a two-thirds majority vote. Similarly, the budget and the designation of the Prime Minister are ultimately decided by the House of Representatives if there is a disagreement.

The Diet plays a crucial role in Japan's democratic governance, providing a forum for political debate, policy formation, and oversight of the executive branch. The effective functioning of the Diet, including issues of representation, transparency, and responsiveness to public concerns, is vital for maintaining a healthy democracy.

5.2. Administrative divisions

Japan is divided into 47 prefectures (都道府県_{to-dō-fu-ken}^Japanese), each overseen by an elected governor and legislature. These prefectures are the primary level of local government below the national level. The 47 prefectures consist of:

• One "metropolis" (都_to^Japanese): Tokyo
• One "circuit" or "territory" (道_dō^Japanese): Hokkaido
• Two "urban prefectures" (府_fu^Japanese): Osaka and Kyoto
• Forty-three "prefectures" (県_ken^Japanese): all others

Below the prefectural level, there are further administrative divisions into municipalities. These are primarily cities (市_shi^Japanese), towns (町_{chō or machi}^Japanese), and villages (村_{son or mura}^Japanese). Larger cities, known as designated cities (政令指定都市_{seirei shitei toshi}^Japanese), have greater administrative autonomy and are further subdivided into wards (区_ku^Japanese). Tokyo's 23 special wards (特別区_tokubetsu-ku^Japanese) function with a degree of autonomy similar to cities.

The local autonomy system grants prefectures and municipalities significant responsibilities in areas such as education, welfare, public works, and local policing (though the police are ultimately under national oversight). These local governments have their own elected assemblies and chief executives (governors and mayors). The system aims to promote decentralization and citizen participation in local governance, though debates continue regarding the balance of power between national and local authorities and the financial resources available to local governments.

The prefectures are often grouped into eight traditional regions, which do not have formal administrative status but are commonly used for geographical, cultural, and economic reference. These regions are:

5.3. Foreign relations

Japan maintains an active role in the international community, with its foreign policy primarily based on multilateralism, economic diplomacy, and a strong security alliance with the United States. As a member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent member of the Security Council multiple times (11 times as of recent counts, the most of any UN member) and is one of the G4 nations advocating for Security Council reform, including a permanent seat for itself.

Japan is a key member of various international organizations and forums, including the G7 (Group of Seven) industrialized nations, the G20, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, and the ASEAN Plus Three framework. It also participates in the East Asia Summit. In 2016, Japan announced its Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) vision, which frames its regional policies focusing on rule-based international order, freedom of navigation, and economic prosperity. Japan is also a member of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (the Quad), a strategic dialogue with the United States, Australia, and India, aimed at promoting a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region, often seen as a counter to China's growing influence.

A cornerstone of Japan's foreign policy is the security alliance with the United States, which has been in place since the post-World War II era. This alliance involves close economic and military cooperation, including the stationing of U.S. military forces in Japan.

Japan is also a significant contributor to international development. It was the world's fifth-largest donor of official development assistance (ODA) in 2014, and in 2023, it was the third-largest donor among Development Assistance Committee (DAC) members, providing substantial aid for humanitarian efforts, infrastructure development, and human resource capacity building globally. The humanitarian and human rights dimensions of its foreign policy are increasingly emphasized, reflecting a commitment to global peace, stability, and the well-being of individuals. Japan maintains one of the largest diplomatic networks in the world, with 251 overseas missions in 156 countries and regions as of 2024.

Despite its generally positive international engagement, Japan faces several complex bilateral relationships and territorial disputes with its neighbors, which are detailed in subsequent sections. Addressing historical issues related to its actions during World War II also remains a sensitive aspect of its foreign relations, particularly with China and South Korea.

5.4. Military

Japan's military, known as the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) (自衛隊_Jieitai^Japanese), operates under unique constitutional constraints. Article 9 of the post-World War II constitution renounces war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes. It also stipulates that "land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained." However, successive Japanese governments have interpreted this to mean that Japan can maintain forces for self-defense.

The JSDF was established in 1954 and is governed by the Ministry of Defense. It consists of three branches:

• The Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF)
• The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF)
• The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF)

Despite the constitutional limitations, the JSDF is a modern and well-equipped military force. Japan's defense budget was the tenth largest in the world in 2022, though it typically remains around 1% of its GDP. In recent years, there has been a gradual increase in defense spending and a reinterpretation of Article 9 to allow for a more proactive role in international security and collective self-defense under specific conditions. In December 2022, Prime Minister Fumio Kishida instructed the government to increase defense spending significantly by 2027.

Japan's defense policy emphasizes an exclusively defense-oriented posture, the Three Non-Nuclear Principles (not possessing, not producing, and not permitting the introduction of nuclear weapons into Japan), and civilian control of the military. The cornerstone of Japan's security is the U.S.-Japan Security Alliance, which involves the stationing of U.S. forces in Japan and a commitment by the U.S. to defend Japan.

In recent decades, the JSDF has expanded its activities to include participation in UN peacekeeping operations, disaster relief missions, and international counter-piracy efforts. The deployment of troops to Iraq and Afghanistan for reconstruction and support missions marked the first overseas use of Japan's military in non-combat roles since World War II.

The security environment in East Asia, particularly concerns regarding North Korea's nuclear and missile programs and China's military modernization and regional assertiveness, has fueled ongoing debate in Japan about its defense posture and the interpretation of its constitution. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe's government in May 2014 advocated for Japan to take more responsibility for regional security, leading to security legislation in 2015 that expanded the scope of JSDF activities. These developments reflect an evolving understanding of self-defense in a changing regional and global context, a topic of considerable public and political discussion regarding its implications for Japan's pacifist identity and democratic principles.

5.5. Law and law enforcement

Japan's legal system is primarily based on civil law, with significant influences from German and French law, particularly in the development of its Six Codes (六法_Roppō^Japanese). These codes form the core of Japanese statutory law and cover the Constitution, Civil Code, Commercial Code, Penal Code, Code of Civil Procedure, and Code of Criminal Procedure. After World War II, the legal system also incorporated elements of Anglo-American law, especially in areas like constitutional law and criminal procedure, reflecting the democratic reforms of the occupation period.

The Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947, is the supreme law and emphasizes fundamental human rights, popular sovereignty, and pacifism. Statutory law originates in the National Diet. The Emperor promulgates laws passed by the Diet but has no power to oppose legislation.

Law enforcement in Japan is primarily the responsibility of prefectural police departments, which operate under the oversight of the National Police Agency (NPA). The NPA, an agency of the National Public Safety Commission (which is under the jurisdiction of the Cabinet Office), sets national standards and policies, coordinates between prefectural forces, and handles matters of national security. Each of the 47 prefectures has its own autonomous police force responsible for daily law enforcement activities within its jurisdiction.

Japan is known for its low crime rates and high level of public safety. Law enforcement agencies focus on community policing through a network of local police stations (kōban and chūzaisho). The Japan Coast Guard is responsible for maritime security, including patrolling territorial waters, search and rescue, and combating smuggling and piracy.

The public prosecutors (検察庁_{kensatsu-chō}^Japanese) have considerable authority in the criminal justice process, including the power to investigate crimes and decide whether to indict suspects. The conviction rate in Japanese criminal trials is very high, which has led to some scrutiny regarding pre-trial detention practices and the rights of suspects, particularly concerning lengthy interrogations and the reliance on confessions. Issues related to civil liberties and due process, such as access to legal counsel during interrogation and the transparency of investigations, are areas of ongoing discussion and reform efforts aimed at strengthening human rights protections within the justice system.

The Firearm and Sword Possession Control Law strictly regulates the civilian ownership of guns, swords, and other weaponry, contributing to Japan's low rates of gun violence. Overall, Japan's legal and law enforcement systems are designed to maintain social order and public safety, but, like any system, face continuous challenges in balancing these objectives with the protection of individual rights and civil liberties.

5.6. Human rights

The Constitution of Japan, enacted in 1947, guarantees a wide range of fundamental human rights. Chapter III is dedicated to "Rights and Duties of the People" and includes provisions for equality under the law, freedom of thought and conscience, freedom of religion, freedom of assembly and association, freedom of speech and the press, academic freedom, the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, the right to receive an equal education, the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living, and the rights of workers. Japan is also a signatory to numerous international human rights treaties.

Despite these constitutional and international commitments, Japan faces various human rights challenges. The Japanese government has stated its commitment to promoting and protecting human rights, but various domestic and international organizations, including the United Nations Human Rights Committee, have pointed out areas needing improvement.

Major human rights issues in Japan include:

• Gender Equality**: Despite legal frameworks for equality, significant gender disparities persist in employment, political representation, and societal roles. Women face challenges in career advancement (the "glass ceiling"), wage gaps, and underrepresentation in leadership positions. Harassment in the workplace (pawahara and sekuhara) and societal pressures related to traditional gender roles remain prevalent.
• LGBTQ+ Rights**: While societal acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals has been growing, Japan does not have national-level legal recognition of same-sex marriage or comprehensive anti-discrimination laws protecting LGBTQ+ people. Some municipalities have introduced partnership systems, but these do not confer the same legal rights as marriage. Transgender individuals face hurdles in legal gender recognition.
• Minority Rights**:
  • Ainu**: The indigenous Ainu people of Hokkaido continue to face discrimination and work towards the preservation of their language and culture. While the government recognized the Ainu as an indigenous people in 2008 and enacted new legislation in 2019 to promote Ainu culture, challenges remain in addressing historical injustices and ensuring full rights.
  • Ryukyuan/Okinawan People**: Some groups in Okinawa (Ryukyu Islands) assert a distinct ethnic and cultural identity and raise concerns about the disproportionate burden of U.S. military bases and related human rights impacts, as well as the preservation of Ryukyuan languages and culture.
  • Burakumin**: Descendants of feudal outcast groups, Burakumin still face subtle discrimination in marriage and employment despite anti-discrimination efforts.
  • Zainichi Koreans and other resident foreigners**: Long-term foreign residents, particularly Zainichi Koreans, have historically faced discrimination and challenges related to nationality, employment, and social integration. Racism and xenophobia against foreigners, though not widespread overt violence, manifest in microaggressions, housing and employment discrimination, and sometimes racial profiling by police.
• Death Penalty**: Japan is one ofthe few developed democracies that retains capital punishment. The system has been criticized by international human rights organizations for issues such as the lengthy periods inmates spend on death row, the psychological strain on condemned prisoners (who are often informed of their execution only hours before it occurs), and concerns about miscarriages of justice and access to retrials.
• Criminal Justice System**: Concerns have been raised about aspects of the criminal justice system, including lengthy pre-trial detention, interrogation practices that can lead to false confessions (the daiyo kangoku or "substitute prison" system), and the high conviction rate. Access to legal counsel during interrogation has improved but remains an area of focus.
• Refugees and Asylum Seekers**: Japan has a very low recognition rate for refugees and asylum seekers compared to other developed countries. The asylum application process has been criticized as overly restrictive and lengthy, and the treatment of detainees in immigration facilities has also drawn criticism.
• Freedom of the Press**: While generally free, concerns have been raised about government pressure on media organizations and the impact of the "state secrets" law on investigative journalism and whistleblowers. The unique kisha club system has also been cited as potentially limiting media access and diversity of reporting.

Civil society organizations in Japan are actively working to address these human rights concerns through advocacy, legal action, and public awareness campaigns. From a social liberal perspective, strengthening legal protections against discrimination, ensuring due process and fair treatment within the justice system, promoting diversity and inclusion, and fostering a culture of respect for human rights for all individuals are crucial for Japan's continued democratic development and social progress. Japan currently lacks a national human rights institution independent of the government, which is a recommendation often made by international bodies.

6.1. Economic sectors

Japan's economy is characterized by a highly developed and diversified structure, with the tertiary (service) sector being the largest contributor to its GDP, followed by the secondary (manufacturing) sector, and a smaller primary (agriculture, forestry, fisheries) sector.

6.1.1. Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries

The Japanese agricultural, forestry, and fisheries sector accounted for about 1.2% of the country's total GDP in 2018. Only about 11.5% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation due to its mountainous terrain. This scarcity of arable land has led to intensive farming practices, including the use of terraces in hilly areas. Japan achieves high crop yields per unit area but has an agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% on a calorie basis (as of 2018), relying on imports for a significant portion of its food supply.

Rice is the staple crop and is heavily subsidized and protected under government policy. Other important agricultural products include vegetables, fruits, and livestock. The agricultural sector faces significant challenges, including an aging farming population, difficulty in finding successors for farms, and pressure from trade liberalization to open its markets. Government policies aim to support domestic agriculture, improve productivity, promote sustainable farming practices, and ensure food security. The livelihoods of farmers and the vitality of rural communities are key considerations in agricultural policy, alongside environmental sustainability concerns such as pesticide use and water management.

Forestry covers a large portion of Japan's land, but the domestic timber industry faces competition from cheaper imports. Sustainable forest management and the revitalization of the forestry sector are ongoing goals.

Japan has one of the world's largest fishing fleets and a long tradition of consuming seafood. It ranked seventh globally in tonnage of fish caught in 2016, capturing 3,167,610 metric tons. However, concerns about overfishing and the depletion of fish stocks, such as tuna, have led to increased international scrutiny and calls for more sustainable fishing practices. Japan's support for commercial whaling also remains a controversial international issue. Aquaculture is also an important part of the fisheries sector. Policies in this sector focus on resource management, promoting sustainable fisheries, and supporting fishing communities.

6.1.2. Manufacturing

Japan's manufacturing sector is a cornerstone of its economy, renowned for its technological advancement, high-quality products, and global competitiveness. It accounts for a significant portion of the country's GDP (approximately 27.5% for the broader industrial sector) and employment. Japan's manufacturing output was the fourth highest in the world as of 2023.

Key manufacturing fields include:

• Automobiles**: Japan is one of the world's top three producers and exporters of motor vehicles. Companies like Toyota, Honda, and Nissan are global leaders, known for their innovation in fuel efficiency, hybrid technology, and manufacturing processes (e.g., the Toyota Production System). The automotive industry has a vast supply chain and significantly impacts regional economies.
• Electronics**: Japan has historically been a leader in consumer electronics, components, and industrial electronics. While facing increased competition from South Korea and China in consumer electronics, Japanese companies remain strong in areas like high-precision components, factory automation equipment, and specialized electronic materials. The video game industry is also a major global force, with companies like Nintendo and Sony (PlayStation) having a significant market presence. In 2014, Japan's consumer video game market grossed $9.6 billion. By 2015, Japan was the world's fourth-largest PC game market by revenue.
• Robotics**: Japan is a world leader in the production and use of industrial robots, supplying around 45% of the world's total in 2020. It also invests heavily in service robots and advanced robotics research.
• Steel and Metals**: Japan has a highly advanced steel industry, producing high-quality steel for various applications. It is also prominent in nonferrous metals.
• Machine tools**: Japanese manufacturers are known for their precision machine tools, which are crucial for various manufacturing processes globally.
• Chemicals**: The chemical industry produces a wide range of products, from basic chemicals to highly specialized materials for electronics and pharmaceuticals.
• Shipbuilding**: While facing strong competition from South Korea and China, Japan maintains a significant shipbuilding industry, particularly for specialized and high-value vessels.
• Food Processing**: A large and sophisticated food processing industry caters to domestic demand and export markets.

The manufacturing sector is characterized by a strong emphasis on research and development, quality control (kaizen or continuous improvement), and efficient production systems. However, it also faces challenges such as an aging workforce, the need to adapt to decarbonization goals, and supply chain vulnerabilities. The social impact of manufacturing includes providing stable employment but also concerns about working conditions in some sub-sectors. Environmental impacts, such as resource consumption and emissions, are being addressed through stricter regulations and corporate sustainability initiatives.

6.2. Science and technology

Japan is a global leader in science and technology, with a strong tradition of innovation and significant investment in research and development (R&D). The country has produced numerous Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine (22 as of recent counts), as well as three Fields Medalists in mathematics, reflecting its high level of basic research.

Japan's R&D expenditure relative to its gross domestic product (GDP) is among the highest in the world (sixth or seventh globally, with 3.43% of GDP in 2016, and around ¥19 trillion or USD equivalent, shared by approximately 867,000 researchers in 2017). The country also has one of the highest numbers of researchers per capita. Historically, Japan has excelled in patent applications, particularly in international patents (Patent Cooperation Treaty filings), ranking second globally in 2016, and has consistently been a top filer of patent families (patents filed in multiple countries). However, in recent years, while overall R&D spending remains high, there have been concerns about a relative decline in the global share of highly cited scientific papers and a need to further foster innovation and basic research to maintain competitiveness.

Key areas of scientific and technological strength include:

• Robotics**: Japan is a dominant force in both the production and use of industrial robots, supplying approximately 45% of the world's total in 2020. It is also at the forefront of developing advanced service robots, humanoid robots (like ASIMO), and AI-driven automation.
• Automotive Technology**: Japanese automotive companies are renowned for innovations in fuel efficiency, hybrid and electric vehicle technology, and advanced manufacturing processes.
• Electronics**: Japan is a major producer of electronic components, materials, and equipment, including semiconductors (though facing increased competition), optical devices, and precision instruments.
• Aerospace**: The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's national space agency, conducting research in space, planetary science, and aviation. JAXA is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), contributing the Kibō laboratory module. It has launched successful space probes like Hayabusa2 (asteroid sample return) and Akatsuki (Venus orbiter). Japan has ambitious space exploration plans, including lunar missions and aspirations for crewed missions. In 2007, it launched the lunar explorer SELENE (Kaguya) to gather data on the Moon's origin and evolution.
• Materials Science**: Japan is a leader in advanced materials, including carbon fiber, ceramics, and specialized alloys.
• Biotechnology and Pharmaceuticals**: While traditionally strong in fermentation technologies, Japan is also making strides in biotechnology, regenerative medicine, and pharmaceutical research.
• Optics and Imaging**: Japanese companies are world leaders in cameras, optical instruments, and medical imaging equipment.

The Japanese government promotes science and technology through various policies and funding initiatives, aiming to address societal challenges such as an aging population, energy security, and environmental sustainability. Ethical considerations and the societal implications of new technologies, such as AI and genetic engineering, are also subjects of public and academic discussion. Ensuring a pipeline of talent in STEM fields and fostering a dynamic research environment are ongoing priorities.

7.1. Transportation

Japan's transportation system is renowned for its efficiency, punctuality, and technological sophistication, particularly its railway networks.

• Railways**: Railways are a dominant mode of passenger transport, especially for intercity travel and commuting in urban areas. The Shinkansen (bullet train) network connects major cities across Honshu, Kyushu, and Hokkaido with high-speed services known for their safety and reliability. Numerous private railway companies, along with the JR Group (formed after the privatization of Japanese National Railways in 1987), operate extensive networks of commuter, regional, and freight trains. Major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu, Seibu Railway, and Keio Corporation.
• Roads**: Japan has an extensive road network, totaling approximately 0.7 M mile ^{(1.20 M km)} as of 2017. This includes about 0.6 M mile ^{(1.00 M km)} of city, town, and village roads, 81 K mile ^{(130.00 K km)} of prefectural roads, 34 K mile ^{(54.74 K km)} of general national highways, and 4.7 K mile ^{(7.64 K km)} of national expressways. The expressway network is well-maintained and continues to expand, though tolls are common.
• Aviation**: There are 175 airports in Japan (as of 2021). Haneda Airport in Tokyo is one of the busiest airports in Asia and primarily handles domestic flights, while Narita International Airport serves as a major international hub for Tokyo. Other key international airports include Kansai International Airport (serving Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe) and Chubu Centrair International Airport (near Nagoya). Japan Airlines (JAL) and All Nippon Airways (ANA) are the country's two largest airlines.
• Maritime Transport**: As an island nation, maritime transport is crucial for international trade. Major ports include Yokohama, Tokyo, Nagoya, Kobe, and Osaka. The Keihin (Tokyo Bay) and Hanshin (Osaka Bay) superport hubs are among the largest in the world in terms of container traffic. Coastal shipping also plays a role in domestic freight.

Japan has invested heavily in transportation infrastructure, though this has sometimes led to debates about the economic viability and environmental impact of large-scale projects. Ensuring the sustainability and accessibility of transportation systems, particularly in rural areas and for an aging population, remains an ongoing challenge.

7.2. Energy

Japan's energy sector is characterized by a heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels, a significant nuclear power capacity (though its operation has been contentious), and growing efforts to increase the share of renewable energy.

• Energy Mix (as of 2019)**:
  • Petroleum: 37.1%
  • Coal: 25.1%
  • Natural Gas (primarily LNG): 22.4%
  • Nuclear Power: 2.8% (down from 11.2% in 2010 before the Fukushima disaster)
  • Renewables (including hydropower): Approximately 12.3% (Hydropower 3.5%, other renewables around 8.8%)
  • Energy Security**: Japan lacks significant domestic fossil fuel reserves and is one of the world's largest importers of oil, coal, and liquefied natural gas (LNG). This import dependency makes energy security a major policy concern. The government aims to diversify energy sources and suppliers and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.
  • Nuclear Power**: Prior to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, nuclear power was a significant component of Japan's energy strategy, aimed at reducing reliance on imported fuels and cutting carbon emissions. Following the disaster, all nuclear power plants were temporarily shut down due to safety concerns and public opposition. While some reactors have since restarted under stricter safety regulations (e.g., the Sendai Nuclear Power Plant in 2015), the future of nuclear power remains a subject of intense public and political debate. The government's energy plans have generally included a role for nuclear power, but achieving these targets faces considerable hurdles.
  • Renewable Energy**: Japan has been promoting renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass. A feed-in tariff system was introduced to incentivize investment in renewables. Solar power, in particular, has seen significant growth. However, challenges remain, including grid integration, land availability, and cost competitiveness.
  • Energy Policy**: Japan's energy policy aims to balance energy security, economic efficiency, and environmental protection (the "3E+S" - Energy Security, Economic Efficiency, Environment + Safety). The government periodically revises its Strategic Energy Plan. Recent policies have emphasized decarbonization, with a target of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. This ambitious goal requires a major transformation of the energy system, including significant expansion of renewables, improvements in energy efficiency, and potentially the use of new technologies like hydrogen and carbon capture.

  The environmental impact of energy production, particularly from fossil fuels and nuclear power, is a major concern. The transition to a more sustainable energy system is a key challenge for Japan, involving technological innovation, policy changes, and societal consensus.

7.3. Water supply and sanitation

Japan has a highly developed infrastructure for water supply and sanitation, ensuring access to safe drinking water and effective wastewater treatment for the vast majority of its population.

• Water Supply**:
  • Sources**: Japan's primary sources of water are rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater. The country generally has abundant rainfall, but regional and seasonal variations can lead to water shortages in some areas, particularly during dry spells.
  • Infrastructure**: An extensive network of dams, purification plants, and pipelines supplies tap water to homes and businesses. Water quality is generally very high, and tap water is potable in most areas.
  • Management**: Water resources are managed by a combination of national and local government agencies, as well as public corporations. Efforts focus on sustainable water resource management, conservation, and ensuring the safety and reliability of the water supply, especially in the face of climate change and natural disasters.
  • Challenges**: Aging infrastructure requires ongoing maintenance and renewal. Some regions also face challenges related to drought or maintaining water quality in sources affected by pollution.
  • Sanitation (Sewerage Systems)**:
    • Coverage**: Japan has a high rate of connection to public sewerage systems, particularly in urban areas. In areas not covered by centralized systems, septic tanks and other on-site treatment facilities (jōkasō) are used.
    • Wastewater Treatment**: Wastewater collected by sewerage systems undergoes advanced treatment processes at numerous treatment plants before being discharged into rivers or the sea. This helps to protect water quality and public health.
    • Technology**: Japan is known for its advanced sanitation technology, including sophisticated toilet systems (e.g., Washlets) that are common in homes and public facilities.
    • Challenges**: Expanding sewerage coverage to all rural areas, upgrading aging facilities, managing sludge from treatment plants, and dealing with stormwater runoff (which can cause combined sewer overflows in older systems) are ongoing tasks.

    Overall, Japan's water supply and sanitation infrastructure is among the best in the world, contributing significantly to public health and environmental protection. However, maintaining and improving this infrastructure, especially in the context of an aging population, declining local government revenues in some areas, and increasing climate-related risks, requires continuous investment and strategic planning.

8.1. Demographics

Japan's population was approximately 125 million as of 2022 estimates, with nearly 122 million being Japanese nationals. This makes it the eleventh-most populous country in the world. However, Japan is facing significant demographic shifts, primarily characterized by a low birth rate and a rapidly aging population.

• Aging Population**: Japan is one of the world's fastest-aging countries. As of 2020, over 28.7% of the population was over 65 years old, the highest proportion globally. The median age was 48.4 years, also the highest in the world. This aging trend is a result of a post-World War II baby boom followed by decades of increased life expectancy (one of the highest globally) and declining fertility rates.
• Low Birthrate**: Japan's total fertility rate (TFR) is among the world's lowest, at around 1.4 children per woman, which is well below the replacement rate of 2.1. Factors contributing to the low birthrate include delayed marriage, the high cost of raising children, limited support for working mothers, and changing social norms regarding family size and marriage. A growing number of younger Japanese are choosing not to marry or to remain childless.
• Population Decline**: Due to the low birthrate and aging population, Japan's overall population has been declining since its peak. Projections indicate this decline will continue, with the population expected to drop to around 88 million by 2065.
• Population Distribution**: Approximately 92% of Japan's population lives in urban areas (as of 2022). The Greater Tokyo Area is the world's largest metropolitan area, with over 37 million inhabitants. Other major urban centers include Osaka, Nagoya, and Fukuoka. This high level of urbanization puts pressure on infrastructure and resources in cities, while rural areas often face depopulation and economic decline.
• Gender Structure**: The gender ratio is relatively balanced, though women tend to live longer than men.

These demographic changes present significant social and economic challenges:

• Workforce Shortages**: A shrinking working-age population strains the labor market and economic growth potential.
• Social Security Costs**: The increasing proportion of elderly citizens places a heavy burden on the social security system, particularly pensions and healthcare. The government projects that by 2060, there will be almost one elderly person for each person of working age.
• Regional Disparities**: Depopulation in rural areas leads to a decline in local services and economies.
• Social Issues**: Supporting the elderly, adapting social systems to a smaller workforce, and addressing issues like loneliness and social isolation among the elderly are growing concerns.

The Japanese government and society are exploring various measures to address these demographic challenges, including policies to support families and child-rearing, encourage female workforce participation, raise the retirement age, promote healthy aging, and, to a limited extent, increase immigration of foreign workers. The effectiveness of these policies in mitigating the long-term impacts of demographic change remains a critical issue for Japan's future.

8.2. Ethnic groups and minorities

Japanese society is often described as ethnically and culturally homogeneous, with the vast majority of the population identifying as Yamato Japanese (approximately 97.4% are Japanese nationals). However, Japan is also home to several indigenous groups, long-term foreign residents, and newer immigrant communities, whose rights, recognition, and inclusion are important aspects of Japan's social fabric.

• Yamato Japanese**: The dominant ethnic group, forming the overwhelming majority of the population.
• Indigenous Peoples**:
  • Ainu**: The Ainu are an indigenous people primarily residing in Hokkaido, as well as formerly in northern Honshu and the Kuril Islands. They have a distinct language, culture, and traditions. Historically, the Ainu faced assimilation policies and discrimination. In 2008, the Japanese government formally recognized the Ainu as an indigenous people, and in 2019, the "Ainu Policy Promotion Act" was passed to support Ainu culture, identity, and economic development. However, challenges remain in addressing historical injustices, revitalizing the Ainu language (which is critically endangered), and combating ongoing prejudice.
  • Ryukyuan (Okinawan) People**: The Ryukyuan people are indigenous to the Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa. They have distinct languages (part of the Japonic language family but not mutually intelligible with mainland Japanese), culture, and history, including the period of the Ryukyu Kingdom before its annexation by Japan in 1879. Some Ryukyuans advocate for greater recognition of their distinct identity and cultural heritage, and raise concerns about the disproportionate burden of U.S. military bases in Okinawa and the impact on their land and environment.
• Zainichi Koreans (在日韓国・朝鮮人)**: These are long-term Korean residents in Japan, mostly descendants of Koreans who migrated or were forcibly brought to Japan during its colonial rule of Korea (1910-1945). Many Zainichi Koreans retain Korean nationality (either South or North Korean) or a special permanent resident status, and have historically faced discrimination in employment, housing, and social integration. While conditions have improved, issues of identity, nationality, and historical reconciliation remain.
• Zainichi Chinese and Newer Chinese Immigrants**: Similar to Zainichi Koreans, there are long-term Chinese residents. In recent decades, there has also been a significant influx of new immigrants from China for work and study.
• Other Foreign Residents**: Japan has a growing population of foreign residents from various countries, including Brazilians and Peruvians (many of Japanese descent, known as Nikkeijin), Filipinos, and others, who come for employment, education, or family reasons. These communities contribute to Japan's diversity but can face challenges related to integration, language barriers, and discrimination.
• Burakumin (部落民)**: The Burakumin are a social minority group, descendants of outcast communities from Japan's feudal era who were associated with occupations considered "impure" (e.g., butchers, leatherworkers, executioners). Although legally emancipated in 1871, Burakumin and their descendants have historically faced, and in some cases continue to face, discrimination in marriage, employment, and social life, despite government efforts to address this issue.

From a social liberal perspective, ensuring the rights, dignity, and equal opportunities for all ethnic groups and minorities is crucial. This includes combating discrimination, promoting cultural diversity and understanding, supporting language and cultural preservation efforts for indigenous and minority groups, and fostering an inclusive society where all residents, regardless of their ethnic background or nationality, can participate fully and equally. Japan lacks comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation covering race and ethnicity at the national level, which human rights organizations have pointed out as an area for improvement.

8.3. Languages

The primary and de facto national language of Japan is Japanese (日本語_Nihongo^Japanese). It is spoken by the vast majority of the population and is the language of education, government, and media. Japanese is an agglutinative language known for its complex system of honorifics (keigo) which reflects hierarchical social relationships.

The Japanese writing system is intricate and uses a combination of three main scripts:

• Kanji (漢字)**: Logographic characters adopted from Chinese. Thousands of kanji are used in everyday writing, representing morphemes (words or parts of words).
• Hiragana (ひらがな)**: A cursive syllabary used for native Japanese words, grammatical particles, and verb/adjective inflections for which there are no kanji or when the kanji is obscure.
• Katakana (カタカナ)**: An angular syllabary primarily used for foreign loanwords, onomatopoeia, emphasis, and scientific names.

The Latin alphabet (Rōmaji) and Arabic numerals are also commonly used.

Besides standard Japanese (based on the Tokyo dialect), there are numerous dialects spoken across the country, which can sometimes differ significantly in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.

• Minority Languages**:
  • Ryukyuan languages**: Spoken in the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa Prefecture and parts of Kagoshima Prefecture). These languages, such as Okinawan (沖縄口_Uchināguchi^ryu), Miyako, Yaeyama, Kunigami, Yonaguni, and Amami, are part of the Japonic language family along with Japanese, but they are generally not mutually intelligible with mainland Japanese. Most Ryukyuan languages are endangered due to the historical promotion of standard Japanese and language shift among younger generations. Efforts are underway by local communities and governments to preserve and revitalize these languages.
  • Ainu language**: The language of the indigenous Ainu people of Hokkaido and formerly northern Honshu and the Kuril Islands. Ainu is a language isolate (not related to Japanese or any other known language family) and is critically endangered, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining. Revitalization efforts are being made, including language classes and cultural promotion.
  • Other Languages**: Due to immigration, languages such as Korean (including the distinct Zainichi Korean dialect), Chinese, Portuguese (spoken by Japanese Brazilians), and Filipino are spoken within their respective communities.
  • Japanese Sign Language (JSL)**: The primary sign language used by the deaf community in Japan. It has gained some official recognition, but advocacy continues for its wider use and support in education and public services.

  English is widely taught as a foreign language in schools from elementary through high school and is important for international business and tourism, although conversational fluency among the general population remains relatively low. The promotion of linguistic diversity and the rights of minority language speakers are important considerations for an inclusive society in Japan.

8.4. Religion

Religion in Japan is characterized by a unique blend of traditions, with Shinto and Buddhism being the two dominant influences on the country's cultural and spiritual life. The Constitution of Japan guarantees full religious freedom, and the state maintains a separation from religious organizations.

• Shinto (神道)**: Shinto ("the Way of the Gods") is the indigenous religion of Japan. It is polytheistic and animistic, involving the worship of numerous deities or spirits called kami. Kami can be spirits of nature (mountains, rivers, trees), ancestors, or other revered entities. Shinto practices often revolve around shrines (jinja), purification rituals, and festivals (matsuri) that celebrate nature and community. Shinto has no formal founder or sacred scriptures comparable to other major religions. Many Japanese people participate in Shinto rituals and visit shrines for blessings, particularly for life events like births, coming-of-age ceremonies, and New Year celebrations (Hatsumōde).

• Buddhism (仏教, Bukkyō)**: Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Korea and China in the 6th century CE. It quickly gained acceptance and coexisted and syncretized with Shinto beliefs (a phenomenon known as Shinbutsu-shūgō). Various Buddhist schools and sects flourished in Japan, including Zen (Sōtō and Rinzai schools), Pure Land Buddhism (Jōdo-shū and Jōdo Shinshū), Nichiren, Shingon, and Tendai. Buddhist temples (tera) are numerous throughout Japan, and Buddhist practices are deeply ingrained in Japanese customs, particularly concerning funerals and ancestor veneration.

A notable characteristic of Japanese religiosity is that many people do not exclusively identify with a single religion. It is common for individuals to participate in both Shinto and Buddhist practices depending on the occasion. For example, births and marriages might be celebrated with Shinto rituals, while funerals are typically conducted according to Buddhist rites. Surveys often show that while a large percentage of the population reports affiliation with Shinto (around 84-96%) and Buddhism (a similarly high percentage, with significant overlap), the number of people who identify as active or devout believers is much lower. Many Japanese people describe themselves as non-religious or spiritual rather than adhering strictly to organized religion.

• Christianity (キリスト教, Kirisutokyō)**: Christianity was introduced to Japan by Jesuit missionaries in the mid-16th century but was later suppressed during the Edo period. It was reintroduced in the Meiji period. Christians constitute a small minority, estimated at 1% to 1.5% of the population. Despite the small number of adherents, Christian-related Western customs like Western-style weddings, Valentine's Day, and Christmas have become popular secular traditions among many Japanese.

• Islam (イスラム教, Isuramukyō)**: Islam is also a minority religion, practiced mainly by foreign-born migrants and a small community of Japanese converts. As of 2018, there were an estimated 200,000 Muslims and around 105 mosques in Japan.

• New Religions (新宗教, Shinshūkyō)**: Various new religious movements have emerged in Japan since the 19th century, often drawing on Shinto, Buddhist, or folk beliefs. Some have gained significant followings.

• Other Beliefs**: Confucian ethics, particularly concepts of social harmony, respect for elders, and loyalty, have also profoundly influenced Japanese thought and social customs, though Confucianism is generally seen as a system of ethics rather than a religion. Taoist influences can also be found in some folk beliefs and practices. The animist beliefs of the Ainu are distinct from mainstream Shinto.

Overall, religious views in Japan tend to be pragmatic and pluralistic, with an emphasis on ritual, tradition, and community participation rather than strict adherence to dogma. The role of religion in contemporary society continues to evolve, with ongoing discussions about secularization, spirituality, and the place of traditional beliefs in a modern, globalized world.

8.5. Education

Japan's education system is renowned for its high standards and has played a crucial role in the country's modernization and economic development. Compulsory education, established by the Fundamental Law of Education in 1947, covers nine years, comprising six years of elementary school (小学校_shōgakkō^Japanese) and three years of junior high school (中学校_chūgakkō^Japanese).

Almost all students continue to three-year senior high school (高等学校_kōtōgakkō^Japanese, often abbreviated as 高校_kōkō^Japanese), though it is not compulsory. Entrance to senior high schools is often based on competitive examinations. Following senior high school, students can pursue higher education at universities (大学_daigaku^Japanese), junior colleges (短期大学_{tanki daigaku}^Japanese), or specialized training colleges (専門学校_{senmon gakkō}^Japanese).

Key features of the Japanese education system include:

• High Enrollment Rates**: Enrollment rates are very high at all levels, including senior high school and higher education. In 2021, Japan ranked third among OECD countries for the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds with tertiary education (55.6%).
• Centralized Curriculum**: The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) sets national curriculum guidelines, ensuring a degree of uniformity across the country.
• Emphasis on Examinations**: The university entrance examination system (often involving a national standardized test and individual university exams) is highly competitive and plays a significant role in students' academic paths and future careers. This has led to the proliferation of private cram schools (juku).
• School Year**: The academic year typically begins in April and ends in March, divided into trimesters or semesters.
• Extracurricular Activities**: School life often includes participation in extracurricular club activities (bukatsudō), which are considered important for developing teamwork and social skills.
• International Assessments**: Japanese students consistently perform well in international assessments like the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), particularly in mathematics and science. In the PISA 2015 results, Japanese 15-year-olds ranked as the third best in the world overall.
• Teacher Quality**: Teachers are generally well-respected and undergo rigorous training.

Social challenges related to education include:

• Intense Competition and Pressure**: The highly competitive nature of the examination system can place significant stress on students.
• Bullying (いじめ, ijime)**: Bullying in schools is a recognized social problem, with ongoing efforts to address it.
• School Refusal (不登校, futōkō)**: Some students experience school refusal due to various pressures or difficulties.
• Need for Reform**: There are ongoing debates about educational reform, including fostering creativity and critical thinking, promoting global competence (including English language proficiency), and adapting to the needs of a changing society and economy.
• Equity**: While the system aims for equality, disparities can exist based on socioeconomic background and geographic location.

The University of Tokyo and Kyoto University are among Japan's top-ranking and most prestigious universities. Starting in April 2016, some schools began integrating elementary and junior high school into a single nine-year compulsory program, an approach MEXT plans to adopt nationwide. Japan spent 7.4% of its total government expenditure on education in 2021. Japanese women are, on average, more highly educated than men, with 59% of women possessing a university degree compared to 52% of men (as of 2019).

8.6. Health

Japan's healthcare system is characterized by universal health coverage, high-quality medical services, and one of the highest life expectancies in the world.

• Universal Health Insurance**: Japan achieved universal health insurance coverage in 1961. All citizens and residents are required to enroll in a health insurance plan. This is typically provided through employer-based insurance for employees or through national health insurance programs administered by local governments for the self-employed, unemployed, and retirees. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. This system ensures relative equality of access to medical services.
• Payment System**: Medical fees are strictly regulated by a government committee. Patients typically pay a co-payment (e.g., 30% for most adults) for medical services, with the remainder covered by insurance. There are caps on out-of-pocket expenses to protect individuals from catastrophic healthcare costs.
• Healthcare Providers**: Patients have free access to choose their doctors and medical facilities. The system includes a mix of public and private hospitals and clinics.
• Life Expectancy and Health Outcomes**: As of 2020, the overall life expectancy at birth in Japan was 85 years (82 years for men and 88 years for women), among the highest globally. The infant mortality rate is very low (2 per 1,000 live births). Japan has low rates of heart disease and dementia compared to other developed countries.
• Major Health Issues**: The principal cause of death since 1981 has been cancer (accounting for 27% of deaths in 2018), followed by cardiovascular disease (15%). With an aging population, age-related diseases and the need for long-term care are significant challenges. Suicide remains a serious social issue, although rates have declined from their peak. Smoking, particularly among men, is another public health concern.
• Healthcare Expenditure**: Japan spent 10.82% of its total GDP on healthcare in 2021.

While the healthcare system is generally effective, it faces challenges related to the aging population, rising healthcare costs, regional disparities in access to specialized medical care, and a shortage of healthcare professionals in some areas. Reforms are ongoing to ensure the sustainability and efficiency of the system while maintaining high-quality care.

8.7. Social customs and family life

Japanese social customs and family life are a blend of traditional values and modern influences, reflecting the country's unique history and societal development. Emphasis is often placed on group harmony (wa), politeness (keigo), and maintaining social face.

• Family Structure**:
  • Traditional**: The traditional Japanese family system, known as the ie system, was patriarchal and based on patrilineal succession. It emphasized the continuity of the household over individual desires. The eldest son typically inherited the family headship and property.
  • Contemporary**: Post-World War II legal reforms abolished the ie system, promoting equality among family members. The nuclear family (parents and their unmarried children) is now the most common family unit. However, multi-generational households, where elderly parents live with their adult children, are still present, though declining.
• Marriage**:
  • Traditionally, marriages were often arranged (omiai) with an emphasis on social compatibility and family lineage.
  • While arranged marriages still exist, love marriages (ren'ai kekkon) based on individual choice are now the norm.
  • There is a trend towards later marriage (bankonka) and an increase in the number of people choosing to remain single (hikonka).
  • Wedding ceremonies can be diverse, ranging from traditional Shinto rites to Western-style Christian ceremonies (often chosen for aesthetic reasons) or secular celebrations.
• Social Etiquette**:
  • Politeness and respect are highly valued. The Japanese language has a complex system of honorifics (keigo) used to show respect based on age, social status, and familiarity.
  • Bowing (ojigi) is a common form of greeting and showing respect, with variations in depth and duration indicating different levels of formality.
  • Gift-giving (zōtō) is an important social custom, with careful attention paid to presentation (wrapping) and reciprocity. Specific occasions for gift-giving include Ochūgen (mid-year gifts) and Oseibo (year-end gifts).
  • Removing shoes before entering a home, and in some temples, restaurants, and other establishments, is standard practice.
  • Punctuality is highly valued.
  • Indirect communication and avoiding direct confrontation are often preferred to maintain harmony. Reading non-verbal cues (kuuki o yomu - reading the air) is considered important.
• Views on Work and Community**:
  • Historically, lifetime employment and seniority-based promotion were common in large corporations, fostering strong company loyalty. While these systems are changing, group orientation and dedication to one's work or community group remain significant.
  • Neighborhood associations (chōnaikai or jichikai) play a role in local community life, organizing events and activities.
• Social Customs**:
  • Public bathing in onsen (hot springs) and sentō (public bathhouses) is a traditional and popular custom.
  • Seasonal festivals (matsuri) are held throughout the year, often connected to Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples, and involve community participation, processions, and traditional food.
  • Respect for elders is a traditional value, though the changing family structure and an aging society are creating new challenges in elderly care.

  Modernization, urbanization, and globalization are leading to changes in traditional customs and family life. There is increasing diversity in lifestyles and family forms. Social issues such as work-life balance, support for working parents, and addressing social isolation are contemporary concerns. While traditional values continue to influence social interactions, Japanese society is dynamic and adapting to new global and domestic realities.

9.1. Art and architecture

Japanese art and Japanese architecture are characterized by a unique aesthetic sensibility that values simplicity, natural materials, harmony with nature, and meticulous craftsmanship. They have evolved through a synthesis of indigenous traditions and influences from other cultures, primarily China and Korea, and later, the West.

• Art**:
  • Painting**: Traditional Japanese painting (kaiga) encompasses various styles, including Yamato-e (narrative scrolls often depicting Japanese landscapes and courtly life), sumi-e (ink wash painting influenced by Zen Buddhism), and ukiyo-e ("pictures of the floating world," woodblock prints and paintings depicting scenes from everyday life, kabuki actors, beautiful women, and landscapes, popular during the Edo period). Famous ukiyo-e artists like Hokusai and Hiroshige significantly influenced Western art movements like Impressionism.
  • Sculpture**: Early Japanese sculpture was heavily influenced by Buddhism, with prominent examples being Buddhist statues made of wood, bronze, or lacquer. Netsuke, miniature sculptures often carved from ivory or wood, are another distinctive form.
  • Pottery and Porcelain**: Japan has a long and distinguished tradition of ceramics, with renowned styles like Raku, Bizen, Shino, and Imari/Arita porcelain. The tea ceremony (sadō) greatly influenced the aesthetics of Japanese pottery.
  • Calligraphy (書道, shodō)**: The art of writing, using brushes and ink, is highly esteemed and considered a fine art, closely related to ink painting.
  • Crafts (工芸, kōgei)**: Japan excels in various crafts, including lacquerware (urushi), textiles (e.g., kimono dyeing and weaving), sword-making (katana), dolls (ningyō), and bamboo weaving.
  • Architecture**:
    • Traditional Architecture**: Traditional Japanese architecture is characterized by its use of wood, intricate joinery (often without nails), and integration with the natural environment. Key features include:
      • Elevated floors**: To allow for ventilation and protect against dampness.
      • Sliding doors and screens (障子, shōji; 襖, fusuma)**: Allowing for flexible room layouts and a connection between indoor and outdoor spaces.
      • Tatami mats**: Woven straw mats used as flooring in traditional rooms.
      • Roofs**: Often large and gracefully curved, with wide eaves to protect against sun and rain. Thatched or tiled roofs are common.
      • Examples**: Shrines (e.g., Ise Grand Shrine), temples (e.g., Hōryū-ji, Kinkaku-ji), castles (e.g., Himeji Castle), and traditional houses (minka).
      • Gardens**: Traditional Japanese gardens, such as stroll gardens, dry landscape gardens (karesansui), and tea gardens, are integral to the architectural experience, emphasizing harmony, symbolism, and natural beauty.
    • Modern and Contemporary Architecture**: Since the Meiji Restoration, Japan has incorporated Western architectural styles. After World War II, Japanese architects like Kenzō Tange, Tadao Ando, Toyo Ito, and Kazuyo Sejima gained international acclaim for their innovative and often minimalist designs, blending modern materials and techniques with traditional Japanese aesthetic principles. Movements like Metabolism in the 1960s proposed futuristic urban designs.

    Japanese art and architecture continue to evolve, reflecting both a deep respect for tradition and a spirit of contemporary innovation.

9.2. Literature

Japanese literature boasts a long and rich history, spanning from ancient oral traditions and early written works to contemporary novels and poetry that have gained international acclaim.

• Classical Literature (Nara and Heian Periods, 8th-12th centuries)**:
  • The earliest extant works include the Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720), which compile myths, legends, and early history.
  • The Man'yōshū (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves, c. 759) is the oldest existing anthology of Japanese poetry (waka), written primarily using Chinese characters phonetically (man'yōgana).
  • The Heian period is considered a golden age of Japanese literature. With the development of the kana syllabaries (hiragana and katakana), literature in vernacular Japanese flourished, particularly among court women.
    • The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter (Taketori Monogatari, 9th-10th century) is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.
    • The Pillow Book (Makura no Sōshi, c. 1002) by Sei Shōnagon offers witty observations of court life.
    • The Tale of Genji (Genji Monogatari, early 11th century) by Murasaki Shikibu is a monumental work often described as the world's first novel, detailing the life and loves of a Heian prince.
• Medieval Literature (Kamakura and Muromachi Periods, late 12th-16th centuries)**:
  • This era saw the rise of warrior tales (gunki monogatari), such as The Tale of the Heike (Heike Monogatari), which recounted the Genpei War.
  • Poetry continued with imperial anthologies like the Shin Kokin Wakashū.
  • Zen Buddhist influences led to genres like linked verse (renga) and Noh drama. Essays by Buddhist monks, such as Kamo no Chōmei's Hōjōki (An Account of My Hut) and Yoshida Kenkō's Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness), reflected on impermanence and aesthetics.
• Early Modern Literature (Edo Period, 17th-mid-19th centuries)**:
  • Literature became more accessible to the common townspeople (chōnin).
  • Popular genres included ukiyo-zōshi (tales of the floating world) by writers like Ihara Saikaku, and various forms of theater such as kabuki and bunraku (puppet theater).
  • Matsuo Bashō elevated haikai (later known as haiku) to a high art form and wrote influential poetic travelogues like Oku no Hosomichi (The Narrow Road to the Deep North).
• Modern and Contemporary Literature (Meiji Period to Present)**:
  • The Meiji Restoration brought significant Western influence. Writers experimented with new forms and styles, leading to the development of the modern Japanese novel.
  • Pioneering modern novelists include Natsume Sōseki (Kokoro, I Am a Cat), Mori Ōgai, and Futabatei Shimei.
  • The 20th century produced numerous acclaimed authors, such as Ryūnosuke Akutagawa (known for his short stories), Jun'ichirō Tanizaki (The Makioka Sisters), Yasunari Kawabata (Nobel Prize in Literature, 1968; Snow Country), Yukio Mishima (The Temple of the Golden Pavilion), and Kenzaburō Ōe (Nobel Prize in Literature, 1994; A Personal Matter).
  • Contemporary Japanese literature continues to thrive with internationally recognized authors like Haruki Murakami (Norwegian Wood, Kafka on the Shore), Banana Yoshimoto, and Kenji Nakagami. Genres such as mystery fiction, science fiction, and manga (comics) also form a significant part of the literary landscape.

  Japanese literature is characterized by its aesthetic refinement, psychological depth, and often, a keen sensitivity to nature and the transient aspects of life.

9.3. Philosophy and thought

Japanese philosophy and thought have been shaped by a complex interplay of indigenous beliefs and significant influences from continental Asia, particularly China, followed by later engagement with Western philosophy.

• Early Influences and Shinto**:
  • Indigenous Japanese beliefs, which predate written records, centered on the worship of kami (nature spirits, deities, and ancestral spirits). These beliefs formed the basis of Shinto ("the Way of the Gods"). Shinto emphasizes purity, harmony with nature, and reverence for life. It lacks a formal dogma or founder but has shaped Japanese cosmology, rituals, and a deep connection to the natural world.
• Buddhism**:
  • Introduced in the 6th century CE, Buddhism profoundly impacted Japanese thought, ethics, aesthetics, and views on life and death. Various schools of Buddhism took root and evolved in Japan, including:
    • Zen**: Emphasizing meditation, mindfulness, and direct experience, Zen (particularly the Rinzai and Sōtō schools) deeply influenced Japanese arts, martial arts, and aesthetics (e.g., wabi-sabi).
    • Pure Land Buddhism**: Focusing on faith in Amida Buddha and rebirth in the Pure Land, it became widely popular among the common people.
    • Nichiren**: A uniquely Japanese school founded by Nichiren, emphasizing the Lotus Sutra.
  • Buddhist concepts such as impermanence (mujō), interconnectedness (engi), and the pursuit of enlightenment have permeated Japanese culture.
• Confucianism**:
  • Introduced alongside Buddhism, Confucianism provided an ethical and political framework that shaped social structures, family relationships, and governance. Key Confucian values such as loyalty (chū), filial piety (kō), social harmony, and the importance of education and self-cultivation became deeply ingrained. Neo-Confucianism, particularly the Zhu Xi school, was influential during the Edo period, providing ideological support for the Tokugawa shogunate.
• Taoism and Folk Beliefs**:
  • While not established as a formal religion, Taoist ideas regarding nature, yin-yang, and divination influenced Japanese folk beliefs, festivals, and practices.
• Kokugaku (National Studies)**:
  • During the Edo period, the Kokugaku movement emerged, seeking to identify and promote "pure" Japanese thought and culture, free from foreign (Chinese and Buddhist) influences. Scholars like Motoori Norinaga emphasized the importance of early Japanese texts like the Kojiki and the concept of mono no aware (a sensitivity to the pathos of things).
• Modern and Contemporary Philosophy**:
  • The Meiji Restoration brought extensive engagement with Western philosophy. Thinkers like Nishi Amane and Fukuzawa Yukichi introduced and adapted Western ideas, including utilitarianism, liberalism, and positivism.
  • The Kyoto School, founded by Nishida Kitaro in the early 20th century, attempted to synthesize Western philosophical methods with East Asian (particularly Zen Buddhist) thought, exploring concepts like "pure experience" and "the logic of place (basho)." Other prominent Kyoto School philosophers include Tanabe Hajime and Nishitani Keiji.
  • Post-World War II Japanese philosophy has grappled with issues of modernity, national identity, ethics, and the legacy of the war, engaging with existentialism, phenomenology, Marxism, and postmodernism.
  • Contemporary Japanese philosophers continue to address a wide range of topics, including bioethics, environmental ethics, political philosophy, and intercultural dialogue.

  Japanese thought is often characterized by its emphasis on relationality, situational ethics, aesthetics, and the integration of diverse intellectual traditions rather than a singular, dogmatic system.

9.4. Performing arts

Japan has a rich and diverse heritage of traditional performing arts, many of which continue to be practiced and appreciated today. These art forms often integrate music, dance, drama, and elaborate costumes and stagecraft.

• Noh (能)**: Noh is a classical Japanese musical drama that originated in the 14th century. It is characterized by its slow, stylized movements, masked actors, poetic language, and themes often drawn from mythology, history, and literature. Noh performances are highly symbolic and aim to evoke a profound aesthetic and emotional response (yūgen). Kyōgen (狂言), comedic interludes, are traditionally performed between Noh plays. Noh is one of the oldest continuous theater traditions in the world.
• Kabuki (歌舞伎)**: Kabuki emerged in the early 17th century and became a popular form of theater for the common townspeople during the Edo period. It is known for its dramatic storylines, elaborate costumes and makeup (kumadori), dynamic acting styles (including exaggerated poses called mie), and sophisticated stage mechanisms. Historically, all roles in kabuki, including female roles, were performed by male actors (onnagata).
• Bunraku (文楽)**: Bunraku is a traditional form of Japanese puppet theater that developed in the 17th century. It involves large, intricately crafted puppets, each operated by three puppeteers who appear on stage in full view. The narrative is recited by a chanter (tayu) accompanied by a shamisen player. Bunraku is renowned for its complex puppetry and emotionally powerful storytelling.
• Traditional Dance**:
  • Kagura (神楽)**: Ancient ritual dances associated with Shinto shrines, often performed to invoke or entertain kami.
  • Bugaku (舞楽)**: Courtly dances and music introduced from China and Korea, performed at the Imperial court and some temples and shrines since the Heian period.
  • Nihon-buyō (日本舞踊)**: A refined style of Japanese dance that incorporates elements from Noh, Kabuki, and folk dances.
  • Folk Dances (民踊, Min'yō)**: Numerous regional folk dances are performed at festivals and local events, often related to agricultural cycles or historical events.
• Rakugo (落語)**: A traditional form of comedic storytelling where a single performer (rakugoka), kneeling on a cushion (zabuton), recounts humorous tales, often relying on skillful voice modulation and minimal props (a fan and a hand towel).
• Modern Theater and Dance**: In addition to traditional forms, Japan has a vibrant modern theater (shingeki, angura) and contemporary dance scene, influenced by both Western and indigenous traditions.

These performing arts are recognized as important cultural assets, with efforts made to preserve their traditions while also allowing for contemporary interpretations and innovations. Many are designated as Important Intangible Cultural Properties.

9.5. Popular culture

Japanese popular culture has achieved significant global influence, encompassing a wide array of media and entertainment forms that are recognized and enjoyed worldwide. This includes film, manga (comics), anime (animation), video games, and J-pop (Japanese popular music).

9.5.1. Manga and anime

Manga (漫画^Japanese) refers to Japanese comics and graphic novels. It has a long history, with roots in earlier Japanese art forms, but developed into its modern form in the post-World War II era, heavily influenced by American comics and film. Manga spans a vast range of genres catering to diverse age groups and interests, including action, adventure, romance, science fiction, fantasy, comedy, drama, sports, horror, and more. Notable demographic categories include shōnen (for young boys), shōjo (for young girls), seinen (for young men), and josei (for young women). Many manga series have achieved massive international sales and cultural impact, such as Dragon Ball, One Piece, Naruto, and Attack on Titan. Manga is characterized by its distinct artistic styles, serialized storytelling, and often complex narratives.

Anime (アニメ^Japanese), Japanese animation, is closely linked to manga, with many anime series and films being adaptations of popular manga. Like manga, anime covers a wide spectrum of genres and themes. It is known for its diverse visual styles, dynamic animation techniques, and often mature storytelling that can appeal to adult audiences as well as children. Pioneering figures like Osamu Tezuka (often called the "father of manga and anime") and studios like Studio Ghibli (co-founded by Hayao Miyazaki and Isao Takahata) have earned international acclaim for their artistic achievements and culturally significant works (e.g., My Neighbor Totoro, Spirited Away). Anime has become a global phenomenon, with dedicated fan communities, conventions, and streaming services worldwide. It has significantly contributed to the global perception of Japanese culture. Both manga and anime are not just forms of entertainment but also reflect and comment on Japanese society, history, and values.

9.5.3. Video games

Japan has played a pivotal role in the history and development of the video game industry, establishing itself as a major global hub for game creation, hardware innovation, and gaming culture.

• Early Development**: Japan's video game industry began to take shape in the 1970s with the rise of arcade games. Companies like Taito (with Space Invaders in 1978) and Namco (with Pac-Man in 1980) produced iconic arcade hits that gained worldwide popularity.
• Console Dominance**: In the 1980s and 1990s, Japanese companies like Nintendo (with the Famicom/NES, Super Famicom/SNES, and Game Boy) and Sega (with the Mark III/Master System and Mega Drive/Genesis) dominated the home console market. This era saw the creation of globally recognized franchises such as Super Mario, The Legend of Zelda, Sonic the Hedgehog, and numerous influential role-playing games (RPGs) like Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy.
• PlayStation Era**: In the mid-1990s, Sony entered the market with the PlayStation, which became a massive success, further solidifying Japan's position in the console industry. The PlayStation and its successors introduced new technologies and attracted a broader audience.
• Major Companies and Franchises**: Japan is home to some of the world's most influential game developers and publishers, including Nintendo, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Square Enix, Capcom, Sega, Namco Bandai (now Bandai Namco), and Konami. These companies have created enduring franchises that span multiple genres and generations of hardware.
• Genres**: Japanese developers have made significant contributions to various game genres, including RPGs (especially JRPGs), fighting games, platform games, survival horror, stealth games, and visual novels.
• Mobile and PC Gaming**: While consoles remain strong, mobile gaming has become a huge market in Japan. PC games, though historically less dominant than in some Western countries, also have a dedicated following. By 2015, Japan was the world's fourth-largest PC game market by revenue.
• Global Market Position**: Japan's consumer video game market is one of the largest in the world. In 2014, it grossed $9.6 billion, with $5.8 billion coming from mobile gaming. Japanese games and gaming culture continue to have a significant impact on the global market, influencing game design, art styles, and storytelling worldwide.
• Esports and Gaming Culture**: Esports are growing in popularity in Japan, and the country has a vibrant gaming culture, including arcades (though declining), game events like the Tokyo Game Show, and dedicated fan communities.

The Japanese video game industry is known for its creativity, high production values, and ability to create deeply engaging and culturally unique gaming experiences.

9.6. Music

The music of Japan is diverse, encompassing a wide range of traditional indigenous styles and various genres of modern popular and classical music.

• Traditional Music (邦楽, Hōgaku)**:
  • Gagaku (雅楽)**: Ancient imperial court music and dance, originating from China and Korea, and preserved for centuries. It is one ofthe oldest continuous orchestral music traditions in the world.
  • Shōmyō (声明)**: Buddhist chanting, a form of vocal music with complex melodic structures.
  • Biwa Hōshi (琵琶法師)**: Traveling performers who recited epic tales, such as The Tale of the Heike, accompanying themselves on the biwa (a type of lute).
  • Music of Noh and Kabuki**: Both traditional theater forms have distinctive musical accompaniment. Noh music features flute (fue) and drums (tsuzumi, taiko), while Kabuki music is more varied, often including shamisen and other instruments.
  • Shamisen (三味線) Music**: The three-stringed shamisen became a popular instrument during the Edo period, used in various genres, including folk songs, narrative chanting (e.g., gidayū-bushi for bunraku), and accompaniment for kabuki.
  • Koto (箏) and Shakuhachi (尺八) Music**: The koto (a long zither) and shakuhachi (an end-blown bamboo flute) are prominent solo and ensemble instruments, often associated with Zen Buddhism and classical Japanese aesthetics.
  • Folk Songs (民謡, Min'yō)**: Regional folk songs reflecting local traditions, work, and festivals.
  • Taiko (太鼓) Drumming**: Ensemble drumming, which has seen a modern revival and gained international popularity (kumi-daiko).
  • Contemporary Music**:
    • Western Classical Music**: Introduced in the late 19th century, Western classical music is widely performed and appreciated in Japan, with many Japanese orchestras, conductors, and soloists achieving international renown.
    • J-pop (ジェイポップ)**: Japanese popular music, heavily influenced by Western pop and rock, but with its own distinct characteristics. J-pop encompasses a wide variety of styles and is a massive industry, with numerous idol groups and solo artists enjoying widespread popularity.
    • Enka (演歌)**: A genre of sentimental ballad music, often with themes of love, loss, and nostalgia, drawing on traditional Japanese melodic and vocal styles.
    • Rock, Jazz, Hip Hop, Electronic Music**: These and other global genres have a strong presence in Japan, with many Japanese artists creating unique interpretations and fusions.
    • Anime and Video Game Music**: Soundtracks for anime and video games are a significant part of the music industry, often featuring orchestral scores, pop songs, and electronic music, and have a large international following.

    Karaoke is a highly popular cultural activity in Japan, reflecting a widespread love of singing and music. The Japanese music market is one of the largest in the world.

9.7. Sports

Sports are a significant part of Japanese culture, encompassing both traditional martial arts and popular modern sports introduced from the West.

• Traditional Martial Arts (武道, Budō)**:
  • Sumo (相撲)**: Considered Japan's national sport, sumo is a form of competitive full-contact wrestling with a history spanning many centuries and deep Shinto ritual connections.
  • Judo (柔道)**: A modern martial art and Olympic sport created by Kanō Jigorō in the late 19th century, emphasizing throws and grappling techniques.
  • Karate (空手)**: A martial art originating in Okinawa, focusing on striking techniques. It is also an Olympic sport.
  • Kendo (剣道)**: The "way of the sword," a modern martial art derived from traditional Japanese swordsmanship (kenjutsu), using bamboo swords (shinai) and protective armor.
  • Aikido (合気道)**, **Kyūdō (弓道)** (Japanese archery), and **Iaido (居合道)** (sword drawing) are other prominent martial arts. Many of these are taught as part of the compulsory junior high school curriculum.
• Popular Team and Individual Sports**:
  • Baseball (野球, Yakyū)**: Introduced in the late 19th century, baseball is arguably the most popular spectator sport in Japan. Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), established in 1936, is the top professional league and enjoys a massive following. High school baseball tournaments, particularly the Summer Kōshien, are major national events. Many Japanese players have also achieved success in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the United States.
  • Football (Soccer) (サッカー, Sakkā)**: Since the establishment of the professional J.League in 1992, football has gained widespread popularity. The men's national team (Samurai Blue) and the women's national team (Nadeshiko Japan, who won the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup) are highly successful in Asia and compete regularly in international tournaments. Japan co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.
  • Golf**: Golf is very popular, with numerous courses across the country and several Japanese golfers achieving international success.
  • Motorsport**: Japanese automotive manufacturers have a strong presence in international motorsport series like Formula One, MotoGP, and the World Rally Championship. Domestic series like Super GT and Super Formula are also popular. Japan hosts major races such as the Japanese Grand Prix.
  • Tennis, Basketball, Volleyball, Rugby Union**: These sports also have significant followings and professional or semi-professional leagues. Japan hosted the 2019 Rugby World Cup.
• Olympic Performance**: Japan has a strong record in the Olympic Games. It has hosted the Summer Olympics twice in Tokyo (1964 and 2020, held in 2021) and the Winter Olympics twice (Sapporo 1972 and Nagano 1998). Tokyo is the first Asian city to host the Summer Olympics twice. Japan also hosted the official 2006 Basketball World Championship and co-hosted the 2023 edition. It has hosted the Women's Volleyball World Championship five times.

Sports are deeply integrated into the education system and community life, with school club activities playing a major role in fostering participation.

9.8. Cuisine

Japanese cuisine (日本料理_{Nihon ryōri}^Japanese or 和食_washoku^Japanese) is renowned worldwide for its emphasis on fresh, high-quality seasonal ingredients, meticulous preparation, beautiful presentation, and balance of flavors and textures. In 2013, washoku was added to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage list.

Key characteristics and representative dishes include:

• Staple Foods**: Short-grain rice (ご飯_gohan^Japanese) is the staple food. Noodles such as udon (thick wheat noodles), soba (thin buckwheat noodles), and ramen (wheat noodles in broth, adopted from Chinese cuisine) are also very popular.
• Emphasis on Seasonality (旬, shun)**: Ingredients are chosen at their peak freshness and flavor, reflecting the changing seasons.
• Dashi (出汁)**: A fundamental soup stock made from ingredients like kombu (kelp) and katsuobushi (dried bonito flakes), providing an umami base for many dishes.
• Flavorings**: Common seasonings include soy sauce (醤油_shōyu^Japanese), mirin (sweet cooking sake), sake, miso (fermented soybean paste), rice vinegar, sugar, and salt.
• Representative Dishes**:
  • Sushi (寿司)**: Vinegared rice combined with various ingredients, typically raw seafood (sashimi). Common forms include nigiri-zushi (a slice of topping on a small oblong of rice) and makizushi (rolled sushi).
  • Sashimi (刺身)**: Thinly sliced raw fish or seafood, served with soy sauce and wasabi.
  • Tempura (天ぷら)**: Seafood and vegetables lightly battered and deep-fried.
  • Yakitori (焼き鳥)**: Grilled skewers of chicken and vegetables.
  • Tonkatsu (豚カツ)**: Deep-fried breaded pork cutlet.
  • Sukiyaki (すき焼き)** and **Shabu-shabu (しゃぶしゃぶ)**: Hot pot dishes where thinly sliced meat and vegetables are cooked at the table.
  • Curry Rice (カレーライス, Karē raisu)**: A widely consumed dish adapted from British India, often considered a national dish alongside ramen and sushi.
  • Kaiseki (懐石料理)**: A traditional multi-course Japanese haute cuisine, emphasizing balance, seasonality, and artistry.
• Sweets (和菓子, Wagashi)**: Traditional Japanese confections often made with ingredients like mochi (glutinous rice cake), anko (sweet red bean paste), and fruit. They are known for their delicate flavors and artistic presentation, often reflecting seasonal motifs. Modern tastes also include green tea ice cream.
• Beverages**:
  • Green Tea (緑茶, Ryokucha)**: The most common beverage, with varieties like sencha, matcha (powdered green tea used in the tea ceremony), and bancha.
  • Sake (酒)**: Brewed rice beverage, typically containing 14-17% alcohol.
  • Shōchū (焼酎)**: A distilled spirit.
  • Beer**: Widely popular since its introduction in the late 17th century.
• Dining Etiquette**: Specific customs include saying itadakimasu before eating and gochisōsama deshita after, using chopsticks properly, and in some cases, slurping noodles (which is considered acceptable).
• Regional Specialties**: Japan has a vast array of regional dishes (kyōdo ryōri) that utilize local ingredients and traditional recipes, reflecting the diverse geography and climate of the country.

Japanese food culture emphasizes not only taste but also aesthetics, balance, and a deep respect for ingredients and the changing seasons.

9.9. Festivals and public holidays

Festivals (祭り, matsuri) and public holidays are an integral part of Japanese culture, reflecting a blend of Shinto and Buddhist traditions, historical commemorations, and seasonal celebrations. Japan officially recognizes 16 national public holidays, regulated by the Public Holiday Law of 1948. Since 2000, Japan has implemented the Happy Monday System, which moved several national holidays to Mondays to create long weekends.

• Major National Public Holidays**:
  • New Year's Day (元日, Ganjitsu)** - January 1: The most important holiday, with traditions like visiting shrines or temples (hatsumōde), eating special foods (osechi ryōri), and sending New Year's cards (nengajō).
  • Coming of Age Day (成人の日, Seijin no Hi)** - Second Monday of January: Celebrates young people who have reached the age of majority (currently 18, previously 20).
  • National Foundation Day (建国記念の日, Kenkoku Kinen no Hi)** - February 11: Commemorates the mythical founding of Japan by Emperor Jimmu.
  • The Emperor's Birthday (天皇誕生日, Tennō Tanjōbi)** - February 23 (current Emperor Naruhito's birthday): The date changes with each new emperor.
  • Vernal Equinox Day (春分の日, Shunbun no Hi)** - Around March 20 or 21: Marks the vernal equinox.
  • Shōwa Day (昭和の日, Shōwa no Hi)** - April 29: Commemorates the birthday of Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito) and encourages reflection on the Shōwa period.
  • Constitution Memorial Day (憲法記念日, Kenpō Kinenbi)** - May 3: Commemorates the promulgation of the 1947 Constitution.
  • Greenery Day (みどりの日, Midori no Hi)** - May 4: A day to appreciate nature.
  • Children's Day (こどもの日, Kodomo no Hi)** - May 5: Celebrates the happiness of children and expresses gratitude toward mothers. Also known as Tango no Sekku. These three holidays (May 3-5) form part of "Golden Week", a major holiday period.
  • Marine Day (海の日, Umi no Hi)** - Third Monday of July: A day to appreciate the ocean's blessings.
  • Mountain Day (山の日, Yama no Hi)** - August 11 (since 2016): A day to appreciate mountains.
  • Respect for the Aged Day (敬老の日, Keirō no Hi)** - Third Monday of September: Honors elderly citizens.
  • Autumnal Equinox Day (秋分の日, Shūbun no Hi)** - Around September 23 or 24: Marks the autumnal equinox.
  • Health and Sports Day (スポーツの日, Supōtsu no Hi)** - Second Monday of October: Promotes sports and a healthy lifestyle (originally commemorated the 1964 Tokyo Olympics).
  • Culture Day (文化の日, Bunka no Hi)** - November 3: Promotes culture, arts, and academic endeavors.
  • Labour Thanksgiving Day (勤労感謝の日, Kinrō Kansha no Hi)** - November 23: Honors labor and production and gives thanks to one another.
  • Traditional Festivals (Matsuri)**:

  Beyond national holidays, numerous local and regional matsuri are celebrated throughout the year. These festivals are often tied to Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples and involve processions (often with portable shrines called mikoshi), traditional music and dance, food stalls, and community participation. Famous examples include:

  • Sapporo Snow Festival** (February)
  • Gion Matsuri** in Kyoto (July)
  • Nebuta Matsuri** in Aomori (August)
  • Kanda Matsuri** and **Sannō Matsuri** in Tokyo (May, alternating years)
  • Tenjin Matsuri** in Osaka (July)
  • Awa Odori** in Tokushima (August)

  Seasonal events like cherry blossom viewing (hanami) in spring and autumn leaf viewing (momijigari) are also deeply ingrained in Japanese culture, though not official holidays. These festivals and holidays play a vital role in maintaining cultural traditions, strengthening community bonds, and marking the passage of the seasons.