Australia

3.1. Indigenous prehistory

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 50,000 and 65,000 years ago. The ancestors of Indigenous Australians arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now Southeast Asia during the Last Glacial Period. It is uncertain how many waves of immigration contributed to the ancestry of modern Aboriginal Australians. The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is one of the oldest sites showing human presence, with evidence dating back approximately 65,000 years. The oldest human remains found are the Lake Mungo remains, dated to around 41,000 to 42,000 years ago.

Aboriginal Australian culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth. At the time of first European contact, Aboriginal Australians belonged to a wide range of societies with diverse economies, spread across at least 250 different language groups. Estimates of the Aboriginal population before British settlement range from 300,000 to over one million, with some recent studies suggesting populations could have been in the millions. These cultures were, and remain, deeply connected with the land and the environment. Stories of The Dreaming (or Dreamtime), which describe the creation period and establish the laws and structures of society, were maintained through oral tradition, songs, dance, and art, including extensive rock art sites, with over 100,000 such sites identified across the continent.

Indigenous societies developed sophisticated land management practices. Certain groups engaged in fire-stick farming to manage vegetation and encourage specific plant and animal resources. Evidence also exists of fish farming and the construction of semi-permanent shelters and villages, particularly in resource-rich areas. These practices have been variously characterized as complex hunter-gatherer systems, forms of "natural cultivation," or "intensification," challenging simplistic notions of Indigenous economies.

Torres Strait Islanders, a distinct Melanesian people, first settled their islands in the Torres Strait at least 2,500 years ago. Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers who obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture, fishing, and the resources of their reefs and seas. Agriculture developed on some islands, and villages appeared by the 1300s.

By the mid-18th century, in northern Australia, contact, trade, and cross-cultural engagement had been established between local Aboriginal groups and Makassan trepangers (sea cucumber harvesters) visiting from present-day Indonesia. This interaction, predating European colonisation in the area, left a lasting impact on the language, art, and economy of some Indigenous communities in Arnhem Land.

The dispossession and violence that followed European arrival had a devastating impact on these ancient societies, a theme explored in subsequent sections.

3.2. European exploration and colonisation

While Indigenous Australians inhabited the continent for tens of thousands of years, European maritime exploration began in the 17th century. The first documented European landing in Australia was made in 1606 by the Dutch East India Company ship, Duyfken, captained by Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula and made landfall at the Pennefather River. Later that year, Spanish navigator Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through the Torres Strait, north of Australia, along New Guinea's southern coast. Over the following decades, Dutch navigators, including Abel Tasman who reached Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in 1642, charted much of the northern, western, and southern coastlines, naming the continent New Holland. However, the Dutch did not establish any permanent settlements. English explorer William Dampier also explored parts of the northwest coast in 1688 and 1699.

In 1770, British Captain James Cook, aboard HMS Endeavour, sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia. He named this territory "New South Wales" and claimed it for Great Britain. Cook's landing at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770 marked a pivotal moment. His reports, along with those of botanist Joseph Banks, influenced the British decision to establish a penal colony.

Following the loss of its American colonies, the British government sought a new location for transporting convicts. In 1786, it announced its intention to establish a penal colony in New South Wales. The First Fleet, commanded by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived at Port Jackson on 26 January 1788. A camp was established at Sydney Cove, and the Union Jack was raised. This date, 26 January, is now commemorated as Australia Day, though its celebration is contentious due to the profound and negative impact of colonisation on Indigenous peoples. The formal establishment of the Colony of New South Wales occurred on 7 February 1788.

Most early settlers were convicts, transported for a range of crimes, many of them minor. They were assigned as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (willing immigrants) or worked on government projects. Once emancipated, many convicts integrated into colonial society. Aboriginal resistance to dispossession, convict rebellions, and bushranging were met with force, sometimes under martial law. The early years of the colony were marked by hardship, including food shortages. The Rum Rebellion of 1808, led by officers of the New South Wales Corps, resulted in a temporary military junta. Over the next two decades, social and economic reforms, along with the establishment of a Legislative Council and the Supreme Court, saw the penal colony transition towards a civil society.

The arrival of Europeans had a catastrophic impact on the Indigenous population. Disease, particularly smallpox, caused a rapid decline in numbers. Frontier violence and dispossession further devastated Aboriginal communities. British colonial authorities did not sign any treaties with Aboriginal groups, instead operating under the legal fiction of terra nullius (land belonging to no one), which disregarded existing Indigenous systems of land ownership and governance. This led to widespread conflict and the forced removal of Indigenous peoples from their traditional lands, a process that had severe and lasting consequences for their cultures, health, and well-being.

3.3. Colonial expansion

Following the establishment of New South Wales, British colonial presence expanded across the Australian continent throughout the 19th century. In 1803, a settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania), which became a separate colony in 1825. European exploration of the interior gradually opened up new lands for settlement. In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson, and William Wentworth successfully crossed the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, paving the way for pastoral expansion into the inland regions.

The British claim was formally extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major Edmund Lockyer established a settlement on King George Sound (modern-day Albany). The Swan River Colony (present-day Perth) was founded in 1829, eventually becoming the vast colony of Western Australia. Other colonies were carved from New South Wales: South Australia was established as a "free province" (never a penal colony) in 1836, Victoria separated in 1851, and the Queensland in 1859. While South Australia and Victoria were founded as free colonies, Western Australia, initially a free colony, accepted convicts from 1850 to 1868 to address labor shortages. Growing opposition to the convict system, fueled by moral concerns and the desire for self-governance among free settlers, led to its abolition in the eastern colonies by the 1850s.

The Australian gold rushes, beginning in the early 1850s in Victoria and New South Wales, dramatically transformed the colonies. They led to a massive influx of migrants from Britain, Ireland, Europe, North America, and China, significantly boosting the population and economy. This period also saw social upheaval, including outbreaks of bushranging and civil unrest, most notably the Eureka Rebellion in 1854, where miners in Ballarat protested against gold license fees. This event is often seen as a crucial moment in the development of Australian democracy.

Colonial expansion invariably led to further conflict with Indigenous peoples. As settlers moved into new territories, they encroached upon traditional Aboriginal lands, leading to violent clashes, massacres, and the displacement of Indigenous communities. This period, known as the Australian frontier wars, resulted in significant loss of life and the widespread dispossession of Aboriginal peoples from their lands and resources, disrupting their traditional ways of life and causing immense suffering. Practices such as blackbirding emerged in the 1860s, particularly in Queensland, where South Sea Islanders were coerced or kidnapped to work as indentured laborers on sugar plantations, a practice now recognized as a dark chapter in Australian history involving exploitation and human rights abuses.

From 1855 to 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. The Colonial Office in London retained control over matters such as foreign affairs and defense. Colonial parliaments progressively extended voting rights, initially to adult men, with women's suffrage achieved on equal terms between the 1890s and early 1900s. However, some colonies introduced racial restrictions on voting from 1885, excluding many Indigenous Australians and non-European migrants from the political process. Starting in the late 19th century and continuing for much of the 20th, Australian colonial and later state governments began removing many Aboriginal children from their families and communities. Justified by assimilationist ideologies and claims of child protection, these policies caused profound intergenerational trauma and cultural loss, now widely condemned as a violation of human rights. The Second Boer War (1899-1902) saw the largest overseas deployment of Australia's colonial forces, marking an early instance of Australia's participation in broader imperial conflicts.

3.4. Federation to the World Wars

On 1 January 1901, the federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, constitutional conventions, and referendums. The Commonwealth of Australia was established as a nation under the new Australian Constitution. From 1901, Australia was a self-governing dominion within the British Empire. The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) was formed in 1911 to provide a location for the future federal capital, Canberra. Melbourne served as the temporary capital from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was under construction. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of South Australia to the Commonwealth in 1911. Australia also took over the administration of the Territory of Papua (previously a British colony) in 1905 and the Territory of New Guinea (formerly German New Guinea) in 1920 after World War I. These two territories were later unified as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea in 1949 and gained independence from Australia as Papua New Guinea in 1975.

A significant early piece of legislation passed by the new federal parliament was the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, which formed the basis of the White Australia Policy. This policy, driven by racist ideologies and economic fears, aimed to restrict non-European immigration and profoundly shaped Australian society and its international image for decades, causing significant hardship and discrimination against Asian and other non-European migrants and contributing to the oppression of Indigenous Australians.

In 1914, Australia joined the Allies in World War I, participating in major campaigns on several fronts, including the Middle East and the Western Front. Of the approximately 324,000 men who served overseas, around 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded. The Gallipoli Campaign in 1915, though a military defeat for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs), is widely regarded in Australian national mythology as a "baptism of fire" that forged the nation's identity and the Anzac legend of courage, endurance, and mateship. The landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April is commemorated annually as Anzac Day, a significant national day of remembrance.

Australia was a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920. The Statute of Westminster 1931 further defined Australia's path to legislative independence from the United Kingdom, ending the UK's ability to legislate for Australia at the federal level without Australia's consent. Australia formally adopted this statute in 1942, backdating it to 1939 to validate wartime legislation.

The interwar period was marked by economic fluctuations, including the significant impact of the Great Depression in the 1930s, which led to widespread unemployment and social hardship. From 1939 to 1945, Australia again joined the Allies in World War II. Australian forces fought in the Pacific theatre, Europe, and the Mediterranean and Middle East. The Fall of Singapore in 1942, Britain's defeat there, and the subsequent Bombing of Darwin and other Japanese attacks on Australian soil led to a widespread fear of Japanese invasion and marked a significant shift in Australia's foreign and defense policy, moving from a primary reliance on the United Kingdom to a closer alliance with the United States. Since 1951, Australia has been formally allied with the United States under the ANZUS treaty. Australia became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945.

3.5. Post-war and contemporary eras

In the decades following World War II, Australia experienced significant social, economic, and demographic transformations. Living standards rose, leisure time increased, and suburban development expanded rapidly. The government launched large-scale immigration programs, initially drawing migrants from Britain and Europe under the slogan "populate or perish," aimed at bolstering the population and workforce. These "New Australians" played a crucial role in the nation's economic development and cultural diversification.

The White Australia Policy, which had restricted non-European immigration for decades, was gradually dismantled, a process culminating in its official abolition in 1973. This opened the door to a large and ongoing wave of immigration from Asia and other parts of the world, profoundly reshaping Australia into a multicultural society. While multiculturalism became official policy and brought significant social and cultural enrichment, challenges related to social cohesion, discrimination, and the integration of new migrant groups have persisted.

Australia, as a member of the Western Bloc during the Cold War, participated in several conflicts, including the Korean War (1950-1953), the Malayan Emergency (1950s), and the Vietnam War (1962-1973). The Vietnam War was particularly divisive within Australia, leading to widespread protests. Tensions over communist influence in society led to unsuccessful attempts by the Menzies Government to ban the Communist Party of Australia and a bitter split within the Australian Labor Party in 1955.

A significant step towards recognizing the rights of Indigenous Australians occurred with the 1967 referendum, where an overwhelming majority of Australians voted to amend the Constitution, allowing the federal government to legislate for Aboriginal peoples and to include them in the national census. This marked a turning point in Indigenous affairs, though the path to genuine reconciliation and equality remained long. In 1992, the High Court of Australia's landmark Mabo decision overturned the doctrine of terra nullius (land belonging to no one), recognizing pre-colonial land interests (referred to as native title) in Australian law for the first time. This was a crucial legal victory, though the process of native title claims and achieving land justice continues to be complex. The Stolen Generations, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children forcibly removed from their families under past assimilation policies, received a formal national apology from Prime Minister Kevin Rudd in 2008, a significant moment in the reconciliation process. However, Indigenous Australians continue to face systemic disadvantages in health, education, employment, and the justice system.

The Australia Acts of 1986 severed the remaining constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom, while retaining the monarch as Queen (now King) of Australia in an independent capacity. A 1999 constitutional referendum on whether Australia should become a republic with a president appointed by parliament was defeated, with 55% of voters rejecting the proposal. The debate on republicanism continues.

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Australia's foreign policy increasingly focused on engagement with the Asia-Pacific region. Trade relations shifted significantly towards East Asia, with China becoming Australia's largest trading partner. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, Australia joined the United States in the War in Afghanistan (2001-2021) and the Iraq War (2003-2009).

Contemporary Australia faces ongoing issues including climate change and environmental degradation, economic management and diversification, social equity, affordable housing, and continuing efforts towards reconciliation with Indigenous Australians. The COVID-19 pandemic from 2020 led to significant public health measures, including lockdowns and border closures, and had a substantial impact on the economy and society. Australia's response involved large-scale government intervention and a gradual reopening as vaccination rates increased, with COVID-19 declared no longer a communicable disease incident of national significance in October 2023.

4.1. General characteristics

Australia comprises the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller offshore islands. It also includes remote offshore territories such as Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, and Norfolk Island. Australia lays claim to approximately 42% of Antarctica as the Australian Antarctic Territory, though this claim is recognized by only four other countries (the UK, France, New Zealand, and Norway).

Mainland Australia lies between latitudes 9°S and 44°S, and longitudes 112°E and 154°E. It is surrounded by the Indian Ocean to the west and south, and the Pacific Ocean to the east. The continent is separated from Asia by the Arafura Sea and Timor Sea to the north. The Coral Sea lies off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea separates Australia from New Zealand.

With a total area of 3.0 M mile^{2 (7.69 M km2)}, Australia is the world's sixth-largest country and the smallest continent. It is often referred to as an "island continent". Australia has 22 K mile ^{(35.88 K km)} of coastline (excluding offshore islands) and claims an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 3.1 M mile^{2 (8.15 M km2)}, not including the EEZ of the Australian Antarctic Territory.

Most of Australia is arid or semi-arid, making it the driest inhabited continent. In 2021, about 10% of Australia's land was permanent meadows and pastureland, with forest cover around 17%. The mainland is relatively flat, with an average elevation of 1066 ft ^{(325 m)}. The Great Dividing Range runs along most of eastern Australia, separating the central lowlands from the eastern highlands. Mount Kosciuszko, at 7.3 K ft ^{(2.23 K m)}, is the highest peak on the mainland. However, Mawson Peak on Heard Island (9.0 K ft ^{(2.75 K m)}) and, within the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock (11 K ft ^{(3.49 K m)}) and Mount Menzies (11 K ft ^{(3.35 K m)}) are taller.

The Murray-Darling basin is the major river system, draining a significant portion of inland New South Wales and Southern Queensland towards Lake Alexandrina and the sea in South Australia. Other significant systems include the Lake Eyre basin, an inland drainage system, and various salt lake systems in central and western Australia. Australia's rivers have the lowest discharge into the sea of any continent, and its flat, arid profile contributes to slow-moving rivers and issues with salinisation of land and water. Australian soils are generally ancient and poor in nutrients.

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef system, lies off the north-east coast, extending for over 1.4 K mile ^{(2.30 K km)}. Uluru (Ayers Rock) in central Australia is a large sandstone monolith and a significant Indigenous sacred site.

Australia's population is highly urbanized and heavily concentrated on the coastal fringes, particularly the eastern and southeastern seaboards. About 95% of the population lives within 62 mile ^{(100 km)} of the coast. The overall population density is low, at approximately 3.5 inhabitants per square kilometer, but density is much higher in major urban centers like Sydney and Melbourne.

4.2. Geology

The Australian continent has a long and complex geological history. It was once part of the supercontinents Rodinia and, more recently, Gondwana. Australia began to separate from Antarctica about 85 million years ago and completely separated around 35 million years ago, after which it drifted northwards. As the last glacial period ended, rising sea levels separated mainland Australia from New Guinea about 8,000 years ago and from Tasmania about 6,000 years ago.

Australia lies almost entirely within the Australian Plate. The mainland is geologically stable, with no major mountain-building events in recent geological time, no active volcanoes (except on its external territories like Heard and McDonald Islands), and relatively few major tectonic faults. However, the Australian Plate is moving north-northeast at a rate of about 6 to 7 centimeters per year and is currently colliding with the Eurasian Plate and the Pacific Plate. This movement causes intraplate stresses that lead to some seismic activity, with 18 earthquakes of moment magnitude greater than 6 recorded between 1901 and 2017. The 1989 Newcastle earthquake was Australia's deadliest, causing 13 fatalities. Volcanic activity occurred on the eastern mainland as recently as 4,600 years ago.

The Australian continental crust was formed in three main cycles, from the ancient Archean cratons in the west (some rocks dating back over 3.7 billion years, with zircon crystals from Western Australia dated at 4.4 billion years old, among the oldest on Earth) to younger orogenic belts in the east, formed between 541 million and 252 million years ago. Approximately 80% of Australia's surface is covered by sedimentary rocks and regolith that are less than 250 million years old.

Australia is rich in mineral and energy resources, a result of its diverse geological history. Major resources include iron ore, coal (black and brown), bauxite, copper, gold, natural gas, uranium, nickel, tin, silver, lead, zinc, diamonds, and mineral sands. The Pilbara region in Western Australia is one of the world's largest iron ore producers. Coal deposits are extensive in Queensland and New South Wales.

4.3. Climate

Australia's climate is highly diverse, ranging from tropical monsoon climates in the north to temperate climates in the south and extensive arid and semi-arid regions in the interior. The continent is the driest inhabited continent on Earth, with an average annual rainfall of about 19 in ^{(470 mm)}. Approximately 70% of the country is classified as arid or semi-arid, and about 18% is desert.

Key factors influencing Australia's climate include its position largely within the subtropical high-pressure belt (the "horse latitudes"), which contributes to arid conditions. Ocean currents and broad-scale atmospheric circulation patterns such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), and the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) also play significant roles. These drivers lead to considerable rainfall variability from year to year, resulting in frequent droughts and occasional widespread flooding.

Tropical cyclones and rain depressions are common in northern Australia during the summer monsoon season (typically November to April), bringing significant rainfall. Southern Australia generally experiences winter rainfall from cold fronts and low-pressure systems. The hottest regions are in the northwest of the country, while the coolest are in the southeastern highlands and Tasmania, where snow is common in winter. Bushfire conditions are prevalent in southern Australia, particularly during the warmer, drier months.

Climate change, driven by increased greenhouse gas emissions, is having a significant impact on Australia's climate. Since 1910, Australian temperatures have risen by approximately 34.7 °F ^{(1.5 °C)}, leading to an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme heat events and heavy rainfall. There has been a notable reduction in rainfall from April to October in southern Australia since 1970, contributing to longer and more severe fire seasons since the 1950s. Conversely, rainfall has increased in parts of northern Australia since the 1970s. The number of tropical cyclones has shown a decreasing trend since 1982, and alpine snow depths have decreased since the late 1950s. Sea levels are rising around Australia, and the surrounding oceans are becoming more acidic, threatening marine ecosystems like the Great Barrier Reef.

4.4. Biodiversity

Australia is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, renowned for its unique and diverse flora, fauna, and fungi. This exceptional biodiversity is largely due to the continent's long geological isolation, its vast size covering a wide range of climatic zones, and its ancient, often nutrient-poor soils.

A high proportion of Australia's species are endemic, meaning they are found nowhere else in the world. Approximately 85% of its flowering plants, 84% of its mammals, more than 45% of its birds, and 89% of its in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic. Australia has at least 755 species of reptiles, more than any other country. The continent's ancient landscapes host a variety of ecosystems, from tropical rainforests in Queensland and alpine heaths in the southeastern mountains, to vast deserts in the interior, extensive eucalypt woodlands, and acacia (wattle) shrublands. The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system and a hotspot of marine biodiversity.

Australia's iconic fauna includes monotremes (egg-laying mammals) such as the platypus and echidna; a vast array of marsupials, including kangaroos, wallabies, koalas, wombats, and the Tasmanian devil; and unique birds like the emu, kookaburra, and various parrot species. Many Australian animals are dangerous, including some of the world's most venomous snakes, spiders, and marine creatures. The dingo, a wild dog, was introduced by Austronesian seafarers around 4,000 years ago and has since become a significant predator.

The arrival of humans, both Indigenous peoples and later Europeans, has had a profound impact on Australia's biodiversity. The Australian megafauna became extinct shortly after the first human settlement, likely due to a combination of hunting and habitat alteration (including fire-stick farming). Since European colonisation, numerous other species have become extinct, such as the thylacine (Tasmanian tiger), and many more are threatened. Australia has one of the highest mammal extinction rates in the world.

Major threats to Australia's biodiversity include habitat loss and fragmentation due to land clearing for agriculture and urban development, invasive species (such as feral cats, foxes, rabbits, and various introduced plants and diseases like Phytophthora dieback), altered fire regimes, and the impacts of climate change (including more frequent and intense droughts, heatwaves, and bushfires, as well as ocean warming and acidification).

Conservation efforts are crucial. The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 provides a legal framework for protecting threatened species and ecological communities. Numerous protected areas, including national parks and reserves, have been established under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity. Australia is a signatory to international conservation agreements, including the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Ramsar Convention (with 65 listed wetlands). There are 16 natural World Heritage Sites in Australia, recognized for their outstanding universal value. Despite these efforts, significant challenges remain in halting biodiversity loss and ensuring the long-term survival of Australia's unique natural heritage, particularly in the face of climate change and ongoing human pressures. The discovery of fossil sites like McGraths Flat in South Australia, revealing a prehistoric rainforest in what is now arid land, underscores the dramatic environmental shifts the continent has undergone and the rich biodiversity it once supported.

5.1. Government structure

Australia is a constitutional monarchy, a parliamentary democracy, and a federation. The country has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system under its largely unchanged Constitution of Australia since Federation in 1901. It is one of the world's oldest federations, where power is divided between the federal government (also known as the Commonwealth government) and the governments of the six states and two major mainland territories. The Australian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United Kingdom (a fused executive, constitutional monarchy, and strong party discipline) and the United States (federalism, a written constitution, and strong bicameralism with an elected Senate in which states have equal representation), resulting in a distinct hybrid often referred to as a "Washminster" system.

The federal government power is partially separated among three branches:

• Legislature:** The bicameral Parliament, comprising the Monarch (represented by the Governor-General), the Senate (upper house), and the House of Representatives (lower house).
• Executive:** The Australian Government, formally the Federal Executive Council. In practice, it is led by the Prime Minister (the leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the House of Representatives) and their chosen Cabinet ministers. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are formally appointed by the Governor-General but are responsible to the Parliament.
• Judiciary:** The High Court of Australia (the highest court) and other federal courts. Judges are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the government.

Charles III reigns as King of Australia and is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by Governors at the state level. By convention, and under section 63 of the Constitution, the Governor-General and State Governors act on the advice of their ministers. Thus, in practice, the Governor-General acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The Governor-General may, in certain limited situations, exercise reserve powers-powers exercisable in the absence of or contrary to ministerial advice. The scope and conditions for exercising these powers are governed by convention and are not precisely defined. The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in 1975.

The Senate consists of 76 senators: twelve from each of the six states and two from each of the two major mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory). Senators from states serve six-year terms, with half elected every three years, while territory senators' terms are tied to House of Representatives elections. The House of Representatives currently has 151 members, elected from single-member electoral divisions (electorates) allocated to states based on population, with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats. The House of Representatives has a maximum term of three years, but elections can be called earlier.

The principle of responsible government is central, meaning the executive government is drawn from and accountable to the Parliament. Ministers must be members of Parliament.

5.2. Political parties and elections

Australia has a multi-party system, though federal government has historically been dominated by two major political groupings: the Australian Labor Party (ALP) and the Coalition, which is a formal alliance of the Liberal Party and the National Party. The ALP is generally considered centre-left, while the Coalition is considered centre-right. Other significant parties include the Australian Greens, who often hold the balance of power in the Senate, and various smaller parties and independent members who achieve representation, particularly in the upper houses. At the state level, the relationship between the Liberal and National parties varies: they are merged into the Liberal National Party in Queensland and the Country Liberal Party in the Northern Territory (though federal parliamentarians from these parties sit with either the Liberals or Nationals federally); they are in coalition in New South Wales, Victoria, and Western Australia; and they sometimes compete against each other in South Australia and Tasmania.

Federal elections are typically held every three years. Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting (also known as ranked-choice voting) for the House of Representatives and for all state and territory lower house elections (except in Tasmania and the ACT, which use the Hare-Clark system, a form of proportional representation). The Senate and most state upper houses use the single transferable vote (STV), a proportional system that combines preferential voting with multi-member electorates for each state or territory.

Voting and electoral enrolment are compulsory for all eligible Australian citizens aged 18 and over in every jurisdiction. The party or coalition that commands a majority in the House of Representatives forms the government, and its leader becomes the Prime Minister. If no party achieves a majority, the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint a Prime Minister who can command the confidence of the House, potentially leading to a minority government.

Political participation also occurs through interest groups, activism, and public debate. Trends in political participation show high voter turnout due to compulsory voting, but also varying levels of engagement with political parties and other forms of civic activity. The 2022 Australian federal election resulted in the Australian Labor Party, led by Anthony Albanese, forming government.

6.1. States and territories

Australia has six states and two major mainland self-governing territories. The states are:

• New South Wales (NSW), capital Sydney
• Victoria (Vic), capital Melbourne
• Queensland (Qld), capital Brisbane
• Western Australia (WA), capital Perth
• South Australia (SA), capital Adelaide
• Tasmania (Tas), capital Hobart

The two major mainland territories are:

• Australian Capital Territory (ACT), which includes the national capital, Canberra
• Northern Territory (NT), capital Darwin

The states possess the general power to make laws, except in a few areas where the Constitution of Australia grants exclusive powers to the Commonwealth (the federal government). The Commonwealth can only make laws on topics listed in the Constitution (primarily in Section 51), but its laws prevail over those of the states to the extent of any inconsistency (Section 109). Since Federation, the Commonwealth's power relative to the states has significantly increased, largely due to wider judicial interpretations of Commonwealth powers and the states' financial reliance on Commonwealth grants through vertical fiscal imbalance.

Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament. These are unicameral (single chamber) in the Northern Territory, the ACT, and Queensland, and bicameral (two chambers) in the other states. The lower houses are typically known as the Legislative Assembly (or House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania), and the upper houses are known as Legislative Councils. The head of government in each state is the Premier, and in each territory, the Chief Minister. The King is represented in each state by a Governor. At the Commonwealth level, the King's representative is the Governor-General.

In addition to these, Australia administers several other territories:

• The internal Jervis Bay Territory.
• External territories: Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Australian Antarctic Territory (a claim recognized by New Zealand, the UK, France, and Norway only), Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, and Norfolk Island. Norfolk Island was self-governed until 2015 when this was revoked by the Commonwealth.
• Macquarie Island is part of Tasmania, and Lord Howe Island is part of New South Wales.

6.2. Major cities

Australia is a highly urbanized country, with the majority of its population living in metropolitan areas, primarily along the eastern and southeastern coastlines. Its major cities are centers of commerce, culture, and population.

• Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is Australia's largest city by metropolitan population and a global financial hub. It is famous for landmarks such as the Sydney Opera House and the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Sydney has a diverse economy, strong in finance, manufacturing, and tourism.
• Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, is Australia's second-largest city and is recognized for its vibrant arts scene, coffee culture, sports, and multiculturalism. It is a major center for finance, research, and advanced manufacturing. Melbourne is sometimes considered larger than Sydney based on Significant Urban Area (SUA) definitions.
• Brisbane, the capital of Queensland, is the third-largest city. Located on the Brisbane River, it is a significant economic hub for resources, agriculture, tourism, and technology, and serves as a gateway to popular tourist destinations like the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast.
• Perth, the capital of Western Australia, is an isolated major city on the country's west coast. Its economy is heavily influenced by the mining and petroleum industries due to the state's vast natural resources. It is known for its beaches and sunny climate.
• Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is known for its colonial architecture, festivals, wine regions, and manufacturing base, particularly in defense and automotive industries (though car manufacturing has ceased).
• Canberra, the national capital, located in the Australian Capital Territory, is a planned city designed by Walter Burley Griffin. It is the center of federal government administration, home to Parliament House, the High Court, and numerous national institutions and monuments.

Other significant urban areas include the Gold Coast (a major tourist destination in Queensland), Newcastle (a historic port city in New South Wales), Wollongong (New South Wales), Sunshine Coast (Queensland), Geelong (Victoria), Hobart (capital of Tasmania), and Darwin (capital of the Northern Territory). These cities contribute significantly to Australia's economy, culture, and regional development.

9.1. Major industries

Australia's economy is diverse, with several key industries contributing significantly to its GDP and employment.

• Mining: This sector is a cornerstone of the Australian economy, driven by vast reserves of iron ore, coal (both thermal and coking), natural gas (including LNG), gold, bauxite (for aluminum), copper, uranium, nickel, zinc, and various other minerals. Western Australia and Queensland are particularly prominent mining states. The industry is a major source of export revenue but also faces scrutiny regarding its environmental impact, land use conflicts with Indigenous communities and agriculture, and its contribution to climate change. Ensuring a just transition for workers and communities reliant on fossil fuel industries is a key social challenge.
• Agriculture: Despite its relatively small share of GDP, agriculture is vital for domestic food supply, export income, and regional employment. Key agricultural products include beef, lamb, wool, dairy products, wheat, barley, sugarcane, cotton, horticulture (fruits, vegetables, nuts), and wine. The sector faces challenges from drought, climate change, water scarcity, and international market fluctuations. Sustainable farming practices and support for rural communities are important social considerations.
• Services: This is the largest component of the Australian economy.
  • Finance and Insurance: A sophisticated and well-regulated sector, with major banks, insurance companies, and investment funds. Sydney is a major financial center in the Asia-Pacific region.
  • Tourism: A significant industry, attracting international and domestic visitors to Australia's natural attractions (like the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru), cities, and cultural events. It is a major employer, particularly in regional areas. The industry is sensitive to global economic conditions, exchange rates, and, as seen with the COVID-19 pandemic, travel restrictions and health crises. Sustainable tourism that respects natural and cultural heritage is increasingly emphasized.
  • Education: International education is a major export earner, with students from around the world attending Australian universities, vocational colleges, and schools. This contributes to cultural diversity but also raises questions about reliance on this sector and the welfare of international students.
  • Healthcare and Social Assistance: A large and growing sector, driven by an aging population and universal healthcare coverage (Medicare). It is a major employer and includes public and private hospitals, medical practices, aged care services, and community health services. Ensuring equitable access and quality of care are key social policy objectives.
  • Retail Trade: A significant employer, encompassing supermarkets, department stores, and various specialty retailers.
  • Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services: Includes legal, accounting, engineering, architectural, and consulting services.
• Manufacturing: While its share of the economy has declined over recent decades due to global competition, manufacturing remains important, particularly in specialized areas such as food processing, machinery and equipment, metal products, and advanced manufacturing. There is a focus on innovation and high-value manufacturing.
• Construction: Driven by residential, commercial, and infrastructure development, this sector is a major employer and indicator of economic activity.

These industries are interconnected and subject to various economic, social, and environmental influences, including government policy, technological change, and global trends.

9.2. Trade

Australia has an open, trade-oriented economy, with international trade playing a crucial role in its economic prosperity.

• Major Export Commodities: Australia's primary exports are dominated by its abundant natural resources. These include iron ore, coal (both thermal and coking), natural gas (particularly LNG), gold, beef, wheat, wool, bauxite/alumina, and copper. Education and tourism services are also significant export earners. The heavy reliance on commodity exports makes Australia susceptible to fluctuations in global commodity prices and demand.
• Major Import Commodities: Key imports include personal motor vehicles, refined petroleum, telecommunication equipment, computers, medicaments, machinery, and various manufactured goods.
• Major Trading Partners:
  • China** is by far Australia's largest trading partner, accounting for a significant share of both exports (primarily resources like iron ore and coal) and imports (manufactured goods). This close economic relationship has at times been subject to geopolitical tensions.
  • Japan** is another key trading partner, particularly for resources (coal, LNG, iron ore) and agricultural products.
• The **United States** is a major partner for both imports and exports, with significant trade in services and investment flows.
  • South Korea** is an important market for Australian resources and agricultural goods.
• Other significant trading partners include countries in Southeast Asia (like Singapore and Indonesia), New Zealand, India, and various European nations.
• Balance of Trade: Australia's balance of trade can fluctuate significantly depending on commodity prices and global economic conditions. While often running a current account deficit due to income payments on foreign investment, the goods and services trade balance can be in surplus when export revenues are high.
• Free-trade agreements (FTAs): Australia has actively pursued FTAs to enhance market access and reduce trade barriers. It is a party to numerous bilateral and multilateral agreements, including:
  • Bilateral agreements with China (ChAFTA), Japan (JAEPA), the United States (AUSFTA), South Korea (KAFTA), the United Kingdom (A-UKFTA), New Zealand (CER), Singapore, Thailand, Chile, Peru, Indonesia, and India.
  • Multilateral agreements such as the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP).

  Trade policy is generally focused on promoting free and open markets, though debates exist regarding the social and environmental impacts of trade, the need for diversification away from heavy reliance on specific commodities or markets, and ensuring that trade agreements uphold labor and environmental standards.

9.3. Energy

Australia has a diverse energy mix, but it has historically been heavily reliant on fossil fuels, particularly coal, for electricity generation and export revenue. The transition to cleaner energy sources is a major economic, social, and environmental challenge.

• Primary Energy Sources:
  • Coal: Australia is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of coal (both black coal and brown coal). Coal has traditionally been the dominant fuel for domestic electricity generation, especially in eastern states.
  • Natural Gas: Australia has significant natural gas reserves and is a major exporter of LNG. Natural gas is also used for electricity generation, industrial processes, and residential heating and cooking.
  • Oil: While Australia produces some crude oil and condensate, it is a net importer of refined petroleum products. Oil is primarily used in the transport sector.
  • Renewable Energy: This sector is growing rapidly.
    • Solar Power: Australia has high solar radiation levels, making it well-suited for both rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV) installations (where it has one of the highest per capita uptakes globally) and large-scale solar farms.
    • Wind Power: Wind farms are a significant and growing source of renewable electricity, particularly in southern states.
    • Hydroelectricity: Historically important, particularly the Snowy Mountains Scheme, but further large-scale hydro potential is limited. Pumped-storage hydroelectricity is being explored for energy storage.
    • Bioenergy: Derived from organic matter, contributing a smaller share to the energy mix.
• Energy Production and Consumption: In 2021-22, Australia's electricity generation was sourced from black coal (37.2%), brown coal (12%), natural gas (18.8%), hydro (6.5%), wind (11.1%), solar (13.3%), and bio-energy (1.2%). Total energy consumption in the same period was sourced from coal (28.4%), oil (37.3%), gas (27.4%), and renewables (7%). From 2012 to 2022, energy sourced from renewables increased by 5.7%, while coal decreased by 2.6%.
• National Energy Policy and Transition: Australian energy policy has been a subject of intense political debate, particularly concerning climate change targets and the transition from fossil fuels. The federal government set a Renewable Energy Target (RET) aiming for 20% of electricity from renewables by 2020, which was achieved. A new target of 82% renewable electricity by 2030 was set in 2022, and a national target for net zero emissions by 2050 was established in 2021.

The transition involves significant investment in renewable generation, energy storage (like batteries and pumped hydro), and grid modernization. Challenges include ensuring energy security and affordability during the transition, managing the social impacts on communities traditionally reliant on fossil fuel industries (requiring "just transition" policies), and developing new export industries like green hydrogen. The debate over the role of nuclear power also resurfaces periodically.

Environmental concerns related to fossil fuel extraction and combustion, such as greenhouse gas emissions, water impacts, and land use conflicts, are major drivers for the shift towards cleaner energy.

9.4. Science and technology

Australia has a strong tradition in scientific research and technological innovation, contributing significantly to global advancements across various fields.

• Investment in Research and Development (R&D): In 2019, Australia spent approximately 35.60 B AUD on R&D, which equated to about 1.79% of its GDP. This investment is spread across government research agencies, universities, and the private sector. The tech sector contributed 167.00 B AUD to the economy and employed 861,000 people in 2022. Startup ecosystems, particularly in Sydney and Melbourne, are valued at a combined 34.00 B AUD. Australia ranked 23rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.
• Major Scientific and Technological Achievements:
  • Medical innovations: Development of the cochlear implant (bionic ear), invention of penicillin's mass production process (by Howard Florey and team), development of the first cervical cancer vaccine (Gardasil), and pioneering work in in vitro fertilisation (IVF).
  • Technological breakthroughs: Invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy, key components of Wi-Fi technology (by CSIRO), the black box flight recorder, and the development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote.
  • Agricultural science: Advances in crop breeding, pest control, and sustainable farming practices.
• Key Research Institutions:
  • Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO): Australia's national science agency, conducting research across a wide range of areas, including agriculture, environment, energy, health, and manufacturing. It contributes about 10% of all research in the country.
  • Universities: Australian universities are major centers for research, often collaborating with industry and international partners. The Group of Eight universities are particularly research-intensive.
  • Medical Research Institutes: Numerous world-renowned institutes like the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, the Garvan Institute of Medical Research, and the Murdoch Children's Research Institute.
• Innovation Ecosystem: Australia is fostering an innovation ecosystem that includes government support programs, venture capital investment, incubators, and accelerators to help translate research into commercial outcomes. However, challenges remain in areas like commercialization rates and business expenditure on R&D compared to some other OECD countries.
• International Collaboration: Australian scientists and institutions are actively involved in international research collaborations and large-scale projects, such as the Square Kilometre Array (a global radio telescope project co-hosted by Australia) and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex (part of NASA's Deep Space Network).
• Nobel Laureates and Recognition: As of 2024, thirteen Australian scientists have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, Chemistry, or Physiology/Medicine, and two have received the Fields Medal in mathematics, highlighting the quality and impact of Australian research.
• Social and Environmental Implications: Scientific and technological advancements are critical for addressing national challenges, including climate change adaptation and mitigation, healthcare for an aging population, food security, and environmental management. There is an increasing focus on ensuring that technological development aligns with principles of social equity and environmental sustainability, for instance, in areas like artificial intelligence ethics and responsible resource management.

Despite its relatively small population (0.3% of the world's total), Australia contributed 4.1% of the world's published research in 2020, ranking it among the top 10 research contributors globally.

10.1. Population

As of the 2021 census, Australia's population was approximately 25.9 million. The country has a relatively low overall population density of about 3.4 persons per square kilometre, making it one of the most sparsely populated nations in the world. However, the population is highly concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coastlines, and in major urban centers.

Australia is one ofthe most urbanized countries, with about 67% of the population residing in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (the metropolitan areas of state and mainland territory capitals) in 2018. The largest cities are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide.

Demographic trends indicate an aging population, common in many developed countries, with an increasing proportion of retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the median age of the population was 39 years. Life expectancy is high, at approximately 83 years (81 for males and 85 for females). The total fertility rate has been below replacement level for several decades, contributing to the aging trend, although population growth has been sustained by immigration. Population distribution across states and territories shows New South Wales and Victoria as the most populous states.

10.2. Ancestry and immigration

Australia is a profoundly multicultural nation, shaped by centuries of immigration. While Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants, the demographic landscape has been significantly altered by successive waves of migration.
Between 1788 and World War II, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles (primarily England, Ireland, and Scotland), with smaller but significant numbers from China and Germany during the 19th century. The Federation in 1901 saw the formalization of the White Australia Policy, which severely restricted non-European immigration for much of the 20th century. This policy, rooted in racism and economic protectionism, had a detrimental impact on those excluded and on Australia's international relations.

Following World War II, Australia launched large-scale immigration programs, initially targeting migrants from Britain and Europe to boost its population and workforce. This period saw an influx of "New Australians" from Southern and Eastern Europe, in addition to those from the British Isles. The White Australia Policy was gradually dismantled from the 1960s, with its final vestiges removed in 1973. Multiculturalism was subsequently adopted as official government policy.

This policy shift led to a significant and ongoing wave of immigration from all parts of the world, with Asia becoming the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century. Today, Australia has one of the highest proportions of immigrants among major Western nations, with around 30% of its population born overseas. In 2022-23, 212,789 permanent migrants were admitted, and there was a net migration gain of 518,000 people (including non-permanent residents). Most immigrants arrive under skilled migration programs, with other streams for family reunion and humanitarian (refugee) intake.

The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) collects data on ancestry. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:

• English (33.0%)
• Australian (29.9%) (Many nominating "Australian" ancestry are of Anglo-Celtic background)
• Irish (9.5%)
• Scottish (8.6%)
• Chinese (5.5%)
• Italian (4.4%)
• German (4.0%)
• Indian (3.1%)
• Indigenous (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander - this refers to ancestry nomination, distinct from Indigenous identification which was 3.8% of the population) (2.9%)
• Greek (1.7%)
• Filipino (1.6%)
• Dutch (1.5%)
• Vietnamese (1.3%)
• Lebanese (1.0%)

(Note: Individuals can nominate more than one ancestry, so percentages may sum to more than 100%.)

The social integration of immigrants is a key aspect of Australian multiculturalism. While generally successful, challenges include addressing discrimination, ensuring equitable access to services, and supporting settlement for new arrivals. The impact of immigration on social cohesion, economic development, and cultural richness is a continuing subject of public and policy discussion.

10.3. Language

While Australia has no legally enshrined official language, English is the de facto national language, spoken by the vast majority of the population and used in government, education, and public life. Australian English is a distinct variety of English with its own accent, lexicon, and nuances, though it shares grammar and spelling largely with British English. General Australian is considered the standard dialect.

Reflecting its multicultural composition, a significant number of other languages are spoken in Australia. At the 2021 census, while 72% of the population spoke only English at home, the next most common languages spoken at home were:

• Mandarin (2.7%)
• Arabic (1.4%)
• Vietnamese (1.3%)
• Cantonese (1.2%)
• Punjabi (0.9%)

Many immigrants and their descendants are bilingual or multilingual.

Indigenous Australian languages are of critical importance to the nation's heritage. At the time of European contact, it is estimated that over 250 distinct Indigenous languages, and many more dialects, were spoken. Colonisation, assimilation policies, and suppression of Indigenous cultures led to a drastic decline in the number of speakers. Today, many Indigenous languages are endangered or have been lost. The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018-19 found over 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, though 70 of those were endangered. According to the 2021 census, 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians. Among the most widely spoken are Yumplatok (Torres Strait Creole), Djambarrpuyngu (a Yolŋu Matha language), and Pitjantjatjara (a Western Desert language). Efforts are underway to preserve, revitalize, and promote Indigenous languages, recognizing their cultural significance and the human rights of Indigenous peoples to maintain their linguistic heritage.

The Australian sign language, Auslan, was used at home by 16,242 people at the 2021 census. Government services often provide information in multiple languages and offer interpreting services to ensure accessibility for non-English speakers.

10.4. Religion

Australia is a secular country with no state religion. Section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the federal government from making any law for establishing any religion, imposing any religious observance, or prohibiting the free exercise of any religion. This ensures freedom of religion, although state governments retain some power to pass laws that could potentially impact religious practices, a point of discussion regarding the fullness of religious freedom protections.

The religious landscape of Australia is diverse, reflecting its multicultural society and a growing trend towards secularism. According to the 2021 census:

• No Religion:** 38.9% of the population identified as having no religion. This category has grown significantly, up from 15.5% in 2001, indicating increasing secularization. This group includes those identifying as atheist, agnostic, humanist, or rationalist.
• Christianity:** Remains the largest broad religious group, with 43.9% of the population identifying as Christian.
  • The Roman Catholic Church is the largest single Christian denomination (20.0%).
  • The Anglican Church of Australia is the second largest (9.8%).
  • Other Christian denominations include the Uniting Church, Presbyterian and Reformed, Eastern Orthodox, Baptist, and Pentecostal churches.
• Other Religions:** Due to post-World War II immigration, particularly from Asia and the Middle East, other religions have a significant presence.
  • Islam (3.2%)
  • Hinduism (2.7%)
  • Buddhism (2.4%)
  • Sikhism (0.8%)
  • Judaism (0.4%)
• Traditional Aboriginal Religions:** In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions. Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework of The Dreaming (or Dreamtime) encompass sacred eras, ancestral beings, creation stories, and the laws and ceremonies that structure society and ensure the continuity of life and land.
• Unanswered/Not Stated:** 7.2% of respondents did not answer the optional religion question or provided a response that could not be classified.

While many Australians identify with a religion, active participation in religious services has declined. Religious institutions continue to play a role in social welfare, education, and public debate, but their influence in a largely secular society is a subject of ongoing discussion. Issues of religious tolerance, discrimination, and the role of religion in public life are important aspects of Australia's multicultural discourse.

10.5. Education

Australia's education system is primarily the responsibility of individual states and territories, though the federal government plays a significant role in funding and setting national standards, including the Australian Curriculum implemented since 2014. School attendance, or registration for home schooling, is compulsory throughout Australia, generally from around age 5 or 6 until about age 16 or 17, depending on the state.

The education system is structured into:

• Early Childhood Education:** Includes preschools (kindergartens), often not compulsory but widely attended.
• Primary Education:** Typically from Kindergarten/Preparatory/Reception to Year 6 or 7.
• Secondary Education:** From Year 7 or 8 to Year 12. This includes junior secondary (middle school) and senior secondary. Upon completion of Year 12, students receive a Senior Secondary Certificate of Education (e.g., HSC in NSW, VCE in Victoria), which is often used for university entrance.
• Higher Education:** Australia has 37 government-funded public universities and a few private universities and other specialist higher education institutions. Notable universities include those in the Group of Eight. The Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) is the national regulator. Australia is a major destination for international students, making international education a significant export industry. This influx of students contributes to the multicultural fabric of university campuses but also raises issues regarding student welfare, housing, and the sustainability of the sector.
• Vocational Education and Training (VET):** Provided by state-based Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institutes and private registered training organisations (RTOs). VET offers practical skills and training for various trades and occupations, including apprenticeships and traineeships.

Australia's adult literacy rate was estimated at 99% in 2003. However, reports like the 2011-2012 Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) indicated that a significant portion of the adult population (around 44%) had literacy and numeracy skills below levels considered necessary for everyday life and work in a modern economy. According to the 2022 PISA evaluations, Australian 15-year-olds ranked ninth in the OECD for reading and science and tenth for maths. However, concerns remain as less than 60% of Australian students achieved the National Proficiency Standard in these areas.

About 58% of Australians aged 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications, and the tertiary graduation rate is among the highest in OECD countries. Ensuring equitable access to quality education for all Australians, including those from disadvantaged backgrounds, Indigenous Australians, and students in regional and remote areas, is an ongoing focus of education policy. Addressing disparities in educational outcomes remains a key challenge for social equity.

10.6. Health

Australia has a generally high standard of health and a well-developed healthcare system, though disparities in health outcomes persist, particularly for Indigenous Australians and those in lower socioeconomic groups. Average life expectancy is high, around 83 years (81 for males and 85 for females).

The healthcare system is a mix of public and private services. Medicare, established in 1975 (and in its current form since 1981/1984), is Australia's universal health insurance scheme. It provides access to free or subsidized treatment by medical practitioners, and free treatment in public hospitals. Medicare is primarily funded through general taxation, including a Medicare levy (currently 2% of taxable income for most taxpayers). The states and territories are primarily responsible for managing public hospitals and attached outpatient services. The federal government funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS), which subsidizes the cost of many prescription medicines, and also funds general practice services. Private health insurance is also available, offering coverage for services not fully covered by Medicare, such as private hospital treatment and ancillary services like dental and optical care.

Total health expenditure is around 9.91% of GDP (2021). Major public health issues include:

• Chronic diseases:** Such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and respiratory diseases, which are leading causes of illness and death.
• Obesity:** Australia has one of the highest rates of obesity among developed nations, with about 63% of adults being overweight or obese. This contributes to various chronic health problems.
• Mental Health:** Mental health conditions are prevalent, and improving access to mental healthcare services is a national priority.
• Cancer:** Australia has one of the highest rates of skin cancer in the world, largely due to high UV radiation exposure.
• Tobacco Smoking:** While rates have declined, smoking remains a significant preventable cause of death and disease.
• Alcohol and Drug Use:** Harmful alcohol consumption and illicit drug use pose ongoing public health challenges.
• Indigenous Health:** Indigenous Australians experience significantly poorer health outcomes and lower life expectancy compared to non-Indigenous Australians. Closing this gap is a major focus of national health policy, addressing social determinants of health, access to culturally appropriate healthcare, and specific health issues prevalent in Indigenous communities.

National health policies aim to improve public health, prevent disease, ensure equitable access to healthcare, and manage the rising costs associated with an aging population and new medical technologies.

10.7. Human rights

Australia generally has strong protections for civil and political rights and is a signatory to a wide range of international human rights treaties. Key domestic legal frameworks for human rights protection include the Australian Constitution (which contains limited express rights), federal anti-discrimination legislation such as the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992, and the Age Discrimination Act 2004. Same-sex marriage has been legal nationwide since 2017. The Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) is the national human rights institution, tasked with investigating discrimination complaints, promoting human rights awareness, and providing advice to government.

Unlike many comparable Western democracies, Australia does not have a comprehensive federal charter of rights or bill of rights enshrined in its Constitution or as standalone legislation. However, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, and Queensland have enacted state/territory-level human rights charters. The absence of a federal charter means that human rights protections can be vulnerable to legislative override, and there are ongoing debates about the adequacy of existing protections.

International organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, as well as UN bodies, have raised concerns about several human rights issues in Australia, including:

• Rights of Indigenous Australians:** Despite progress in some areas, Indigenous peoples continue to experience systemic discrimination and disadvantage. Key concerns include high rates of incarceration (especially for Indigenous youth), Indigenous deaths in custody, disparities in health, education, and employment outcomes, and the slow progress on achieving self-determination and land justice. The failure of the 2023 referendum on an Indigenous Voice to Parliament was a significant setback for many.
• Treatment of Asylum Seekers and Refugees:** Australia's policies of mandatory detention for asylum seekers arriving by boat, offshore processing arrangements (e.g., in Nauru), and boat turn-backs have drawn severe criticism for breaching international human rights obligations, including the rights of refugees and children. Conditions in detention centers and the prolonged uncertainty faced by asylum seekers are major concerns.
• Freedom of Speech and Protest:** Concerns have been raised about laws that may unduly restrict the rights to freedom of expression and peaceful assembly, particularly in the context of environmental protests and national security legislation.
• Counter-terrorism Laws:** Some counter-terrorism laws have been criticized for their potential impact on civil liberties, including rights to privacy, due process, and freedom from arbitrary detention.
• Rights of People with Disabilities:** While protected by legislation, people with disabilities continue to face barriers in areas such as employment, education, housing, and access to justice. The ongoing Royal Commission into Violence, Abuse, Neglect and Exploitation of People with Disability has highlighted significant failings.
• Age Discrimination and Elder Abuse:** These are emerging areas of concern, particularly with an aging population.
• Racism and Discrimination:** While Australia is a multicultural society, racism and discrimination against ethnic minorities, religious groups, and other marginalized communities persist.

Addressing these human rights challenges requires ongoing commitment to legislative reform, policy development, public education, and effective oversight mechanisms.

11.1. Arts

Australia's arts landscape is rich and varied, reflecting its multicultural society and unique history.

• Indigenous Art:** Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander art is one of the oldest continuous art traditions in the world, with rock art sites dating back tens of thousands of years. Traditional designs, patterns, and stories relating to The Dreaming infuse contemporary Indigenous art, which has gained international acclaim. Artists like Emily Kame Kngwarreye, Albert Namatjira (a pioneer of Western-style watercolour painting depicting Indigenous subjects and landscapes), and many others from communities such as Papunya Tula have brought Indigenous perspectives to global audiences. This art form is crucial for cultural maintenance and expression, though issues of authenticity, fair trade, and the protection of Indigenous intellectual property are ongoing concerns.
• Visual Arts:** Early colonial artists often depicted the unfamiliar Australian landscape and its flora and fauna. The Heidelberg School of the late 19th century, featuring artists like Arthur Streeton and Tom Roberts, developed a distinctively Australian impressionistic style, capturing the light and atmosphere of the bush. Twentieth-century modernists such as Margaret Preston and Clarice Beckett, and later figures like Sidney Nolan, Arthur Boyd, and Brett Whiteley, explored diverse international trends while often retaining a focus on Australian themes and landscapes. Contemporary Australian visual arts are diverse, encompassing painting, sculpture, photography, digital media, and installation art. Public and private galleries, including the National Gallery of Australia and state galleries, showcase both Australian and international art.
• Literature:** Australian literature grew from Indigenous oral traditions and the writings of early European settlers and convicts. In the 19th century, writers like Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson captured the experience of the Australian bush, often in a vernacular style. Paterson's poem "Waltzing Matilda" is an iconic, unofficial national anthem. Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia's most prestigious literary prize. Patrick White was the first Australian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature (1973). Other notable Australian authors include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally, Richard Flanagan (all Booker Prize winners), David Malouf, Tim Winton, and Kate Grenville. Feminist writer Germaine Greer and philosopher Peter Singer are influential public intellectuals. Contemporary Australian literature reflects the nation's multiculturalism and addresses a wide range of social and historical themes.
• Performing Arts:**
  • Music: Indigenous music, with its ancient traditions of song, dance, and instruments like the didgeridoo, continues to be a vital cultural expression. In Western classical music, Nellie Melba was a leading opera singer in the early 20th century, and Joan Sutherland achieved global fame as a soprano. Each state has a symphony orchestra, and Opera Australia is the national opera company. Popular music from Australia has achieved international success with acts like the Bee Gees, AC/DC, INXS, Kylie Minogue, Gotye, Sia, and Tame Impala. The Australian pub rock scene was particularly vibrant.
  • Dance: The Australian Ballet is the national ballet company. Contemporary dance and Indigenous dance companies also thrive.
  • Theatre: Each state has publicly funded theatre companies. Australian playwrights like David Williamson have gained international recognition.

  Many performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government's Australia Council.
  
  The arts play a significant role in Australian cultural life, reflecting and shaping national identity, and providing a platform for social commentary and diverse voices. Supporting emerging artists and ensuring equitable access to the arts for all Australians are ongoing objectives.

11.2. Media

Australia has a diverse media landscape, encompassing film, television, print, and digital platforms.

• Film:** The Australian film industry has a long history, dating back to The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), considered the world's first feature-length narrative film. After a period of decline dominated by Hollywood, the Australian New Wave of the 1970s saw a resurgence with critically acclaimed and commercially successful films like Picnic at Hanging Rock, Wake in Fright, and Gallipoli. The "Ozploitation" genre also emerged during this time. Later international successes include Crocodile Dundee and the Mad Max series. Australian actors and directors have achieved significant international recognition, with figures like Geoffrey Rush, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett, Heath Ledger, George Miller, and Baz Luhrmann winning major awards. Government funding through agencies like Screen Australia plays a crucial role in supporting the local film industry. In 2015, Australian films accounted for 7.7% of the local box office. The AACTA Awards are Australia's premier film and television awards.
• Television:** Australia has two national public broadcasters: the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). There are also three major commercial television networks (Seven Network, Nine Network, Network Ten) and various pay-TV services. Australian television produces a range of local content, including drama, comedy, news, and current affairs.
• Print and Digital Media:** Each major city has at least one daily newspaper. National daily newspapers include The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. The print media landscape has been significantly impacted by the rise of digital media, with many publications also having a strong online presence. Concerns exist regarding media ownership concentration, with News Corp Australia and Nine Entertainment controlling a large share of the print media market.
• Press Freedom:** In 2024, Reporters Without Borders ranked Australia 39th out of 180 countries for press freedom. This ranking, while generally good, has been influenced by factors such as media ownership concentration and legislation related to national security and defamation that can impact journalistic work.

The media plays a vital role in informing the public, shaping public discourse, and reflecting Australian culture. Ensuring media diversity, supporting local content creation, and upholding journalistic freedom are important for a healthy democracy.

11.3. Cuisine

Australian cuisine is a vibrant and evolving tapestry reflecting its Indigenous heritage, British colonial foundations, and the profound impact of multicultural immigration.

• Indigenous Bush Tucker:** For tens of thousands of years, Indigenous Australians subsisted on native flora and fauna, known as "bush tucker." This includes a vast array of plants (fruits, nuts, seeds, yams, greens), insects, and animals (kangaroos, emus, fish, shellfish). Knowledge of these foods and their preparation is an integral part of Indigenous culture. Since the 1970s, there has been a growing interest in bush tucker among non-Indigenous Australians, with ingredients like lemon myrtle, macadamia nuts (one of the few native Australian plants to become a major commercial food crop), quandong, and kangaroo meat becoming more widely available in restaurants and retail.
• British and Irish Influence:** The first European settlers introduced British and Irish cuisine, which formed the basis of early colonial diets. Dishes like the Sunday roast, fish and chips, and the Australian meat pie (a variation of the British steak pie) remain popular. Traditional baking, such as scones and various cakes, also has British roots.
• Multicultural Influences:** Post-World War II immigration dramatically transformed Australian food culture.
  • European Migrants: Italian and Greek migrants, in particular, had a profound impact, popularizing espresso coffee and establishing Australia's vibrant café culture. They also introduced a wide range of Mediterranean ingredients and dishes. German, Eastern European, and other European groups also contributed their culinary traditions.
  • Asian Migrants: Immigration from China, beginning in the gold rush era, led to the development of a distinct Australian Chinese cuisine. Later waves of immigration from Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Japan, Korea, and other Asian countries have made their cuisines immensely popular and integral to the Australian food scene.
  • Middle Eastern and Other Influences: Migrants from the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America have further enriched Australia's culinary diversity.
• Modern Australian Cuisine:** This term often refers to a fusion cuisine style that blends European techniques with Asian, Middle Eastern, and Indigenous ingredients and flavors. It emphasizes fresh, local produce and innovative combinations.
• Iconic Australian Foods:** Certain foods are often considered quintessentially Australian, including Vegemite (a dark brown yeast extract spread), lamingtons (sponge cake dipped in chocolate and coated in desiccated coconut), pavlova (a meringue-based dessert, also claimed by New Zealand), Anzac biscuits (oat biscuits associated with Anzac Day), and the aforementioned meat pie. Barbecues ("barbies") are a popular social custom. The flat white coffee and avocado toast are more recent café staples considered by some as Australian innovations.
• Wine Industry:** Australia is a significant wine-producing and exporting nation. Major wine regions are located in the cooler, southern parts of the country, including South Australia (e.g., Barossa Valley, McLaren Vale, Coonawarra), Victoria (e.g., Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula), New South Wales (e.g., Hunter Valley), and Western Australia (e.g. Margaret River). Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and Pinot noir are among the most widely grown grape varieties. Australia also has a thriving craft beer scene.

Australian food culture is characterized by its diversity, an emphasis on fresh ingredients, and a casual, outdoor-oriented lifestyle.

11.4. Sport and recreation

Sport plays a significant role in Australian culture and national identity. Australians have high rates of participation in both organized and recreational sports, and the nation has achieved considerable success in international competitions.

• Popular Spectator Sports:**
  • Australian rules football (AFL): Particularly popular in Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. The AFL is the main professional league.
  • Rugby league: Dominant in New South Wales and Queensland. The National Rugby League (NRL) is the premier competition. The annual State of Origin series between NSW and Queensland is a major sporting event.
  • Cricket: A popular summer sport nationwide, with a long and storied history. The Australian national team (men's and women's) has a strong international record, including multiple Cricket World Cup victories. The Ashes series against England is a highlight.
  • Soccer (Football): Has high participation rates and growing spectator interest. The A-League (men's) and A-League Women (women's) are the national professional leagues. The Socceroos (men's national team) and Matildas (women's national team) compete internationally.
  • Rugby Union: Has a strong following, particularly in New South Wales and Queensland. The Wallabies (men's national team) compete in international tournaments like the Rugby World Cup and The Rugby Championship.
  • Basketball: Popular for participation and as a spectator sport, with the National Basketball League (NBL) and Women's National Basketball League (WNBL). Many Australians play in international leagues, including the NBA and WNBA.
  • Netball: One of the most popular women's team sports. The Australian Diamonds have a dominant international record.
• Popular Participation Sports:** Swimming, athletics (track and field), cycling, soccer, golf, tennis, basketball, surfing, netball, and cricket are among the most popular sports by adult participation.
• International Competitions:** Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era and has hosted the Games twice (Melbourne 1956, Sydney 2000), with Brisbane set to host in 2032. Australia also participates in every Commonwealth Games, hosting it multiple times (most recently Gold Coast 2018).
• Water Sports and Recreation:** Given its extensive coastline and beach culture, water sports are extremely popular. Surfing is iconic, and the surf lifesaving movement, which originated in Australia, is a vital volunteer service and competitive sport. Swimming, sailing, fishing, and boating are also widely enjoyed.
• Other Sports:** Tennis (with the Australian Open Grand Slam tournament), golf, motorsports (including the Australian Grand Prix), horse racing (highlighted by the Melbourne Cup), and cycling have significant followings.

Sport is deeply embedded in Australian society, contributing to community identity, promoting health and fitness, and providing a source of national pride. Government funding supports elite athletes and grassroots sports development.

11.5. Symbols

Australia has a range of official and unofficial national symbols that represent its identity, history, and values.

• National Flag:** The Australian National Flag features the Union Jack in the upper hoist canton, the large seven-pointed Commonwealth Star (or Star of Federation) in the lower hoist quarter, and a representation of the Southern Cross constellation (five white stars - one small five-pointed star and four larger seven-pointed stars) in the fly. The Union Jack signifies Australia's historical links to the United Kingdom and its status as part of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth Star represents the federation of the states and territories (six points for the original states, and one for all current and future territories). The Southern Cross is a prominent constellation visible in the Southern Hemisphere, symbolizing Australia's geographical location.
• Coat of Arms:** The official Coat of Arms of Australia features a shield depicting the badges of the six Australian states, supported by a red kangaroo and an emu. These native animals were chosen because they are said to be unable to walk backward easily, symbolizing progress. The shield is set over a background of Golden Wattle (Acacia pycnantha), Australia's floral emblem, and surmounted by the seven-pointed Commonwealth Star. The motto is "Australia."
• National Anthem:** "Advance Australia Fair" was officially declared the national anthem in 1984, replacing "God Save the Queen/King" (which is still played as the Royal Anthem when the monarch or a member of the royal family is present). The lyrics have been modified over time to be more inclusive.
• Floral Emblem:** The Golden Wattle (Acacia pycnantha) was officially proclaimed Australia's national floral emblem in 1988. Its green and gold colours are also Australia's national colours.
• Faunal Emblems:** While not officially a single national faunal emblem, the Kangaroo and the Emu are widely recognized symbols appearing on the Coat of Arms. Various states and territories also have their own faunal and floral emblems.
• National Colours:** Green and gold were officially proclaimed Australia's national colours in 1984. They are widely used by Australian national sports teams and in other symbolic contexts. They are derived from the colours of the Golden Wattle.
• Opal:** Proclaimed Australia's national gemstone in 1993. Australia is the world's leading producer of opal.

These symbols are used in various official and cultural contexts to represent Australia and its people. The significance and interpretation of some symbols, particularly the flag, are subject to ongoing public discussion, especially concerning reconciliation with Indigenous Australians and debates about republicanism.