Bangladesh

3.1. Early and Medieval Bengal

The Bengal region, comprising present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, is believed to have been settled around 1000 B.C. by Dravidian-speaking peoples later known as the Bang. Ancient Bengal was known as Gangaridai and was a stronghold of pre-Islamic kingdoms. The first great indigenous empire to cover the territory was the Mauryan Empire (circa 320-180 B.C.). Following its decline, the kingdom of Samatata arose, which was a tributary state of the Gupta Empire (circa A.D. 319-ca. 540). Harsha (A.D. 606-647) drew Samatata into its loosely administered political structure.

The Buddhist Pala Dynasty ruled the region from A.D. 750 to 1150. They were patrons of art, culture, and learning, and major Buddhist monastic centers like Somapura Mahavihara (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) flourished under their rule, attracting scholars and students from across Asia. The Pala period is considered a golden age of Bengali culture and art. The Palas were overthrown by the Hindu Sena dynasty, which ruled the territory until the Muslim conquests in the early 13th century. The Sena rulers promoted Sanskrit literature and orthodox Hindu practices.

3.2. Islamization and the Bengal Sultanate

Islam was introduced to Bengal in the 12th century primarily through Arab traders and Sufi missionaries. The Muslim conquest of Bengal, led by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji of the Ghurid dynasty in 1204, marked a significant turning point. Bengal was then incorporated into the Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206-1526).

In 1342, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah established the independent Bengal Sultanate, which lasted for nearly two centuries. This period was characterized by considerable political stability, economic prosperity, and significant cultural achievements. The Sultans of Bengal were patrons of Bengali literature and art, and trade flourished with various parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. European and Chinese visitors during this era regarded Bengal as the "richest country to trade with." The Sultanate developed a distinct architectural style, evident in numerous mosques and mausoleums, such as the Sixty Dome Mosque in Bagerhat (a UNESCO World Heritage Site). The egalitarian message of Sufi saints played a crucial role in the gradual spread of Islam among the local population.

3.3. Mughal Era and European Arrival

The Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in 1576, integrating it as one of its wealthiest and most important provinces, known as Bengal Subah. Under Mughal rule, Bengal experienced significant economic development, particularly in agriculture and textile production. Dhaka became an important administrative and commercial center, renowned for its fine muslin cloth, which was highly sought after globally. By the 18th century, Bengal Subah was described as the "Paradise of Countries" and the "breadbasket of India," with its citizens enjoying relatively high standards of living. The region was a major global exporter of cotton textiles, silk, and ships.

Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, Bengal effectively became a semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, founded by Murshid Quli Khan in 1717. During this period, European trading companies, including the British East India Company, Portuguese, Dutch, and French, established factories and increased their commercial activities in Bengal, drawn by its riches. The growing influence of these European powers set the stage for future colonial domination.

3.4. British Colonial Rule

The Battle of Plassey in 1757, where the forces of the British East India Company under Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, marked a pivotal moment. This victory effectively established British dominance over Bengal and laid the foundation for British rule across the Indian subcontinent, which lasted for nearly 200 years. Bengal played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution in Britain, but this came at the expense of significant capital flight and deindustrialization of the local economy, particularly the collapse of the Bengali textile industry due to British policies favoring their own manufactures.

The Great Bengal famine of 1770, exacerbated by exploitative Company policies and drought, caused an estimated ten million deaths, approximately one-third of the Bengal Presidency's population at the time. This remains one of the deadliest famines in history. The Permanent Settlement of 1793, a land revenue system introduced by the British, created a new class of zamindars (landlords) but often led to the exploitation of peasants.

The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 (also known as the Indian Mutiny or the First War of Independence) led to the end of East India Company rule and the transfer of governance to the British Crown, establishing direct British Raj. Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, Bengal experienced socio-economic changes, the rise of a new educated middle class, and the emergence of various nationalist and reform movements. The Bengal Renaissance saw a flowering of literature, art, and social reform. However, British policies often created or exacerbated communal tensions. The first partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon, ostensibly for administrative efficiency but seen by many as a "divide and rule" tactic, created Eastern Bengal and Assam with a Muslim majority. This partition was met with widespread protests and was eventually annulled in 1911, but it sowed seeds of communal politics and set a precedent for the future division of Bengal. The All-India Muslim League, which would later champion the cause of a separate Muslim state, was founded in Dhaka in 1906.

3.5. Partition of India and East Pakistan

In 1947, the Partition of India led to the end of British rule and the creation of two independent dominions: India and Pakistan. Bengal was partitioned for a second time, along religious lines, by the Radcliffe Line. Predominantly Hindu West Bengal became a state of India, while Muslim-majority East Bengal became the eastern wing of Pakistan, known initially as East Bengal and later as East Pakistan. Dhaka became its provincial capital and, for a period, the legislative capital of Pakistan.

East Pakistan was geographically separated from West Pakistan by over 1.0 K mile ^{(1.60 K km)} (1.00 K mile) of Indian territory. This physical separation, coupled with significant cultural, linguistic, and economic disparities, created growing tensions. Although East Pakistan had a larger population, political and economic power was concentrated in West Pakistan. Bengalis in East Pakistan faced discrimination in government jobs, military recruitment, and resource allocation. East Pakistan generated a significant portion of Pakistan's export revenue, particularly from jute and tea, but received a disproportionately small share of development expenditure and foreign aid. Economists like Rehman Sobhan and Nurul Islam articulated the "Two-Economies Theory," highlighting the systemic exploitation of East Pakistan.

The Bengali Language Movement of 1952, demanding recognition of Bengali as an official language of Pakistan alongside Urdu, was a seminal event. The violent suppression of student protesters on February 21 (now commemorated as International Mother Language Day) fueled Bengali nationalism and a sense of distinct identity. Khawaja Nazimuddin was East Bengal's first Chief Minister. The All Pakistan Awami Muslim League was formed in 1949, later becoming the secular Awami League in 1953. Land reforms in 1950 abolished the zamindar system. The United Front coalition decisively defeated the Muslim League in the 1954 provincial elections.

The imposition of martial law in Pakistan in 1958 under General Ayub Khan further alienated Bengalis. Ayub Khan's "Basic Democracies" system and the 1962 constitution were seen as undemocratic. In 1966, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, leader of the Awami League, announced the Six-Point Movement, demanding significant provincial autonomy and a federal parliamentary democracy. He was subsequently arrested in the Agartala Conspiracy Case but was released during the 1969 popular uprising that led to Ayub Khan's resignation. General Yahya Khan assumed power and promised elections. The devastating 1970 Bhola cyclone killed an estimated 500,000 people in East Pakistan, and the central government's inadequate response further inflamed public anger.

3.6. Bangladesh Liberation War

The general elections of December 1970 resulted in a landslide victory for the Awami League in East Pakistan, winning 167 out of 169 seats allocated to the province in the National Assembly, thereby securing an overall majority in the 313-seat National Assembly of Pakistan. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, the West Pakistani military-political establishment, led by General Yahya Khan and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of the Pakistan Peoples Party, refused to transfer power to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Negotiations failed, and the situation escalated.

On March 7, 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman delivered a historic speech at the Ramna Race Course Maidan in Dhaka, calling for non-cooperation and urging Bengalis to prepare for an armed struggle. On the night of March 25, 1971, the Pakistani military launched Operation Searchlight, a brutal crackdown aimed at suppressing the Bengali nationalist movement. This operation involved widespread killings of civilians, intellectuals, students, and Awami League members in Dhaka and other parts of East Pakistan.

In response, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declared the independence of Bangladesh on March 26, 1971, shortly before being arrested by the Pakistani army. This declaration marked the beginning of the Bangladesh Liberation War, a nine-month-long armed conflict. The Mukti Bahini (Liberation Forces), comprising Bengali members of the Pakistani military, paramilitary forces, police, and civilian volunteers, waged a guerrilla war against the Pakistani army. A provisional government of Bangladesh was formed in exile in Mujibnagar.

The war was characterized by immense human suffering, including the genocide perpetrated by the Pakistani military and their local collaborators (Razakars, Al-Badr, Al-Shams). Millions of Bengalis were killed (estimates range from hundreds of thousands to three million), and hundreds of thousands of women were subjected to sexual violence. About ten million refugees fled to neighboring India, creating a massive humanitarian crisis.

India, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, provided crucial support to the Mukti Bahini, including training, arms, and sanctuary for refugees. On December 3, 1971, after Pakistan launched air strikes on Indian airfields, India officially intervened in the war, leading to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The joint forces of the Indian military and the Mukti Bahini rapidly advanced. On December 16, 1971, the Pakistani forces stationed in East Pakistan, led by Lieutenant General A. A. K. Niazi, formally surrendered to the joint command of Indian and Bangladeshi forces, led by Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, in Dhaka. This day is celebrated as Victory Day in Bangladesh and marked the birth of the independent nation of Bangladesh.

The war had devastating consequences, including massive loss of life, destruction of infrastructure, and a shattered economy. The human rights violations committed during the war remain a sensitive and painful issue in Bangladesh's history.

3.7. Post-Independence Era

Following independence on December 16, 1971, Bangladesh faced the daunting task of nation-building amidst a devastated economy and infrastructure. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman returned from imprisonment in Pakistan and became the first Prime Minister, later President. The Constitution of Bangladesh was enacted on November 4, 1972, establishing a parliamentary democracy based on the principles of nationalism, socialism, democracy, and secularism. However, the early years were marred by political instability, economic hardship, and challenges in establishing law and order. The Bangladesh famine of 1974, exacerbated by war-related disruptions and natural disasters, caused widespread suffering. In 1975, Sheikh Mujib established a one-party socialist state under BAKSAL. This move, coupled with accusations of corruption and mismanagement, led to growing discontent.

On August 15, 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and most of his family were assassinated in a military coup, a traumatic event that profoundly impacted Bangladesh's political trajectory. A series of coups and counter-coups followed. Major General Ziaur Rahman eventually emerged as the de facto leader, later becoming President. He restored multi-party politics, founded the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), and initiated market-oriented economic reforms and agricultural industrialization. He also played a key role in the formation of the SAARC. Ziaur Rahman was himself assassinated in another coup attempt in 1981.

General Hussain Muhammad Ershad seized power in a bloodless coup in 1982 and ruled as a military dictator for nearly a decade. His regime saw some infrastructural development and administrative decentralization (devolution reforms), along with privatization of nationalized industries. In 1988, Islam was declared the state religion. Ershad's rule was marked by increasing authoritarianism and corruption, leading to a mass popular uprising in 1990 that forced him to resign.

Parliamentary democracy was restored in 1991. The subsequent decades were largely dominated by the political rivalry between the Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujib's daughter Sheikh Hasina, and the BNP, led by Ziaur Rahman's widow Khaleda Zia. This period, often dubbed the "Battle of the Begums," was characterized by intense political polarization, frequent general strikes (hartals), and confrontational politics, which hampered governance and economic progress. Power alternated between these two parties through elections in 1991, 1996, and 2001.

A political crisis in 2006-2008 led to the installation of a military-backed caretaker government, which undertook an anti-corruption drive. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina, won a landslide victory in the 2008 general elections. Hasina's subsequent tenure, marked by victories in the controversial 2014, 2018, and 2024 general elections (all of which were criticized for irregularities and lack of fairness, with major opposition boycotts in 2014 and 2024), saw significant economic growth and development achievements, including a reduction in poverty and improvements in human development indicators. However, this period was also characterized by increasing authoritarianism, democratic backsliding, suppression of dissent, restrictions on media freedom, and widespread human rights abuses, including extrajudicial killings and enforced disappearances. Corruption remained a persistent challenge.

In July-August 2024, a student-led mass uprising, initially triggered by a High Court ruling on job quotas but quickly escalating into widespread anti-government protests fueled by accumulated grievances against Hasina's long rule, led to Sheikh Hasina's resignation and departure from the country on August 5, 2024. An interim government led by Nobel Peace laureate Muhammad Yunus as Chief Adviser was formed on August 8, 2024, tasked with overseeing constitutional reforms and new elections.

Since the 1980s, Bangladesh has made remarkable strides in economic development, driven by free-market policies and economic liberalization. It emerged as one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, largely due to its massive textile industry, the second-largest globally. The country achieved significant reductions in poverty, from around 80% in 1971 to 18.7% in 2022. Its Human Development Index growth in the 21st century was notable. Bangladesh has also been a leader in establishing green factories. Since 2017, the country has provided shelter to over a million Rohingya refugees fleeing persecution in Myanmar, a significant humanitarian commitment despite the strain on its resources. The post-independence era reflects ongoing efforts to build a stable, democratic, and prosperous nation while grappling with complex socio-political and economic challenges, and striving to uphold human rights and justice for its people.

4.1. Terrain and Topography

The geography of Bangladesh is predominantly shaped by the vast and fertile Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, the largest river delta in the world. This delta is formed by the confluence of three major rivers: the Ganges (locally known as the Padma), the Brahmaputra (locally known as the Jamuna), and the Meghna, along with their numerous tributaries and distributaries. This extensive river system creates a landscape of alluvial plains, characterized by fertile soil ideal for agriculture. Bangladesh is often called the "Land of Rivers," as it is home to over 57 trans-boundary rivers.

Most of the country consists of low-lying, flat land, with much of it less than 39 ft ^{(12 m)} above sea level. This makes Bangladesh highly vulnerable to flooding, especially during the monsoon season and due to rising sea levels. About 10% of its land would be inundated if the sea level were to rise by 3.3 ft ^{(1 m)}.

While the deltaic plains dominate the landscape, there are some variations in topography:

• The northwest and central parts of the country feature slightly elevated terraced land known as the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus.
• The northeast and southeast regions are home to evergreen hill ranges. The Chittagong Hill Tracts in the southeast contain the country's highest elevations, including Saka Haphong (previously, Keokradong or Tazing Dong were considered the highest), which reaches an altitude of approximately 3.5 K ft ^{(1.06 K m)}.
• The country also possesses significant haor wetlands, particularly in the northeastern Sylhet region, which are ecologically important.

About 12% of the country is covered by hill systems. The forest cover of Bangladesh is around 14% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,883,400 hectares (ha) in 2020. Naturally regenerating forest covered 1,725,330 hectares (ha), and planted forest covered 158,070 hectares (ha) in 2020.

4.2. Climate

Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate, characterized by wide seasonal variations in rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. The country straddles the Tropic of Cancer.
There are three main seasons:
1. A hot, humid summer from March to June.
2. A cool, rainy monsoon season from June to October, which supplies most ofthe country's rainfall.
3. A mild, dry winter from October to March.

Temperatures are generally warm throughout the year. The country has never recorded an air temperature below 32 °F ^{(0 °C)}, with a record low of 33.98 °F ^{(1.1 °C)} in the northwestern city of Dinajpur on February 3, 1905.

Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores, are common and occur almost annually. These are often exacerbated by deforestation, soil degradation, and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, the latter killing approximately 140,000 people. In September 1998, Bangladesh experienced the most severe flooding in modern history, which inundated two-thirds of the country and resulted in about 1,000 deaths. The 2007 South Asian floods also caused widespread devastation, displacing five million people and killing around 500. However, due to improved disaster preparedness and risk reduction initiatives, the human toll and economic damage from such events have been reduced over the years.

4.2.1. Climate Change and Natural Disasters

Bangladesh is recognized as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change. Its low-lying deltaic terrain, high population density, and reliance on agriculture make it particularly susceptible to the impacts of global warming. Key vulnerabilities include:

• Sea-Level Rise**: A significant portion of Bangladesh is less than 3.3 ft ^{(1 m)} above sea level. It is estimated that a one-meter rise in sea level could inundate about 10-20% of the country's land and displace more than 30 million people by 2050. This poses a severe threat to coastal communities, agriculture, and freshwater resources due to saline intrusion.
• Increased Frequency and Intensity of Natural Disasters**:
  • Tropical Cyclones**: The Bay of Bengal is a breeding ground for cyclones. Climate change is expected to increase the intensity of these storms. Historically, cyclones like those in 1970 and 1991 caused massive loss of life and property.
  • Floods**: Bangladesh experiences riverine floods due to heavy monsoon rains and glacial melt from the Himalayas, as well as flash floods and coastal flooding from storm surges. Increased rainfall variability due to climate change can exacerbate these flood events.
  • Droughts**: Some regions may also experience increased drought conditions.
• Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security**: Changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, and increased salinity in coastal areas threaten crop production, impacting the livelihoods of millions and national food security.
• Water Scarcity and Salinity**: Saline water intrusion into rivers and groundwater in coastal areas, exacerbated by sea-level rise and reduced dry-season river flows, affects drinking water supplies and irrigation.
• Health Impacts**: Increased incidence of water-borne diseases due to flooding and heat stress are among the health risks.
• Socio-Economic Impacts**: These disasters and environmental changes disproportionately affect vulnerable communities, including the poor, women, and children, leading to displacement, loss of livelihoods, and increased poverty. Water-related political issues with upstream India further complicate resource management.

To address these challenges, Bangladesh has launched initiatives like the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 and has been active in international climate diplomacy, including chairing the Climate Vulnerable Forum. Efforts focus on adaptation, disaster risk reduction, and building resilience in affected communities.

4.3. Biodiversity

Bangladesh, situated in the Indomalayan realm, boasts rich biodiversity due to its diverse ecosystems, including a long coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries, extensive wetlands, various types of forests, and fertile plains. The country lies within four terrestrial ecoregions: Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests, Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin rain forests, Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests, and Sundarbans mangroves.

Key biodiversity hotspots and features include:

• The Sundarbans**: Located in the southwestern littoral region, this is the world's largest single block of mangrove forest, covering an area of about 2.3 K mile^{2 (6.00 K km2)} within Bangladesh. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a critical habitat for the Bengal tiger (the national animal), as well as numerous other species like the clouded leopard, saltwater crocodile, black panther, fishing cat, various deer species (like the chital), and a wide array of birds and aquatic life. The Sundarbans is divided into three protected wildlife sanctuaries: South, East, and West.
• Haor Wetlands**: The northeastern Sylhet region is home to unique haor ecosystems, which are large, bowl-shaped depressions that remain underwater for several months of the year, supporting diverse aquatic flora and fauna, and serving as important stopover sites for migratory birds.
• Hill Forests**: The southeastern Chittagong Hill Tracts and parts of the northeast contain tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, and mixed deciduous forests. These areas are home to species like the Asian elephant, hoolock gibbon, Asian black bear, and oriental pied hornbill.
• Sal Forests**: Central Bangladesh includes plainland Sal (Shorea robusta) forests, particularly in the districts of Gazipur, Tangail, and Mymensingh.
• Aquatic Biodiversity**: The country's extensive river systems and wetlands provide habitat for a vast number of aquatic plants, including water lilies (the national flower, known as Shapla) and lotuses. Bangladesh has large populations of Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins.
• Flora**: Bangladesh has up to 6,000 species of plant life, including 5,000 flowering plants. Villages are often nestled in groves of mango, jackfruit (the national fruit), bamboo, betel nut, coconut, and date palm.
• Fauna**: Besides the aforementioned, other notable animals include the black giant squirrel, capped langur, Bengal fox, sambar deer, jungle cat, king cobra, wild boar, mongooses, pangolins, pythons, and water monitors. The country has recorded 53 amphibian species, 139 reptile species, 19 marine reptile species, 5 marine mammal species, and 628 bird species.
• St. Martin's Island**: This is the only coral reef in Bangladesh, located in the Bay of Bengal.

• Conservation Efforts and Challenges**:

Bangladesh has 50 wildlife sanctuaries. The country ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity in 1994 and has a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995, and several regions have been designated as Ecologically Critical Areas. Initiatives like the Sundarbans tiger project and the Bangladesh Bear Project aim to strengthen conservation.

However, biodiversity is under threat from habitat loss due to rapid urbanization, population pressure, pollution (e.g., from the textile industry and shrimp cultivation, sometimes described as ecocides), deforestation, and climate change. Several animals, including the one-horned and two-horned rhinoceros and common peafowl, have become extinct in Bangladesh in the last century. The loss of biodiversity has significant social and economic impacts on local communities, particularly those dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods. Effective conservation requires addressing these socio-economic dimensions and ensuring community participation.

5.1. Government Structure

The government of Bangladesh is divided into three primary organs: the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary, which are intended to operate with a separation of powers to ensure democratic governance and accountability.

• The Executive**:
  • The President is the ceremonial head of state. Elected by the Parliament for a five-year term, the President's powers are largely formal, including signing bills passed by Parliament into law, appointing the Prime Minister and Chief Justice, and acting as the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces and chancellor of all public universities. The President's role becomes more significant during the tenure of a caretaker government (a system previously used for election oversight, but later abolished and then re-emerging in 2024 with an interim government).
  • The Prime Minister is the head of government and holds the primary executive power. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the party (or coalition) that commands a majority in Parliament and is appointed by the President. The Prime Minister oversees the Cabinet, which is composed of ministers selected by the Prime Minister and appointed by the President. The Cabinet is collectively responsible to Parliament.
  • The Civil Service assists the ministers in implementing government policies and administering public services.
  • The Legislature**:
    • The legislature is a unicameral body known as the Jatiya Sangsad (House of the Nation) or National Parliament. It consists of 350 members. Out of these, 300 members are directly elected from single-member constituencies using the first-past-the-post system for a five-year term. The remaining 50 seats are reserved for women and are allocated to political parties in proportion to their share of elected seats.
    • The Parliament's main functions include making laws, approving the budget, and holding the government accountable. The Speaker presides over parliamentary sessions and is second in line to the presidency.
    • Article 70 of the Constitution, often a subject of debate, restricts Members of Parliament (MPs) from voting against their party, which can limit parliamentary oversight and internal party democracy.
    • The Judiciary**:
      • The judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws, resolving disputes, and administering justice. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land. It is divided into two divisions:
        • The High Court Division, which has original, appellate, and other jurisdictions.
        • The Appellate Division, which is the highest court of appeal.
      • The Chief Justice and other judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President. The judiciary has the power of judicial review to assess the constitutionality of laws. Judicial precedent is supported by Article 111 of the constitution.
      • Lower courts include district and metropolitan courts, further divided into civil and criminal courts. The separation of the judiciary from the executive, a key step towards judicial independence, was formally implemented in 2007. However, challenges such as case backlogs and resource shortages persist.

      The interplay between these three branches is crucial for democratic governance, with mechanisms for checks and balances intended to prevent the overreach of any single branch and ensure accountability. However, the practical application of these principles has faced challenges throughout Bangladesh's history, including periods of authoritarian rule and concerns over the erosion of democratic institutions.

5.2. Administrative Divisions

Bangladesh is divided into a hierarchical system of administrative units for governance and local administration. The primary administrative divisions are:

1. **Divisions (Bibhag)**: The country is divided into eight divisions. Each division is named after its headquarters city. These are Barisal (officially Barishal), Chittagong (officially Chattogram), Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet. Divisions serve as an intermediary level of administration, primarily coordinating the activities of districts. There are no elected officials at the divisional level; administration is carried out by government officials.

2. **Districts (Zila)**: Divisions are further subdivided into districts. There are 64 districts in Bangladesh. Each district is headed by a Deputy Commissioner (DC), who is a civil servant appointed by the central government. Districts are key units for revenue collection, law and order, and development activities. Similar to divisions, there are no elected officials at the district level for general administration, though specific local government bodies may operate within them.

3. **Sub-districts (Upazila)** or **Thana**: Districts are divided into upazilas (formerly known as thanas in rural areas). There are 495 upazilas. Upazilas are important centers for local development and service delivery. Upazila Parishads (sub-district councils) are local government bodies at this level, with elected representatives, including a chairperson and vice-chairpersons.

4. **Unions (Union Parishad)**: In rural areas, each upazila is further divided into several unions. A union typically consists of multiple villages. Union Parishads are the oldest and most grassroots level of local government, with directly elected chairpersons and members. In 1997, a parliamentary act reserved three seats in every union for female candidates to promote women's participation in local governance.

5. **Municipalities (Paurashava)** and **City Corporations (City Corporation)**: Urban areas are governed by municipalities (for smaller towns) or city corporations (for larger cities). These bodies are responsible for providing civic amenities and services. Mayors and councillors for these urban local government bodies are directly elected. There are 12 City Corporations, including those for major cities like Dhaka (Dhaka South and Dhaka North), Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi, Sylhet, Barisal, Rangpur, Gazipur, Narayanganj, Comilla, and Mymensingh.

In metropolitan areas, police stations (thanas) are divided into wards, which are further subdivided into mahallas (neighborhoods).

This administrative structure is designed to facilitate governance from the national level down to the local community, though the effectiveness and autonomy of local government bodies have often been subjects of debate and reform efforts.

5.3. Foreign Relations

Bangladesh's foreign policy is guided by the principle of "friendship to all, malice towards none," as articulated by its founding leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. As a middle power with a strategic location in the Indo-Pacific region, bridging South and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh pursues an independent and non-aligned foreign policy. It actively participates in multilateral diplomacy, particularly on issues such as climate change, nuclear non-proliferation, trade, and regional security.

Bangladesh is a member of numerous international organizations, including the United Nations (joined in 1974), the Commonwealth of Nations (joined in 1972), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) (joined in 1974), the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and the Developing-8 (D-8). It is a founding member of the SAARC and hosts the secretariat of the BIMSTEC in Dhaka. The country has also twice chaired the Climate Vulnerable Forum, highlighting its commitment to addressing climate change impacts.

In recent years, Bangladesh has focused on promoting regional trade, transport connectivity, and economic cooperation, with support from international partners like the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank. The country's foreign relations are characterized by a mix of cooperation and occasional tensions with its neighbors, and growing engagement with major global powers. The approach to these relationships often involves balancing economic interests with strategic considerations and advocating for principles of international law and human rights, particularly concerning refugees and minority rights in disputed contexts.

5.4. Military

The Bangladesh Armed Forces consist of three main branches: the Bangladesh Army, the Bangladesh Navy, and the Bangladesh Air Force. The institutional framework of the armed forces has historical links to the British military and the British Indian Army. The President of Bangladesh is the ceremonial commander-in-chief, while actual operational command lies with the respective service chiefs under the Ministry of Defence.

• Structure and Roles**:
  • Bangladesh Army**: The largest branch, responsible for land-based military operations, national security, and border protection. In 2022, its active personnel strength was around 250,000.
  • Bangladesh Navy**: Tasked with maritime defense, protecting Bangladesh's coastline and interests in the Bay of Bengal. It operates a fleet including frigates, submarines, corvettes, and other vessels, making it one of the larger navies in the Bay of Bengal region. Active personnel strength was around 24,000 (including service and civilian personnel) in 2022.
  • Bangladesh Air Force**: Responsible for air defense and providing air support to the army and navy. It maintains a fleet of multi-role combat aircraft, transport planes, and helicopters.
  • UN Peacekeeping Contributions**: Bangladesh has a long and distinguished history of contributing to UN peacekeeping operations. For many years, it has been one of the world's largest contributors of troops and police personnel to these missions, earning international recognition for its role in global peace and security.
  • Defense Budget and Equipment**: The military budget of Bangladesh accounted for approximately 1.3% of its GDP in 2021, amounting to around 4.30 B USD. A significant portion of Bangladesh's military equipment is sourced from China. However, the country also procures defense hardware from other nations and is working towards modernizing its armed forces under the "Forces Goal 2030" plan.
  • Other Roles**: In addition to their traditional defense roles, the military has frequently supported civil authorities in disaster relief operations, given Bangladesh's vulnerability to natural calamities. They have also been called upon to provide internal security during periods of political unrest.
  • Strategic Importance and Cooperation**: Bangladesh's strategic location in the eastern subcontinent, bordering India and Myanmar and with significant maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal, gives its military a key role in regional security. Bangladesh and India have increased joint military exercises, high-level visits, counter-terrorism cooperation, and intelligence sharing. Bangladesh is considered vital for ensuring stability and security in Northeast India. In 2002, Bangladesh and China signed a Defence Cooperation Agreement. The United States has also pursued enhanced defense cooperation with Bangladesh, including discussions on agreements like a Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA).

  In 2019, Bangladesh ratified the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, reflecting its commitment to nuclear disarmament. The armed forces play a significant role in national life, extending beyond defense to encompass development, disaster response, and international peacekeeping.

5.5. Human Rights and Civil Society

The human rights situation in Bangladesh presents a mixed picture, with constitutional guarantees often challenged by practical realities. Civil society, including non-governmental organizations (NGOs), human rights defenders, professional associations, and media, has historically played a prominent role in advocating for rights and democratic development, dating back to the colonial period.

• Key Human Rights Issues**:
  • Freedom of Expression and Press Freedom**: While the constitution guarantees freedom of speech, there have been significant concerns about restrictions on media and expression, particularly under laws like the now-repealed Digital Security Act (replaced by the Cyber Security Act in 2023). Journalists, activists, and ordinary citizens have faced harassment, intimidation, and legal action for critical expression. Bangladesh has consistently ranked low on global press freedom indices.
  • Extrajudicial Killings and Enforced Disappearances**: Allegations against law enforcement agencies, particularly the Rapid Action Battalion (RAB), regarding extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances, and torture have been a major concern raised by national and international human rights organizations. In December 2021, the U.S. Department of the Treasury imposed sanctions on the RAB and several of its current and former officials for serious human rights abuses.
  • Torture and Custodial Violence**: Torture is banned by the Constitution, and Bangladesh enacted the Torture and Custodial Death (Prevention) Act in 2013. However, reports of torture and ill-treatment in custody by security forces persist. The first conviction under this act was announced in 2020.
  • Labor Rights**: The garment industry, a cornerstone of Bangladesh's economy, has faced scrutiny over labor rights, including fair wages, safe working conditions, and the right to unionize. While progress has been made since disasters like the Rana Plaza collapse, challenges remain in ensuring full compliance with international labor standards. The Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety was one initiative to improve conditions.
  • Women's Rights**: Despite constitutional guarantees of equality, women continue to face discrimination and violence, including domestic violence, sexual harassment, and acid attacks. Child marriage remains a significant problem. However, there has been progress in women's education, health, and political participation.
  • Rights of Minorities**:
    • Religious Minorities**: Hindus, Buddhists, and Christians have occasionally faced discrimination and communal violence. The Bangladesh Hindu Buddhist Christian Unity Council advocates for their rights.
    • Ethnic Minorities (Adivasis/Indigenous Peoples)**: Indigenous communities, particularly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, have faced issues related to land rights, displacement, and cultural assimilation. The Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord of 1997 aimed to resolve conflict but its full implementation remains a challenge.
  • LGBT Rights**: Homosexuality is criminalized under Section 377 of the Penal Code, a colonial-era law. LGBT individuals face significant social stigma and discrimination. The government officially recognizes the Hijra (transgender/intersex) community as a third gender.
  • Rohingya Refugees**: Bangladesh hosts over a million Rohingya refugees who fled persecution in Myanmar. While providing sanctuary is a significant humanitarian act, the refugees live in congested camps with limited access to livelihoods, education, and freedom of movement.
  • Modern Slavery**: According to the 2023 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 1.2 million people were in conditions of modern slavery in Bangladesh as of 2021.
  • Role of Civil Society and NGOs**:

  Bangladesh has a vibrant and diverse civil society. Organizations like BRAC (one of the world's largest NGOs), Odhikar, the Centre for Law and Mediation, and the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association have been active in areas such as poverty alleviation, education, health, environmental protection, and human rights advocacy. The National Human Rights Commission of Bangladesh was established in 2007 as an independent statutory body. However, in recent years, civil society organizations and human rights defenders have reported a shrinking space for their activities due to increased government scrutiny, regulatory restrictions, and a climate of fear.
  
  International bodies like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, as well as Freedom House (which has ranked Bangladesh as "partly free" with deteriorating press freedom), regularly report on the human rights situation, often criticizing government actions that undermine democratic norms and civil liberties. The National Human Rights Commission has itself noted that a significant percentage of alleged human rights violations are committed by law enforcement agencies. The challenge remains to balance national security and development priorities with the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens, and to ensure accountability for abuses.

5.6. Corruption

Corruption is a significant and persistent challenge in Bangladesh, impacting governance, economic development, and public trust. It manifests in various forms, including bribery, extortion, nepotism, and misuse of public funds, across different sectors of the state and society.

• Extent and Impact**:
  • Rankings**: Bangladesh has consistently ranked poorly on Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). For instance, in 2018, it was ranked 146th out of 180 countries. While rankings can fluctuate, the perception of widespread corruption remains.
  • Affected Sectors**: According to surveys, sectors like land administration, education, police, judiciary, health services, and utilities (e.g., water supply) are often perceived as highly corrupt, where citizens may face demands for bribes to access services or favorable decisions.
  • Impact on Governance**: Corruption undermines the rule of law, weakens democratic institutions, and distorts public policy and resource allocation. It can lead to inefficiency in public service delivery and erode citizens' faith in government.
  • Impact on Development**: Corruption diverts resources from essential public services like education, healthcare, and infrastructure. It increases the cost of doing business, deters foreign investment, and can hinder poverty reduction efforts and equitable economic growth. Large-scale corruption in public procurement and development projects is a particular concern.
  • Political Corruption**: Allegations of corruption against politicians and public officials are common. The nexus between politics, business, and criminality often fuels corrupt practices.
  • Efforts to Combat Corruption**:
    • Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC)**: The ACC was established in 2004 as an independent body tasked with preventing, investigating, and prosecuting corruption offenses. The ACC was particularly active during the 2006-2008 caretaker government period, indicting many prominent politicians, bureaucrats, and businesspeople. However, its effectiveness has often been questioned due to political influence, resource constraints, and challenges in securing convictions in high-profile cases.
    • Legal Framework**: Bangladesh has laws and regulations aimed at combating corruption, including the Prevention of Corruption Act, the Money Laundering Prevention Act, and Right to Information Act.
    • Civil Society and Media**: NGOs, citizen groups, and investigative media play a crucial role in exposing corruption, advocating for reforms, and raising public awareness. Transparency International Bangladesh (TIB) is a prominent local chapter that conducts research and advocacy on corruption issues.
    • International Cooperation**: Bangladesh is a signatory to the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) and engages in international efforts to combat corruption.

    Despite these efforts, systemic corruption remains deeply entrenched. Challenges include a lack of political will at times, weak enforcement mechanisms, a culture of impunity for the powerful, and insufficient transparency and accountability in public institutions. Addressing corruption effectively requires sustained political commitment, strengthening of anti-corruption bodies, judicial reforms, greater transparency in government operations, and active citizen engagement.

6.1. Economic Structure and Major Industries

Bangladesh's economy is characterized by a growing diversification away from its traditional agrarian base, with manufacturing and services now playing dominant roles. The equitable distribution of growth benefits and the social impact of industrialization are key considerations in its development path.

• Services Sector**: This is the largest contributor to the national economy, accounting for about 51.5% of the total GDP (as of 2023). It encompasses a wide range of activities, including wholesale and retail trade, transport, telecommunications, financial services, tourism, education, and healthcare. The services sector is also a significant source of employment.

• Industrial Sector**: Contributing around 34.6% of GDP, the industrial sector has been a major engine of growth.
  • Garment (Ready-Made Garment - RMG) Industry**: This is the most prominent manufacturing sub-sector and the backbone of Bangladesh's export economy, accounting for over 84% of total export earnings. Bangladesh is the second-largest garment exporter in the world, supplying major global fashion brands. The industry employs millions, predominantly women, playing a crucial role in female empowerment and poverty reduction. However, it faces ongoing challenges related to labor rights, fair wages, working conditions (highlighted by past tragedies like the Rana Plaza collapse), and environmental sustainability (water usage, pollution). The social impact of this rapid industrial growth, including urbanization and changes in social structures, is profound.
• Other major industries include shipbuilding, pharmaceuticals (which meets most domestic demand and is a growing export), steel, electronics, leather goods, and jute processing. Jute, once the dominant export, still holds cultural and economic significance.

• Agriculture Sector**: Though its share of GDP has declined to about 11%, agriculture remains the largest employment sector, providing livelihoods for roughly half of the total workforce.
  • Key agricultural products include rice (Bangladesh is a major global producer), fish (aquaculture is significant), tea, jute, potatoes, and various fruits and vegetables. The country also produces flowers for domestic and export markets.
  • Ensuring food security, adapting to climate change, and improving agricultural productivity are key priorities for this sector.
  • Employment Patterns and Social Impact**:

  Employment is shifting from agriculture to industry and services, though agriculture still absorbs a large portion of the labor force. The growth of the RMG sector has created mass employment, especially for women from rural areas, leading to significant social changes, including increased female labor force participation, migration to urban centers, and changes in family dynamics. However, ensuring decent work, fair wages, and social protection for workers in these rapidly growing industries remains a critical challenge for equitable development. The private sector accounts for about 80% of GDP, dominated by family-owned conglomerates and numerous small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Some of the largest publicly traded companies include BEXIMCO, BRAC Bank, BSRM, GPH Ispat, Grameenphone, Summit Group, and Square Pharmaceuticals. The Dhaka Stock Exchange and Chittagong Stock Exchange are the country's main capital markets. The telecommunications industry is one of the world's fastest-growing, with 188.78 million cellphone subscribers as of November 2024.

6.2. Energy

Bangladesh's energy sector is critical for its economic development and improving living standards, with a focus on achieving energy security while increasingly considering environmental sustainability. The country achieved 100% electrification by 2022, a significant milestone from a situation of frequent blackouts in 2009.

• Energy Sources**:
  • Natural Gas**: Historically, natural gas has been the primary indigenous energy source, accounting for a large share of electricity generation and industrial use. Chevron is a major producer, supplying a significant portion of domestic natural gas. Bangladesh has considerable untapped reserves, particularly in its maritime territory. However, a lack of sufficient exploration and declining proven reserves have led to increased reliance on imported Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). Gas shortages were exacerbated by global events like the Russian invasion of Ukraine, leading to temporary halts in spot LNG purchases due to price hikes, although purchases resumed as prices eased.
  • Coal**: Coal is also used for power generation, with some domestic production and increasing imports.
  • Oil**: Bangladesh relies heavily on imported crude oil and petroleum products to meet its demand for transportation and some power generation.
  • Renewable Energy**: Bangladesh is actively promoting renewable energy to diversify its energy mix and enhance environmental sustainability. It has the world's largest off-grid solar power program, benefiting millions of people, particularly in rural areas not connected to the national grid. Solar home systems are widespread. Wind power projects, like the one on Kutubdia Island, and Biogas (used for cooking and organic fertilizer) are also being developed. An electric car, the Palki, is being developed for local production.
  • Nuclear Power**: The Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, being built with assistance from Russia's Rosatom, is set to be the country's first operational nuclear power plant. Its first unit is expected to commence operations in 2025, aiming to provide a significant baseload power supply.
  • Electricity Generation and Distribution**:

  The Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) is the primary state-owned entity responsible for power generation and distribution. While government-owned companies generate nearly half of the country's electricity, private sector participation has increased significantly, with companies like the Summit Group and Orion Group playing important roles in generation and supply of equipment. U.S. companies like General Electric are major suppliers of turbines for gas-fired power plants. Electricity production capacity increased dramatically from around 5 gigawatts in 2009 to 25.5 gigawatts in 2022, with plans to reach 50 gigawatts by 2041.

  • Challenges and Policies**:

  The energy sector faces challenges including ensuring affordable and reliable power supply to sustain economic growth, managing import dependency for fossil fuels, developing infrastructure for LNG imports and distribution, and attracting investment for exploration and renewable energy projects. The Energy policy of Bangladesh aims to ensure energy security, promote energy efficiency, and increase the share of renewable energy, aligning with broader goals of sustainable development and climate change mitigation. The state-owned company Petrobangla oversees oil, gas, and mineral resource exploration and development.

6.3. Tourism

Tourism is an expanding sector in Bangladesh, contributing approximately 3.02% to the country's total GDP. While still relatively underdeveloped compared to some other South Asian nations, it holds significant potential for growth, particularly in areas of cultural, natural, and historical interest. In 2019, Bangladesh's international tourism receipts amounted to $391 million. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported in 2019 that the industry directly generated 1,180,500 jobs in 2018, or 1.9% of total employment. Bangladesh receives around 125,000 international tourist arrivals annually, with domestic tourism forming a substantial part of the sector's revenue.

• Main Tourist Attractions**:
  • UNESCO World Heritage Sites**:
    • Sundarbans**: The world's largest mangrove forest, home to the Bengal tiger and diverse wildlife. Boat tours and eco-lodges offer unique experiences.
    • Mosque City of Bagerhat**: An ancient city from the 15th century featuring numerous Sultanate-era mosques, including the iconic Sixty Dome Mosque.
    • Ruins of the Buddhist Vihara at Paharpur (Somapura Mahavihara)**: One of the largest Buddhist monasteries south of the Himalayas, dating back to the 8th century.
  • Archaeological Sites**: Besides Paharpur, sites like Mahasthangarh (an ancient urban center) and Mainamati (ruins of Buddhist viharas) offer glimpses into the region's rich history.
  • Natural Beauty**:
    • Cox's Bazar**: Known for having one of the longest natural sandy sea beaches in the world.
    • St. Martin's Island**: The country's only coral island, popular for its clear waters and marine life.
    • Chittagong Hill Tracts**: Offers scenic beauty with hills, forests, lakes (like Kaptai Lake), and the unique culture of indigenous communities.
    • Sylhet Region**: Famous for its tea gardens, haor wetlands, and shrines of Sufi saints.
    • Waterways and River Cruises**: The extensive network of rivers provides opportunities for boat trips and experiencing rural life.
  • Cultural and Religious Sites**: Dhaka itself has many historical sites from the Mughal and colonial periods, including Lalbagh Fort, Ahsan Manzil, and numerous mosques and temples.
  • Festivals**: Experiencing colorful festivals like Pahela Baishakh (Bengali New Year) can be a major draw.
  • Potential for Growth**:
    • Eco-tourism and Community-Based Tourism**: There is growing interest in developing sustainable tourism models that benefit local communities and conserve natural and cultural heritage. Areas like the Sundarbans and the Chittagong Hill Tracts have potential for such initiatives.
    • Religious Tourism**: Sites like the Kantaji Temple and various Sufi shrines attract pilgrims.
    • Improving Infrastructure**: Further development of transportation, accommodation, and tourist facilities is needed to support industry growth.
    • Marketing and Promotion**: Enhanced efforts to promote Bangladesh as a tourist destination internationally are ongoing.

    The government and private sector are working to develop the tourism industry further, recognizing its potential to contribute to economic growth, employment generation, and foreign exchange earnings, while also promoting the country's rich cultural and natural heritage.

6.4. Foreign Trade and Investment

Bangladesh's foreign trade has grown significantly, driven primarily by its robust ready-made garment (RMG) industry. The country actively seeks foreign direct investment (FDI) to diversify its economy and support infrastructure development.

• Exports**:
  • Major Export Commodities**:
    • Ready-Made Garments (RMG)**: Knitwear and woven garments constitute over 84% of Bangladesh's total export earnings, making it the second-largest RMG exporter globally. Key markets include the European Union, the United States, and Canada.
    • Jute and Jute Goods**: Historically a primary export, jute (raw jute, yarn, bags, carpets) still contributes to exports.
    • Leather and Leather Goods**: Footwear and other leather products are a significant export.
    • Frozen Foods**: Shrimp and other frozen fish are important agricultural exports.
    • Pharmaceuticals**: A growing sector, exporting to numerous countries.
    • Home Textiles, Terry Towels, Ceramic Products, Bicycles**.
  • Key Export Destinations**: European Union countries (especially Germany, UK, Spain, France, Italy), United States, Canada, Japan, and increasingly, other Asian countries.
  • Imports**:
    • Major Import Commodities**:
      • Raw Materials for RMG**: Cotton, yarn, fabrics, and accessories for the garment industry.
      • Petroleum Products and Oil**: To meet energy demands.
      • Machinery and Equipment**: For industrial and infrastructure development.
      • Chemicals, Iron, and Steel**.
      • Food Items**: Wheat, rice (during shortfalls), edible oil, sugar.
    • Key Import Sources**: China is the largest source of imports, followed by India, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea.
    • Trading Partners**:

    China is Bangladesh's largest overall trading partner (accounting for about 15% of total trade), followed by India (about 8% of total trade). The USA and EU countries are crucial export markets.

    • Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)**:

• Trade Policies and Agreements**:

Challenges in foreign trade and investment include infrastructure bottlenecks, bureaucratic hurdles, port congestion, energy shortages, and issues related to governance and political stability. However, the country's large domestic market, competitive labor costs, and growing economy continue to attract trade and investment.

6.5. Transport and Infrastructure

Bangladesh has been investing significantly in developing its transport and infrastructure network to support economic growth, improve connectivity, and facilitate trade. However, challenges remain due to its deltaic geography, high population density, and resource constraints.

• Roads**:
  • Road transport is the most dominant mode of transportation for passengers and freight.
  • The country has an extensive network of national highways, regional highways, and local roads. The Roads and Highways Department (RHD) is responsible for major road networks.
  • Major ongoing and completed projects include the Padma Bridge (a multipurpose road-rail bridge connecting the southwest with the capital, significantly reducing travel time), the Dhaka Elevated Expressway, and various highway expansion and improvement projects like the Dhaka-Chittagong and Dhaka-Mymensingh highways.
  • Challenges include road safety, traffic congestion (especially in Dhaka), and maintenance of the existing road network.
  • Railways**:
    • Bangladesh Railway operates the national rail network. It plays an important role in long-distance passenger travel and freight transport, particularly for bulk commodities.
    • The network consists of both broad gauge and meter gauge lines. Efforts are underway to upgrade and expand the railway network, including converting meter gauge lines to dual gauge, constructing new lines, and improving signaling systems.
    • Key projects include the Padma Bridge rail link, the Dohazari-Cox's Bazar rail line, and the Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Railway Bridge over the Jamuna River.
    • Waterways**:
      • Given Bangladesh's riverine landscape, inland water transport is a vital and cost-effective mode of transportation, especially in rural areas and for carrying bulk cargo.
      • There are numerous rivers, canals, and coastal routes. The Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority (BIWTA) manages inland waterways and river ports.
      • Major river ports include Dhaka, Narayanganj, Chandpur, Barisal, and Khulna.
      • Sea Ports: Chittagong Port is the country's main seaport, handling the majority of international trade. Mongla Port is the second major seaport. Efforts are being made to develop new deep-sea ports like Matarbari to enhance capacity.
      • Aviation**:
        • Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport in Dhaka is the primary international gateway. Shah Amanat International Airport in Chittagong and Osmani International Airport in Sylhet also handle international flights.
        • There are several domestic airports connecting major towns.
        • Biman Bangladesh Airlines is the national flag carrier. Several private airlines also operate domestic and regional flights.
        • Infrastructure development, including terminal expansions and upgrades at major airports, is ongoing.
        • Other Infrastructure**:
          • Power and Energy**: Significant expansion in power generation capacity has occurred, but ensuring reliable and affordable energy remains a priority. (Covered in more detail in the "Energy" section).
          • Telecommunications**: Rapid growth in mobile phone penetration and internet connectivity. Fiber optic networks are being expanded.
          • Urban Infrastructure**: Rapid urbanization puts pressure on housing, water supply, sanitation, and waste management in cities like Dhaka and Chittagong.

          Major infrastructure projects often receive funding and technical assistance from development partners like the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, JICA (Japan), and China. The government's focus is on developing an integrated and multimodal transport system and improving infrastructure to sustain economic momentum and improve the quality of life.

7.1. Population Composition

Bangladesh is a remarkably ethnically homogeneous society, with Bengalis constituting approximately 99% of the population. This shared ethnic and linguistic heritage forms a strong basis for national identity.

• Bengalis**: The overwhelming majority of the population identify as Bengali, speaking the Bengali (Bangla) language. They are primarily Bengali Muslims, but there is also a significant Bengali Hindu minority, as well as smaller communities of Bengali Buddhists and Bengali Christians.

• Indigenous and Minority Groups (Adivasis)**: Besides the Bengali majority, Bangladesh is home to several indigenous ethnic minority groups, often collectively referred to as Adivasis. These groups primarily inhabit the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in the southeast, as well as plain land areas in the north and northeast.
  • Prominent groups in the CHT include the Chakmas, Marmas, Tripuris (Tipra), Tanchangyas, Bawms, Mros, Khumis, and Kukis. These groups have distinct languages, cultures, and traditions. The CHT region experienced a prolonged insurgency from 1975 to 1997 related to demands for autonomy and land rights, culminating in the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord. However, issues of land rights, resource control, and full implementation of the accord remain, leading to ongoing challenges regarding social inclusion and development for these communities.
  • In the plain lands, notable Adivasi groups include the Santals, Garos (Mandi), Oraons, Mundas, and Koch.
  • The Bishnupriya Manipuris are another distinct ethnic group.
  • Biharis (Stranded Pakistanis)**: A community of Urdu-speaking Biharis (also known as Stranded Pakistanis) resides in Bangladesh, mostly in camps. They are descendants of Muslims who migrated from Bihar and other parts of India during the 1947 partition and who did not identify with the Bengali nationalist movement in 1971. Many faced statelessness for decades, but the Supreme Court granted citizenship to eligible Biharis in 2008. However, issues of social integration and economic opportunities persist for this community.
  • Rohingya Refugees**: Since August 2017, Bangladesh has hosted over a million Rohingya refugees who fled violence and persecution in Myanmar's Rakhine State. They live in massive refugee camps in the Cox's Bazar district, creating significant humanitarian, social, and environmental challenges for Bangladesh. The issue of their repatriation and long-term solution remains unresolved.

  Ensuring the rights, cultural preservation, and socio-economic development of all minority and indigenous groups, and addressing their specific concerns, are important aspects of promoting social inclusion and national cohesion in Bangladesh.

7.2. Urban Centres

Bangladesh has experienced rapid urbanization in recent decades, with a significant portion of its population now living in urban areas. Approximately 40% of the population lived in urban areas as of 2023. This trend is driven by rural-to-urban migration in search of economic opportunities, particularly in the garment industry and other service sectors.

• Major Cities**:
  • Dhaka**: The capital and largest city, Dhaka is the political, economic, and cultural heart of Bangladesh. It is one of the world's most densely populated megacities. The administration of Greater Dhaka is overseen by two city corporations: Dhaka North City Corporation and Dhaka South City Corporation.
  • Chittagong (Chattogram)**: The second-largest city and the country's principal seaport, Chittagong is a major commercial and industrial hub.
  • Khulna**: An important industrial city and river port in the southwest.
  • Rajshahi**: A key city in northern Bangladesh, known for silk production and educational institutions.
  • Sylhet**: A major city in the northeast, known for its tea gardens and as a center for the Bangladeshi diaspora in the UK.
  • Gazipur**: An industrial city near Dhaka, home to many garment factories.
  • Narayanganj**: A historic port city and industrial center adjacent to Dhaka.
  • Barisal (Barishal)**: A significant river port and divisional headquarters in the south-central region.
  • Rangpur**: A divisional headquarters in the north.
  • Comilla (Cumilla)**: An important city in eastern Bangladesh.
  • Mymensingh**: A divisional headquarters and educational center.

  In total, Bangladesh has 506 urban centers, and 43 cities have a population of more than 100,000. Mayoral elections are held for the 12 City Corporations (Dhaka North, Dhaka South, Chittagong, Khulna, Rajshahi, Sylhet, Barisal, Rangpur, Gazipur, Narayanganj, Comilla, and Mymensingh) for five-year terms.

  • Challenges of Urbanization**:

  Rapid and often unplanned urbanization has led to numerous challenges in major cities:

  • Housing**: A critical shortage of affordable housing, leading to the growth of slums and informal settlements.
  • Sanitation and Waste Management**: Inadequate sanitation facilities, drainage systems, and solid waste management contribute to public health problems and environmental pollution.
  • Infrastructure Strain**: Overburdened public utilities such as water supply, electricity, and gas.
  • Traffic Congestion**: Severe traffic congestion is a daily problem in Dhaka and other large cities, impacting productivity and quality of life.
  • Environmental Pollution**: Air and water pollution are major concerns in urban areas.
  • Social Issues**: Crime, social inequality, and pressure on social services.

  Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive urban planning, investment in infrastructure and services, and policies aimed at promoting sustainable and inclusive urban development.
  
  

  Largest Cities in Bangladesh (2022 Census)

  City	Division	Population
  Dhaka	Dhaka	10,278,882
  Chittagong	Chittagong	3,227,246
  Gazipur	Dhaka	2,674,697
  Narayanganj	Dhaka	967,724
  Khulna	Khulna	718,735
  Rangpur	Rangpur	708,384
  Mymensingh	Mymensingh	576,722
  Rajshahi	Rajshahi	552,791
  Sylhet	Sylhet	532,426
  Comilla	Chittagong	439,414

7.3. Language

The linguistic landscape of Bangladesh is dominated by the Bengali (Bangla) language, which holds a central place in the nation's identity and history.

• Official Language**: Bengali is the official and predominant language of Bangladesh, spoken as a native language by over 99% of the population. It is an Indo-Aryan language with its own unique script, derived from Brahmi. Bengali has a rich literary tradition dating back over a thousand years. The Bengali Language Movement of 1952, which fought for the recognition of Bengali as an official language of then-Pakistan, was a pivotal event in the history of Bangladesh and is commemorated annually as International Mother Language Day. There is a diglossia where Standard Colloquial Bengali is widely understood, alongside various regional dialects.

• English**: English plays an important role in Bangladesh, largely a legacy of British colonial rule. It is widely spoken and understood, particularly among the educated urban population and in business, higher education, and the legal system. English is taught as a compulsory subject in schools, colleges, and universities, and English-medium educational institutions are also prevalent.

• Minority Languages**:
  • Several indigenous communities speak their own distinct languages. In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, languages such as Chakma (an Eastern Indo-Aryan language like Bengali), Marma, Kokborok (Tripuri), and others are spoken.
  • In the plain lands, languages like Santali (an Austroasiatic language), Garo (Mandi), and Meitei (Manipuri) are spoken by their respective communities.
  • Rakhine is spoken by the Rakhine community.
  • Many of these tribal languages are increasingly endangered due to various socio-economic pressures and the dominance of Bengali.
  • Urdu**: Urdu is spoken by the Bihari community (Stranded Pakistanis) and some sections of the Old Dhakaite population. However, its usage is limited and historically has been a sensitive issue due to its association with West Pakistan before Bangladesh's independence.

  The government and various organizations are making efforts to preserve and promote minority languages, but challenges remain in ensuring their vitality and use in education and public life.

7.4. Religion

Religion plays a significant role in the social and cultural life of Bangladesh. The Constitution of Bangladesh declares Islam as the state religion but also upholds secularism and guarantees equal status and rights for all religions, ensuring freedom of practice.

• Islam**: Islam is the largest religion in Bangladesh, adhered to by approximately 91.04% of the population according to the 2022 census. The vast majority of Bangladeshi Muslims are Bengali Muslims and follow Sunni Islam, predominantly the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. There are also smaller communities of Shias and Ahmadiyyas. Sufism has a long and influential history in the region, shaping popular Islamic practices. Bangladesh is the third-largest Muslim-majority country in the world.

• Hinduism**: Hinduism is the second-largest religion, practiced by about 7.94% of the population (2022 census). Bengali Hindus form the largest religious minority and constitute the third-largest Hindu community globally. Hinduism has ancient roots in Bengal, and Hindu festivals and traditions are an integral part of the country's cultural tapestry. However, the Hindu population has seen a relative decline over the decades due to factors including migration and communal tensions at various points in history.

• Buddhism**: Buddhism is the third-largest religion, with about 0.60% of the population as adherents (2022 census). Bangladeshi Buddhists are primarily concentrated among Bengali Buddhist communities in coastal areas of Chittagong and among various indigenous ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (such as the Chakmas and Marmas). Most follow the Theravada school of Buddhism. Bengal was historically a major center of Buddhist learning and culture.

• Christianity**: Christianity is practiced by about 0.31% of the population (2022 census), mainly comprising a small Bengali Christian community, as well as some indigenous Christian communities. Both Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations are present.

• Other Faiths and Irreligion**: A small percentage (around 0.11%) of the population practices other religions, including traditional tribal faiths (animism), or identify as irreligious.

Issues of religious freedom and interfaith relations are important aspects of Bangladesh's social discourse. While the country is predominantly Muslim and Islam is the state religion, the constitutional commitment to secularism aims to protect the rights of all religious communities. However, minority groups have, at times, faced discrimination or violence, highlighting the ongoing need to strengthen protections and promote interfaith harmony and tolerance.

7.5. Education

Education in Bangladesh is overseen primarily by the Ministry of Education, with the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education responsible for primary education. The Constitution of Bangladesh stipulates that all children shall receive free and compulsory education. The education system is three-tiered (primary, secondary, and higher education) and heavily subsidized by the government, which operates many schools and also supports numerous private institutions. Despite progress, government expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP (around 1.8%) remains among the lowest globally.

• Structure of the Education System**:

1. **Primary Education (Grades 1-5)**: Compulsory and free in public schools. Students typically sit for the Primary Education Completion Exam (PECE) at the end of Grade 5.
2. **Junior Secondary Education (Grades 6-8)**: Students sit for the Junior School Certificate (JSC) examination at the end of Grade 8.
3. **Secondary Education (Grades 9-10)**: Culminates in the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) examination.
4. **Higher Secondary Education (Grades 11-12)**: Students prepare for the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) examination, which is crucial for university admission.
5. **Tertiary Education**: Includes universities (public, private, and international), medical colleges, engineering institutes, and various specialized institutions.

• Literacy and Access**:

• Higher Education**:

• Challenges and Reforms**:

The education sector faces challenges such as teacher shortages and training, outdated curricula, inadequate infrastructure, and disparities in quality between urban and rural institutions, and between public and private schools. Reforms are focused on improving the quality of education, enhancing vocational and technical training to meet job market demands, promoting research and innovation in higher education, and ensuring equitable access for all segments of the population. Ensuring that education empowers individuals and contributes to social justice and equitable development is a continuous goal.

7.6. Health

Healthcare in Bangladesh is constitutionally guaranteed as a fundamental right. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, with its Health Service Division and Medical Education and Family Welfare Division, is the primary institutional provider. While healthcare facilities have improved with economic growth and poverty reduction, significant challenges persist in ensuring accessible and equitable quality healthcare for all citizens.

• Key Health Indicators and Status**:
  • Life Expectancy**: As of 2022, the overall life expectancy at birth was approximately 74 years (72 for males, 76 for females), a significant improvement over past decades.
  • Infant and Child Mortality**: Rates have declined considerably. The infant mortality rate was around 24 per 1,000 live births, and the under-5 child mortality rate was about 29 per 1,000 live births in 2022.
  • Maternal Mortality**: The maternal mortality ratio remained relatively high at 123 per 100,000 live births as of 2020. Efforts to improve maternal health services are ongoing.
  • Malnutrition**: This remains a major public health challenge, particularly affecting rural populations, women, and children. In children under five, a significant percentage suffer from stunting (41%), wasting (16%), underweight (36%), and anemia (52%). Many women are underweight and anemic. Severe acute malnutrition affects hundreds of thousands of children. Bangladesh ranked 84th out of 127 countries in the 2024 Global Hunger Index.
  • Healthcare System Structure and Resources**:
    • Workforce Crisis**: Bangladesh faces a shortage of formally trained healthcare providers. As of recent data, there were only about 5.3 doctors and 6 nurses per 10,000 people. The specialist surgical workforce is also very low (3 per 100,000). Community health workers (around 5 per 1,000 people) play an important role, especially in rural areas. Many people, particularly in rural areas, rely on informal "village doctors" whose treatment practices can be suboptimal.
    • Infrastructure**: The number of hospital beds is around 9 per 1,000 people.
    • Funding**: The healthcare system suffers from chronic underfunding by the government. As of 2021, total health expenditure was about 2.36% of GDP. Domestic general government spending on health constituted only about 16.88% of the total health budget, with out-of-pocket expenditures by citizens making up a very high proportion (around 73%). Domestic private health expenditure was about 75.48% of total current health expenditure.
    • Medical Tourism**: Due to perceived deficiencies and lack of trust in the domestic healthcare system, many Bangladeshis seek medical treatment abroad, primarily in India.
    • Major Public Health Challenges**:
      • Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)**: Coronary artery disease, stroke, chronic respiratory diseases, diabetes, and cancers are now the leading causes of death and disability.
      • Infectious Diseases**: While progress has been made, diseases like tuberculosis, dengue fever, malaria, and leptospirosis remain concerns.
      • Arsenic Contamination**: Widespread arsenic contamination of groundwater used for drinking poses a severe public health risk to millions. It was estimated in 2002 that half the drinking water was polluted with arsenic exceeding safe levels.
      • Air Pollution**: Bangladesh, particularly its urban centers like Dhaka, suffers from some of the worst air quality globally. Air pollution is a leading cause of death and disability, costing the country a significant portion of its GDP.
      • Sanitation and Drinking Water**: While access to improved water sources has increased, only about 60% of the population had access to safely managed drinking water in 2022. Access to adequate sanitation also remains a challenge.

      Government health policies focus on expanding primary healthcare, improving maternal and child health, controlling communicable diseases, and increasingly, addressing the burden of NCDs. Ensuring accessibility, affordability, and equity in healthcare services, especially for rural and vulnerable populations, remains a critical goal.

8.1. Holidays and Festivals

Bangladesh observes a variety of national, religious, and traditional folk festivals, reflecting its multicultural fabric.

• National Holidays and Commemorations**:
  • Language Movement Day (February 21)**: Commemorates the martyrs of the 1952 Bengali Language Movement. This day is also recognized by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day. Public gatherings are held at the Shaheed Minar (Martyrs' Monument).
  • Independence Day (March 26)**: Marks the declaration of independence from Pakistan in 1971. The National Martyrs' Memorial (Jatiyo Sriti Shoudho) at Savar is a focal point for paying homage.
  • Victory Day (December 16)**: Celebrates the victory in the Bangladesh Liberation War and the surrender of Pakistani forces in 1971. Parades and cultural events are held, with tributes at the National Martyrs' Memorial.
  • Religious Festivals**:
    • Muslim Festivals**:
      • Eid al-Fitr**: Marks the end of Ramadan, the month of fasting. It is the largest Muslim festival, celebrated with prayers, feasts, and family gatherings.
      • Eid al-Adha (Festival of Sacrifice)**: Commemorates Prophet Ibrahim's willingness to sacrifice his son. It involves animal sacrifice, prayers, and sharing food with family and the needy. Both Eids are observed with the longest national holidays.
      • Mawlid (Eid-e-Milad-un-Nabi)**: Celebrates the birthday of Prophet Muhammad.
      • Ashura**: Observed on the 10th day of Muharram, particularly by Shia Muslims, commemorating the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali.
      • Shab-e-Barat (Night of Fortune)**: A night of prayer and seeking forgiveness.
      • Chaand Raat (Night of the Moon)**: The eve of Eid al-Fitr, filled with festive preparations.
    • Hindu Festivals**:
      • Durga Puja**: The most important festival for Bengali Hindus, celebrating the goddess Durga's victory over evil. It involves elaborate decorations, idol worship, and cultural performances.
      • Kali Puja**: Worship of the goddess Kali.
      • Saraswati Puja**: Worship of the goddess of learning, Saraswati.
      • Krishna Janmashtami**: Celebrates the birth of Lord Krishna.
      • Ratha Yatra (Chariot Festival)**.
    • Buddhist Festivals**:
      • Buddha Purnima**: The most significant Buddhist festival, commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and passing of Gautama Buddha.
    • Christian Festivals**:
      • Christmas (Bôŗodin - Big Day)**: Celebrated by the Christian community with church services and festivities.
      • Traditional Bengali Folk Festivals**:
        • Pahela Baishakh (Bengali New Year)**: Celebrated on April 14th, it is the foremost secular and cultural festival for Bengalis, marked by colorful processions (like Mangal Shobhajatra), fairs, traditional food, music, and dance.
        • Pohela Falgun**: The first day of spring in the Bengali calendar, often coinciding with Valentine's Day, celebrated with music, dance, and cultural activities, especially among youth.
        • Nabanna (New Harvest Festival)**: Celebrates the new rice harvest, particularly in rural areas, with traditional food and festivities.
        • Poush Parbon**: A harvest festival celebrated in the Bengali month of Poush, featuring traditional pitha (rice cakes).
        • Shakrain (Kite Festival)**: An annual celebration, especially popular in Old Dhaka, observed at the end of Poush with kite flying, fireworks, and rooftop parties. It coincides with Makar Sankranti.

        These holidays and festivals showcase Bangladesh's rich traditions, religious harmony (despite occasional tensions), and strong sense of cultural identity.

8.2. Literature

Bangladeshi literature, primarily literature in the Bengali language, forms a vital part of the nation's cultural identity and has a rich history spanning over a millennium.

• Early and Medieval Period**:

• Colonial Period and Bengal Renaissance**:

• Post-Partition and Post-Independence Literature**:

Literary events like the annual Ekushey Book Fair (Amar Ekushey Grantha Mela) and the Dhaka Lit Fest, organized by the Bangla Academy, are major cultural events in South Asia, promoting books, authors, and literary discussions.

8.3. Architecture

The architecture of Bangladesh reflects a rich history influenced by its geography, climate, culture, and various ruling dynasties. It is intertwined with the broader Bengal region and the Indian subcontinent.

• Pre-Islamic Period**:

• Sultanate Period (13th-16th centuries)**:

• Mughal Period (16th-18th centuries)**:

• Colonial Period (18th-20th centuries)**:

• Modern and Contemporary Architecture**:

Bangladesh's architectural heritage is a testament to its long and varied history, showcasing a fusion of indigenous traditions and external influences.

8.4. Visual Arts, Crafts, and Clothing

Bangladesh has a rich and ancient tradition in visual arts and crafts, reflecting its cultural heritage and artistic skills. Clothing styles also vary, blending traditional and modern influences.

• Visual Arts**:
  • Ancient and Classical Art**: The recorded history of art in Bangladesh dates back to the 3rd century BCE, with terracotta sculptures being a prominent early form. During classical antiquity, notable sculptural Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist art developed under the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty. Pala-Sena sculptures are known for their refined aesthetics.
  • Islamic Art**: The Bengal Sultanate saw the evolution of Islamic art from the 14th century, particularly in architectural decoration and calligraphy.
  • Modern Art**: The modern art movement in Bangladesh took shape in post-independence East Bengal, with Zainul Abedin being a pioneering figure. He is renowned for his powerful sketches of the Bengal famine. Other leading painters include SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Safiuddin Ahmed, Shahabuddin Ahmed, Kanak Chanpa Chakma, Qayyum Chowdhury, Rashid Choudhury, Quamrul Hassan, Rafiqun Nabi, and Syed Jahangir. Their works often reflect social realities, natural beauty, and cultural identity.
  • Sculpture**: Novera Ahmed is considered the pioneer of modernist sculpture in Bangladesh. Other eminent sculptors include Nitun Kundu, Syed Abdullah Khalid (creator of the iconic Aparajeyo Bangla sculpture), Hamiduzzaman Khan, Shamim Sikder, Ferdousi Priyabhashini, and Abdur Razzaque.
  • Photography**: Photography as an art form has seen significant growth. The Chobi Mela, held biennially, is considered the largest photography festival in Asia.
  • Crafts**:
    • Jamdani Weaving**: A unique and intricate handloom weaving technique producing fine muslin cloth with elaborate Persian-inspired motifs, traditionally centered in Dhaka. Jamdani was recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2013.
    • Nakshi Kantha**: A centuries-old Bengali tradition of embroidering quilts with colorful threads, depicting folk motifs, stories, and scenes from everyday life. It is made throughout Bangladesh and is a highly valued craft.
    • Rajshahi Silk**: A fine silk renowned for its softness and suitability for sophisticated designs.
    • Terracotta Crafts**: A continuing tradition from ancient times, with terracotta plaques and pottery being widely produced.
    • Pottery**: Earthenware pottery has deep roots in Bangladeshi culture.
    • Brassware**: Intricately designed brass items are a traditional craft.
    • Ivory Carving**: Historically, ivory carving was a prized art form.
    • Bamboo and Cane Crafts**: Due to the abundance of bamboo and cane, various utilitarian and decorative items are crafted.
    • Shital Pati**: A traditional handcrafted mat woven from murta plants, known for its cooling properties, also recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage.
    • Clothing**:
      • Women's Attire**:
        • The sari is the most common traditional attire for Bengali women, worn in various styles and fabrics (cotton, silk, jamdani).
        • The shalwar kameez (a tunic worn over loose trousers, often with a scarf called an orna) is also very popular, especially for everyday wear and among younger women.
        • In urban areas, Western clothing is also common. Some women also follow Islamic clothing practices.
      • Men's Attire**:
        • The lungi (a sarong-like garment) is the most common informal clothing for men, particularly in rural areas.
        • The kurta (often called panjabi) worn with pajamas (loose trousers) is common for everyday wear and especially for festivals and religious occasions.
        • Domestically tailored suits, neckties, and trousers are customarily worn by men for formal events and in professional settings.
        • The traditional sherwani (a long coat-like garment) and churidar (tight-fitting trousers) are often worn at weddings, sometimes accompanied by a turban.

        The annual Mangal Shobhajatra (Bengali New Year parade), organized by the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Dhaka on Pahela Baishakh, featuring large colorful masks and figures, was enlisted as an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2016.

8.5. Performing Arts

The performing arts of Bangladesh are diverse and vibrant, encompassing a rich heritage of music, dance, and theatre that reflects the country's cultural history and regional variations.

8.6. Media and Cinema

The media and cinema landscape in Bangladesh is diverse, encompassing print, broadcast, and online platforms, though it operates within a context where press freedom faces challenges.

• Media**:
  • Print Media**: The history of the press in Bangladesh dates back to 1860 with the establishment of the first printing press in Dhaka. Today, numerous privately owned daily newspapers and periodicals are published in both Bengali and English.
    • Prominent Bengali dailies include Prothom Alo, Kaler Kantho, Bangladesh Pratidin, The Daily Ittefaq, and Jugantor.
    • Leading English dailies include The Daily Star and Dhaka Tribune. The Financial Express is a notable financial daily.
    • Despite a wide range of publications, regular readership is estimated to be relatively low, under 15% of the population according to some older estimates, though this may have changed with increasing literacy and internet access.
  • Broadcast Media**:
    • Television**: This is the most popular form of media consumption. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the sole state-owned television network with nationwide coverage. Numerous private satellite television channels have emerged, offering news, entertainment, and current affairs programming. Popular private channels include ATN Bangla, Channel i, NTV, RTV, Ekushey TV, Ekattor TV, Jamuna TV, and Somoy TV. Indian television dramas have a significant viewership, sometimes described as exerting "cultural hegemony" over satellite TV.
    • Radio**: Bangladesh Betar is the state-run radio service. Several private FM radio stations like Radio Foorti, Radio Today, Radio Aamar, and ABC Radio were popular, but overall radio listenership has declined significantly.
  • News Agencies**: Key news agencies include the state-owned Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha (BSS) and the private Bdnews24.com.
  • Online Media**: Online news portals and social media platforms have become increasingly important sources of news and information, though they also present challenges related to misinformation and regulation.
  • Foreign Media**: International news channels like BBC News (including BBC Bangla), CNN, VOA, and Al Jazeera are accessible and consumed by a segment of the population.
  • Press Freedom**:

  Freedom of the press remains a significant concern. Government attempts at censorship, harassment of journalists, and the use of restrictive laws (like the former Digital Security Act) have been criticized by local and international media watchdog organizations. Bangladesh consistently ranks low in the World Press Freedom Index (e.g., 165th out of 180 countries in 2024, according to Reporters Without Borders).

  • Cinema (Dhallywood)**:
    • History**: The history of cinema in Bangladesh dates back to a bioscope screening in 1898. The Nawabs of Dhaka patronized several silent films in the early 1900s. Picture House, the first permanent cinema in Dhaka, began operating between 1913-1914. The first film produced in Bangladesh was Sukumari (The Good Girl), released in 1929. Last Kiss, the first full-length feature film, was released in 1931. By 1947, there were 80 cinemas.
    • East Pakistan Era**: The first Bengali-language film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh (Face and Mask), was released in 1956. Akash ar Mati (Sky and Earth) followed in 1959. The East Pakistan Film Development Corporation (now Bangladesh Film Development Corporation, BFDC) was established in 1957-58 as a full-service film production studio in Dhaka, which became the hub for Bengali Muslim cinema. Zahir Raihan was an influential filmmaker of this period, known for films like Kokhono Asheni (1961), Sangam (1964, the first color film in Pakistan), and Jibon Theke Neowa (1970).
    • Post-Independence**: The first film after independence was Ora Egaro Jon (They Were Eleven), directed by Chashi Nazrul Islam and released in 1972, focusing on the Liberation War. The industry, often referred to as "Dhallywood" (a portmanteau of Dhaka and Hollywood), peaked between 1996-2003, producing around 80 films annually, a number that declined thereafter.
    • Notable Directors and Films**: Prominent directors include Khan Ataur Rahman, Alamgir Kabir, Amjad Hossain, Humayun Ahmed, Morshedul Islam, Tanvir Mokammel, Tareque Masud, Salahuddin Lavlu, and Enamul Karim Nirjhar. Tareque Masud's film Matir Moina (The Clay Bird) received international acclaim, winning the FIPRESCI Prize at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival.

The film industry faces challenges such as competition from foreign films, piracy, and the need for modernization of cinemas and production facilities. However, there is a growing movement of independent filmmakers producing critically acclaimed works.

8.7. Cuisine

Bangladeshi cuisine is rich and diverse, shaped by its riverine geography, fertile land, tropical climate, and historical influences from Mughal, British, and broader South Asian culinary traditions. It shares a close heritage with the cuisine of the neighboring Indian state of West Bengal, often collectively referred to as Bengali cuisine.

• Staples and Main Ingredients**:
  • Rice**: White rice is the absolute staple, consumed with almost every meal.
  • Fish**: Fish is the primary source of protein, owing to the country's vast network of rivers, ponds, and proximity to the Bay of Bengal. The saying "Maachhe Bhaate Bangali" (Fish and rice make a Bengali) underscores its importance. The hilsa (ilish) is the national fish and is immensely popular, with dishes like shorshe ilish (hilsa in mustard gravy) being iconic. Other commonly consumed fish include rohu, catla, pangas, tilapia, and various small freshwater fish. Fish roe is also a delicacy.
  • Vegetables**: A wide variety of leaf vegetables, potatoes, gourds (like bottle gourd, bitter gourd, pointed gourd), eggplant, cauliflower, cabbage, tomatoes, and beans are integral to the diet.
  • Lentils (Dal)**: Lentil soups, known as dal, are a common accompaniment to rice.
  • Meat**: Curries of chicken, beef, and mutton are widely consumed. Duck is also popular.
  • Spices and Herbs**: Bangladeshi cooking involves a complex blend of spices. Common spices include turmeric, cumin, coriander, chili powder, ginger, garlic, cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, and fenugreek. A famous spice mix is panch phoron (a five-spice blend). Fresh herbs like cilantro (coriander leaves) and mint are also used.
  • Oils and Fats**: Mustard oil is traditionally favored for its pungent flavor, though vegetable oils are also common. Ghee (clarified butter) is used in richer dishes and sweets.
  • Popular Dishes and Preparations**:
    • Bhortas**: Mashed vegetables, fish, or lentils, seasoned with mustard oil, onions, green chilies, and coriander. Examples include aloo bhorta (mashed potato) and begun bhorta (mashed eggplant).
    • Bhajis**: Stir-fried or shallow-fried vegetables.
    • Tarkaris**: General term for curried vegetables or meat/fish dishes.
    • Mughal-influenced Dishes**: Kormas (mild, creamy curries), kalias (rich, spicy curries), biryanis, pulaos (flavored rice dishes, often with meat or chicken, like morog polao - chicken pilaf), teharis (rice cooked with meat, usually beef), and khichuri (rice and lentils cooked together, often with vegetables or meat).
    • Chingri malai curry**: A popular shrimp curry cooked with coconut milk.
    • Shutki (Dried Fish)**: Dried fish is a delicacy in certain regions, prepared in various spicy dishes.
    • Breads (Ruti)**: Besides rice, flatbreads like roti, naan, paratha, luchi (deep-fried puffed bread), and bakarkhani (a layered, crispy flatbread from Old Dhaka) are consumed, especially for breakfast or with certain curries.
    • Regional Specialties**:
      • Chittagong**: Famous for kala bhuna (a dark, spicy slow-cooked beef dish) and mezbani gosht (a hot and spicy beef curry traditionally served at large communal feasts called mezban).
      • Sylhet**: Known for the use of shatkora (a citrus fruit) to marinate dishes, especially beef hatkora.
      • Khulna**: Renowned for using chui jhal (Piper chaba, a pungent creeper stem) in meat-based dishes.
      • Chittagong Hill Tracts**: Tribal communities often cook with bamboo shoots.
      • Sweets and Desserts (Mishti)**:

      Bangladesh has a vast array of distinctive sweets, mostly milk-based.

      • Popular sweets include rôshogolla (spongy cheese balls in syrup), rôshmalai (cheese dumplings in thickened milk), chomchom, shôndesh, mishti doi (sweet yogurt), kalojaam, and jilapi.
        • Pithas**: Traditional rice cakes or dumplings, prepared in numerous varieties (sweet or savory), especially during winter and harvest festivals.
      • Halwa, shemai (a vermicelli pudding), and falooda are popular desserts, especially during religious festivities.
      • Beverages**:
    • Hot milk tea (dudh cha) is the most commonly consumed beverage, often serving as a social lubricant at adda (group conversations).
    • Borhani (a spicy yogurt drink), mattha (buttermilk), and lassi are popular traditional cold beverages.
    • Street Foods and Snacks**:
  • Popular street foods include chotpoti (a savory chickpea and potato snack), jhal muri (puffed rice with spices), fuchka (or panipuri - crispy hollow shells filled with spiced potatoes and tamarind water), shingara (samosa), and various types of kebabs (like seekh kebab, chapli kebab, shami kebab, chicken tikka, and shashlik) and chaaps (marinated meat cutlets).

  Bangladeshi cuisine is characterized by its subtle and aromatic use of spices, the prominence of fish and rice, and a deep love for sweets.

8.8. Sports

Sports are an integral part of Bangladeshi culture, with several traditional and modern sports enjoying popularity.

• Cricket**: Cricket is by far the most popular sport in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh national cricket team achieved Test status in 2000. They participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999. Notable achievements include reaching the quarter-final of the 2015 Cricket World Cup and the semi-final of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy. They have also reached the final of the Asia Cup three times (2012, 2016, 2018). Shakib Al Hasan is widely regarded as one of the greatest all-rounders in the history of cricket. The Bangladesh national under-19 cricket team won the 2020 Under-19 Cricket World Cup, the country's first-ever World Cup victory in cricket at any level. They also won the ACC Under-19 Asia Cup consecutively in 2023 and 2024. The Bangladesh women's national cricket team won the 2018 Women's Twenty20 Asia Cup. Domestic cricket tournaments like the Bangladesh Premier League (BPL) also attract significant attention.

• Football (Soccer)**: Football is the second-most popular sport. The national team made its debut in 1973. Their most significant achievement was participating in the 1980 AFC Asian Cup. Bangladesh won the 2003 SAFF Gold Cup and gold in football at the 1999 South Asian Games. The Bangladesh women's national football team won the SAFF Women's Championship consecutively in 2022 and 2024. The Shadhin Bangla football team, formed during the 1971 Liberation War, played a symbolic role in garnering support for independence; its captain, Zakaria Pintoo, was the first to hoist the Bangladeshi flag on foreign soil.

• Kabaddi**: Kabaddi is the national sport. While not as widely followed as cricket or football in terms of media coverage, it remains popular, especially in rural areas.

• Traditional Indigenous Sports**:
  • Boli Khela**: A traditional form of wrestling, particularly popular in the Chittagong region.
  • Lathi Khela**: A traditional Bengali martial art using sticks.
  • Nouka Baich (Boat Racing)**: A popular traditional sport, especially during the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, held on rivers across the country.
  • Other Sports**:
    • Archery**: Bangladesh has achieved success in archery at the South Asian level. Archers Ety Khatun and Roman Sana won multiple gold medals at the 2019 South Asian Games.
    • Chess**: Chess is quite popular, and Bangladesh has produced several grandmasters, with Niaz Murshed being the first grandmaster in South Asia.
    • Field Hockey, Badminton, Tennis, Volleyball, Shooting, and Carrom** are also played.
    • Mountaineering**: Musa Ibrahim became the first Bangladeshi to conquer Mount Everest in 2010. Wasfia Nazreen is the first Bangladeshi to climb the Seven Summits and also K2.

    The National Sports Council is the governing body responsible for regulating 42 sporting federations in the country. Bangladesh also participates in the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, and Asian Games.