Indonesia

3.1. Prehistory

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the era of Homo erectus, also known as "Java Man," with fossils dating back between 2 million and 500,000 BCE. Fossils of Homo floresiensis, discovered on the island of Flores, date from around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE. Homo sapiens are believed to have arrived in the archipelago around 43,000 BCE. The islands of Sulawesi and Borneo are home to some of the world's oldest known cave paintings, with figurative art dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years, such as the bull depiction in the Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave. Megalithic sites such as Gunung Padang in western Java, Lore Lindu in Sulawesi, as well as sites in Nias and Sumba in Sumatra, reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices. These findings indicate sophisticated early cultures long before recorded history.

The formation of the Indonesian archipelago itself involved complex tectonic activities starting from the early Cenozoic era (around 66 million years ago), reaching its current form during the Pleistocene epoch (around 2.58 million years ago). During the Pleistocene, global sea levels were significantly lower, leading to the emergence of Sundaland (connecting Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan with mainland Asia) and the Sahul continent (connecting New Guinea and Australia), with the Wallacea island group in between. The massive eruption of Mount Toba around 74,000 BCE, a VEI-8 supervolcanic event, is thought to have caused a global volcanic winter, potentially impacting human evolution and migration patterns. As the last glacial period ended around 12,000 years ago, rising sea levels submerged lower-lying lands, forming the present-day island configuration.

Around 2,000 BCE (or 3,500-1,500 BCE according to some sources), Austronesian peoples migrated from what is now Taiwan into Southeast Asia, gradually spreading through the Indonesian archipelago. They displaced or assimilated earlier Melanesian populations, pushing them towards the eastern parts of the archipelago. These Austronesian migrants became the ancestors of the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favorable agricultural conditions, including the development of wet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE, allowed for the growth of villages and, eventually, kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic maritime location fostered extensive inter-island and international trade with civilizations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, which profoundly influenced Indonesian history and culture.

3.2. Early Kingdoms

The early historical period of Indonesia was characterized by the rise and fall of influential kingdoms that shaped the political, cultural, and religious landscape of the archipelago. These kingdoms were heavily influenced by foreign cultures, primarily from India, through trade and religious exchange, leading to the flourishing of Hindu-Buddhist traditions, followed by the gradual spread of Islam. The arrival of European powers in the 16th century marked the beginning of a new era of foreign intervention and eventual colonization.

3.2.1. Hindu-Buddhist Kingdoms

The earliest historically verifiable kingdoms in the Indonesian archipelago, such as Kutai Martadipura in East Kalimantan and Tarumanagara in West Java, emerged around the 4th century CE. These kingdoms adopted Hinduism and Buddhism, indicating the early spread of these Indic religions.

By the 7th century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom, a Buddhist thalassocracy centered in Palembang, Sumatra, rose to prominence. It thrived on controlling maritime trade routes, particularly the Strait of Malacca, and its influence extended across Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, parts of Java, Kalimantan, and even into what is now Thailand and Cambodia. Srivijaya became a major center for Buddhist learning and culture.


Between the 8th and 10th centuries CE, Central Java saw the rise of the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty and the Hindu Mataram Kingdom (also known as Medang Kingdom). The Shailendra dynasty was responsible for constructing monumental religious structures, most notably the Borobudur temple, the world's largest Buddhist monument. The Mataram Kingdom, contemporaneous with the Shailendra, built the equally impressive Prambanan temple complex, dedicated to the Hindu trinity. In the 10th century, the center of power in Medang shifted to East Java, ruled by the Isyana dynasty. Medang eventually collapsed in 1016 due to internal rebellion. It was revived as the Kahuripan kingdom by Airlangga in 1019, which later split into Kadiri and Janggala. Kadiri eventually absorbed Janggala.

In 1222, Ken Arok of the Rajasa dynasty overthrew Kadiri and established the Singhasari kingdom in East Java. Singhasari expanded its influence but was weakened by internal strife and external threats, eventually falling in 1292.

Following the collapse of Singhasari, Raden Wijaya, also of the Rajasa dynasty, founded the Majapahit kingdom in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit grew into a vast maritime empire, often considered one of the greatest in Southeast Asian history. Under the leadership of its famed prime minister Gajah Mada during the reign of King Hayam Wuruk (14th century), Majapahit's influence is said to have extended over much of the Indonesian archipelago, the Malay Peninsula, and parts of mainland Southeast Asia. This period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. Majapahit was primarily a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom, practicing a syncretic form of Shiva-Buddhism. The empire's wealth was based on agriculture and extensive maritime trade. However, by the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Majapahit began to decline due to internal succession disputes, rising regional powers, and the growing influence of Islam, eventually falling to the Demak Sultanate in 1527.

Even as Islamic sultanates rose, some Hindu-Buddhist polities persisted, such as the Blambangan Kingdom in East Java and various kingdoms in Bali like Gelgel and its successors (Klungkung, Buleleng, Karangasem, etc.), which maintained their Hindu traditions.

3.2.2. Islamic Sultanates

Islam was introduced to the Indonesian archipelago gradually, beginning as early as the 7th or 8th century CE, primarily through Sunni Muslim traders and Sufi scholars from Gujarat (India), Persia, and southern Arabia. The Aceh region in northern Sumatra became one of the earliest centers for Islamic learning and dissemination. The Jeumpa Kingdom, established in the 7th century in what is now Bireuen Regency, is considered by some to be the first Islamic state in the archipelago, though evidence is debated.

By the 13th century, Islam had gained a significant foothold in northern Sumatra with the rise of sultanates like Samudera Pasai. The spread of Islam in Indonesia accelerated in the 15th and 16th centuries, particularly after the decline of Majapahit. Islam often blended with existing local customs and spiritual beliefs, resulting in a syncretic form of Islamic practice, especially in Java, where the Wali Sanga (Nine Saints) played a crucial role in its propagation through peaceful means.

Several powerful Islamic sultanates emerged across the archipelago. In Java, the Demak Sultanate and the Cirebon Sultanate, both established in the 15th century, were among the earliest and most influential. Demak played a key role in the final downfall of Majapahit. The Mataram Sultanate (distinct from the earlier Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom), founded in 1586 by the Mataram dynasty (Islamic), became a dominant power in central and eastern Java. It reached its peak under Sultan Agung in the early 17th century but later fragmented due to internal conflicts and Dutch intervention, leading to the Treaty of Giyanti.

In Sumatra, the Aceh Sultanate, founded in 1496, grew into a major regional power, especially under Iskandar Muda (1607-1636). It controlled important trade routes and fiercely resisted European colonial encroachment for centuries.

In Kalimantan, the Bruneian Empire reached its zenith in the 15th century, controlling coastal areas. The Banjarmasin Sultanate, established in 1520, became a significant power in southern Kalimantan before its decline and eventual abolition by the Dutch in 1905.

In Sulawesi, Islam spread from the 16th century. The Gowa and Tallo kingdoms formed an alliance, often referred to as the Makassar Sultanate, which became a major maritime and trading power, its influence extending to eastern Indonesia and even parts of Australia.

In the Maluku Islands (Spice Islands), the Sultanate of Ternate and the Sultanate of Tidore were dominant. Their wealth was derived from the lucrative spice trade, particularly cloves and nutmeg. These sultanates initially welcomed European traders but later came into conflict with them as European powers sought to monopolize the trade. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) eventually subdued them through manipulation and military force.

The rise of these Islamic sultanates marked a significant transformation in the political, religious, and socio-cultural fabric of the archipelago. While Islam became the dominant religion, it often coexisted and interacted with pre-existing Hindu-Buddhist and indigenous animist beliefs, creating a unique Indonesian Islamic identity. The arrival of European colonial powers in the 16th and 17th centuries began to challenge the sovereignty of these sultanates, leading to a long period of resistance and eventual subjugation.

A few Christian kingdoms also emerged, primarily due to missionary activities accompanying European colonial powers. These included kingdoms like Larantuka and Sikka (Catholic) in Flores, and Siau and Manganitu (Protestant) in North Sulawesi.

3.2.3. European Arrival and Early Colonial Activities

European involvement in the Indonesian archipelago began in the early 16th century, driven by the lucrative spice trade. Portugal was the first European power to establish a significant presence. In 1511, an expedition led by Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, a key trading port on the Malay Peninsula. Following this, in 1512, Portuguese traders under Francisco Serrão reached the Maluku Islands (Spice Islands), the primary source of cloves and nutmeg. They sought to monopolize this valuable trade. Sultan Bayanullah of Ternate allowed the Portuguese to build a fort (Benteng Kastela) and establish a trade monopoly in Ternate in exchange for military assistance against the rival Sultanate of Tidore.

Spain, also seeking a route to the Spice Islands, arrived in Maluku in 1521 when Juan Sebastián Elcano's expedition reached the islands after Ferdinand Magellan's death in the Philippines. The Spanish allied with Tidore, leading to conflict with the Ternate-Portuguese alliance. This rivalry ended with the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, which effectively demarcated Spanish and Portuguese spheres of influence, leaving Maluku largely to Portugal. The Portuguese also attempted to establish control over the Sunda Strait by making an alliance with the Sunda Kingdom in 1522, but this effort was thwarted by local resistance and storms.

Dutch and English traders soon followed the Portuguese. The Dutch, in particular, proved to be formidable competitors. In 1602, the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) was established, a powerful trading company granted quasi-governmental powers, including the authority to wage war, build forts, and establish colonies. The VOC systematically outcompeted and displaced the Portuguese and English from most of the archipelago. They established their headquarters in Batavia (present-day Jakarta) in 1619 after conquering Jayakarta.

The VOC focused on monopolizing the spice trade, employing often brutal tactics against local populations and rival European powers. The Amboyna massacre in 1623, where English traders were executed by the Dutch, effectively ended significant English competition in the Spice Islands for a period. Over the 17th and 18th centuries, the VOC expanded its control over key trading posts and production centers, often through treaties with local rulers, political manipulation (divide and rule tactics), and military force. While their primary interest was trade, their activities laid the foundation for direct Dutch colonial rule that would follow the VOC's dissolution.

3.3. Dutch Colonial Era

The Dutch colonial era in Indonesia spanned several centuries, evolving from the commercial dominance of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) to direct rule by the Dutch government. This period was characterized by economic exploitation, administrative control, significant social changes, and persistent Indonesian resistance, which eventually culminated in the national awakening and the movement for independence.

3.3.1. Dutch East India Company (VOC) Rule

The Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC), chartered in 1602, was the primary instrument of Dutch commercial and political power in the Indonesian archipelago for nearly two centuries. Granted extensive powers by the Dutch government, including the right to wage war, make treaties, coin money, and establish colonies, the VOC aimed to monopolize the lucrative spice trade.

The VOC established its headquarters in Batavia (present-day Jakarta) in 1619 after conquering Jayakarta. Under governors-general like Jan Pieterszoon Coen, the company aggressively expanded its control over key spice-producing areas, particularly in the Maluku Islands (Spice Islands), and important trading ports throughout the archipelago. They systematically pushed out rival European traders, such as the Portuguese and English, often through military force and strategic alliances with local rulers.

The VOC's methods were often brutal. They imposed harsh trade monopolies, forced local populations to cultivate specific cash crops (like cloves and nutmeg), and ruthlessly suppressed any resistance. The company intervened frequently in the internal affairs of local sultanates and kingdoms, employing "divide and rule" tactics to weaken indigenous powers and secure favorable trade agreements. For example, VOC intervention in the Mataram Sultanate's succession disputes ultimately led to the kingdom's fragmentation through agreements like the Treaty of Giyanti (1755).

Economically, the VOC was immensely profitable for a considerable period, becoming one of the wealthiest corporations in the world by the mid-17th century. It controlled strategic areas like Java, parts of Sumatra (e.g., Painan), Makassar, Manado, and islands in Maluku. However, by the late 18th century, corruption within the company, high administrative costs, changing market demands, and ongoing conflicts in both Europe and the archipelago led to its financial decline. Wars such as the Geger Pacinan (Chinese massacre in Batavia and subsequent Java War of 1741-1743) and the Bayu War in Blambangan (1771-1772) drained its resources. Following the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780-1784), the VOC was in severe financial crisis. The Dutch government (then the Batavian Republic) took over the company's assets and territories in 1796, and the VOC was formally dissolved on December 31, 1799. Its possessions became the Dutch East Indies, a nationalized colony under direct Dutch rule. The VOC's legacy was a system of economic exploitation and political subjugation that profoundly shaped the future of Indonesia.

3.3.2. Dutch Direct Rule and Colonial Expansion

Following the dissolution of the VOC in 1799, its territories in the Indonesian archipelago came under the direct administration of the Dutch government, first under the Batavian Republic and later the Kingdom of Holland (a French puppet state under Napoleon) and then the Kingdom of the Netherlands after 1815. This period marked a shift from company rule to formal colonial governance, characterized by efforts to centralize administration, intensify economic exploitation, and expand Dutch control over the entire archipelago.

Under Herman Willem Daendels (Governor-General 1808-1811, under French control), harsh measures were implemented, including the construction of the Great Post Road (Jalan Raya Pos) across Java, built with forced labor (Heerendiensten), causing immense suffering. A brief British interregnum (1811-1816) under Thomas Stamford Raffles saw some reforms, including the introduction of a land-rent system, but Dutch rule was restored after the Napoleonic Wars.

The 19th century was marked by the intensification of economic exploitation. Governor-General Johannes van den Bosch introduced the Cultivation System (Cultuurstelsel) in 1830. This system forced Javanese peasants to dedicate a portion of their land (typically one-fifth) or labor to cultivate export crops (such as coffee, sugar, and indigo) for the Dutch government. While it brought enormous profits to the Netherlands and helped pay off its national debt, the Cultuurstelsel led to widespread hardship, famines, and increased poverty for the Indonesian population. This system faced criticism and was gradually dismantled from the 1870s onwards, replaced by a more liberal economic policy that encouraged private European investment in plantations and mining.

Throughout the 19th century, the Dutch engaged in numerous military campaigns to consolidate and expand their control over islands beyond Java. This policy, often termed Pax Neerlandica, aimed to bring the entire archipelago under Dutch rule. Significant conflicts included:

• The Padri War (1803-1838) in West Sumatra, where the Dutch intervened in a conflict between traditional adat leaders and Islamic reformists (Padris), eventually subduing the region.
• The Java War (1825-1830), led by Prince Diponegoro, was a major Javanese uprising against Dutch rule. It was a costly war for the Dutch but ultimately resulted in the defeat of Diponegoro and the consolidation of Dutch power in Java.
• Numerous expeditions and wars in other islands, such as the Nias expeditions, conflicts in Bangka and Palembang, Banjarmasin War in South Kalimantan, and interventions in Bali (e.g., 1846, 1848, 1849, 1906, 1908), often culminating in puputan (mass ritual suicide) by Balinese royals and their followers.
• The long and brutal Aceh War (1873-1914) in northern Sumatra, where the Acehnese, under leaders like Teuku Umar and Cut Nyak Dhien, fiercely resisted Dutch colonization. Aceh was only nominally subdued in the early 20th century.
• Campaigns in Batak lands (North Sumatra) against leaders like Sisingamangaraja XII (1878-1907) and interventions in Lombok (1894).

By the early 20th century, the Dutch had established control over the territory that largely corresponds to modern-day Indonesia, including western New Guinea. Dutch colonial administration implemented policies that segregated society, maintained a hierarchical structure with Europeans at the top, and limited opportunities for Indonesians in governance and education, though the Dutch Ethical Policy (from 1901) aimed to improve welfare and provide some education, inadvertently contributing to the rise of Indonesian nationalism.

3.3.3. National Awakening and Rise of Independence Movements

The early 20th century witnessed the emergence of the Indonesian National Awakening (Kebangkitan Nasional Indonesia), a period marked by the rise of nationalist consciousness and organized movements aimed at achieving independence from Dutch colonial rule. Several factors contributed to this awakening, including the oppressive nature of Dutch colonialism, increased access to Western education for a small elite (partly due to the Dutch Ethical Policy initiated in 1901), the influence of nationalist movements in other Asian countries (like Japan's victory over Russia in 1905 and movements in India and the Philippines), and the unifying impact of the spread of the Malay language (which became Bahasa Indonesia) as a lingua franca.

Budi Utomo (Noble Endeavor), founded on May 20, 1908, by Javanese intellectuals and students from the STOVIA medical school, is often considered the first modern Indonesian nationalist organization. Initially focused on cultural and educational advancement for Javanese, it signaled a new phase of organized indigenous activity. May 20th is now commemorated as National Awakening Day in Indonesia.

Sarekat Islam (Islamic Union), founded in 1912 (originating from Sarekat Dagang Islam, an Islamic traders' association formed in 1909 by figures like Tirto Adhi Soerjo), quickly grew into a mass movement. Led by figures like Oemar Said Tjokroaminoto, it initially focused on economic empowerment for Indonesian Muslims but soon adopted a more political and anti-colonial stance, demanding self-governance. Its broad appeal made it one of the largest and most influential early nationalist organizations. However, internal divisions, including the influence of communist ideas, led to splits within the movement in the 1920s.

Other significant organizations emerged, reflecting diverse ideological currents:

• The Indische Partij (Indies Party), founded in 1912 by the "Tiga Serangkai" (Three Serangkai) - Ernest Douwes Dekker (an Indo-European), Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo, and Suwardi Suryaningrat (later known as Ki Hadjar Dewantara) - was more radical, openly advocating for independence and equality for all inhabitants of the Indies, regardless of race. It was quickly banned by the Dutch authorities.
• The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI, Partai Komunis Indonesia), formed in 1920 from the Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging (ISDV, founded 1914 by Henk Sneevliet), became a major force in the labor movement and organized uprisings against Dutch rule in 1926-1927, which were harshly suppressed, leading to the party's banishment.
• Educational movements also played a vital role. Ki Hadjar Dewantara founded Taman Siswa in 1922, an influential network of nationalist schools that emphasized Indonesian culture and self-reliance, challenging the colonial education system. Figures like Kartini and Dewi Sartika championed women's education and emancipation.

Indonesian students studying in the Netherlands formed organizations like Perhimpoenan Indonesia (Indonesian Association, originally Indische Vereeniging founded in 1908), which became a crucial hub for nationalist thought and international advocacy for independence. Figures like Mohammad Hatta and Sutan Sjahrir were active in this group.

A pivotal moment in the unification of the independence movement was the Youth Pledge (Sumpah Pemuda), declared during the Second Indonesian Youth Congress in Batavia (Jakarta) on October 28, 1928. Youth representatives from various regional organizations pledged to uphold "one motherland, Indonesia; one nation, the Indonesian nation; and one language of unity, the Indonesian language." This declaration was a powerful symbol of emerging national identity and unity, transcending ethnic and regional differences. The song "Indonesia Raya," composed by Wage Rudolf Supratman, was also introduced at this congress and later became the national anthem.

In 1927, Sukarno, along with figures like Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo, founded the Indonesian National Party (PNI, Partai Nasional Indonesia), which advocated for full independence through non-cooperation with the Dutch. Sukarno's charismatic leadership and the PNI's growing popularity led to his arrest and imprisonment by the colonial authorities in 1929. The PNI later fragmented, but Sukarno remained a central figure in the nationalist struggle.

Despite Dutch suppression, including arrests, exile of leaders, and banning of organizations, the nationalist movement continued to grow, laying the groundwork for the eventual proclamation of independence after World War II. The shared experience of colonial oppression and the vision of a unified, independent Indonesia fueled these movements, which, despite their ideological diversity, contributed to a collective national consciousness.

3.4. Japanese Occupation

The Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies during World War II (1942-1945) was a pivotal period that profoundly impacted Indonesian society and significantly altered the course of its struggle for independence. The Dutch colonial administration, weakened by the German occupation of the Netherlands in 1940, collapsed swiftly in the face of the Japanese invasion, which began in January 1942. By March 1942, the Dutch forces surrendered, and Japan took control of the archipelago.

Initially, many Indonesians welcomed the Japanese as liberators from Dutch colonial rule, influenced by Japanese propaganda promoting the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" and slogans like the "3A Movement" (Japan, the Light of Asia; Japan, the Protector of Asia; Japan, the Leader of Asia). Japan released nationalist leaders like Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta from Dutch imprisonment and sought their cooperation to mobilize popular support for the Japanese war effort. Sukarno, while cautious, saw an opportunity to advance the cause of Indonesian independence.

However, the occupation soon proved to be harsh and exploitative. Japan's primary goal was to secure resources for its war machine, particularly oil, rubber, and other raw materials. This led to severe economic hardship for the Indonesian population. Food shortages became common as agricultural production was diverted to support Japanese troops. The most brutal aspect of the occupation was the system of forced labor known as romusha. Millions of Indonesian men were conscripted as romusha and sent to work on Japanese military construction projects across Southeast Asia under brutal conditions, resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths from overwork, malnutrition, and disease. Additionally, many Indonesian women were forced into sexual slavery as "comfort women" (jugun ianfu) for the Japanese military, a profound violation of human rights.

Despite the initial welcome, Japanese rule quickly fostered resentment and resistance. Several local uprisings occurred, such as in Cirebon, Sukamanah (Tasikmalaya), and Aceh, as well as the Mandor Affair and the Dayak Desa War in Kalimantan, though these were swiftly and brutally suppressed by the Japanese military.

Politically, the Japanese occupation had a dual impact. On one hand, it dismantled the Dutch colonial state and, to some extent, allowed Indonesian nationalist leaders greater visibility and opportunities for political organization, albeit under Japanese supervision. The Japanese established various Indonesian auxiliary organizations, such as Putera (Pusat Tenaga Rakyat - Center of People's Power) and later Jawa Hokokai (Java Service Association), to mobilize the population. They also created Indonesian volunteer armies, most notably PETA (Pembela Tanah Air - Defenders of the Homeland) in Java and Sumatra, and Heiho (auxiliary soldiers). These organizations provided military training and organizational experience to many young Indonesians who would later form the backbone of the Indonesian armed forces during the National Revolution.

As the war turned against Japan in 1944, the Japanese began to make concessions towards Indonesian independence to secure continued support. In September 1944, Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso promised future independence for Indonesia. In March 1945, the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK, Badan Penyelidik Usaha-usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan) was established, chaired by Radjiman Wedyodiningrat, with Sukarno and Hatta playing key roles. This committee drafted the basis for the Indonesian constitution, including Sukarno's formulation of Pancasila (the five principles of the Indonesian state).

The Japanese surrender on August 15, 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, created a power vacuum. Indonesian nationalist leaders, particularly younger activists (pemuda), urged Sukarno and Hatta to declare independence immediately, fearing that the returning Dutch would try to re-establish colonial rule.

The Japanese occupation, despite its brutality and hardship, significantly weakened Dutch colonial power by dismantling its administrative and military structures. It also provided a platform for nationalist leaders, fostered a sense of national unity (albeit complexly), and equipped a generation of Indonesians with military and organizational skills that proved crucial in the subsequent fight for independence.

3.5. Indonesian National Revolution

The Indonesian National Revolution (1945-1949) was a period of intense armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the newly proclaimed Republic of Indonesia and the Netherlands, which sought to re-establish its colonial rule after the Japanese surrender in World War II. This era was marked by widespread popular resistance, internal political divisions within Indonesia, and increasing international pressure on the Netherlands, ultimately leading to Indonesia's internationally recognized sovereignty.

3.5.1. Proclamation of Independence and Revolution

Two days after Japan's surrender to the Allies on August 15, 1945, Indonesian nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, under pressure from youth groups (pemuda), proclaimed Indonesian independence on August 17, 1945, in Jakarta. Sukarno became the first President and Hatta the first Vice President. The following day, the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI, Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia) adopted a constitution (the 1945 Constitution) and formally established the new republic.

The news of independence spread, igniting revolutionary fervor across the archipelago. Indonesians, particularly the youth, formed militias and revolutionary groups, often armed with weapons seized from surrendering Japanese forces or homemade implements. They began to take over government buildings and infrastructure, challenging the remnants of Japanese authority and any attempts by the Dutch to return.

The Netherlands, with Allied support (primarily British initially), was determined to restore its colonial empire. British troops landed in Java and Sumatra in September 1945, ostensibly to disarm Japanese forces and repatriate Allied prisoners of war and civilian internees. However, their presence was often seen as paving the way for the return of Dutch colonial administration (NICA). This led to fierce clashes between Indonesian republicans and Allied (and later Dutch) forces.

Key events during this period of revolutionary war included:

• The Battle of Surabaya (October-November 1945): One of the most intense and bloody battles of the revolution. Indonesian militias and civilians fiercely resisted British attempts to disarm them in Surabaya, East Java. Although the British eventually took the city, the heavy casualties and the determination of the Indonesian resistance drew international attention and galvanized support for the republican cause. November 10th is commemorated as Heroes' Day in Indonesia.
• Other major battles and conflicts occurred across Java and Sumatra, including the Battle of Ambarawa, Battle of Medan, and the Bandung Sea of Fire.
• The Bersiap period: A violent and chaotic phase, particularly in late 1945 and early 1946, characterized by attacks by Indonesian groups against Dutch civilians, Eurasians, and others perceived as pro-colonial, highlighting the human cost from the perspective of victims of this revolutionary violence.

The Indonesian republic faced immense challenges, including internal political divisions between diplomatic and more militant factions, economic hardship, and the task of building a new state amidst warfare. Sutan Sjahrir served as the first Prime Minister, leading efforts for diplomatic recognition. The capital was temporarily moved from Jakarta (which was under Allied/Dutch control) to Yogyakarta in January 1946.

Diplomatic efforts ran parallel to the armed struggle. The Linggadjati Agreement (negotiated in late 1946, ratified March 1947) resulted in de facto Dutch recognition of republican control over Java, Sumatra, and Madura, with plans for a federal United States of Indonesia (RIS) linked to the Netherlands. However, differing interpretations and mutual distrust led to its breakdown.

In July 1947, the Dutch launched a major military offensive known as Operatie Product (Operation Product) or the First Police Action (Agresi Militer Belanda I), seizing large areas of republican-held territory in Java and Sumatra. This action drew international condemnation, particularly from the United Nations, which called for a ceasefire.

The Renville Agreement (January 1948), brokered by the UN aboard the USS Renville, established a ceasefire line (the "Van Mook Line") but was highly unfavorable to the Republic, significantly reducing its territory. Internal strife within the Republic intensified, including the Madiun Affair (September 1948), an abortive communist-led uprising that was suppressed by republican forces.

In December 1948, the Dutch launched a second major military offensive, Operatie Kraai (Operation Crow) or the Second Police Action (Agresi Militer Belanda II). They captured Yogyakarta, arrested Sukarno, Hatta, and other republican leaders, and declared the Republic dissolved. However, Indonesian republican forces, led by General Sudirman, waged a widespread guerrilla war. An emergency republican government (PDRI) was established in Sumatra under Sjafruddin Prawiranegara.

The Dutch military actions and the continued Indonesian resistance, including the General Offensive on Yogyakarta on March 1, 1949, further eroded international support for the Dutch position. The United States, fearing the conflict could push Indonesia towards communism, began to exert significant pressure on the Netherlands to negotiate a transfer of sovereignty.

The Roem-Van Roijen Agreement (May 1949) paved the way for the release of republican leaders and the restoration of the republican government in Yogyakarta. This was followed by the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference held in The Hague from August to November 1949. On December 27, 1949, the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia (RIS), a federal state with Sukarno as President. The issue of Western New Guinea remained unresolved and was to be negotiated later.

The Indonesian National Revolution was a transformative period that, despite immense human cost and internal complexities, successfully defended Indonesia's proclaimed independence and established it as a sovereign nation on the world stage. It demonstrated the strength of popular nationalism and the limits of colonial power in the post-World War II era.

3.5.2. Early Republic (United States of Indonesia)

Following the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference and the formal transfer of sovereignty from the Netherlands on December 27, 1949, the United States of Indonesia (RIS, Republik Indonesia Serikat) was established. The RIS was a federal republic, a compromise structure agreed upon during the negotiations with the Dutch. It consisted of sixteen entities: the Republic of Indonesia (which itself comprised territories in Java and Sumatra, with Yogyakarta as its capital) and fifteen other states and autonomous regions largely created by the Dutch during the preceding conflict, such as the State of East Indonesia, State of East Sumatra, and others. Sukarno became the President of the RIS, and Mohammad Hatta its Prime Minister. The RIS Constitution of 1949 provided for a parliamentary system of government.

However, the federal structure was widely unpopular among many Indonesians, who viewed it as a Dutch colonial ploy to divide and weaken the newly independent nation and to maintain Dutch influence through the federal states. There was strong popular sentiment for a unitary state, reflecting the nationalist ideal of "One Nation, One Country, One Language" embodied in the Youth Pledge.

Almost immediately after its formation, movements arose within the federal states to dissolve themselves and merge into the Republic of Indonesia (the original Yogyakarta-based republic). This process occurred rapidly throughout the first half of 1950, often driven by popular demand and political pressure from republican nationalists. Several regional uprisings and disturbances also occurred during this period, reflecting dissatisfaction with the federal arrangement and ongoing political instability. Notable incidents included the APRA (Legion of Ratu Adil) rebellion led by Raymond Westerling in Bandung and Jakarta in January 1950, and uprisings in Makassar.

By August 1950, all constituent states of the RIS, except for the Republic of Indonesia itself, had voted to dissolve and merge into a unitary state. Consequently, on August 17, 1950, the fifth anniversary of the proclamation of independence, the United States of Indonesia was formally dissolved and replaced by the unitary Republic of Indonesia. A new provisional constitution, the Provisional Constitution of 1950, was adopted, which established a parliamentary system of government. Sukarno remained President, but real executive power lay with the Prime Minister and the cabinet, who were responsible to the parliament.

The brief period of the United States of Indonesia thus served as a transitional phase. The strong desire for national unity and the suspicion of federalism as a colonial legacy led to its swift demise and the re-establishment of Indonesia as a unitary republic, a form it has maintained ever since (with variations in its system of government). This transition, however, also set the stage for future challenges related to regional autonomy and central government authority.

3.6. Post-Independence Modern History

The post-independence modern history of Indonesia, following the establishment of the unitary republic in 1950, has been characterized by significant political, economic, and social transformations. This era includes periods of charismatic leadership, authoritarian rule, democratic transitions, economic crises and growth, and ongoing efforts to address social inequalities and human rights issues. The nation's journey has been marked by a continuous struggle to define its identity, unify its diverse population, and assert its place on the global stage, often amidst internal conflicts and external pressures.

3.6.1. Sukarno Era (Guided Democracy)

After the brief period of the United States of Indonesia (1949-1950) and the subsequent liberal democracy era (1950-1959), which was marked by political instability due to a multi-party parliamentary system and frequent cabinet changes, President Sukarno introduced Guided Democracy (Demokrasi Terpimpin) in 1959. Citing the failure of Western-style democracy to provide stability and progress, Sukarno reinstated the 1945 Constitution by presidential decree, which granted significantly more power to the presidency.

Under Guided Democracy, Sukarno sought to create a uniquely Indonesian political system that he believed would better suit the nation's character. Key features of this era included:

• Concentration of Presidential Power:** Sukarno's authority increased substantially. Political parties were weakened, and parliament's role was diminished, leading to concerns about authoritarianism.
• Nasakom Ideology:** Sukarno promoted the concept of "Nasakom" - an acronym for Nasionalisme (Nationalism), Agama (Religion), and Komunisme (Communism) - as the three pillars of Indonesian society and government. This was an attempt to balance the main political forces: the nationalists, Islamic groups, and the increasingly influential Indonesian Communist Party (PKI).
• Foreign Policy:** Indonesia pursued a highly assertive and anti-imperialist foreign policy. Sukarno became a prominent figure in the Non-Aligned Movement, co-hosting the Bandung Conference in 1955 which brought together leaders from Asian and African nations. Relations with Western powers deteriorated, particularly with the Netherlands over the dispute over West Irian (Western New Guinea) and with Malaysia, leading to the Konfrontasi (Confrontation) from 1963 to 1966. Indonesia also withdrew from the United Nations in 1965.
• Economic Policies:** The economy suffered during this period due to political instability, nationalization of foreign assets, and costly prestige projects. Inflation soared, and living standards declined for many, impacting the general populace.
• West Irian Campaign:** A major focus was the campaign to incorporate Dutch-controlled West Irian into Indonesia. This was achieved in 1963 through diplomacy and military pressure, with the territory coming under Indonesian administration (formally integrated in 1969 after the controversial "Act of Free Choice", an event criticized for its lack of genuine self-determination for Papuans).

The Guided Democracy period was characterized by strong nationalist rhetoric and Sukarno's charismatic but increasingly autocratic leadership. While it aimed to create national unity and stability, it also led to the suppression of political dissent and a decline in democratic institutions. Human rights concerns arose due to the curtailment of civil liberties and the imprisonment of political opponents.

Tensions between the military and the PKI, the two most powerful groups supporting Sukarno, escalated throughout the early 1960s. The PKI grew rapidly, becoming one of the largest communist parties outside the Soviet Union and China, which alarmed the staunchly anti-communist military leadership and conservative elements in society.

The era culminated in the 30 September Movement (Gerakan 30 September, or G30S) in 1965, an alleged coup attempt in which six high-ranking army generals were abducted and murdered. The army, under Major General Suharto, blamed the PKI for the coup attempt and launched a brutal and systematic anti-communist purge. Hundreds of thousands to over a million alleged communists and sympathizers were killed, and many more were imprisoned without trial in one of the 20th century's worst massacres, representing a grave human rights catastrophe. This violent episode effectively destroyed the PKI and severely weakened Sukarno's position.

Suharto gradually consolidated power, and in March 1966, Sukarno was pressured into signing the Supersemar (Order of March Eleventh), which transferred significant authority to Suharto. This marked the effective end of Guided Democracy and Sukarno's rule, paving the way for Suharto's "New Order" regime.

Assessments of the Sukarno era are complex. He is revered by many as Indonesia's founding father and a champion of national independence and anti-colonialism, embodying the aspirations of a new nation. However, his leadership during Guided Democracy is also heavily criticized for its authoritarian tendencies, economic mismanagement, and the suppression of democratic processes and human rights, which ultimately contributed to the violent and tragic transition of power.

3.6.2. Suharto Era (New Order)

Following the tumultuous events of the 30 September Movement in 1965 and the subsequent anti-communist purges that resulted in immense loss of life and a climate of fear, General Suharto gradually consolidated power, effectively sidelining President Sukarno. In March 1967, Suharto was appointed acting president, and in March 1968, he was formally elected president, ushering in the "New Order" (Orde Baru) era, which lasted for over three decades until his resignation in 1998.

The New Order regime prioritized political stability and economic development, often at the expense of democratic principles and human rights. Key characteristics and developments of this era include:

• Political Authoritarianism and Stability:** Suharto established a highly centralized and authoritarian government. Political opposition was severely suppressed, and civil liberties, including freedom of speech and assembly, were heavily curtailed. The military (then known as ABRI, later TNI) played a dominant role in politics through the Dwifungsi (dual function) doctrine, which granted it a socio-political role in addition to its defense responsibilities. Golkar, a state-backed political organization, became the dominant political vehicle, consistently winning elections that were tightly controlled and lacked genuine competition or fairness.
• Economic Development:** The New Order, with the guidance of Western-trained economists (often dubbed the "Berkeley Mafia"), implemented policies focused on attracting foreign investment, promoting export-oriented industries, and agricultural development (especially rice self-sufficiency through the "Green Revolution"). Indonesia experienced significant economic growth for much of this period, leading to improvements in infrastructure, education, and healthcare, and a reduction in absolute poverty. However, this development was often uneven, benefiting urban centers and well-connected elites more than rural populations or marginalized groups, and frequently came with significant social and environmental costs.
• Social Policies and Pancasila:** The state ideology of Pancasila was heavily promoted as the sole basis for all social and political organizations, aimed at fostering national unity and suppressing ideological challenges, particularly from Islamism and communism. Religious and ethnic expressions were often controlled to maintain social harmony, sometimes at the cost of minority rights and cultural freedoms.
• Corruption, Collusion, and Nepotism (KKN):** A major criticism of the New Order was the pervasive corruption, collusion, and nepotism that enriched Suharto's family and close associates. This crony capitalism created significant economic distortions and widespread public resentment.
• Human Rights Record:** The New Order regime was responsible for egregious and systematic human rights abuses. Besides the mass killings of 1965-66 at its inception, there was systematic suppression of dissent, restrictions on freedom of speech and assembly, torture, enforced disappearances, and extrajudicial killings of activists, students, and perceived political opponents.
  • East Timor:** A particularly brutal chapter was the invasion of East Timor in 1975, following Portugal's decolonization. The subsequent 24-year occupation was marked by widespread human rights violations, including mass killings, torture, starvation as a weapon, and forced displacement, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 East Timorese, a significant portion of its population. This drew extensive international condemnation but was often met with indifference or support from Western powers prioritizing Cold War alliances.
  • Papua:** Similar concerns about severe human rights abuses, military repression, suppression of local aspirations for self-determination, and exploitation of natural resources were prevalent in Papua (then Irian Jaya).
• Foreign Policy:** Suharto reversed Sukarno's confrontational foreign policy, rejoining the UN, normalizing relations with Malaysia, and becoming a founding member of ASEAN. The New Order aligned Indonesia closely with the West, particularly the United States, during the Cold War, often overlooking its human rights record in favor of geopolitical stability and anti-communist stances.

The 1997 Asian financial crisis severely impacted Indonesia's economy, exposing the vulnerabilities of its crony capitalist system. The crisis led to soaring inflation, widespread unemployment, and a sharp decline in living standards. This economic collapse fueled massive student-led protests and social unrest. Faced with mounting pressure and loss of support from key allies, including the military, Suharto resigned from the presidency on May 21, 1998.

The Suharto era left a profoundly complex and painful legacy. While credited with achieving economic development and political stability for a period, this came at an immense cost to democratic institutions, fundamental human rights, social equity, and justice. The pervasive corruption and authoritarian practices, underpinned by violence and repression, ultimately undermined its legitimacy and led to its downfall. The transition from the New Order marked the beginning of Indonesia's "Reformasi" period, with hopes for democracy and accountability for past atrocities.

4.1. Topography and Geology

Indonesia's topography is highly varied, featuring towering volcanic mountains, extensive plains, dense rainforests, and vast coastal areas. The country is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the confluence of several major tectonic plates, including the Eurasian Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate, and the Pacific Plate. This geological setting results in frequent earthquakes and significant volcanic activity. There are around 400 volcanoes in Indonesia, of which approximately 130 are considered active. A volcanic arc stretches from Sumatra, through Java, Bali, and the Lesser Sunda Islands, then curves through the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi.

The highest peak in Indonesia is Puncak Jaya in Papua, reaching 16 K ft ^{(4.88 K m)} above sea level. Lake Toba in Sumatra, the result of a massive supervolcanic eruption around 74,000 BCE, is the largest volcanic lake in the world, covering an area of approximately 0.4 K mile^{2 (1.15 K km2)}. This prehistoric eruption is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter. Other historically significant and devastating volcanic eruptions include Mount Tambora in 1815, which led to the "Year Without a Summer" in the Northern Hemisphere and caused around 92,000 deaths, and Mount Krakatoa in 1883, whose explosion was one of the loudest sounds in recorded history and resulted in about 36,000 fatalities from the eruption and subsequent tsunamis. Recent major disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, which devastated Aceh and surrounding regions, and the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.

Volcanic ash, while sometimes making agriculture unpredictable, has also contributed to the formation of exceptionally fertile soils, particularly in Java and Bali, historically supporting high population densities. Major rivers, primarily found in Kalimantan and New Guinea, such as the Kapuas, Barito, Mamberamo, Sepik, and Mahakam, serve as vital transportation and communication routes for many inland and riverine communities.

4.2. Climate

Indonesia has a predominantly tropical climate, characterized by high temperatures and humidity throughout the year. Its equatorial position ensures relatively stable climatic conditions, with no extreme seasonal variations like summer or winter found in temperate zones. The climate is largely influenced by monsoon winds.

There are two main seasons:

• The wet season (musim hujan), typically occurring from November to April, is brought by the west monsoon originating from Asia and passing over Indonesia towards Australia. This season brings heavy rainfall, especially to the western parts of the country.
• The dry season (musim kemarau), generally from May to October, is influenced by the east monsoon, which carries drier air from Australia.

Rainfall patterns vary across the archipelago. Western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua generally receive higher precipitation. In contrast, regions closer to Australia, such as the Nusa Tenggara islands, tend to be drier. Average annual rainfall in lowland areas ranges from 0.1 K in ^{(1.78 K mm)} to 0.1 K in ^{(3.18 K mm)}, while mountainous regions can receive up to 0.2 K in ^{(6.10 K mm)}.

Temperatures are consistently warm, with coastal areas averaging around 82.4 °F ^{(28 °C)}, inland and lower mountain areas around 78.8 °F ^{(26 °C)}, and higher mountain regions around 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)}. Humidity levels are typically high, ranging from 70% to 90%. The vast warm waters surrounding Indonesia's islands play a crucial role in moderating land temperatures.

While Indonesia is not typically affected by major typhoons, strong currents in straits like the Lombok Strait and Sape Strait can pose navigational hazards. The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) influences local weather patterns, and phenomena like El Niño can significantly impact rainfall, sometimes leading to prolonged droughts and increased risk of forest fires.

4.3. Biodiversity

Indonesia is recognized by Conservation International as one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, possessing an exceptionally high level of biodiversity. This richness is attributed to its vast archipelago geography spanning two major biogeographical realms, its tropical climate, and varied ecosystems ranging from rainforests and peatlands to mangroves and coral reefs.

The country's flora and fauna represent a unique mixture of Asian (Indomalayan) and Australasian species, demarcated by the Wallace Line. This imaginary line, first described by naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, runs between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok. West of the line, species are predominantly Asian in origin, while to the east, they increasingly resemble Australasian forms. The transitional zone between the Wallace Line and Lydekker's Line (which separates the Australasian region from Wallacea more definitively) is known as Wallacea (comprising Sulawesi, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and Maluku) and is characterized by a high degree of endemism.

4.3.1. Flora and Fauna

Indonesia is home to an astonishing variety of plant and animal life. It hosts approximately 10% of the world's flowering plant species (around 25,000 species, with 55% endemic to Indonesia), 12% of the world's mammal species (around 515 species), 16% of its reptile and amphibian species, and 17% of its bird species (around 1,592 species).

Iconic and endemic fauna include:

• Mammals: Sumatran tiger, Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros (all critically endangered), Orangutan (Bornean and Sumatran species, both critically endangered), Proboscis monkey, Anoa, Babirusa, and various species of gibbons and tarsiers.
• Birds: Bali myna (critically endangered), Javan hawk-eagle (national bird), various species of Bird-of-paradise (especially in Papua), and numerous parrot and hornbill species.
• Reptiles: Komodo dragon (the world's largest lizard, found only on a few Indonesian islands), various crocodiles, snakes, and turtles.
• Fish: Indonesia lies within the Coral Triangle, an area with the world's highest marine biodiversity, hosting over 1,650 species of coral reef fish in its eastern waters alone.

Notable flora includes the Rafflesia arnoldii, which produces the world's largest individual flower, various species of pitcher plants (Nepenthes), numerous orchid species, and valuable timber trees like teak and meranti. The country's rainforests, particularly in Sumatra, Kalimantan (Borneo), and Papua, are among the most extensive in the world, although they are under severe threat. These forests, comprising a significant portion of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest, are crucial for regional ecological balance, global carbon storage, and the livelihoods of indigenous communities.

4.3.2. Environmental Issues and Conservation

Despite its rich biodiversity, Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges that have drawn international concern and impact vulnerable populations. Widespread deforestation and peatland destruction, driven primarily by logging, the expansion of palm oil plantations, agriculture, and mining since the 1970s, have led to significant habitat loss and made Indonesia one of the world's largest emitters of greenhouse gases from land-use change. Forest cover declined from an estimated 87% in 1950 to around 48-49.7% in recent years (data varies by source and year). This degradation has resulted in recurrent transboundary haze pollution affecting neighboring countries and public health, and threatens numerous endemic species. Many species are listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), such as the Bali myna, Sumatran orangutan, and Javan rhinoceros. Other significant issues include marine plastic pollution (Indonesia being a major contributor), overfishing, coral reef degradation, and water pollution from industrial and domestic waste. These environmental problems are often exacerbated by weak governance, under-resourced enforcement agencies, corruption, land conflicts affecting indigenous communities, and the prioritization of short-term economic development over environmental protection and social equity, particularly given high poverty levels in some regions. Some academics and activists have labeled activities leading to severe environmental degradation in Indonesia as forms of ecocide.

Conservation efforts are underway, although their effectiveness and commitment are often debated. As of 2023, Indonesia has designated approximately 21.3% of its land area as protected areas and aims to align its strategy with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. There are 55 national parks, covering about 9% of the country's surface, including nine that are predominantly marine parks like Bunaken National Park and Komodo National Park. Six of these sites are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, seven are part of the World Network of Biosphere reserves, and five wetlands are designated as Ramsar sites of international importance.

Marine conservation is also a priority, with over 100 marine protected areas (MPAs) established. Indonesia aims to increase its MPA coverage to 30% of its maritime area by 2045. However, studies indicate that many existing marine reserves are poorly managed and funded, lacking effective enforcement and community involvement. The government is also exploring the recognition of Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) to supplement the MPA network. Key challenges in conservation include balancing development needs with environmental protection, ensuring effective and equitable management and enforcement of protected areas, combating illegal logging and wildlife trade, respecting and involving indigenous and local communities in conservation efforts, and addressing the impacts of climate change.

5.1. Governmental Structure and System

The Indonesian government operates under a system of separation of powers.

• Executive Branch:** The President is both the head of state and head of government, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI). The President and Vice President are directly elected for a five-year term and can serve a maximum of two consecutive terms. The President appoints a cabinet of ministers. As of 2024, the current president is Prabowo Subianto, and the vice president is Gibran Rakabuming Raka.
• Legislative Branch:** The highest representative body is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR, Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat). The MPR is a bicameral legislature consisting of:
  • The People's Representative Council (DPR, Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat): With 575 members elected through a multi-member district proportional representation system, the DPR is the main legislative body responsible for law-making, budgeting, and executive oversight.
  • The Regional Representative Council (DPD, Dewan Perwakilan Daerah): With 136 members (four from each province, regardless of population), the DPD focuses on regional matters, proposing bills related to regional autonomy, central-local government relations, and resource management, and providing input on these issues to the DPR.

  The MPR's primary functions include amending the constitution, inaugurating or impeaching the president, and formalizing broad state policies.

  • Judicial Branch:** The judicial system includes several key institutions:
    • The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung): This is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals (cassation) and conducting case reviews.
    • The Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi): Established after the constitutional reforms, its main functions are to review the constitutionality of laws, adjudicate disputes between state institutions, rule on the dissolution of political parties, and decide on electoral disputes. It also has the authority to rule on presidential impeachment proceedings initiated by the DPR.
    • The Religious Courts (Pengadilan Agama): These courts handle cases related to Islamic personal law, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and endowments (waqf) for Muslim citizens.
    • The Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial): This body is responsible for nominating candidates for Supreme Court justices and for monitoring the conduct and performance of judges to uphold their honor and dignity.

    Pancasila, the state ideology, comprises five principles: Belief in the One and Only God; Just and Civilized Humanity; The Unity of Indonesia; Democracy Guided by the Inner Wisdom in the Unanimity Arising Out of Deliberations Amongst Representatives; and Social Justice for all the People of Indonesia. It is intended to be an inclusive ideology that underpins the diverse nation, though its interpretation and application have varied throughout Indonesia's history.

5.2. Political Parties and Elections

Indonesia operates under a multi-party system. Since the end of the New Order in 1998, numerous political parties have emerged, and no single party has consistently won an outright majority in legislative elections, necessitating coalition governments. Major political parties are often categorized as secular-nationalist or Islamic-based, though ideological lines can be fluid, with pragmatism and personality politics playing significant roles.

Some prominent political parties include:

• Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P, Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan): A secular-nationalist party associated with Sukarno's legacy.
• Golkar Party (Partai Golongan Karya): Formerly the state party under Suharto, now a major secular-nationalist party.
• Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra, Partai Gerakan Indonesia Raya): A nationalist party led by Prabowo Subianto.
• Nasdem Party (Partai NasDem): A nationalist party.
• National Awakening Party (PKB, Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa): An Islamic party with strong ties to Nahdlatul Ulama, Indonesia's largest Muslim organization.
• Prosperous Justice Party (PKS, Partai Keadilan Sejahtera): An Islamic party with a more conservative platform.
• National Mandate Party (PAN, Partai Amanat Nasional): An Islamic-leaning reformist party.
• Democratic Party (Partai Demokrat): A centrist nationalist party, formerly led by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.

Elections are held for the President, Vice President, members of the DPR and DPD, and for provincial and local legislatures and executives (governors, regents, mayors). Presidential elections have been direct since 2004. Legislative elections use a system of open-list proportional representation. There is a parliamentary threshold (currently 4% of the national vote) that parties must meet to gain seats in the DPR. The General Elections Commission (KPU, Komisi Pemilihan Umum) is responsible for organizing elections.

Recent electoral trends have shown vibrant, though sometimes contentious, democratic competition. Issues of democratic participation, representation, campaign finance, the influence of oligarchs, and the rise of intolerant identity politics are ongoing topics of discussion and concern for Indonesian democracy. The prevalence of cartel parties, where major parties engage in extensive power-sharing regardless of electoral outcomes, has also been noted as a feature that can limit accountability to voters. Pre-election alliances are common as parties seek to meet presidential nomination thresholds or consolidate support. The most recent general election was held in 2024.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

Indonesia is a unitary state with a decentralized administrative structure. The country is divided into several levels of administrative units:

1. **Provinces (Provinsi):** This is the first-level administrative division. As of 2022, Indonesia has 38 provinces. Each province is headed by an elected Governor (Gubernur) and has its own regional legislature (DPRD Provinsi, Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah Provinsi).
2. **Regencies (Kabupaten) and Cities (Kota):** These are the second-level administrative divisions, directly below the provincial level. Regencies are typically larger, more rural areas headed by a Regent (Bupati), while cities are urban areas headed by a Mayor (Walikota). Both regents and mayors are directly elected and have their own local legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). Regencies and cities have significant autonomy in managing local affairs since the implementation of decentralization policies in 2001.
3. **Districts (Kecamatan, or Distrik in Papua and West Papua regions):** These are subdivisions of regencies and cities, headed by an appointed civil servant known as a Camat (or Kepala Distrik).
4. **Villages (Desa) or Urban Communities (Kelurahan):** This is the lowest formal administrative level.

• Desa are rural villages with a degree of local autonomy, headed by an elected Village Head (Kepala Desa). They have their own budgets and can manage local affairs according to local customs (adat) alongside national law.
• Kelurahan are urban communities, subdivisions of districts in cities or urbanized areas of regencies. They are headed by an appointed civil servant called a Lurah.
• Other local terms for village-level units exist in specific regions, such as nagari in West Sumatra and gampong in Aceh.

Villages and urban communities are further subdivided into community groups (rukun warga, RW) and neighbourhood units (rukun tetangga, RT).

• Special Autonomous Regions:** Nine provinces have special autonomous status (otonomi khusus) granting them greater authority in certain areas:

The creation of new provinces, regencies, and cities (pemekaran) has been a feature of Indonesian administrative changes, often driven by local aspirations for greater political representation and control over resources, though it also raises concerns about administrative efficiency, potential elite capture, and its impact on environmental governance and indigenous land rights. The most recent new province, Southwest Papua, was established in 2022.

5.4. Foreign Relations

Indonesia pursues an "independent and active" (Bebas-Aktif) foreign policy, a principle first articulated by founding father Mohammad Hatta in 1948. This doctrine emphasizes Indonesia's commitment to contributing to world peace while maintaining autonomy in its foreign affairs, avoiding alignment with major power blocs or military alliances, and actively participating in the resolution of international issues. The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directions, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs responsible for its formulation and implementation, and the Parliament (DPR) providing oversight and ratifying international treaties. Indonesia is widely considered a middle power in international affairs and a key player in Southeast Asia.

ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) is a cornerstone of Indonesia's foreign policy. As a founding member and the largest country in the bloc, Indonesia has historically played a leading role in shaping ASEAN's direction and initiatives, including the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific. The ASEAN Secretariat is located in Jakarta, further underscoring Indonesia's central role in the organization.

Indonesia maintains complex relations with China. Economically, China is a major trading partner and a significant source of investment, particularly in infrastructure projects under initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative. However, this economic engagement is balanced by concerns over China's growing influence and its assertive claims in the South China Sea, parts of which (the waters around the Natuna Islands) overlap with Indonesia's exclusive economic zone. Indonesia has consistently upheld its sovereignty in these waters, sometimes leading to diplomatic tensions.

The relationship with the United States is a strategic partnership encompassing cooperation in various fields, including security (counter-terrorism, maritime security), economy, and democratic development. The US is an important partner in trade and investment, and military-to-military cooperation is significant.

Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 (with a brief withdrawal from 1965-1966 during the Konfrontasi with Malaysia). It is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), reflecting its commitment to solidarity with developing nations and the Muslim world. Indonesia is also an active member of the G20, the APEC, the East Asia Summit, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area. In 2024, Indonesia was invited to become a partner country of BRICS, and in January 2025, it formally joined as a full member, becoming the first Southeast Asian nation in the bloc.

Indonesia has consistently supported the Palestinian cause and does not have formal diplomatic relations with Israel, although discreet trade and tourism ties exist. This position reflects strong domestic public sentiment.

Regarding human rights and regional conflicts, Indonesia's stance is often guided by its bebas-aktif principle and its ASEAN commitments to non-interference, though it sometimes engages in quiet diplomacy. It has participated in UN peacekeeping missions since 1957, deploying thousands of personnel to various conflict zones globally. While Indonesia has received development aid since 1967, it established its own overseas aid program in 2019 (Indonesian AID, Lembaga Dana Kerja Sama Pembangunan Internasional - LDKPI). Indonesia's diplomatic engagements aim to balance its national interests with its regional and global responsibilities, though its own human rights record, particularly concerning issues like Papua and accountability for past abuses, sometimes draws international scrutiny and criticism from human rights organizations and victim groups.

5.5. Military

The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI, ''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'') consists of three branches: the Army (TNI-AD, ''Angkatan Darat''), the Navy (TNI-AL, ''Angkatan Laut'', which includes the [[Indonesian Marine Corps|Marine Corps'']), and the Air Force (TNI-AU, ''Angkatan Udara''). The Army is the largest branch, with around 400,000 active personnel. The TNI was established during the Indonesian National Revolution (1945-1949), initially engaging in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias. Its territorial command structure is designed to maintain domestic stability and deter external threats.

The TNI's roles include national defense, upholding state sovereignty, protecting the territorial integrity of Indonesia, and participating in national development and disaster relief efforts. It has also been involved in international peacekeeping missions in various countries, including Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Mali.

[[File:19556210774_8c9149b6.JPG|width=4928px|height=3264px|thumb|250px|The Indonesian naval vessel KRI Sultan Iskandar Muda (367), representing Indonesia's maritime capabilities.]]
[[File:19556210451_ea852310.jpg|width=960px|height=600px|thumb|left|250px|The Pindad Anoa, an Indonesian-made armored personnel carrier, showcasing domestic defense industry development.]]
Historically, the military played a significant political role under the Dwifungsi (dual function) doctrine during Suharto's New Order regime, which granted it socio-political responsibilities in addition to its defense duties. Although formal political reforms in 1998 removed the TNI's reserved seats in the legislature and aimed to separate military from politics, the military continues to wield considerable, albeit reduced, political influence, and concerns about its involvement in civilian affairs persist.

Defense spending was approximately 0.7% of GDP in 2022. The military has also been involved in commercial ventures, a practice that has faced scrutiny and calls for reform to improve transparency and professionalism.

Since independence, Indonesia has faced challenges from separatist movements and internal insurgencies, notably in Aceh and the Papua region. While the Aceh conflict was resolved peacefully through a peace agreement in 2005, the situation in Papua remains contentious. The TNI's operations in Papua have been accompanied by persistent and well-documented allegations of human rights abuses by local and international human rights organizations (such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch) and the UN Human Rights Council, including extrajudicial killings, torture, forced disappearances, and restrictions on freedom of expression. These concerns, along with the military's historical human rights record during events like the 1965-66 anti-communist purges and the invasion and occupation of East Timor (Indonesia's largest military operation, resulting in massive civilian casualties and human rights violations), continue to be subjects of domestic and international calls for accountability and justice that largely remain unheeded.

The TNI is undergoing modernization efforts to enhance its capabilities in response to evolving regional security dynamics and to protect Indonesia's extensive maritime interests.

5.6. Law Enforcement and Human Rights

Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily the responsibility of the Indonesian National Police (POLRI, Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia). POLRI is a national civilian police force responsible for maintaining law and order, preventing and investigating crime, and providing public security. It operates under the direct authority of the President. Other agencies with specific law enforcement duties also exist under various ministries or state-owned enterprises, often with supervision and training provided by POLRI. Issues of police brutality, corruption, and lack of accountability within POLRI are significant concerns for human rights.

The Indonesian judicial system is based on civil law, influenced by Dutch colonial law, customary law (adat), and national law. It includes general courts, religious courts (handling Islamic family law for Muslims), administrative courts, and military courts. The Supreme Court is the highest appellate court, while the Constitutional Court rules on constitutional matters. The independence and impartiality of the judiciary are often questioned due to corruption and political influence.

• Human Rights Situation:**

Indonesia's human rights record has seen improvements since the end of the Suharto era in 1998, with greater freedoms of speech, assembly, and the press. However, significant challenges and grave concerns persist, reflecting a critical need for the protection of individual and minority rights:

• Freedom of Expression and Assembly:** While constitutionally protected, these freedoms face serious threats. The Electronic Information and Transactions Law (ITE Law) has been widely criticized for its vague provisions on defamation and hate speech, which are frequently used to criminalize activists, journalists, ordinary citizens, and human rights defenders for online expression critical of the government or influential figures, leading to a chilling effect on free speech. Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues like indigenous rights, environmental concerns, or the situation in Papua, often face disproportionate responses from law enforcement, including restrictions on permits, excessive use of force, and arrests.
• Religious Freedom and Minority Rights:** Despite Pancasila's principle of "Belief in the One and Only God" and official recognition of six religions, religious minorities (including Ahmadi Muslims, Shia Muslims, Christians in certain areas, and followers of indigenous beliefs - aliran kepercayaan) face systemic discrimination, intolerance, and sometimes violence from extremist groups, often with inadequate protection or even complicity from state authorities. Blasphemy laws are frequently used to target minorities or dissenting religious views, undermining freedom of religion and belief. Places of worship for minority groups have faced difficulties in obtaining permits or have been targets of attacks and forced closures.
• Ethnic Minority and Indigenous Rights:** Discrimination against ethnic Chinese Indonesians has a historical legacy and occasionally resurfaces, particularly during times of social or political tension. Indigenous communities often struggle with land rights issues due to resource extraction projects (mining, logging, plantations) and infrastructure development that encroach on their ancestral lands without free, prior, and informed consent. Their customary land rights are not always adequately protected by law or in practice, leading to displacement and loss of livelihood.
• LGBTQ+ Rights:** LGBTQ+ individuals face increasing discrimination, social stigma, moral panics fueled by conservative groups and politicians, and at times, violence. There is no national legal protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Local bylaws targeting LGBTQ+ people have been passed in some regions, and anti-LGBTQ+ rhetoric from officials and conservative groups has created a hostile and dangerous environment, pushing the community further into the margins.
• Accountability for Past Abuses:** Accountability for past gross human rights violations, such as the 1965-66 anti-communist mass killings, abuses during the Suharto era (including in [[Timor-Leste|East Timor]]), and ongoing violations in conflict areas like Papua, remains largely unaddressed. Efforts to establish effective truth and reconciliation mechanisms or bring perpetrators to justice through credible judicial processes have been severely limited, leading to a deeply entrenched culture of impunity that is a major concern for human rights advocates and victims seeking justice and redress.
• Situation in Papua:** The human rights situation in the Papua region (Provinces of Papua, West Papua, Central Papua, Highland Papua, South Papua, Southwest Papua) remains a dire concern. Credible reports of extrajudicial killings, torture, arbitrary detention, and severe restrictions on freedom of expression, assembly, and movement by security forces in response to the ongoing independence movement and local grievances are frequent. Access for international journalists, human rights monitors, and humanitarian organizations to the region is often heavily restricted, hindering independent verification of abuses and humanitarian access.

The Indonesian government has established a National Human Rights Commission (Komnas HAM), but its recommendations are often not implemented, and it lacks sufficient enforcement powers. Civil society organizations and human rights defenders play a crucial, yet often perilous, role in advocating for human rights and providing legal aid to victims. The ongoing challenges highlight the urgent need for continued and genuine reforms to strengthen the rule of law, ensure accountability for all human rights violations, protect fundamental rights and freedoms of all citizens without discrimination (particularly vulnerable and marginalized groups), and bring Indonesia's legal framework and practices in line with international human rights standards and its own democratic aspirations.

6.1. Economic Structure and History

[[File:196492f5c03_4faa7ae4.JPG|width=768px|height=521px|thumb|right|250px|Palm oil plantation in Kampar Regency, Riau. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil, an industry linked to significant deforestation and social conflicts.]]
Historically, Indonesia's economy was predominantly agricultural. During the colonial era, it was geared towards the export of cash crops and raw materials for the benefit of the Dutch. Post-independence, particularly under Sukarno, a period of economic nationalism and import substitution occurred, but was marked by instability. The Suharto "New Order" regime (1966-1998) shifted towards an open economy, attracting foreign investment and focusing on export-oriented manufacturing, alongside significant investment in agriculture (notably achieving rice self-sufficiency through the Green Revolution). This period saw substantial economic growth and a reduction in absolute poverty, though it was also characterized by widespread cronyism, corruption, and growing inequality, with benefits often concentrated among elites.

The 1997 Asian financial crisis severely impacted Indonesia. The rupiah plummeted, businesses collapsed, and poverty increased sharply. This crisis exposed structural weaknesses and deep-seated corruption, contributing to Suharto's downfall. Since then, Indonesia has undergone significant economic reforms, including strengthening its banking sector, improving fiscal management, and promoting good governance, although corruption remains a persistent and serious challenge, hindering equitable development.

[[File:194def9d5f1_f411e7b6.jpg|width=4639px|height=2980px|thumb|left|250px|Morowali Industrial Park hosting primarily nickel-related industries in Morowali Regency, Central Sulawesi. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of nickel, a sector raising environmental and labor concerns.]]
Currently, the services sector is the largest contributor to GDP, followed by industry (manufacturing, mining, construction) and agriculture. In terms of employment, agriculture still employs a significant portion of the workforce, particularly in rural areas, followed by services and industry. Key export commodities include coal, palm oil, natural gas, nickel, petroleum products, rubber, and manufactured goods like textiles and electronics. Major import items include machinery, chemical products, and fuels. China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, and India are among its major trading partners.

Ongoing economic efforts focus on achieving sustainable and equitable growth. This includes policies aimed at poverty reduction, improving income distribution, strengthening labor rights, and investing in human capital (education and healthcare). There's a growing emphasis on developing downstream industries to add value to its natural resources rather than just exporting raw materials, such as in the nickel sector. The government has also prioritized infrastructure development to improve connectivity and competitiveness. However, challenges remain in ensuring that economic growth benefits all segments of society, particularly marginalized communities, and does not come at the expense of environmental sustainability, workers' rights, or indigenous land rights. Disparities in wealth and development persist between the more developed western islands like Java and Sumatra, and the less developed eastern regions like Maluku and Papua.

6.2. Science and Technology

[[File:194defa12bb_060859c0.jpg|width=2020px|height=2020px|thumb|right|250px|The Palapa B2P satellite deployment during STS-41-B mission in 1984, showcasing an early milestone in Indonesia's space program.]]
Indonesia's science and technology sector has seen development, though it faces challenges in terms of funding, research output, human resources, and fostering a strong innovation ecosystem that translates into broad societal benefits. Government spending on research and development (R&D) has been relatively low, around 0.28% of GDP in 2020. Despite this, Indonesia was ranked 54th among 133 countries in the 2024 Global Innovation Index, performing above expectations for its upper-middle-income status.

Key institutions involved in S&T include the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional), which was formed by merging several research institutions including the former Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) and the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), aiming to consolidate and strengthen national research efforts. Universities also play a role in R&D, though often with limited resources.

• Historical and Traditional Innovations:**

Indonesia has a history of indigenous technological innovations, such as sophisticated terasering (terracing) techniques for rice cultivation, particularly in Java and Bali, which demonstrate advanced local ecological knowledge. The construction of traditional pinisi sailing ships by the Bugis and Makassarese people of Sulawesi, known for their seaworthiness and used for inter-island trade for centuries, is another example.

• Aerospace and Aviation:**

Indonesia is the only country in Southeast Asia with a significant history of manufacturing aircraft. The state-owned aerospace company, Indonesian Aerospace (PT Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI), has produced various types of aircraft, including commuter planes and military transport aircraft. PTDI has also supplied components to major international manufacturers like Boeing and Airbus. A notable co-development was the CASA/IPTN CN-235 tactical transport aircraft with Spain's CASA. Former President B. J. Habibie, an aerospace engineer by training, played a crucial role in advancing Indonesia's aerospace ambitions. More recently, Indonesia has collaborated with South Korea on the KF-21 Boramae 4.5-generation fighter jet program, though this partnership has faced some challenges regarding funding and technology transfer.

• Space Program:**

Indonesia's space program, historically managed by LAPAN (now part of BRIN), has a notable history. Indonesia was the first developing country to operate its own domestic satellite system, the Palapa series, with the first satellite launched in 1976 with US assistance. These satellites have been crucial for national telecommunications and broadcasting, helping to unify the vast archipelago. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched numerous satellites for communication and other purposes. Recently, foreign satellite internet providers like Starlink have been licensed to operate in Indonesia, aiming to improve internet connectivity in rural and underserved regions, though this also raises questions about digital sovereignty and equitable access.

• Information and Communication Technology (ICT):**

The ICT sector has seen rapid growth, with increasing internet penetration and mobile phone adoption. There is a growing startup ecosystem, particularly in e-commerce, fintech, and ride-hailing services (e.g., Gojek, Grab). However, the digital divide between urban and rural areas, and between western and eastern Indonesia, remains a significant challenge.

• Challenges and Societal Benefits:**

Key challenges in Indonesia's S&T sector include:

• Underfunding:** Insufficient and inconsistent investment in R&D limits innovation capacity and sustainability.
• Human Capital:** A need for more skilled researchers, engineers, and technicians, and better alignment of education with industry needs. Brain drain is also a concern.
• Commercialization of Research:** Difficulties in translating research findings into commercial products and services that benefit the broader economy and society.
• Infrastructure:** Uneven distribution of S&T infrastructure, including internet access and research facilities, across the archipelago.
• Coordination and Governance:** Improving coordination between government research institutions, universities, and the private sector, and ensuring transparent and accountable governance of S&T initiatives.

From a social liberal perspective, fostering S&T development should aim not only for economic growth but also for tangible societal benefits. This includes improving public services (healthcare, education), addressing environmental challenges (renewable energy, climate change adaptation, sustainable agriculture), enhancing disaster preparedness, promoting inclusive development that reaches marginalized communities, and ensuring that technological advancements contribute to social equity, protect individual rights (e.g., data privacy), and empower citizens rather than exacerbating inequalities.

6.3. Infrastructure

Indonesia's infrastructure development is a critical component of its economic growth strategy and efforts to improve connectivity across its vast archipelago. However, the nation faces significant challenges in upgrading and expanding its infrastructure to meet the demands of a large and growing population, to reduce logistical costs which hinder competitiveness, and to ensure equitable access for all citizens. The socio-economic and environmental implications of infrastructure projects are also important considerations, particularly regarding land acquisition, displacement of communities, and ecological impacts.

7.1. Population

[[File:194defa4893_947a2ec8.svg|width=1600px|height=639px|thumb|right|upright=1.2|A map of districts (kecamatan) colored by population density as measured by persons per square kilometer, illustrating the high concentration on Java.]]
According to the 2020 census, Indonesia's population was 270.2 million people. The population was estimated at over 280 million in 2023. The country has a moderately high population growth rate, recorded at 1.25% per annum between 2010 and 2020. Projections suggest the population could reach around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050.

The population distribution across the archipelago is highly uneven. Java is the world's most populous island, home to approximately 56% of Indonesia's total population (about 151.6 million people in 2020), despite accounting for only about 7% of the country's land area. This makes Java one of the most densely populated large islands globally, with a population density exceeding {{cvt|1171|/km2}}. In contrast, vast areas in islands like Kalimantan (Borneo), Sulawesi, and Papua are sparsely populated. The national average population density is around {{cvt|141|/km2}}.

Indonesia has a relatively young population, with a median age of around 31.5 years (2024 estimate), which presents a "demographic bonus" - a period where the working-age population is larger than the dependent population (children and elderly). This can be an engine for economic growth if the workforce is well-educated, healthy, and has access to decent employment opportunities.

Urbanization is a significant trend. As of 2022, about 58% of the population lived in urban areas. Jakarta, the capital, is a megacity and the center of the Greater Jakarta metropolitan area, which is one of the largest urban agglomerations in the world with over 34 million residents. Other major urban centers include Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang. Rapid urbanization presents challenges such as housing shortages, inadequate public services, traffic congestion, pollution, and increased social inequality.

Approximately 8 million Indonesians live overseas, with significant diaspora communities in countries like Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the United States, and Australia. Historically, the government implemented a transmigration program to move people from densely populated Java to less populated islands, a policy that had mixed results and sometimes led to social conflicts, land disputes with indigenous communities, and environmental degradation.

7.2. Ethnic Groups and Languages

[[File:194da0c52fd_20d2a0ac.svg|width=512px|height=215px|thumb|upright=1.2|A map illustrating the general distribution of major ethnic groups in Indonesia, highlighting the nation's diversity.]]
Indonesia is a nation of remarkable ethnic and linguistic diversity, with around 600 to over 1,300 distinct native ethnic groups recognized, depending on the classification. The national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" (Unity in Diversity), reflects this rich multicultural fabric, though achieving genuine unity and equality for all groups remains an ongoing challenge.

• Ethnic Groups:**

The majority of Indonesians are of Austronesian descent, whose ancestors are believed to have migrated from Taiwan thousands of years ago. Another significant indigenous group is the Melanesians, who primarily inhabit eastern Indonesia, particularly Papua.

• The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, making up about 40-42% of the population. They are historically politically and culturally dominant, residing mainly in Central and East Java, with significant populations in other provinces due to historical migrations and the transmigration program, which sometimes led to tensions with local populations.
• Other major ethnic groups include the Sundanese (from West Java, around 15%), Malays (various regions, around 3.8%), Batak (from North Sumatra, around 3.6%), Madurese (from Madura island and East Java, around 3%), Betawi (native to Jakarta, around 2.9%), Minangkabau (from West Sumatra, around 2.7%), and Bugis (from South Sulawesi, around 2.7%).
• There are also smaller but significant populations of ethnic Chinese (around 1.3%), Arabs, and Indians, mostly concentrated in urban areas. Ethnic Chinese have historically played a prominent role in commerce but have also faced periods of severe discrimination and violence, particularly during political upheavals.

The concept of Pribumi (native Indonesian) has been historically used, sometimes to distinguish indigenous populations from those of foreign descent, particularly Chinese Indonesians. This distinction has often been a source of social and political tension. While the use of "pribumi" and "non-pribumi" in official contexts was discouraged after 1998 to promote national unity, underlying social prejudices and discriminatory practices persist. From a social liberal perspective, ensuring the rights, cultural preservation, and equal opportunities for all ethnic groups, including smaller indigenous communities and minorities who often face marginalization, is crucial. This includes addressing issues of land rights, access to resources, political representation, and protection from discrimination and violence.

• Languages:**

[[File:196492f6055_e2d0141d.jpg|width=1600px|height=1200px|thumb|right|250px|The main building of the Language Development and Fostering Agency (Badan Bahasa) in Jakarta, responsible for language policy and research in Indonesia.]]
Indonesia is one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world, with over 700 living local languages and dialects spoken.

• Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)** is the sole official national language. It is a standardized register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has served as a lingua franca in the archipelago for centuries. Promoted by nationalists in the 1920s (as part of the Youth Pledge) and formalized upon independence, Bahasa Indonesia is used in education, government, media, and business, and is spoken by nearly all Indonesians, facilitating inter-ethnic communication and national identity. Its vocabulary has absorbed influences from Sanskrit, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese, English, and various local languages.
• Regional Languages (Bahasa Daerah):** Most Indonesians are bilingual or multilingual, speaking Bahasa Indonesia alongside their local ethnic language, which is often their first language and integral to their cultural identity. The most widely spoken regional language is Javanese, followed by Sundanese, Madurese, Minangkabau, Buginese, Balinese, and Batak languages. Many regional languages have rich oral traditions and literature.

7.3. Religion

Indonesia is constitutionally a secular state, yet religion plays a significant and often complex role in public life and politics. The first principle of the state ideology, Pancasila, is "Belief in the One and Only God" (Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa). The constitution guarantees freedom of religion, but in practice, this freedom is often circumscribed, particularly for religious minorities and those outside the officially recognized faiths. The government officially recognizes six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Adherents of these religions are generally required to state their religious affiliation on official documents like identity cards, although since a 2017 Constitutional Court ruling, followers of indigenous faiths (aliran kepercayaan) can have their beliefs recognized on ID cards, a step towards greater inclusivity but challenges in implementation remain.
[[File:196492f67e0_2b7f61b6.jpg|width=3098px|height=1908px|thumb|right|300px|Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta, the national mosque and largest mosque in Southeast Asia, standing opposite the Jakarta Cathedral, often symbolizing interfaith coexistence despite underlying tensions.]]
[[File:194da6e70f0_24636800.jpg|width=5846px|height=3897px|thumb|left|220px|Buddhist monks performing the Pradakshina ritual at Borobudur temple, Central Java, a major Buddhist monument and UNESCO World Heritage site.]]

• Islam:** Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority country. According to the 2018 census, approximately 86.7% of Indonesians identified as Muslim (around 231 million people). The vast majority are Sunni Muslims, primarily following the Shafiʽi school of jurisprudence. Shia (1-3 million) and Ahmadiyya (200,000-400,000) communities exist but face significant discrimination, intolerance, and sometimes violent persecution, with Ahmadiyya often officially and unofficially considered heretical by mainstream Islamic groups and subject to discriminatory decrees.
• Christianity:** Christians constitute the second-largest religious group, around 10.72% of the population (approximately 28.6 million). This includes Protestants (about 7.6%) and Roman Catholics (about 3.12%). Christian communities are significant in several regions, particularly in eastern Indonesia (e.g., North Sulawesi, Maluku, East Nusa Tenggara, Papua) and among certain ethnic groups like the Batak and Toraja. They too face challenges, including difficulties in building churches and occasional targeted violence.
• Hinduism:** Hindus make up about 1.74% of the population. The majority of Indonesian Hindus are Balinese and practice a distinct form known as Balinese Hinduism, which incorporates local animist beliefs. There are also Indian Hindu communities.
• Buddhism:** Buddhists account for about 0.77% of the population, primarily among the ethnic Chinese community, although some indigenous Javanese also practice Buddhism.
• Confucianism:** Officially recognized as a religion in 2000 after being suppressed during the New Order era (when its adherents were often forced to register under other religions), Confucianism is practiced mainly by some ethnic Chinese, accounting for about 0.03%.
• Indigenous Beliefs (Aliran Kepercayaan):** Various indigenous and animist beliefs predate the arrival of world religions and continue to be practiced by many communities, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn, and Dayak Kaharingan. These beliefs often involve reverence for ancestral spirits and natural forces and have influenced the syncretic forms of the major religions practiced in Indonesia. Around 0.04% officially identify with these beliefs, though the actual number of practitioners or those whose practices are influenced by them may be significantly higher. Their struggle for full equal rights and recognition continues.

[[File:1950fc8528e_ef59eaf3.jpg|width=5760px|height=3840px|thumb|right|250px|A Hindu prayer ceremony at Pura Besakih in Bali, the "Mother Temple" of Balinese Hinduism, the predominant religion on the island.]]
[[File:196492f709c_12c5b06c.jpg|width=2908px|height=4362px|thumb|left|250px|Jakarta Cathedral, a prominent Catholic church located in the heart of Jakarta, near Istiqlal Mosque.]]
[[File:194defae9d5_5464d523.jpg|width=4703px|height=3135px|thumb|right|250px|The Semana Santa festival in Larantuka, East Nusa Tenggara, a Catholic ritual during Holy Week reflecting Portuguese colonial influence.]]

• Interfaith Relations and Challenges:**

While Pancasila promotes religious tolerance, and interfaith relations are often described as generally harmonious at the societal level, significant challenges to religious freedom and pluralism exist. Religious intolerance, discrimination, and occasional violence against religious minorities are recurring and serious issues. Conservative and hardline Islamic groups have gained influence in recent years, advocating for stricter adherence to Islamic law in public life and sometimes targeting minority groups or those perceived as deviating from mainstream Islamic teachings. Blasphemy laws have been widely criticized by human rights organizations as being vaguely worded and disproportionately used to persecute religious minorities, dissenters, and even those expressing non-mainstream interpretations within Islam. Issues related to the construction of places of worship for minority religions (often facing obstruction and violent protests) and forced conversions also arise.

From a social liberal perspective, ensuring genuine freedom of religion and belief for all citizens, protecting minority rights from discrimination and violence, repealing or substantially reforming discriminatory laws (like blasphemy laws and decrees targeting specific groups), and actively fostering a truly pluralistic, inclusive, and tolerant society are critical ongoing tasks for Indonesian democracy. This requires strong political will to uphold constitutional guarantees and international human rights standards for everyone, regardless of their faith or belief.

7.4. Education

[[File:194defaf482_e7ea87df.jpg|width=4208px|height=2368px|thumb|250px|The University of Indonesia rectorate building in Depok, one of Indonesia's top and oldest universities.]]
Indonesia's education system is one of the largest in the world, catering to over 50 million students with approximately 4 million teachers across more than 250,000 schools. The system is primarily overseen by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology, with Islamic schools (madrasah) also falling under the purview of the Ministry of Religious Affairs. The government allocates a significant portion of the national budget to education (around 20% mandated by the constitution, though actual spending as a percentage of GDP was about 3.6% in 2022, and effective utilization of these funds is often questioned).

The education structure generally follows a 6-3-3-4 pattern:

• Six years of elementary school (Sekolah Dasar, SD)
• Three years of junior secondary school (Sekolah Menengah Pertama, SMP)
• Three years of senior secondary school (Sekolah Menengah Atas, SMA for general academics, or Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan, SMK for vocational training)
• Higher education (universities, institutes, academies, polytechnics), typically four years for a bachelor's degree.

• Enrollment and Literacy:**

Indonesia has achieved near-universal enrollment in primary education (around 97.9%). Literacy rates are high, estimated at around 96% for the adult population. However, enrollment rates tend to drop significantly at higher levels: 81.7% for lower secondary, 64.2% for upper secondary, and substantially lower for tertiary education (around 42.6%). Dropout rates, particularly among poorer communities and in remote areas, are also a concern.

• Higher Education:**

As of 2022, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in Indonesia. Prominent universities include the University of Indonesia (UI) in Depok/Jakarta, Gadjah Mada University (UGM) in Yogyakarta, and the Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) in Bandung. These institutions are consistently ranked among the top universities in the country and are striving for greater international recognition.

• Challenges and Equity Issues:**

Despite progress in expanding access, the Indonesian education system faces several critical challenges that impact quality and equity:

• Quality:** Concerns about the overall quality of education persist, reflected in Indonesian students' relatively low performance in international assessments like the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in reading, mathematics, and science. Teacher quality and training, outdated curriculum content, rote learning methods, and lack of critical thinking skills development are areas needing urgent and substantial improvement.
• Equity and Access:** Significant disparities exist in access to quality education between urban and rural areas, between western and eastern Indonesia, and between different socio-economic groups. Children from low-income families, remote areas, and marginalized groups (including those with disabilities and from indigenous communities) often face greater barriers to accessing, remaining in, and benefiting from quality education.
• Infrastructure:** Inadequate and poorly maintained school infrastructure, including buildings, libraries, laboratories, sanitation facilities, and learning materials, is a widespread problem, particularly in less affluent and remote regions.
• Teacher Development and Welfare:** Shortages of qualified and well-trained teachers, particularly in specialized subjects and in remote or disadvantaged areas, are ongoing issues. Teacher welfare, including salaries and professional development opportunities, often remains inadequate, impacting motivation and performance.
• Curriculum:** Curriculum reforms have been frequently implemented, aiming to make education more relevant and to incorporate values such as Pancasila and character education. However, ensuring that the curriculum is inclusive, promotes critical thinking, tolerance, respect for diversity, and prepares students for the demands of the 21st century remains a significant challenge. There are also concerns about the increasing influence of conservative religious ideologies in some parts of the education system, potentially undermining pluralism.
• Higher Education Challenges:** The higher education sector struggles with issues like underfunding for research and development, low research output and impact, a mismatch between graduates' skills and labor market demands, and challenges in ensuring academic freedom and critical inquiry.

From a social liberal perspective, addressing these challenges requires a strong and sustained commitment to improving the quality of education for all, ensuring equitable access and opportunities (particularly for rural, poor, and marginalized communities), investing significantly in teacher training, welfare, and infrastructure, and developing and implementing a curriculum that promotes critical thinking, creativity, tolerance, human rights, and respect for diversity. Efforts to make education more inclusive, child-friendly, and responsive to the needs of all learners are crucial for Indonesia's social, democratic, and economic development.

7.5. Healthcare

[[File:194defaf9b7_6d1307b8.jpg|width=2076px|height=1734px|thumb|250px|Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital in Jakarta, a major national referral hospital and teaching facility.]]
Indonesia's healthcare system has made significant strides since independence in areas like life expectancy and child mortality, but it continues to face substantial challenges in providing equitable, accessible, affordable, and quality healthcare to its large and geographically dispersed population. Government spending on healthcare was approximately 3.71% of GDP in 2021, which is relatively low compared to many other countries and often insufficient to meet the population's needs.

• System Structure:**

Healthcare services are delivered through a mix of public and private providers.

• Public Sector:** The public healthcare system includes community health centers (Puskesmas), which are intended to provide primary healthcare services, particularly in rural and remote areas, though their quality and resourcing vary greatly. There are also public hospitals at the district, provincial, and national levels.
• Private Sector:** The private sector includes hospitals, clinics, and individual practitioners, playing an increasingly important role, especially in urban areas and for those who can afford it. This can lead to a two-tiered system where quality of care is linked to ability to pay.
• Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN):** In 2014, Indonesia launched a universal health coverage scheme called JKN (National Health Insurance), managed by the Social Security Agency for Health (Badan Penyelenggara Jaminan Sosial Kesehatan). JKN aims to provide health insurance to all citizens and is one of the largest single-payer healthcare systems in the world, covering over 83% of the population (225.9 million people) by 2021. While JKN has significantly expanded access to care for many, it faces challenges regarding financial sustainability, adequacy of its benefit package, quality of services provided by contracted facilities, and administrative hurdles for users.

• Progress and Achievements:**
  • Increased Life Expectancy:** Life expectancy at birth has significantly increased, from around 54.9 years in 1973 to approximately 71.1 years in 2023.
  • Reduced Child Mortality:** Child mortality rates have declined substantially, from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022.
  • Disease Control:** Progress has been made in controlling infectious diseases, including the eradication of polio in 2014 and decreasing cases of malaria. Immunization programs, often supported by international organizations like the WHO, have been implemented since the 1970s and 1980s.
  • Ongoing Challenges:**
    • Equity and Access:** Significant disparities in access to healthcare services and health outcomes persist between urban and rural areas, between western and eastern Indonesia, and across different socio-economic groups. Remote and vulnerable populations, including indigenous communities, often face severe difficulties in reaching health facilities and affording care, even with JKN, due to geographical barriers, transportation costs, and lack of culturally appropriate services.
    • Quality of Care:** The quality of healthcare services can vary widely. Shortages of qualified medical personnel (doctors, nurses, specialists), particularly in underserved and remote areas, are a major issue. Inadequate training, poor working conditions, and low remuneration for health workers also impact quality.
    • Infrastructure and Resources:** Inadequate healthcare infrastructure, including hospitals, clinics, medical equipment, essential medicines, and reliable supply chains, remains a challenge, especially outside major urban centers.
    • JKN Sustainability and Effectiveness:** While JKN has expanded coverage, its financial sustainability, the adequacy of its benefit package (with many out-of-pocket expenses remaining), provider payment mechanisms, and overall efficiency are ongoing concerns.
    • Public Health Issues:**
      • Child stunting remains a significant problem, affecting around 21.6% of children under five in 2022, with long-term consequences for health and development.
      • Maternal mortality rates are still relatively high compared to other countries in the region, indicating gaps in maternal and reproductive health services.
      • Air pollution, particularly in major cities from traffic and industry, and from forest and peatland fires, contributes to a high burden of respiratory illnesses and other health problems.
      • High smoking rates (around 34.8% of adults, one of the highest globally) contribute to a rising burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like cardiovascular disease, cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases, which are now leading causes of death.
    • Healthcare Workforce:** Indonesia faces a shortage and severe maldistribution of healthcare professionals. Many doctors and specialists are concentrated in urban areas on Java, leaving rural and remote areas critically underserved.

    From a social liberal perspective, a key priority for Indonesia's healthcare system is to ensure universal access to affordable, comprehensive, and quality healthcare for all citizens as a fundamental human right, regardless of their socio-economic status or geographic location. This requires sustained and increased investment in public health infrastructure (especially primary care), strengthening primary healthcare services, addressing the shortage and maldistribution of healthcare workers through better incentives and support, improving the quality, equity, and efficiency of the JKN scheme, and tackling major public health challenges through robust preventive measures, health education, and effective interventions, especially for vulnerable and marginalized populations.

8.1. Arts and Architecture

[[File:1953e36173b_d298265c.jpg|width=7800px|height=4357px|thumb|right|250px|Six Horsemen Chasing Deer (1860) by Raden Saleh, a pioneering Indonesian romantic painter who blended European techniques with local themes.]]
[[File:19556211a39_31fb7cbb.jpg|width=2000px|height=1333px|thumb|left|250px|Tongkonan, traditional Torajan vernacular houses in South Sulawesi, known for their distinctive boat-shaped roofs and intricate carvings.]]
Indonesian arts encompass a wide array of traditional and contemporary forms, deeply influenced by its history of cultural exchange.

• Visual Arts:**
  • Traditional forms include Wayang kulit (shadow puppetry), which often depicts stories from Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, serving as both entertainment and moral instruction.
  • Batik is a renowned textile art involving wax-resist dyeing, with intricate patterns varying by region (e.g., Yogyakarta, Solo, Pekalongan). It is a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage and a symbol of Indonesian identity.
  • Ikat (tie-dye weaving) and Songket (brocade weaving with gold or silver threads) are other important textile traditions, each with regional variations and cultural significance.
  • Painting traditions range from classical Kamasan style in Bali (often depicting epic narratives) to modern and contemporary art movements. Raden Saleh is considered a pioneer of modern Indonesian painting.
  • Sculpture has a long history, from megalithic works in Nias and Sumba to the sophisticated stone carvings of ancient Hindu-Buddhist temples. Wood carving is also prominent in many regions, such as Bali and Asmat (Papua), often imbued with spiritual meaning.
• Architecture:**
  • Rumah adat (traditional vernacular houses) showcase incredible diversity, reflecting local materials, climate, and cultural beliefs. Examples include the Tongkonan of the Toraja people (boat-shaped roofs), the Rumah Gadang of the Minangkabau (buffalo-horn shaped roofs), the Javanese Pendopo (open pavilions), and Dayak longhouses.
  • Candi refers to ancient temple architecture, predominantly Hindu or Buddhist, from the classical period (e.g., 8th-15th centuries). Masterpieces include the massive Buddhist stupa of Borobudur and the towering Hindu temple complex of Prambanan, both UNESCO World Heritage sites in Central Java.
  • Mosque architecture varies regionally, often incorporating local styles with Islamic elements, such as tiered roofs resembling pre-Islamic pagodas in Java, reflecting a syncretic cultural history.
  • Colonial architecture, primarily Dutch, is evident in many cities like Jakarta (Kota Tua), Semarang, and Bandung, featuring styles like Indies Empire and Art Deco.
  • Modern and contemporary architecture is also developing, reflecting global trends while sometimes incorporating local design philosophies and materials. The Gedung Sate in Bandung is an example of early 20th-century architecture blending Sundanese and European styles. The Pagaruyung Palace is a reconstruction of a traditional Minangkabau royal palace.

  [[File:19556212075_ddaddbe6.jpg|width=6638px|height=4425px|thumb|right|250px|Gedung Sate building in Bandung, West Java, an example of early 20th-century architecture blending Sundanese art deco and European styles.]]
  [[File:19502c83d75_7df8a54b.jpg|width=3162px|height=2080px|thumb|left|250px|Pagaruyung Palace, a modern reconstruction of a traditional Minangkabau royal palace in West Sumatra, showcasing distinctive vernacular architecture.]]
  
  Indonesian art and architecture are not static; they continue to evolve, with contemporary artists and architects drawing inspiration from rich traditions while engaging with global trends and social commentary.

8.2. Music and Dance

[[File:194da6c2dc9_19ffa849.JPG|width=1134px|height=864px|thumb|left|200px|A gamelan player performing on a metallophone. Gamelan ensembles are central to Javanese and Balinese cultural traditions.]]
[[File:194da3340ad_2f7efa81.jpg|width=905px|height=981px|thumb|right|200px|An Angklung ensemble. The angklung is a bamboo musical instrument from West Java, recognized by UNESCO.]]
Indonesian music and dance are extraordinarily diverse, reflecting the country's multicultural heritage. Each region and ethnic group often has its own distinct musical and dance traditions, which have evolved over centuries through indigenous creativity and influences from India, China, the Middle East, and Europe.

• Music:**
  • Gamelan**: Perhaps the most internationally renowned Indonesian musical form, gamelan is a traditional ensemble music predominantly from Java and Bali. It features a variety of metallophones, xylophones, drums (kendang), and gongs. Gamelan music is integral to religious ceremonies, court functions, theatrical performances (like wayang kulit), and dances.
  • Angklung**: A traditional musical instrument from West Java made of bamboo tubes tuned to different notes, played by shaking. It is often performed by ensembles and is recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage.
  • Sasando**: A stringed instrument from East Nusa Tenggara, made from bamboo with strings stretched over a resonating body.
  • Kolintang**: A wooden xylophone-like instrument from North Sulawesi.
  • Indigenous Music:** Many indigenous tribes have unique musical traditions using chants, drums, flutes, and other locally crafted instruments, often linked to rituals and storytelling.
  • Influenced Genres:**
    • Keroncong: Originating from Portuguese influences in the 16th century, keroncong features stringed instruments (ukulele, cello, guitar, violin) and vocals, often with a nostalgic and melancholic feel.
    • Gambus and Qasidah: Musical styles with Middle Eastern (Arabic) influences, often featuring Islamic themes, using instruments like the oud (gambus) and frame drums.
    • Dangdut: A highly popular modern Indonesian music genre that emerged in the 1970s. It blends elements of Hindustani (Indian), Malay, and Arabic music, characterized by a distinctive tabla-like drum beat and often accompanied by a specific style of dance.
  • Contemporary Popular Music:** Indonesia has a vibrant popular music scene, with genres like pop, rock, jazz, and hip-hop. Indonesian pop music (often called "Pop Indo") enjoys regional popularity in countries like Malaysia and Brunei due to linguistic and cultural similarities.

  [[File:194dfba4cf5_4e5787e2.jpg|width=1280px|height=853px|thumb|left|200px|Balinese Pendet dance, often performed as a welcoming dance in religious ceremonies and other events.]]
  [[File:195562123b0_6c53086c.jpg|width=2268px|height=1600px|thumb|right|200px|Sundanese Jaipongan Mojang Priangan dance, a dynamic and popular traditional dance from West Java.]]

  • Dance:**

  Indonesia boasts over 3,000 traditional dances, many originating from rituals, religious worship, courtly traditions, or folk expressions.

  • Balinese Dances:** Highly expressive and intricate, often depicting stories from Hindu epics. Famous examples include Legong, Baris, Kecak (the "monkey chant" dance), and Pendet.
  • Javanese Dances:** Known for their grace and refinement, often associated with royal courts (kraton). Examples include Bedhaya, Serimpi, and dances from the Wayang Wong tradition.
  • Saman Dance (Aceh):** A fast-paced, rhythmic dance performed by a group of men sitting or kneeling, characterized by synchronized hand clapping, chest slapping, and body movements. It is a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.
  • Poco-poco**: A popular line dance with simple steps, often performed at social gatherings.
  • Jaipongan (West Java):** A dynamic and sensual social dance that emerged in the 1970s, drawing from traditional Sundanese forms.
  • Regional Dances:** Numerous other dances exist across the archipelago, such as Dayak war dances, Minangkabau plate dances (Tari Piring), and Torajan ritual dances.

  Modern and urban dance forms, influenced by Western, Japanese, and South Korean popular culture, are also gaining popularity, especially among younger generations. However, traditional music and dance remain vital parts of Indonesian cultural identity and are actively preserved and performed.

8.3. Traditional Clothing

[[File:195562126f0_c6ee9382.jpg|width=501px|height=768px|thumb|right|upright|An Indonesian batik cloth, showcasing intricate patterns created through wax-resist dyeing. Batik is a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.]]
Traditional Indonesian clothing is diverse and reflects the country's rich cultural tapestry and varied ethnic groups. While Western-style clothing is common for daily wear, traditional attire holds significant cultural importance and is frequently worn for ceremonies, formal events, religious occasions, and as a symbol of national or regional identity.

• Batik**: Perhaps the most iconic Indonesian textile, batik is an art form and cloth traditionally made in Java, involving a wax-resist dyeing technique to create intricate patterns. Each region has its own distinctive batik motifs and colors. Batik shirts (for men) and dresses or sarongs (for women) are widely worn, and batik is recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage.
• Kebaya**: A traditional blouse-dress combination worn by women, particularly in Java, Sunda, and Bali. It typically consists of an often sheer, fitted blouse made from materials like silk, cotton, or brocade, worn over a sarong or batik cloth. The style of kebaya varies by region and occasion, from simple daily wear to elaborate ceremonial attire. It is considered a national costume for Indonesian women.
• Sarong**: A large tube or length of fabric, often wrapped around the waist and worn by both men and women throughout Southeast Asia, including Indonesia. Batik, ikat, or songket sarongs are common.
• Songket**: A luxurious hand-woven textile, typically made of silk or cotton, intricately patterned with gold or silver threads. It is prominent in regions like Sumatra (especially Minangkabau and Palembang) and Bali, and is worn for important ceremonies and formal events.
• Ikat**: A dyeing technique used to pattern textiles that employs resist dyeing on the yarns prior to dyeing and weaving the fabric. Ikat textiles are found in many parts of Indonesia, particularly in Nusa Tenggara (e.g., Sumba, Flores, Timor) and Bali, with each region having its unique motifs.
• Ulos**: A traditionally hand-woven cotton textile from the Batak region of North Sumatra. Ulos has deep cultural significance and is used in rituals, ceremonies, and as gifts.
• Peci / Songkok**: A cap, typically black and made of velvet or felt, worn by Muslim men in Indonesia, often for religious occasions or as part of formal national attire.
• Regional Attire**: Beyond these well-known items, each of Indonesia's many ethnic groups has its own unique traditional clothing, headdresses, and accessories, often made from local materials and reflecting local customs and beliefs. Examples include the Baju Bodo of the Bugis-Makassar people in South Sulawesi or the Koteka (penis gourd) traditionally worn by men in some highland Papuan tribes.

Traditional clothing is not just a matter of attire but is deeply embedded in Indonesian cultural identity, social customs, and artistic expression.

8.4. Theatre and Cinema

[[File:194defb0056_4278e7d5.jpg|width=2268px|height=1261px|thumb|left|250px|The Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the Wayang Wong (human puppet) performance, a classical Javanese dance drama.]]
Indonesian theatre and cinema reflect the nation's diverse cultural heritage and its evolving social and political landscape, offering both traditional and contemporary forms of storytelling and entertainment.

• Traditional Theatre:**

Traditional Indonesian theatre is rich and varied, often incorporating music, dance, and storytelling.

• Wayang**: This is a broad term for traditional Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese puppet theatre.
  • Wayang kulit (shadow puppetry) is perhaps the most famous form, using intricately carved leather puppets to enact stories, usually from Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, accompanied by a gamelan orchestra. It is a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.
  • Wayang golek (wooden rod puppetry) is prominent in West Java.
  • Wayang wong (human puppet theatre) involves live actors performing the same epic stories with elaborate costumes and dance.
• Other Traditional Drama Forms:**
  • Ludruk and Ketoprak (East and Central Java): Folk theatre forms, often comedic, depicting stories from daily life or history, with music and dance.
  • Lenong (Betawi/Jakarta): A traditional Betawi folk theatre, often with humorous and improvisational elements.
  • Randai (Minangkabau, West Sumatra): A unique folk theatre tradition that combines music, song, dance, drama, and silat (martial arts), typically performing semi-historical legends and stories during traditional ceremonies.
  • Balinese dance dramas: Various forms like Gambuh, Topeng, and Arja that combine dance, music, and dramatic narratives.

  Modern theatre also exists, with groups like Teater Koma being well-known for productions that often address social and political themes through satire and contemporary staging.

  • Cinema:**

  [[File:194defb04d4_e59a7949.jpg|width=1592px|height=2040px|thumb|right|upright|Advertisement for Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), considered the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies.]]
  The history of Indonesian cinema dates back to the Dutch colonial era.

  • Early Films:** The first domestically produced fiction film was Loetoeng Kasaroeng (The Enchanted Lutung), a silent film released in 1926, directed by Dutch filmmakers L. Heuveldorp and G. Kruger. Early cinema was largely influenced by Dutch and ethnic Chinese production.
  • Post-Independence and the "Father of Indonesian Film":** After independence, Usmar Ismail emerged as a pioneering figure, often called the "Father of Indonesian Film." His film Darah dan Doa (The Long March, 1950) is considered a landmark. The film industry grew, producing 58 films in 1955 compared to 6 in 1949.
  • Sukarno and Suharto Eras:** During the later Sukarno era (Guided Democracy), films were sometimes used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment. Under Suharto's New Order (1966-1998), the film industry experienced periods of growth but also faced significant censorship aimed at maintaining social order and state ideology. Popular genres included historical epics, comedies (like the Warkop films), and horror films (e.g., the original Pengabdi Setan, 1980). Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) was a critically acclaimed historical drama. The industry saw a decline in the 1990s.
  • Reformasi Era and Resurgence:** The fall of Suharto in 1998 brought greater freedom of expression, leading to a resurgence in Indonesian cinema. Independent filmmakers began to explore previously censored or sensitive themes such as religion, ethnicity, sexuality, and social criticism. Notable films from this period include Petualangan Sherina (Sherina's Adventure, 2000), Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (What's Up with Love?, 2002), and Laskar Pelangi (The Rainbow Troops, 2008), which were commercially successful and critically acclaimed.
  • Contemporary Cinema:** Indonesian cinema continues to grow, with increasing production values and diverse genres. Horror films remain popular, with recent successes like KKN di Desa Penari (KKN in the Dancer's Village, 2022), which became one of the highest-grossing Indonesian films of all time. The industry is also gaining more international recognition.
  • Film Festivals:** The Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia, FFI), which awards the prestigious Citra Award, has been held intermittently since 1955 and is the country's premier film awards ceremony.

  Indonesian cinema plays a role in reflecting societal changes, offering social commentary, and expressing the nation's diverse cultural identities.

8.5. Mass Media and Literature

The landscape of mass media and literature in Indonesia has been significantly shaped by its political history, transitioning from periods of tight control to greater freedom, particularly after the fall of Suharto's New Order regime in 1998.

• Mass Media:**
  • Historical Context:** During the Dutch colonial era and much of the Sukarno and Suharto eras, media was subject to varying degrees of government control and censorship. Under Suharto, the Ministry of Information wielded significant power over licensing and content, often suppressing critical voices.
  • Post-Reformasi Freedom:** The Reformasi era brought substantial improvements in media freedom. Restrictions were lifted, new media outlets proliferated, and journalistic practices became more open and critical.
  • Television:** The state-owned TVRI (Televisi Republik Indonesia) was the sole television broadcaster from 1962 until 1989 when private television networks were allowed. Today, there are numerous national and local private television channels, alongside TVRI. By the 21st century, television signals reached most villages.
  • Radio:** Similar to television, the state-owned Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI) now competes with a multitude of private radio stations offering news, music, and entertainment. Community radio also plays a role in some areas.
  • Print Media:** Newspapers, magazines, and tabloids expanded significantly after 1998, with diverse viewpoints and increased investigative journalism. Major national newspapers include Kompas, Republika, and The Jakarta Post (English language). However, the print media sector has faced challenges from the rise of digital media.
  • Digital Media and Internet:** Internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercial ISP (PT. Indo Internet) starting in 1994. Internet penetration has grown rapidly. By 2018, there were an estimated 171 million internet users, and this number continued to rise, reaching around 210 million by 2022 (about 77% of the population). Online news portals, blogs, and social media platforms have become major sources of information and platforms for public discourse. Mobile internet access via smartphones is predominant.
  • Challenges to Press Freedom:** Despite overall improvements, significant challenges to press freedom and freedom of expression remain. The Electronic Information and Transactions Law (ITE Law) has been widely criticized for its vague defamation and "hate speech" provisions, which have been used to criminalize journalists, activists, academics, and ordinary citizens for critical online speech. Issues of media ownership concentration (leading to concerns about diversity of voices), journalist safety (especially in conflict areas like Papua or when reporting on sensitive topics like corruption), self-censorship, and the spread of disinformation (hoaxes) are also serious concerns.
  • Literature:**

  [[File:194defb0d72_06d43836.jpg|width=1000px|height=1234px|thumb|right|upright|Pramoedya Ananta Toer, one of Indonesia's most famous novelists, often considered a leading candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature from Southeast Asia. His works often dealt with colonialism and social injustice.]]
  Indonesian literature has a long and diverse history, rooted in oral traditions and ancient inscriptions, and evolving through various cultural and political influences.

  • Early Forms:** The earliest written evidence includes Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century CE. Traditional literary forms include syair (narrative poetry), pantun (quatrain poetry), hikayat (prose narratives, often epics or romances), and babad (Javanese historical chronicles), many of which were influenced by Malay, Javanese, Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic literary traditions. Notable classical works include Syair Abdul Muluk, Hikayat Hang Tuah, Sulalatus Salatin (Sejarah Melayu), and Babad Tanah Jawi. A strong oral tradition also preserved stories, myths, and epics across the archipelago.
  • Early Modern Literature (Balai Pustaka Era):** The Dutch colonial government established the publishing house Balai Pustaka in 1917, initially to provide "good reading material" for natives (often with a colonial agenda), but it also became a vehicle for the development of modern Indonesian literature in Malay. This period saw the emergence of early Indonesian novels, often dealing with themes of tradition versus modernity, such as Marah Roesli's Sitti Nurbaya (1922) and Abdul Muis's Salah Asuhan (Wrong Upbringing, 1928). Early modern literature largely originated from Sumatran traditions.
  • Pujangga Baru and Angkatan '45:** The Pujangga Baru (New Poets/Writers) literary movement in the 1930s emphasized nationalism and modernism. The "Generation of '45" (Angkatan '45), emerging around the time of independence, was characterized by writers like Chairil Anwar, a highly influential poet known for his individualistic and revolutionary spirit, reflecting the turmoil and aspirations of the era.
  • Post-Independence and New Order Era:** The 1950s and 1960s are often considered a literary "Golden Age," with writers exploring themes of nation-building, social change, and identity. During Suharto's New Order, literature, like other media, faced significant censorship and political constraints. Writers who were critical of the regime or associated with leftist ideologies were often imprisoned, silenced, or forced into exile. However, important works continued to be produced, sometimes allegorically or through underground channels.
  • Pramoedya Ananta Toer**: Widely regarded as Indonesia's foremost novelist, Pramoedya's works, including the Buru Quartet (This Earth of Mankind, Child of All Nations, Footsteps, and House of Glass), written largely during his imprisonment on Buru Island without access to writing materials (initially narrated orally to fellow prisoners), offer powerful critiques of colonialism, feudalism, and social injustice, while exploring Indonesian history and identity. He was repeatedly nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature but faced persecution and censorship in his own country for much of his life.
  • Contemporary Literature (Post-Reformasi):** The Reformasi era brought greater freedom for writers. Contemporary Indonesian literature explores a wide range of themes, including gender, sexuality, religion, politics, environmental issues, and social justice. Female writers like Ayu Utami (with her groundbreaking novel Saman, 1998, which challenged sexual and social norms) gained prominence. There is a growing diversity of voices and genres, including popular fiction, graphic novels, and poetry.

  Indonesian literature, in its many forms, serves as a crucial medium for cultural expression, social commentary, historical reflection, and the exploration of national identity. The translation of Indonesian literary works into other languages is gradually increasing, bringing its richness and diverse perspectives to a wider global audience, though more support for translation and international promotion is needed.

8.6. Cuisine

[[File:194defb10d7_c32dbf6b.JPG|width=2635px|height=1976px|thumb|left|250px|Nasi Padang with rendang, gulai, and vegetables, a popular Minangkabau dish known for its rich flavors.]]
Indonesian cuisine is renowned for its vibrant flavors, aromatic spices, and incredible diversity, reflecting the country's multicultural heritage and abundant natural resources. Each region boasts its own specialties, influenced by indigenous traditions and centuries of trade and cultural exchange with India, China, the Middle East, and Europe.

• Staple Foods and Key Ingredients:**
  • Rice** (nasi) is the primary staple food across most of the archipelago and is served with a variety of side dishes. Different types of rice preparations, such as steamed rice, nasi uduk (coconut rice), and lontong (rice cakes), are common.
  • Spices** are fundamental to Indonesian cooking, with notable use of chili (sambal is a ubiquitous chili-based condiment with countless variations), turmeric, ginger, galangal, lemongrass, coriander, cumin, cloves, and nutmeg.
  • Coconut milk** (santan) is a common ingredient, adding richness and flavor to curries (like gulai and opor), sauces, and desserts.
  • Fish** and seafood are widely consumed, given Indonesia's archipelagic nature. Methods like grilling (bakar), steaming (kukus), and frying (goreng) are popular.
  • Chicken** (ayam) and other meats like beef, goat, and duck are also popular. Pork is consumed in non-Muslim majority areas like Bali (e.g., babi guling), parts of North Sumatra (Batak cuisine), and Sulawesi (Manado cuisine).
  • Vegetables** of great variety are used in stir-fries, salads (like gado-gado and urap), soups, and side dishes.
  • Tempeh** (fermented soybean cake) and **tofu** (tahu) are important sources of protein, especially in Javanese cuisine, and are highly versatile ingredients. Oncom, a fermented product similar to tempeh but made from different bases (like peanut press cake or soybean dregs), is popular in West Java.
  • Popular National and Regional Dishes:**

  While regional variations are vast, some dishes are widely recognized and considered national favorites:

  • Nasi Goreng**: Indonesian fried rice, often considered a national dish, typically made with kecap manis (sweet soy sauce), shallots, tamarind, chili, and accompanied by egg, chicken, prawns, or vegetables.
  • Sate (Satay)**: Skewered and grilled meat (chicken, beef, goat, lamb, pork, or fish), served with various sauces, most commonly a spicy peanut sauce. Different regions have their own satay variations, such as Sate Ayam Madura or Sate Padang.
  • Rendang**: A rich and flavorful slow-cooked meat dish (usually beef) originating from the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra. It is often cited as one of the world's most delicious foods, characterized by its complex spice blend and long cooking process.
  • Soto**: A traditional Indonesian soup, typically made with broth, meat (chicken, beef, or offal), and vegetables. Numerous regional variations exist, such as Soto Ayam (chicken soto), Soto Betawi (Jakarta-style beef soto), and Soto Lamongan.
  • Gado-gado**: An Indonesian salad of blanched or steamed vegetables, hard-boiled eggs, boiled potato, fried tofu and tempeh, and lontong (rice cake), served with a peanut sauce dressing.
  • Bakso**: Indonesian meatballs, usually served in a broth with noodles, vegetables, and condiments. A popular street food.
  • Mie Ayam**: Chicken noodles, a popular street food dish combining yellow wheat noodles with diced chicken meat, often seasoned with soy sauce.
  • Tumpeng**: A cone-shaped serving of yellow rice accompanied by various side dishes. It is a ceremonial dish symbolizing gratitude, prosperity, and good fortune, and is often chosen by the Ministry of Tourism as the official national dish representing Indonesia's culinary diversity.
  • Nasi Padang**: A style of serving Minangkabau cuisine, where a plate of rice is accompanied by a wide array of pre-cooked dishes (rendang, gulai, dendeng, etc.) chosen by the customer from a display.
  • Dining Culture:**

  Food is often eaten with a spoon in the right hand and a fork in the left, or simply with the right hand (considered more traditional and polite in some contexts, especially for certain dishes). Street food (kaki lima - five-foot way vendors) and traditional markets (pasar) offer a vast array of affordable and delicious local specialties, forming a vibrant part of Indonesian culinary life. Indonesian cuisine is not just about sustenance but is deeply intertwined with social gatherings, religious celebrations, and cultural traditions, reflecting the nation's hospitality and communal values.

8.7. Sports

[[File:194defb1475_543a55f6.jpg|width=1176px|height=1626px|thumb|upright|A demonstration of pencak silat, a traditional Indonesian martial art recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage.]]
Sports in Indonesia are popular and diverse, ranging from internationally recognized games to traditional martial arts and regional pastimes.

• Popular Sports:**
  • Badminton**: This is arguably Indonesia's most successful international sport. Indonesian players have consistently achieved high rankings and won numerous prestigious tournaments, including Olympic gold medals, World Championships, and the Thomas Cup (men's world team championship) and Uber Cup (women's world team championship) multiple times. Along with weightlifting, badminton contributes the most to Indonesia's Olympic medal tally.
  • Football (Soccer)**: Football is immensely popular across the country, with passionate support for local clubs and the national team. The domestic professional league, Liga 1, attracts large crowds, though it has faced challenges with management and occasional fan violence. The national team participated in the 1938 FIFA World Cup as the Dutch East Indies, becoming the first Asian team to do so. They have also participated in the AFC Asian Cup, reaching the knockout stage for the first time in the 2023 edition. At the regional level, Indonesia has won gold medals in football at the Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games) in 1987, 1991, and 2023.
  • Basketball**: Growing in popularity, with a professional league, the Indonesian Basketball League (IBL).
  • Boxing**: Indonesia has produced several world champion boxers, such as Ellyas Pical, Nico Thomas, and Chris John.
  • Traditional Sports and Martial Arts:**
    • Pencak Silat**: A collective term for a class of indigenous martial arts, encompassing hundreds of different styles and schools. It is not only a form of self-defense but also a cultural art form, often performed with traditional music and attire, and embodying spiritual and philosophical values. Pencak Silat was recognized as an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO and became a medaled sport at the 2018 Asian Games, where Indonesia was a leading competitor.
    • Sepak Takraw**: A traditional sport popular in Southeast Asia, including Indonesia, involving players kicking or heading a rattan ball over a net. It requires great skill and agility.
    • Karapan sapi**: Bull racing, a traditional sport from Madura, East Java, where pairs of bulls pull a jockey on a wooden sled in a thrilling race.
    • Regional Mock Fighting Contests**: In areas with a history of tribal warfare, ritualized mock fighting contests are held, such as caci (whip fighting) in Flores and Pasola (mounted spear-throwing) in Sumba. These events are often part of traditional ceremonies and carry deep cultural significance.
    • Participation in International Sporting Events:**

    Indonesia participates in major international multi-sport events like the Olympic Games, Asian Games, and Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia has topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977, most recently in the 2011 edition when it hosted the event. The National Sports Week (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) is the country's largest domestic multi-sport event, held every four years, fostering national unity and athletic development.
    
    Sports in Indonesia are often community-oriented, playing a significant role in social life. However, spectating popular sports can sometimes be associated with informal betting, and issues like match-fixing and sports governance remain areas needing improvement.

8.8. Public Holidays

Public holidays in Indonesia are a mix of national secular holidays and religious holidays observed by the country's officially recognized faiths. The dates for some religious holidays, particularly Islamic ones which follow a lunar calendar, vary each year according to the Gregorian calendar. The government also often declares cuti bersama (collective leave days) adjacent to major holidays to create longer public holiday periods, aiming to boost domestic tourism and allow people more time with their families.

• National Secular Holidays:**
  • January 1**: New Year's Day (Tahun Baru Masehi)
  • May 1**: Labour Day (Hari Buruh Internasional)
  • June 1**: Pancasila Day (Hari Lahir Pancasila) - Commemorates the day Sukarno delivered his speech outlining the Pancasila principles in 1945.
  • August 17**: Independence Day (Hari Kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia) - Celebrates the proclamation of independence in 1945 with nationwide ceremonies and festivities.
  • Religious Holidays (dates vary for some based on lunar calendars):**
    • Islam:**
      • Eid al-Fitr (Idul Fitri or Lebaran): Marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting. This is one of the largest public holidays, typically a two-day national holiday, accompanied by a mass exodus (mudik) as people travel to their hometowns.
      • Eid al-Adha (Idul Adha): The Feast of Sacrifice, commemorating Prophet Ibrahim's willingness to sacrifice his son.
      • Islamic New Year (Tahun Baru Hijriyah): The first day of the Islamic lunar calendar.
      • Mawlid an-Nabi (Maulid Nabi Muhammad SAW): The birthday of the Prophet Muhammad.
      • Isra Mi'raj (Isra Mikraj Nabi Muhammad SAW): Commemorates the Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey and Ascension.
    • Christianity (Protestant and Catholic):**
      • Good Friday (Wafat Isa Al-Masih - The Death of Jesus Christ)
      • Ascension Day (Kenaikan Isa Al-Masih - The Ascension of Jesus Christ)
      • Christmas Day (Hari Natal) - December 25
    • Hinduism:**
      • Nyepi (Balinese Day of Silence / Hindu New Year): Primarily observed in Bali, where it is a day of silence, fasting, and meditation, with the entire island shutting down for 24 hours. It is a national holiday.
    • Buddhism:**
      • Vesak Day (Hari Raya Waisak): Commemorates the birth, enlightenment, and passing of Buddha. Large celebrations are often held at Borobudur temple.
    • Confucianism:**
      • Chinese New Year (Tahun Baru Imlek): Recognized as a national holiday since 2003, reflecting greater recognition of the Chinese Indonesian community and Confucianism.

      The exact dates for religious holidays dependent on lunar calendars (Islamic, Hindu Saka, and Chinese lunar calendars) are officially announced by the Ministry of Religious Affairs each year. The system of public holidays reflects Indonesia's commitment to religious pluralism, although the prominence of Islamic holidays also reflects the country's Muslim-majority demographic.