Ethiopia

3.1. Prehistory

Ethiopia and the surrounding region are at the forefront of palaeontology due to several significant hominid discoveries. The oldest hominid found in Ethiopia to date is the 4.2 million-year-old Ardipithecus ramidus (nicknamed "Ardi"), discovered by Tim D. White in 1994. Perhaps the most famous hominid discovery is Australopithecus afarensis, widely known as "Lucy" (or Dinkinesh in Amharic). This specimen, found in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia's Afar Region in 1974 by Donald Johanson, is one of the most complete and best-preserved adult Australopithecine fossils ever uncovered. Lucy is estimated to have lived 3.2 million years ago.

Ethiopia is also considered one of the earliest sites for the emergence of anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens. The oldest of these local fossil finds, the Omo remains, were excavated in the southwestern Omo Kibish Formation and date to the Middle Paleolithic, around 200,000 years ago. Skeletons of Homo sapiens idaltu (Herto Man) were found in the Middle Awash valley, dated to approximately 160,000 years ago. These may represent an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens or direct ancestors of anatomically modern humans. While archaic Homo sapiens fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, have been dated earlier (around 300,000 years ago), the Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) skeleton from southern Ethiopia remains the oldest known anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeleton, dated to 196 ± 5 kya (thousand years ago).

According to some anthropologists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the Neolithic era, possibly from the Nile Valley or the Near East. However, most scholars today propose that the Afroasiatic language family developed in northeast Africa due to the higher diversity of its lineages in that region, a common indicator of linguistic origin.

In 2019, archaeologists discovered a 30,000-year-old Middle Stone Age rock shelter at the Fincha Habera site in the Bale Mountains, at an elevation of 11 K ft ^{(3.47 K m)} above sea level. This high-altitude dwelling provides evidence of the earliest known permanent human occupation at such elevations, where humans face challenges like hypoxia and extreme weather. The site yielded thousands of animal bones, hundreds of stone tools, and ancient fireplaces, indicating a diet that included giant mole rats.

Evidence of early stone-tipped projectile weapons, characteristic of Homo sapiens, was found at the Ethiopian site of Gademotta, dating to around 279,000 years ago. Additional Middle Stone Age projectile points, likely belonging to darts delivered by spear throwers, were found at Aduma, dated to 100,000-80,000 years ago.

3.2. Antiquity (Dʿmt and Kingdom of Aksum)

Around 980 BC, the kingdom of Dʿmt was established in present-day Eritrea and the northern Tigray Region of Ethiopia. It is widely believed to be a successor state to the Land of Punt. Dʿmt's capital was located at Yeha. While earlier theories suggested significant Sabaean influence from Southern Arabia due to Sabaean hegemony over the Red Sea, most modern historians consider Dʿmt to be an indigenous Ethiopian civilization. Some scholars view Dʿmt as a result of a union of Afroasiatic-speaking cultures, including local Agaw peoples and Sabaeans. However, Geʽez, the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia, is thought to have developed independently from the Sabaean language, with Semitic speakers inhabiting Ethiopia and Eritrea where Ge'ez evolved as early as 2000 BC. Sabaean influence is now considered to have been minor and localized.

After the fall of Dʿmt in the 4th century BC, the Ethiopian plateau was dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. In the 1st century AD, the Kingdom of Aksum emerged in what is now the Tigray Region and Eritrea. According to the medieval Book of Axum, the kingdom's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. At its peak, Aksum extended its rule into Yemen across the Red Sea. The Persian prophet Mani, in the 3rd century, listed Aksum alongside Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his era.

Around 316 AD, Frumentius and his brother Edesius from Tyre were taken to the Aksumite court as slaves after their ship was attacked. They gained positions of trust and converted members of the royal court to Christianity. Frumentius became the first bishop of Aksum. A coin dated to 324 indicates that Ethiopia was the second country (after Armenia in 301) to officially adopt Christianity, although the religion may have initially been confined to court circles. Aksum was a major trading power, connected to the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire via the Silk Road, primarily exporting ivory, tortoise shells, gold, and emeralds, while importing silk and spices.

3.3. Middle Ages (Zagwe Dynasty and Early Solomonic Period)

The Kingdom of Aksum adopted the name "Ethiopia" during the reign of King Ezana in the 4th century. After conquering the Kingdom of Kush around 330 AD, Aksumite territory reached its zenith between the 5th and 6th centuries. This period was marked by interactions with powers in South Arabia, including incursions by Dhu Nuwas of the Himyarite Kingdom and the Aksumite-Persian wars. In 575, Aksumites retook Sana'a after the assassination of its governor. However, by the 8th century, the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate led to the decline of Aksum's maritime power, with the port city of Adulis being plundered by Arab Muslims. Factors like land degradation, alleged climate change, and sporadic rainfall between 730 and 760 AD likely contributed to Aksum's decline as a major trade hub.

The Aksumite kingdom is believed to have ended around 960 AD when Queen Gudit (or Yodit) reportedly defeated the last Aksumite king. This event led the remnants of the Aksumite population to shift southwards, establishing the Zagwe dynasty with its capital at Lalibela (then known as Roha). The Zagwe dynasty, of Agaw origin, is most famous for the construction of the magnificent rock-hewn churches of Lalibela.

Zagwe rule ended in 1270 when Yekuno Amlak, an Amhara nobleman claiming descent from the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba through their son Menelik I, overthrew the last Zagwe king, Yetbarak. This event marked the restoration of the Solomonic dynasty and the establishment of the Ethiopian Empire (also known by the exonym "Abyssinia"). The Ethiopian Empire initiated territorial expansion under rulers like Amda Seyon I, who launched successful campaigns against Muslim principalities to the east, such as the Sultanate of Ifat. This shifted the balance of power in the Horn of Africa in favor of the Christian empire for nearly two centuries, with Ethiopian suzerainty extending from Gojjam to the Somali coast at Zeila.

During the reign of Emperor Zara Yaqob in the 15th century, the Ethiopian Empire reached a peak. His rule was characterized by the consolidation of territorial gains, the construction of numerous churches and monasteries, the promotion of literature and art, and the strengthening of central imperial authority. However, Ifat's successor, the Adal Sultanate, under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad Gurey or Gragn), launched a major invasion of Ethiopia in 1529. The Ethiopian-Adal War (1529-1543) devastated much of Christian Ethiopia. With Ottoman support and firearms, Adal forces conquered large parts of the empire. Ethiopia, with the aid of Portuguese musketeers, eventually defeated Adal at the Battle of Wayna Daga in 1543, where Ahmad Gurey was killed.

By the 16th century, migrations of the ethnic Oromo people from the south into the northern parts of the region began to alter the political and demographic landscape, contributing to the fragmentation of the empire's power. These migrations, driven by various socio-political factors within Oromo society, continued for centuries.

Ethiopia saw significant diplomatic contact with Portugal from the 17th century, primarily related to religious matters. Starting in 1555, Portuguese Jesuit missionaries attempted to convert Ethiopia to Roman Catholicism. Under Emperor Susenyos I, Roman Catholicism briefly became the state religion in 1622. This decision, however, provoked a widespread revolt among the Orthodox populace and nobility.

3.4. Early Modern Period (Gondarine Period and Zemene Mesafint)

In 1632, Emperor Fasilides, son of Susenyos I, restored Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity as the state religion, expelling the Jesuits and curtailing foreign influence. Fasilides moved the imperial capital to Gondar in 1636, marking the beginning of the "Gondarine period." This era was characterized by relative stability, architectural achievements, and a flourishing of arts and culture. Fasilides and his successors built the iconic royal enclosure of Fasil Ghebbi in Gondar, along with numerous churches and bridges.

However, Gondar's power began to decline after the death of Emperor Iyasu I in 1706. Internal power struggles and the rise of regional lords gradually weakened the central authority of the emperors. Following the death of Emperor Iyasu II in 1755, Empress Mentewab brought her brother, Ras Wolde Leul, to Gondar, making him Ras Bitwaded (chief noble), leading to conflicts between different noble factions.

In 1769, Ras Mikael Sehul, a powerful regent from Tigray Province, seized Gondar, killed the child Emperor Iyoas I, and installed the elderly Yohannes II as a puppet emperor. This event is often considered the start of the Zemene Mesafint (ዘመነ መሳፍንት_{Age of Princes}^Geez or Era of Judges), a period of profound political fragmentation and decentralization that lasted from roughly 1769 to 1855. During the Zemene Mesafint, emperors became mere figureheads, controlled by powerful regional warlords and nobles, such as Ras Mikael Sehul, Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray, and later, the Yejju Oromo dynasty of Wara Sheh, including figures like Ras Gugsa of Yejju. These regional rulers vied for power, leading to frequent warfare and social instability. Before the Zemene Mesafint, Emperor Iyoas I had introduced the Oromo language (Afaan Oromo) at court, temporarily replacing Amharic, reflecting the growing influence of Oromo nobles. This era saw a decline in imperial authority and a shift in societal structures, with regional lords effectively ruling their own territories.

3.5. Imperial Reunification and Modernization (Mid-19th to Early 20th Century)

The period of Ethiopian isolationism and fragmentation known as the Zemene Mesafint began to end with the rise of Kassa Hailu, who was crowned Emperor Tewodros II in 1855. Tewodros II is credited with initiating the process of reunifying the Ethiopian Empire, centralizing power, and attempting early modernization. He sought to end the dominance of regional lords, restructure the empire's administration, and create a professional national army. His efforts laid the groundwork for establishing the effective sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Ethiopian state. However, his ambitious reforms and often harsh methods led to widespread opposition. His reign ended tragically after a conflict with the British Empire, which culminated in the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia and Tewodros's suicide at Magdala.

Following Tewodros II, Yohannes IV (formerly Kassa Mercha of Tigray) became emperor in 1872. He continued the process of consolidation and successfully defended Ethiopia against external threats, notably from Egypt in the Ethiopian-Egyptian War (e.g., Battles of Gundet and Gura in 1875-1876) and from Mahdist Sudan. Yohannes IV was killed in battle against the Mahdists at the Battle of Gallabat (Metemma) in 1889.

Menelik II, who had been King of Shewa, succeeded Yohannes IV as emperor in 1889 and reigned until his death in 1913. Menelik II is a pivotal figure in modern Ethiopian history. He significantly expanded the empire's territory to roughly its current borders through a series of military campaigns, known as Menelik's Expansions, incorporating southern, eastern, and western regions inhabited by various peoples including the Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, and Welayta. He achieved this with the help of figures like Ras Gobana Dacche, a Shewan Oromo general.

Menelik II is also renowned for successfully defending Ethiopia's sovereignty against European colonial ambitions during the Scramble for Africa. He decisively defeated an invading Italian army at the Battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896, during the First Italo-Ethiopian War. This victory was a landmark event, as it ensured Ethiopia's independence and became a symbol of African resistance to colonialism. Menelik II also initiated significant modernization efforts, including the founding of Addis Ababa as the new capital, the introduction of a national currency, the establishment of the first modern schools and hospitals, and the construction of the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway. Despite his achievements, his reign also saw hardship, including the devastating Great Ethiopian Famine (1888-1892) and a rinderpest epizootic that decimated livestock. On October 11, 1897, Ethiopia adopted a flag with green, yellow, and red stripes, colors that would later become influential in Pan-Africanism.

3.6. Haile Selassie Era (1916-1974)

The early 20th century was dominated by the figure of Haile Selassie I (born Tafari Makonnen). He came to prominence in 1916 when he was made Ras and Regent (Inderase) for Empress Zewditu, effectively becoming the de facto ruler of the Ethiopian Empire after the deposition of Lij Iyasu. Following Zewditu's death, Tafari was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I on November 2, 1930.

Haile Selassie embarked on a nationwide modernization campaign, building upon the efforts of Menelik II. In 1931, he promulgated Ethiopia's first written constitution, modeled in part on Japan's Meiji Constitution. His reign aimed to centralize the state, improve education, and enhance Ethiopia's international standing. Ethiopia became a member of the League of Nations in 1923.

Ethiopia's independence was interrupted by the Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935-1936). Fascist Italy, under Benito Mussolini, invaded Ethiopia in October 1935 and, despite Ethiopian resistance, occupied the country by May 1936. Haile Selassie went into exile in England, appealing to the League of Nations for assistance. Italy proclaimed Italian East Africa, incorporating Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland. Italian rule (1936-1941) was met with ongoing resistance from Ethiopian patriots (Arbegnoch).

During World War II, British Empire forces, alongside the Arbegnoch, liberated Ethiopia in the course of the East African Campaign in 1941. Haile Selassie returned to Addis Ababa on May 5, 1941. The country was initially placed under British military administration, but its full sovereignty was restored with the signing of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement in December 1944.

Post-war, Haile Selassie continued his modernization policies. Ethiopia became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945. In 1952, following a UN resolution, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia. However, in 1962, Haile Selassie's government annexed Eritrea, dissolving the federation and incorporating it as a province. This act sparked the long and devastating Eritrean War of Independence. Haile Selassie played a leading role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963, with Addis Ababa becoming its headquarters, cementing Ethiopia's image as a symbol of African independence and unity.

Despite these international achievements, internal contradictions grew. The imperial government was seen as autocratic and slow to address issues of land tenure, poverty, and ethnic inequality. The social impact of his policies was mixed; while education and infrastructure saw some development, much of the rural population remained impoverished, and political dissent was suppressed. The human rights situation was characterized by a lack of political freedoms and harsh responses to opposition. The worldwide 1973 oil crisis exacerbated economic problems, leading to a sharp increase in gasoline prices and widespread discontent. Student and worker protests erupted in early 1974, leading to the toppling of the cabinet of Prime Minister Aklilu Habte-Wold and the appointment of Endelkachew Makonnen as his successor, but unrest continued.

3.7. Derg Regime (1974-1991)

Haile Selassie's long reign came to an end on September 12, 1974, when he was deposed by a coordinating committee of military officers known as the Derg (Amharic for "committee"). The coup followed months of escalating civil unrest, strikes, and military mutinies. The Derg, formally the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC), initially declared its loyalty to the crown prince but soon moved to dismantle the imperial system entirely.

In March 1975, the Derg officially abolished the monarchy and declared Ethiopia a socialist state. It embarked on a radical program of social and economic reforms, including the nationalization of rural land, urban property, and major industries. Land reform, while aiming to abolish feudal land tenure, was implemented in a way that often led to state control rather than peasant ownership, and programs like resettlement and villagization were highly disruptive and often coercive.

A power struggle within the Derg culminated in Lieutenant Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam emerging as the undisputed leader in February 1977. Under Mengistu, the regime became increasingly authoritarian and brutal. From 1976 to 1978, the Derg launched the Qey Shibir (Red Terror), a violent campaign of political repression against rival Marxist factions, primarily the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP), and other perceived enemies of the revolution. Tens of thousands, possibly hundreds of thousands, of Ethiopians were killed, tortured, or imprisoned during the Red Terror, marking a period of severe human rights abuses.

In 1977, Somalia, under Siad Barre, invaded Ethiopia in an attempt to annex the Somali-inhabited Ogaden region, leading to the Ogaden War. Ethiopia, with massive military aid from the Soviet Union and Cuba, eventually repelled the Somali invasion in 1978. The Derg regime maintained a large military, becoming one of the most formidable in sub-Saharan Africa.

Despite its socialist rhetoric, the Derg's policies failed to alleviate poverty and often exacerbated existing problems. A devastating famine in 1983-1985, worsened by drought, government policies, and ongoing civil war, led to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians and attracted international condemnation.

Throughout its rule, the Derg faced numerous armed insurrections from various ethnic-based and political opposition groups. The Ethiopian Civil War intensified, particularly in Eritrea (led by the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, EPLF) and Tigray (led by the Tigray People's Liberation Front, TPLF). In 1987, the Derg dissolved itself and proclaimed the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) under a new constitution, with Mengistu as president, but this was largely a cosmetic change, and the Ethiopian Workers' Party remained the sole legal party.

The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the subsequent withdrawal of Soviet support critically weakened the Mengistu regime. In 1989, the TPLF merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). By May 1991, EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa. Mengistu Haile Mariam fled the country and was granted asylum in Zimbabwe. The Derg regime collapsed, ending 17 years of military rule and civil war.

3.8. Federal Democratic Republic Era (1991-Present)

Following the collapse of the Derg regime in May 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), a coalition of ethnically based rebel groups dominated by the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF), took control of Addis Ababa. In July 1991, the EPRDF convened a National Conference to establish the Transitional Government of Ethiopia. This government, led by EPRDF chairman Meles Zenawi, adopted a transitional charter that functioned as an interim constitution. One of the first significant acts was to recognize the right of Eritrea to self-determination, leading to Eritrean independence in April 1993 after a UN-supervised referendum.

In 1994, a new constitution was drafted and adopted, establishing Ethiopia as a federal parliamentary republic based on ethnic federalism. This system divided the country into ethnically defined regional states. The first multiparty elections under the new constitution were held in May 1995, which the EPRDF won decisively. Meles Zenawi became the first Prime Minister of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. The EPRDF remained in power for nearly three decades, with Meles Zenawi serving as prime minister until his death in 2012, followed by Hailemariam Desalegn. While this period saw significant economic growth and development in infrastructure, it was also characterized by political repression, limited democratic space, and concerns about human rights. Opposition parties often alleged electoral irregularities and faced harassment.

In May 1998, a border dispute with Eritrea escalated into the bloody Eritrean-Ethiopian War, which lasted until June 2000. The war resulted in tens of thousands of casualties on both sides and had a severe negative impact on Ethiopia's economy. Although a peace agreement was signed, tensions and a border dispute remained unresolved for nearly two decades.

The EPRDF government faced increasing internal dissent and protests, particularly from the Oromo and Amhara ethnic groups, starting in the mid-2010s. These protests were driven by grievances over political marginalization, land issues, and human rights abuses. In response to years of unrest and a state of emergency, Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn resigned in February 2018.

In April 2018, Abiy Ahmed, an Oromo member of the EPRDF coalition, became prime minister. He initiated a series of sweeping political and economic reforms, including releasing thousands of political prisoners, unbanning opposition groups, and promising greater democratic freedoms. A landmark achievement was the peace agreement with Eritrea in July 2018, formally ending the long-standing border conflict, for which Abiy Ahmed was awarded the 2019 Nobel Peace Prize.

However, the reform process also coincided with a rise in ethnic tensions and violence across the country. Inter-ethnic clashes and conflicts led to the displacement of millions of Ethiopians. The EPRDF coalition was dissolved in 2019 and replaced by the Prosperity Party, which aimed to move away from ethnic federalism towards a more unified national identity, a move opposed by some, notably the TPLF.

The federal government's decision to postpone the 2020 general elections due to the COVID-19 pandemic was opposed by the TPLF, which governed the Tigray Region. The TPLF proceeded to hold its own regional elections in September 2020, which the federal government deemed illegal. Relations deteriorated rapidly, and in November 2020, the federal government launched a military offensive in Tigray in response to alleged attacks by TPLF forces on federal army bases, marking the beginning of the devastating Tigray War. The war involved federal forces, Amhara regional forces, and Eritrean troops against the TPLF. It resulted in a severe humanitarian crisis, widespread human rights abuses including mass killings and sexual violence, and famine conditions, with hundreds of thousands of deaths reported. After numerous mediation efforts, a cessation of hostilities agreement was signed in Pretoria, South Africa, on November 2, 2022, between the Ethiopian government and the TPLF.

Despite the peace agreement in Tigray, Ethiopia continues to face significant challenges. Ongoing ethnic conflicts persist in other regions, such as the OLA insurgency in Oromia and the conflict in the Amhara Region involving Fano militias that had previously allied with the government during the Tigray War. Reports by the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC) and international organizations have documented mass human rights violations, including extrajudicial killings and mass detentions. The impact of these conflicts on human rights, democratic progress, and the welfare of minorities and vulnerable groups remains a critical concern. The country continues to navigate a complex path toward stability, national reconciliation, and sustainable democratic development.

4.1. Topography and Geology

Ethiopia's topography is characterized by immense diversity, dominated by the vast Ethiopian Highlands, a rugged mass of mountains and dissected plateaus. This highland complex is split by the Great Rift Valley, which runs generally from southwest to northeast through the country. The Highlands are the largest continuous area of their altitude in Africa, with many peaks exceeding 13 K ft ^{(4.00 K m)}. The highest point is Ras Dashen in the Simien Mountains, reaching 15 K ft ^{(4.55 K m)}.

The Great Rift Valley itself is a remarkable geological feature, part of the larger East African Rift system. Within Ethiopia, it contains numerous lakes, hot springs, and volcanic formations. To the east of the highlands lie extensive lowlands, steppes, and semi-desert areas.

One of the most extreme environments on Earth, the Danakil Depression (also known as the Afar Depression), is located in northeastern Ethiopia. It is a geological depression resulting from the divergence of three tectonic plates in the Horn of Africa. Parts of the Danakil Depression are more than 328 ft ^{(100 m)} below sea level, and it is renowned for its active volcanoes, salt flats, and extreme heat, with Dallol often cited as one of the hottest inhabited places on Earth.

Geologically, Ethiopia is largely composed of ancient Precambrian rocks forming the basement complex, overlain by Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and extensive Cenozoic volcanic rocks, particularly the Trap Series basalts which form the bulk of the Ethiopian Highlands. The rifting process that formed the Great Rift Valley is still active, leading to volcanic and seismic activity in the region.

4.2. Climate

Ethiopia's climate is highly varied due to its diverse topography and wide range of altitudes. The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon, but this is significantly modified by elevation.
The Ethiopian Highlands, where most of the population and major cities (including Addis Ababa, Gondar, and Axum) are located, generally experience a temperate or Weyna Dega climate. Altitudes in these areas typically range from 4.9 K ft ^{(1.50 K m)} to 9.8 K ft ^{(3.00 K m)}. Addis Ababa, at an elevation of around 7.9 K ft ^{(2.40 K m)}, has a mild climate year-round, with average annual temperatures around 60.8 °F ^{(16 °C)}. Here, seasons are largely defined by rainfall: a dry season (Bega) from October to February, a light rainy season (Belg) from March to May, and a heavy rainy season (Kiremt) from June to September. The average annual rainfall in Addis Ababa is approximately 0.0 K in ^{(1.20 K mm)}.

Areas above 9.8 K ft ^{(3.00 K m)} have a cool, alpine climate known as Dega. Conversely, low-lying regions, such as the Danakil Depression, the Ogaden, and areas along the western border, experience hot, arid (Bereha) or semi-arid (Kolla) climates. Dallol, in the Danakil Depression, holds the record for the highest average annual temperature for an inhabited location on Earth, around 93.2 °F ^{(34 °C)}.

Rainfall patterns are generally monsoonal, influenced by the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The main rainy season (Kiremt) typically occurs from June to September in most parts of the country, crucial for agriculture. Some southern and southeastern regions experience two distinct rainy seasons.

Climate change is an increasing concern for Ethiopia, with observed trends including rising temperatures and more erratic rainfall patterns. These changes pose significant threats to agriculture, water resources, food security, and overall livelihoods, particularly for vulnerable rural populations. The country is also susceptible to recurring droughts and floods.

4.3. Water Resources

Ethiopia is often referred to as the "water tower of Africa" due to its numerous rivers originating in the highlands. The country has 14 major river basins. The most significant river is the Blue Nile (አባይ_Abay^Amharic), which originates from Lake Tana, Ethiopia's largest lake, located in the northwestern highlands. The Blue Nile contributes a substantial portion (over 80% during the flood season) of the main Nile's water volume.

Other major rivers include the Awash River, which flows eastward and terminates in the Danakil Depression; the Omo River, which flows south into Lake Turkana; the Shebelle River and Juba River (Genale River in Ethiopia), which flow southeast towards Somalia; and the Tekezé River (Setit) in the north, a tributary of the Atbarah River, which itself is a tributary of the Nile.

Ethiopia also possesses several significant lakes, mostly located within the Great Rift Valley. These include Lake Tana, Lake Abaya, Lake Chamo, Lake Shala, Lake Langano, Lake Ziway, and Lake Awasa. These lakes vary in size, depth, and water chemistry.

Water resource management is a critical issue for Ethiopia. The country has immense potential for hydropower generation, and several large dams have been constructed or are under construction, most notably the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile. While these projects aim to boost energy production and economic development, they also have significant socio-economic and environmental impacts and have led to diplomatic tensions with downstream Nile countries, particularly Egypt and Sudan. Irrigation potential is also substantial but underdeveloped. Access to clean drinking water and sanitation remains a challenge, especially in rural areas. The sustainable management and equitable distribution of water resources are crucial for Ethiopia's development and regional stability.

4.4. Biodiversity

Ethiopia boasts a rich and unique biodiversity, owing to its diverse topography, varied climates, and geographical isolation of certain areas. It is recognized as a global centre of avian diversity and one of the eight Vavilov centers of origin for cultivated plants. The country is home to a wide array of flora and fauna, including numerous endemic species.

Notable endemic mammals include the Ethiopian wolf (the rarest canid in the world), the Walia ibex (a wild goat found in the Simien Mountains), the gelada (a species of baboon, sometimes called the "bleeding-heart monkey"), the mountain nyala, and the Swayne's hartebeest. Ethiopia has recorded over 856 bird species, with around 20 endemic to the country.

The flora is equally diverse, ranging from Afroalpine vegetation in the highest mountains (with species like giant lobelias and Erica arborea) to tropical forests in the south and southwest, and acacia-commiphora woodlands and grasslands in the lowlands. Ethiopia is the center of origin for important crops such as coffee (Coffea arabica), teff, ensete (false banana), and certain varieties of wheat and barley.

Major national parks and protected areas have been established to conserve this rich biodiversity, including Simien Mountains National Park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), Bale Mountains National Park, Awash National Park, Nechisar National Park, and Omo National Park.

However, Ethiopia's biodiversity faces significant threats. Deforestation is a major concern, driven by agricultural expansion, firewood collection, and overgrazing. This has led to soil erosion, loss of habitat, and a decline in forest cover. Historically, around 35-40% of Ethiopia's land was covered by forests, but recent estimates suggest this has dwindled to around 11-15%. The country loses a significant area of natural forest annually.

Other challenges include land degradation, desertification in arid and semi-arid areas, poaching, human-wildlife conflict, and the impacts of climate change. Conservation efforts are underway, involving government programs, NGOs like SOS and Farm Africa, and community-based initiatives focusing on reforestation, sustainable land management, and the protection of endangered species. Despite these efforts, the pressures on Ethiopia's ecosystems and biodiversity remain intense.

5.1. Government Structure

Ethiopia operates under a federal parliamentary republic system as defined by the 1995 constitution.
The President is the head of state. The role is largely ceremonial, with powers including promulgating laws approved by the legislature, granting pardons, and appointing ambassadors upon the Prime Minister's nomination. The President is elected by the House of Peoples' Representatives for a six-year term and can serve a maximum of two terms. The current President is Taye Atske Selassie.

The Prime Minister is the head of government and holds the executive power. The Prime Minister is chosen from among the members of the House of Peoples' Representatives and is typically the leader of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the House. The Prime Minister is responsible for the overall administration of the country, chairs the Council of Ministers, commands the armed forces, and implements laws. The current Prime Minister is Abiy Ahmed. The Deputy Prime Minister, currently Temesgen Tiruneh, assists the Prime Minister.

The Council of Ministers is the cabinet and the country's highest executive body. It is composed of the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Minister, and various ministers appointed by the Prime Minister and approved by the House of Peoples' Representatives. The Council is responsible for formulating and implementing government policies, preparing the budget, and managing government affairs.

The Federal Parliamentary Assembly is the bicameral federal legislature. It consists of two chambers:

• The House of Federation (የፌዴሬሽን ምክር ቤት_{Yefedereshn Mekir Bet}^Amharic) is the upper house. It has 108 members who are chosen by the regional state councils. Each "Nation, Nationality and People" recognized by the constitution is represented by at least one member, with an additional representative for each one million of its population. The House of Federation has powers related to interpreting the constitution, resolving disputes between states, and determining the division of federal and regional revenues.
• The House of Peoples' Representatives (የሕዝብ ተወካዮች ምክር ቤት_{Yehizbtewekayoch Mekir Bet}^Amharic) is the lower house and the primary law-making body. It has a maximum of 547 members, elected by direct universal suffrage for a five-year term from single-member constituencies. This house enacts laws, approves the national budget, ratifies international agreements, and oversees the executive branch.

The government structure reflects the principle of ethnic federalism, where regional states, largely defined along ethnic lines, have considerable autonomy.

5.2. Political Parties and Elections

Ethiopia has a multi-party system, although the political landscape has historically been dominated by a single coalition. Following the overthrow of the Derg regime in 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) - a coalition of four ethnically based parties (TPLF, ANDM, OPDO, SEPDM) - governed the country until 2019.

In December 2019, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed spearheaded the dissolution of the EPRDF and the formation of the Prosperity Party (PP). The PP aimed to move beyond ethnic-based federalism towards a more unified national party, incorporating three of the former EPRDF member parties and several allied regional parties. The Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) opted out of joining the Prosperity Party, a decision that significantly contributed to the political tensions leading to the Tigray War.

General elections are held every five years to elect members of the House of Peoples' Representatives and regional state councils. The most recent general election was held in June and September 2021. The Prosperity Party, led by Abiy Ahmed, won a large majority of seats. However, the election was marred by boycotts from some opposition parties, logistical challenges, and ongoing conflict in several regions, including Tigray, where elections were not held at the time.

Major opposition parties have included the National Movement of Amhara (NaMA), Ethiopian Citizens for Social Justice (Ezema), and various regional and ethnic-based parties like the Oromo Federalist Congress (OFC) and the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF). The participation and influence of opposition groups have often been constrained by legal restrictions, harassment, and an uneven playing field.

The fairness and freeness of past elections have been a subject of controversy. While some elections saw increased opposition participation, others, like the 2015 election where the EPRDF and its allies won all parliamentary seats, were criticized by international observers and opposition groups for lacking genuine competition and credibility. The political terrain remains dynamic, with ongoing debates about the nature of federalism, democratic consolidation, and the role of ethnicity in politics. Challenges include ensuring free and fair electoral processes, protecting political freedoms, and fostering inclusive political dialogue.

5.3. Judicial System

The Ethiopian judicial system is structured at both federal and regional state levels, reflecting the country's federal system of government. The 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia provides for an independent judiciary.

At the federal level, the highest court is the Federal Supreme Court, located in Addis Ababa. It has ultimate jurisdiction over federal matters and can hear appeals from the Federal High Court. The President and Vice-President of the Federal Supreme Court are nominated by the Prime Minister and appointed by the House of Peoples' Representatives. Other federal judges are appointed by the House of Peoples' Representatives based on recommendations from the Federal Judicial Administration Council. The current Chief Justice of the Federal Supreme Court is Tewodros Mihret.

Below the Federal Supreme Court are the Federal High Courts and Federal First Instance Courts. These courts handle cases involving federal law, constitutional issues, and matters where federal jurisdiction is specified.

Each regional state has its own independent judicial system, mirroring the federal structure, with a State Supreme Court at its apex, followed by State High Courts and State First Instance Courts (often called Woreda courts). These courts have jurisdiction over cases arising under state laws.

The constitution also provides for the establishment of religious and customary courts. Sharia courts can adjudicate personal and family law matters for Muslims if the parties consent. Similarly, customary courts can handle local disputes based on traditional practices, provided they do not contradict the constitution or federal laws.

The Judicial Administration Council at both federal and state levels is responsible for the administration of the judiciary, including the selection, promotion, and discipline of judges.

Despite constitutional guarantees of independence, the judiciary has faced challenges, including political interference, lack of resources, corruption, and a shortage of well-trained legal professionals. Efforts have been made to reform the judicial system to enhance its independence, efficiency, and accessibility. Ensuring the rule of law and providing equal access to justice for all citizens, particularly in rural and marginalized communities, remains a significant ongoing task. There are concerns regarding the capacity of the judicial system to effectively address human rights violations and hold perpetrators accountable, especially in contexts of political instability and conflict.

5.4. Administrative Divisions

Ethiopia is a federation divided into ethnically based Regional States (ክልሎች_kililoch^Amharic; singular: ክልል_kilil^Amharic) and two federally administered Chartered Cities. As of recent administrative changes, there are 12 regional states and two chartered cities. The regional states have their own constitutions, governments, and legislative councils.

The Regional States are:
1. Afar
2. Amhara
3. Benishangul-Gumuz
4. Central Ethiopia (formed in August 2023)
5. Gambela
6. Harari
7. Oromia
8. Sidama (became a region in June 2020, formerly part of SNNPR)
9. Somali
10. South Ethiopia (formed in August 2023)
11. South West Ethiopia Peoples' Region (formed in November 2021, formerly part of SNNPR)
12. Tigray

The two Chartered Cities are:
1. Addis Ababa (the national capital)
2. Dire Dawa

The now-dissolved Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR) was a highly diverse region that has been progressively divided into smaller, more ethnically homogenous regions (Sidama, South West Ethiopia Peoples', Central Ethiopia, and South Ethiopia).

Each regional state is further subdivided into Zones, which are in turn divided into Woredas (districts). Woredas are the basic administrative units and are further broken down into Kebeles (wards or neighborhood associations), which are the smallest administrative units, particularly in urban areas and for local governance in rural settings.

The population and major urban centers vary significantly across these administrative divisions. For example:

• Addis Ababa, the capital and a chartered city, is the largest urban center with a population exceeding 5 million.
• Oromia Region is the largest regional state by area and population (over 34.5% of the national population according to the 2007 census, primarily Oromo), with major cities like Adama (Nazret), Jimma, and Bishoftu.
• Amhara Region is the second-most populous (around 27% of national population, primarily Amhara), with cities like Bahir Dar (its capital), Gondar, and Dessie.
• Somali Region is predominantly inhabited by ethnic Somalis, with Jijiga as its capital.
• Tigray Region, home to the Tigrayan people (around 6.1% of national population), has Mekelle as its capital. It has been significantly affected by recent conflict.
• The newly formed regions (Sidama, South West, Central Ethiopia, South Ethiopia) reflect the ongoing process of administrative restructuring based on ethnic identity and self-determination demands. For instance, Hawassa is the capital of the Sidama Region.

This system of ethnic federalism is intended to grant self-rule to Ethiopia's diverse ethnic groups. However, it has also been a source of contention and conflict, with issues related to border demarcation between regions, representation of minorities within regions, resource sharing, and the balance of power between the federal government and regional states. Governance issues, including inter-ethnic conflict and disputes over administrative boundaries, are prevalent in several parts of the country.

5.5. Human Rights and Public Order

The human rights situation in Ethiopia has been a subject of significant concern for domestic and international observers for many years, with conditions fluctuating based on the political climate. While the constitution provides for fundamental human rights and freedoms, their practical implementation has often been lacking, particularly during periods of political instability and conflict.

Democratic Development and Freedoms: Ethiopia's journey towards democratic development has been challenging. After the overthrow of the Derg regime, there were hopes for a more open political system. However, the political space often remained restricted, with limitations on freedom of expression, assembly, and association. The initial reforms under Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed in 2018 brought a period of increased openness, with the release of political prisoners and the return of exiled opposition groups. However, this period was followed by a backsliding of some democratic gains, especially in the context of widespread ethnic conflict and the Tigray War. Freedom of the press has seen periods of improvement followed by crackdowns. Journalists and media outlets critical of the government have faced harassment, intimidation, and arrest. Internet shutdowns and restrictions on social media have also been employed by the government during times of unrest.

Human Rights Abuses: Reports by organizations like Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC) have documented various human rights abuses. These include:

• Extrajudicial killings: Security forces have been implicated in unlawful killings of civilians, particularly in conflict-affected regions like Tigray, Oromia, and Amhara.
• Arbitrary arrests and detentions: Thousands of individuals, including political opponents, activists, journalists, and ordinary citizens, have been arbitrarily arrested and detained, often without due process.
• Torture and ill-treatment: Detainees have reportedly been subjected to torture and other forms of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment in police stations, prisons, and unofficial detention centers.
• Restrictions on civil liberties: Freedoms of expression, assembly, and association have been frequently curtailed, with protests often met with excessive force by security forces.
• Conflict-related abuses: The Tigray War and other internal conflicts have been accompanied by widespread atrocities, including mass killings of civilians, ethnic cleansing, systematic sexual and gender-based violence, and deliberate starvation tactics. All parties to these conflicts have been accused of serious violations of international human rights and humanitarian law.

Impact on Minorities and Vulnerable Groups: Ethnic minorities and vulnerable groups, including women, children, and internally displaced persons (IDPs), have often borne the brunt of human rights violations and conflict. Ethnic profiling and violence have been significant issues, leading to mass displacement and humanitarian crises. Access to justice and accountability for abuses remains a major challenge.

Public Order: Maintaining domestic public order has been a persistent challenge due to ethnic tensions, political instability, and armed conflicts. The proliferation of regional militias and armed groups has contributed to insecurity in various parts of the country. While the government has taken measures to address these issues, including peace agreements and security operations, the underlying causes of instability often remain unresolved.

Progress in democratic development and human rights is often intertwined with efforts to achieve national reconciliation, address historical grievances, strengthen independent institutions (like the judiciary and human rights commissions), and ensure accountability for past and ongoing abuses. The international community has frequently called on the Ethiopian government to uphold its human rights obligations and to ensure that those responsible for violations are brought to justice.

6.1. Relations with Neighboring Countries

Ethiopia's relations with its neighbors have been a mix of cooperation and conflict, shaped by historical ties, border issues, resource competition (especially water), and regional power dynamics.

• Eritrea: Relations with Eritrea have been particularly volatile. After a long war of independence, Eritrea seceded from Ethiopia in 1993. A border dispute led to the devastating Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998-2000). Tensions remained high for nearly two decades until a surprise peace agreement was reached in 2018 under Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed and Eritrean President Isaias Afwerki. Eritrean forces later controversially allied with Ethiopian federal forces during the Tigray War. The relationship remains complex and subject to shifts. Humanitarian concerns have been significant, especially regarding refugees and the impact of conflicts on civilian populations in border areas.

• Somalia: Relations with Somalia have historically been strained, largely due to territorial disputes, particularly over the Somali-inhabited Ogaden region of Ethiopia. This led to the Ogaden War in 1977-1978. Ethiopia has played a significant role in regional efforts to stabilize Somalia, including military interventions against Islamist militant groups like Al-Shabaab. Ethiopia also hosts a large number of Somali refugees.

• Sudan: Relations with Sudan have fluctuated. The two countries share a long border, and there have been historical ties as well as periods of tension, including disputes over the fertile al-Fashaga border region. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile has become a major point of contention, as Sudan is a downstream riparian state. Both countries also host refugees from each other and from regional conflicts.

• South Sudan: Ethiopia played a key role in mediating the conflict that led to South Sudan's independence in 2011 and has continued to be involved in peace efforts in South Sudan. The two countries share a border and have common interests in regional stability, though border demarcation remains an issue. Ethiopia hosts many South Sudanese refugees.

• Kenya: Relations with Kenya are generally stable and cooperative, focusing on trade, security cooperation (particularly against regional threats like Al-Shabaab), and infrastructure development, such as the LAPSSET corridor project. Border communities share cultural and economic ties.

• Djibouti: Djibouti is a crucial strategic partner for landlocked Ethiopia, as the Port of Djibouti serves as Ethiopia's primary access to the sea and handles the vast majority of its international trade. The Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway is a key infrastructure link. Relations are generally strong and economically interdependent.

Humanitarian concerns, including refugee flows and the impact of cross-border conflicts, are significant factors in Ethiopia's relations with all its neighbors.

6.2. Relations with Major Powers and Blocs

Ethiopia maintains diplomatic and economic ties with major global powers and international blocs, often balancing these relationships to serve its national interests.

• United States: The U.S. has historically been a significant partner, particularly in areas of development aid, food security, health programs, and counter-terrorism cooperation in the Horn of Africa. However, relations have been strained at times due to concerns over human rights and democratic governance in Ethiopia, especially during the Tigray War, leading to some sanctions and restrictions on aid.

• China: China has emerged as a major economic and political partner for Ethiopia. Chinese investment has been crucial in developing Ethiopia's infrastructure, including roads, railways (like the Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway), telecommunications, and industrial parks. Ethiopia is a key participant in China's Belt and Road Initiative. This relationship is primarily driven by economic interests, though political ties have also strengthened. Concerns exist regarding debt sustainability related to Chinese loans.

• European Union (EU): The EU and its member states are significant development and trade partners for Ethiopia. The EU provides substantial development assistance and humanitarian aid. Similar to the U.S., relations have faced challenges due to concerns about human rights, governance, and the humanitarian situation during recent conflicts.

• Russia: Ethiopia has historical ties with Russia, dating back to the Soviet era when the Derg regime received significant support. In recent years, relations have seen renewed engagement, particularly in areas like military cooperation and political alignment on some international issues.

• Middle Eastern Nations: Ethiopia has important historical, cultural, and economic ties with countries in the Middle East, including Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, and Israel. These relationships involve trade, investment, and sometimes geopolitical considerations. The Gulf states are major destinations for Ethiopian migrant workers. Religious ties (Christianity and Islam) also play a role.

• BRICS: Ethiopia became a full member of the BRICS group of emerging economies (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, and new members) in January 2024. This membership is seen as an opportunity to enhance economic cooperation, attract investment, and increase its influence on the global stage.

Ethiopia's foreign policy often seeks to maintain a degree of non-alignment while engaging with diverse partners to support its development agenda and regional influence.

6.3. Role in International Organizations

Ethiopia plays a prominent role in various international and regional organizations, reflecting its historical significance and strategic position in Africa.

• African Union (AU): Addis Ababa is the headquarters of the African Union, making Ethiopia a central hub for pan-African diplomacy and activities. Ethiopia was a founding member of the OAU (Organisation of African Unity), the AU's predecessor, in 1963. It actively participates in AU summits, peace and security initiatives, and socio-economic development programs. Ethiopian leaders have often held key positions within the AU.

• United Nations (UN): Ethiopia is a founding member of the United Nations (1945). It has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping missions and actively participates in various UN agencies and programs. The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) is headquartered in Addis Ababa. Ethiopia has also served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council.

• Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD): Ethiopia is a key member of IGAD, a regional organization in the Horn of Africa focused on peace, security, and development. Ethiopia has played a significant role in IGAD-led mediation efforts for conflicts in neighboring countries, such as Sudan and South Sudan.

• Other International Bodies: Ethiopia is a member of numerous other international organizations, including the Non-Aligned Movement, the Group of 77 (G77), the World Trade Organization (WTO, as an observer actively pursuing full membership), and international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. It became a full member of BRICS in 2024.

Ethiopia's participation in these organizations allows it to voice its interests on the global stage, contribute to multilateral solutions for regional and international challenges, and access development assistance and technical cooperation. Its role as a host to major international organizations like the AU and UNECA further enhances its diplomatic influence in Africa.

8.1. Agriculture

Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, accounting for about 32-37% of GDP (as of 2022), over 80% of employment, and the majority of export earnings. Production is predominantly rain-fed and carried out by small-scale farmers.

Major Crops:

• Coffee: Ethiopia is the birthplace of Coffea arabica, and coffee remains its single largest export earner. Ethiopian coffee is renowned for its quality and diverse flavor profiles. The sector provides a livelihood for millions of Ethiopians.
• Teff: A fine grain endemic to Ethiopia, teff is the staple food crop used to make injera, the traditional flatbread.
• Cereals: Other important cereals include maize (corn), wheat, barley, and sorghum. Ethiopia is Africa's second-biggest maize producer.
• Pulses and Oilseeds: Beans, lentils, chickpeas, and various oilseeds (like sesame and niger seeds) are widely cultivated for domestic consumption and export.
• Floriculture: The flower industry has grown rapidly, making Ethiopia one of the world's leading exporters of cut flowers, particularly roses.
• Other Crops: Sugarcane, fruits, vegetables, and khat (a stimulant plant, primarily exported to neighboring countries) are also important.

Ethiopia is a Vavilov center of crop diversity, holding rich genetic resources for crops like enset (false banana), coffee, and teff.

Challenges: The agricultural sector faces numerous challenges:

• Dependence on Rainfall: Susceptibility to drought and erratic rainfall patterns due to climate change.
• Land Degradation: Soil erosion, deforestation, and loss of soil fertility.
• Small Landholdings and Low Productivity: Limited access to modern inputs (fertilizers, improved seeds), technology, and credit for smallholders.
• Land Tenure System: State ownership of land can create insecurity and disincentivize long-term investment.
• Market Access and Infrastructure: Poor rural roads and limited market linkages.
• Pests and Diseases: Crop losses due to pests and diseases.

Development Strategies: The government has implemented various strategies to boost agricultural productivity and ensure food security, such as the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) policy, and subsequent Growth and Transformation Plans (GTPs). These strategies focus on improving extension services, access to inputs, irrigation development, and promoting commercial agriculture, with an increasing emphasis on sustainability and benefiting smallholder farmers. Addressing land rights and the impact of climate change are crucial for the sector's long-term development.

8.2. Industry and Services

The industrial sector in Ethiopia, while still relatively small, has been a focus of government development efforts aimed at economic transformation and job creation. It contributes around 25-30% of GDP. Key manufacturing sub-sectors include:

• Textiles and Garments: This has been a priority area, with the development of industrial parks to attract foreign investment. Ethiopia aims to leverage its large, low-cost labor force.
• Leather and Leather Products: Utilizing the country's large livestock population, the leather industry produces shoes, bags, and other goods for domestic and export markets.
• Food and Beverages: Processing of agricultural products for local consumption and export.
• Cement and Construction Materials: Driven by large-scale infrastructure projects and urbanization.
• Agro-processing: Adding value to agricultural commodities.

Challenges in the industrial sector include shortages of foreign exchange for importing raw materials and machinery, power supply issues, bureaucratic hurdles, and the need for skilled labor. Labor conditions and environmental standards in some industrial parks have also been subjects of concern, and ensuring decent work and sustainable practices is an ongoing issue.

The services sector is the largest contributor to Ethiopia's GDP, accounting for around 37-40%. Key components include:

• Tourism: Ethiopia has significant tourism potential due to its rich history, cultural heritage (including UNESCO World Heritage Sites like Lalibela and Aksum), diverse landscapes, and unique wildlife. However, the sector has been affected by political instability and conflict, as well as infrastructure limitations.
• Transport and Logistics: Dominated by the state-owned Ethiopian Airlines, one of Africa's largest and most profitable carriers. Road and rail transport are also expanding.
• Telecommunications: Historically a state monopoly under Ethio telecom, the sector has recently opened up to private competition, with new licenses being issued.
• Finance: The banking and insurance industries are predominantly locally owned, with state-owned banks playing a major role. The sector is gradually liberalizing.
• Information Technology (IT): The IT sector is nascent but has growth potential, particularly in software development and business process outsourcing.
• Wholesale and Retail Trade.
• Public Administration and Defense.

The services sector has been a significant driver of economic growth and employment. Improving the quality and accessibility of services, particularly in finance and telecommunications, is crucial for overall economic development.

8.3. Energy and Mineral Resources

Ethiopia's energy policy heavily emphasizes the development of its abundant renewable energy resources, particularly hydropower. The country has the largest water reserves in Africa and is often referred to as the "water tower of Africa."

• Hydropower: As of 2012, hydroelectric plants represented around 88.2% of the total installed electricity generating capacity. This share remains very high. Major hydropower projects include:
  • The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile River, with a planned capacity of 6,450 MW, is the largest hydroelectric power station in Africa. It began partial power generation in 2022 and was largely completed in 2023. The GERD is a flagship project intended to meet domestic energy needs and export electricity, but it has also been a source of diplomatic tension with downstream Nile countries, Egypt and Sudan, over water rights and dam operation.
  • The Gilgel Gibe III Dam (1,870 MW) was previously the largest dam.
  • Other dams like Gibe I, Gibe II, Tekeze, and Beles also contribute significantly.
• Other Renewable Sources: Ethiopia also has potential for geothermal, wind, and solar energy. Several wind farms are operational, and geothermal exploration is ongoing in the Rift Valley. These sources represent a smaller but growing portion of the energy mix (around 3.6% from various renewables excluding large hydro in 2012).
• Fossil Fuels: A small percentage of electricity (around 8.3% in 2012) was generated from fossil fuels, primarily for backup and off-grid applications. Ethiopia imports petroleum products for transport and other needs.

Electrification rates have been increasing but remain relatively low, especially in rural areas. In 2016, the overall electrification rate was 42% (85% in urban areas, 26% in rural areas). Total electricity production was 11.15 TWh, with consumption at 9.062 TWh. Ethiopia aims to achieve universal electricity access and become a regional power exporter.

Mineral Resources:
Ethiopia has various mineral resources, though the mining sector is relatively underdeveloped compared to agriculture.

• Gold: Gold is the most significant mineral export. It is mined both by large-scale companies and artisanal miners. The Lega Dembi mine is a major gold producer.
• Platinum: Deposits of platinum are also found.
• Tantalum: Ethiopia is a producer of tantalum, used in electronics. The Kenticha mine is a notable source.
• Potash: Significant potash reserves exist in the Danakil Depression, with projects underway for extraction.
• Opal: Ethiopia is known for its precious opals, particularly Welo opals.
• Other Minerals: Deposits of iron ore, coal, gemstones, and industrial minerals like limestone, clay, and gypsum also exist. Natural gas reserves have been identified in the Ogaden Basin, but commercial production has been limited.

The development of mineral resources presents opportunities for economic diversification and revenue generation. However, it also requires careful management to mitigate environmental and social impacts, ensure fair benefit-sharing with local communities, and address issues of governance and transparency in the extractive sector. Conflicts and instability in some mineral-rich areas can also hinder development.

8.4. Transport

Ethiopia, being a large and landlocked country, relies heavily on its transport infrastructure for internal connectivity, international trade, and economic development. Significant investments have been made in recent years to expand and upgrade the transport network.

Roads:
The road network is the primary mode of transport for passengers and freight. As of 2023, the total road length was approximately 112 K mile ^{(180.00 K km)}. However, a substantial portion of this network consists of unpaved rural roads. The government has prioritized road construction and rehabilitation, leading to a significant expansion of the paved road network and improved connectivity between major towns and regions. The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) oversees road development. Major trans-African automobile routes like the Cairo-Cape Town Highway and the N'Djamena-Djibouti Highway pass through Ethiopia.

Railways:
Ethiopia has been reviving its railway system with modern standard gauge lines.

• The Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway: This 752 km electrified standard gauge railway, largely financed and built by Chinese companies, connects Addis Ababa to the Port of Djibouti. It was officially inaugurated in October 2016 (Djibouti section) and January 2018 (Ethiopian section) and is crucial for Ethiopia's import-export trade, providing a vital link to the sea. It replaced the old metre-gauge Ethio-Djibouti Railway.
• The Awash-Hara Gebeya Railway: This line, also standard gauge, extends northwards from Awash (on the Addis Ababa-Djibouti line) towards Hara Gebeya/Woldiya, with plans to eventually reach Mekelle in the Tigray Region. It is part of a larger national railway network plan.
• Addis Ababa Light Rail: An electrified light rail transit system operating in the capital, Addis Ababa, opened in 2015. It was the first light rail system in sub-Saharan Africa and serves a large number of commuters daily.

Aviation:
Ethiopian Airlines, the state-owned flag carrier, is one of the largest and most successful airlines in Africa, with an extensive network of domestic, regional, and international routes. It plays a vital role in passenger and cargo transport, tourism, and connecting Ethiopia to the global economy.

• Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa is the main international gateway and a major hub for the airline and the region.
• Aba Tenna Dejazmach Yilma International Airport in Dire Dawa also handles international flights.
• Ethiopia has numerous domestic airports and airstrips serving various parts of the country. As of 2016, there were around 61 airports.

Maritime Access:
As a landlocked country since Eritrea's independence, Ethiopia relies on ports in neighboring countries for its maritime trade. The Port of Djibouti is the most important, handling the vast majority of Ethiopia's cargo. Efforts have been made to diversify port access, including exploring options through ports in Somaliland (Berbera), Kenya (Lamu, Mombasa), and Sudan (Port Sudan).

Challenges and Future Development:
Despite progress, Ethiopia's transport sector faces challenges, including the high cost of transport, the need for further expansion and maintenance of the road network (especially in rural areas), improving road safety, and ensuring the financial sustainability and efficiency of railway operations. Future development plans focus on continuing to expand and upgrade road and rail networks, enhancing logistics and trade facilitation, and strengthening urban transport systems.

8.5. Science and Technology

Science and technology (S&T) development in Ethiopia is emerging, with the government recognizing its importance for economic growth and modernization. However, the S&T sector faces challenges related to funding, infrastructure, human resource capacity, and a coordinated national innovation system.

Major Institutions and Initiatives:

• The Ministry of Innovation and Technology (formerly Ministry of Science and Technology) is the primary government body responsible for formulating and implementing S&T policies.
• The Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute (ESSTI) was established to promote research and development in space science and technology. Ethiopia launched its first multi-spectral remote sensing satellite, ET-RSS1 (70 kg), in December 2019, with assistance from China. The satellite is intended to provide data for agriculture, forestry, climate change monitoring, and natural resource management. The main observatory, the Entoto Observatory and Space Science Research Center (EORC), supports space programs.
• The Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute focuses on research and development in biotechnology, relevant for agriculture, health, and environmental conservation.
• Numerous universities and research institutions across the country are involved in S&T research and education.

Investment and Trends:
Ethiopia has been increasing its investment in S&T, though it remains relatively low compared to more developed nations. Key areas of focus include:

• Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Efforts are underway to expand internet access, improve telecommunications infrastructure, and promote digital literacy.
• Agriculture Technology: Developing and disseminating technologies to improve agricultural productivity and food security.
• Health Technology: Research in public health, pharmaceuticals, and traditional medicine.
• Renewable Energy Technology: Developing expertise in hydropower, wind, solar, and geothermal energy.
• Manufacturing Technology: Supporting the growth of the industrial sector through technological upgrading.

Traditional Medicine: Ethiopia has a rich tradition of traditional medicine, utilized by a large portion of the population for millennia. This involves the use of medicinal plants, spiritual healing, bone-setting, and minor surgical procedures. Research is ongoing to scientifically validate and integrate useful aspects of traditional medicine into the formal healthcare system.

Notable Ethiopian Scientists: Ethiopia has produced several notable scientists, including:

• Kitaw Ejigu (aerospace scientist)
• Mulugeta Bekele (physicist)
• Aklilu Lemma (pathobiologist, known for his discovery of the molluscicidal properties of the endod plant for schistosomiasis control)
• Gebisa Ejeta (agronomist and geneticist, World Food Prize laureate)
• Melaku Worede (geneticist and conservationist, Right Livelihood Award recipient)
• Timnit Gebru (computer scientist, known for her work on AI ethics and algorithmic bias)
• Zeresenay Alemseged (paleoanthropologist)

Challenges:

• Limited funding for research and development.
• Shortage of highly skilled S&T professionals and "brain drain."
• Weak linkages between research institutions and industry.
• Inadequate S&T infrastructure and access to modern equipment.
• Need for a stronger culture of innovation and entrepreneurship.

Ethiopia was ranked 130th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. Continued investment in education, research, and infrastructure, along with supportive policies, will be crucial for advancing Ethiopia's S&T capabilities.

9.1. Population

Ethiopia's population was estimated to be around 132,900,000 in July 2024 by the Ethiopian Statistical Service (ESS). This makes Ethiopia the **10th most populous country in the world**, the **second most populous in Africa** (after Nigeria), and the most populous landlocked country globally.

The population has grown dramatically in recent decades, from about 38.1 million in 1983 to over 109 million by 2018, and continues to grow rapidly. The 2007 national census recorded a population of 73,750,932. The annual population growth rate has been high, though it has shown some decline.

Key demographic features include:

• Age Structure: Ethiopia has a very young population, with a large proportion of children and youth. This demographic profile presents a "demographic dividend" potential if investments in education and job creation are successful, but also strains resources for health, education, and employment.
• Population Density: The average population density was about 92.7 people per square kilometer in 2007, but this varies greatly across regions, with higher densities in the highlands and lower densities in the arid lowlands.
• Urbanization: Urbanization is increasing steadily, though the majority of the population (around 75-80%) still resides in rural areas. Addis Ababa is the largest urban center, followed by cities like Dire Dawa, Mek'ele, Gondar, and Adama. Rapid urbanization presents challenges for housing, infrastructure, and service provision in cities.
• Fertility and Mortality Rates: Fertility rates have been declining but remain relatively high. Infant and child mortality rates have significantly decreased due to improvements in healthcare, but are still high by global standards. Life expectancy has been increasing, reaching around 62.2 years according to UNDP reports in the mid-2010s.

Future population projections indicate continued strong growth, which will place further pressure on resources and public services but also provide a large labor force. Addressing population dynamics through family planning, education (especially for girls), and economic development is a key policy focus.

9.2. Ethnic Groups

Ethiopia is a remarkably diverse multinational state, home to over 80 different ethnic groups with distinct languages, cultures, and traditions. The 1995 constitution established a system of ethnic federalism, where regional states are largely delineated along ethnic lines.

According to the 2007 national census, the major ethnic groups include:

• The Oromo are the largest ethnic group, constituting 34.5% of the population (approximately 25.4 million people in 2007). They primarily inhabit the Oromia Region, which surrounds Addis Ababa and extends across large parts of central, western, and southern Ethiopia.
• The Amhara are the second largest group, making up 26.9% of the population (approximately 19.9 million people). They are predominantly found in the Amhara Region in the northwestern highlands. Historically, Amharic language and culture have played a significant role in the Ethiopian state.
• Somali people represent 6.2% of the population (approximately 4.59 million people), mainly residing in the Somali Region in eastern Ethiopia.
• Tigrayans comprise 6.1% of the population (approximately 4.49 million people) and are concentrated in the Tigray Region in northern Ethiopia. They have a long history and played a dominant role in the EPRDF government from 1991 to 2018.
• The Sidama account for 4.0% of the population (approximately 2.95 million people), primarily in the Sidama Region.
• Gurage people make up 2.5% of the population (approximately 1.86 million people), inhabiting the Gurage Zone, now part of the Central Ethiopia Regional State.
• The Welayta constitute 2.3% of the population (approximately 1.68 million people), mainly in the Wolayita Zone.
• Hadiya people represent 1.7% of the population (approximately 1.27 million people).
• Afar people also account for 1.7% of the population (approximately 1.28 million people), primarily in the Afar Region in northeastern Ethiopia.
• The Gamo comprise 1.5% of the population (approximately 1.10 million people).
• Numerous other smaller ethnic groups collectively make up the remaining 12.6% of the population (approximately 9.30 million people). These include groups like the Kaffa, Konso, Nuer, Anuak, and many others, particularly in the diverse southern and western regions.

Inter-ethnic Relations and Conflicts:
Inter-ethnic relations in Ethiopia have been complex, characterized by periods of cooperation and conflict. The system of ethnic federalism, while intended to grant self-rule and protect cultural identities, has also been criticized for exacerbating ethnic divisions and competition over resources, land, and political power. Recent years have seen a significant rise in ethnic conflicts in various parts of the country, including Oromia, Amhara, Benishangul-Gumuz, and the border areas between regions. These conflicts have resulted in large-scale displacement, loss of life, and humanitarian crises. Issues of discrimination against minority groups within certain regions and at the national level have also been reported. Efforts towards national dialogue, reconciliation, and building social cohesion are ongoing but face considerable challenges. Addressing historical grievances and ensuring equitable representation and resource distribution are key to fostering peaceful inter-ethnic relations.

9.3. Languages

Ethiopia is a linguistically diverse country, with over 80 indigenous languages spoken. According to Glottolog, there are 109 languages, while Ethnologue lists 90. These languages belong to several major language families:

• Afroasiatic: This is the most dominant language family.
  • Semitic Branch: Includes Amharic (the federal working language), Tigrinya, Gurage languages (Silt'e, etc.), and Harari. Geʽez, an ancient Semitic language, is still used as a liturgical language by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
  • Cushitic Branch: Includes Oromo (the most widely spoken language by number of native speakers, accounting for 33.8% of speakers according to the 2007 census), Somali (6.2%), Sidama (4.0%), Afar (1.7%), Hadiyya (1.7%), and Agaw languages.
  • Omotic Branch: Includes languages like Wolaytta (2.2%), Gamo-Gofa-Dawro (1.5%), Kafa, and Dawro. (Some linguists classify Omotic as a separate branch of Afroasiatic, while others consider it a distinct family).
• Nilo-Saharan: Spoken by communities primarily in the western and southwestern border areas, including languages like Nuer, Anuak, Gumuz, and Berta.

Amharic is spoken by 29.3% of the population, and Tigrinya by 5.9%. Other languages make up the remaining percentage.

Language Policy and Status:

• Federal Working Language: Amharic is the working language of the federal government, as stipulated in the 1995 constitution. It has historically served as a lingua franca in many parts of the country.
• Official Regional Languages: In March 2020, Afar, Oromo, Somali, and Tigrinya were designated as additional federal working languages, alongside Amharic. Regional states have the constitutional right to determine their own official working languages. Many regions use the language of their predominant ethnic group for administration and primary education (e.g., Oromo in Oromia, Tigrinya in Tigray, Somali in Somali Region).
• Script: The primary writing system for Amharic, Tigrinya, Ge'ez, and some other languages is the Ge'ez script, an abugida (syllabary). Other languages use Latin-based alphabets (e.g., Oromo, Somali) or other scripts.
• Foreign Languages: English is the most widely spoken foreign language and serves as the medium of instruction in secondary schools and higher education. Federal laws are also published in English. Arabic is spoken in some areas, particularly by Muslim communities, and Italian is understood by some, a legacy of the Italian occupation.

Language is closely tied to ethnic identity and has been a significant factor in Ethiopian politics and administration, particularly under the ethnic federalism system. Promoting multilingualism while ensuring effective communication and national unity is an ongoing challenge.

9.4. Religion

Ethiopia has a rich and diverse religious landscape, with deep historical ties to both Christianity and Islam. The 2007 National Census provides the most recent comprehensive data on religious affiliation:

• Christianity is the largest religion, adhered to by 62.8% of the population.
  • The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is the most prominent denomination, comprising 43.5% of the total population. This ancient church is one of the oldest Christian churches in the world, having been the state religion of the Aksumite Kingdom since the 4th century. It is part of the Oriental Orthodoxy communion and has a unique liturgy, theology, and traditions, including the use of the Ge'ez language. It plays a significant role in Ethiopian culture and national identity.
  • P'ent'ay (Protestantism/Evangelicalism) accounts for 18.6% of the population. This is a rapidly growing segment of Christianity in Ethiopia, encompassing various denominations such as Pentecostal, Baptist, Lutheran (e.g., the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus), and others.
  • Catholicism is followed by 0.7% of the population. The Ethiopian Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic Church in full communion with Rome.
  • Islam is the second-largest religion, practiced by 33.9% of the population. Islam has a long history in Ethiopia, dating back to the first Hijra in 615 AD, when early followers of Prophet Muhammad sought refuge in the Aksumite Kingdom. The majority of Ethiopian Muslims are Sunni, predominantly following the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence, with a significant Sufi presence. Muslims are concentrated in eastern, southeastern, and some central and western regions, particularly among the Somali, Afar, and parts of the Oromo and Gurage populations.
  • Traditional Faiths are followed by 2.6% of the population. Various indigenous belief systems and animist practices are adhered to by some communities, particularly in the southern and western parts of the country.
  • Others/None constitute 0.6% of the population. This category includes other religions and those with no religious affiliation. A small community of Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews) existed for centuries, though most emigrated to Israel in the late 20th century.

  The Ethiopian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and establishes a secular state, prohibiting a state religion. Inter-religious relations have generally been peaceful and tolerant throughout much of Ethiopia's history, although there have been sporadic tensions and conflicts, sometimes exacerbated by political or ethnic factors. Religious leaders and institutions often play important roles in social life, community mediation, and sometimes in national affairs.

9.5. Education

Ethiopia's education system has undergone significant expansion in recent decades, with increased enrollment at all levels. However, challenges related to access, quality, equity, and relevance persist. The Ministry of Education governs the system.

Structure of the Education System:
The education system generally follows a structure of:

• Primary Education: Typically 8 years, often divided into two cycles (e.g., grades 1-4 and grades 5-8). Public primary education is officially free. The language of instruction in early primary grades is often the local mother tongue, with Amharic and/or English introduced later.
• Secondary Education: 4 years, divided into two cycles:
  • General Secondary (Grades 9-10): Culminates in the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE).
  • Preparatory Secondary (Grades 11-12): For students who pass the EGSECE and wish to pursue higher education. This cycle concludes with the Ethiopian Higher Education Entrance Certificate Examination (EHEECE).
• Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET): Provides skills training for various occupations.
• Higher Education: Includes universities and colleges offering diploma, undergraduate, and postgraduate programs.

Enrollment and Literacy:
Access to education has improved significantly. Primary school enrollment increased dramatically from around 3 million in the mid-1990s to over 15.5 million by the late 2000s, and has continued to grow. Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER) at the primary level have been high, though net enrollment and completion rates are lower, indicating issues with dropout and repetition.
The adult literacy rate has also increased. According to the 1994 census, it was 23.4%. By 2015, it had risen to 49.1% (57.2% for males and 41.1% for females). UNESCO estimated a literacy rate of 52% as of 2017. Despite progress, significant disparities in literacy and educational attainment exist based on gender, region (urban vs. rural), and socio-economic status.

Major Universities:
Ethiopia has a growing number of public and private universities. Some of the oldest and largest public universities include:

• Addis Ababa University (founded as University College of Addis Ababa in 1950)
• Haramaya University (formerly Alemaya University of Agriculture)
• Mekelle University
• Bahir Dar University
• Gondar University
• Jimma University
• Hawassa University

Challenges in Education:

• Quality: Ensuring the quality of education at all levels is a major challenge, related to teacher training and qualifications, curriculum relevance, availability of learning materials, and large class sizes.
• Access and Equity: Despite enrollment gains, many children, particularly in remote rural areas, from pastoralist communities, and girls, still lack access to education or drop out early. Regional disparities are significant.
• Resource Constraints: Inadequate funding for schools, materials, and teacher salaries.
• Relevance: Aligning the education system with the needs of the labor market and national development goals.
• Impact of Conflict: Conflicts and instability in various regions have severely disrupted education, damaging schools and displacing students and teachers.
• Infrastructure: Lack of adequate classrooms, libraries, laboratories, and sanitation facilities, especially in rural schools.

The government continues to prioritize education in its development plans, with a focus on improving quality, expanding access to secondary and higher education, and strengthening the TVET system.

9.6. Health

Ethiopia has made significant strides in improving health indicators over the past few decades, but it still faces substantial public health challenges. The healthcare system is characterized by a focus on primary healthcare, with efforts to expand access, particularly in rural areas.

Key Health Indicators:

• Life Expectancy: Life expectancy at birth has increased, reaching approximately 66.6 years in 2019 (World Bank data), up from around 50 years in the late 1990s.
• Infant and Child Mortality: These rates have seen substantial reductions. The infant mortality rate was around 33 deaths per 1,000 live births, and the under-five mortality rate was around 47 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2020 (UNICEF). However, these rates are still high compared to global averages.
• Maternal Mortality: Maternal mortality remains a significant concern, although it has also declined.
• Disease Burden: Communicable diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality, including lower respiratory infections (like pneumonia), diarrheal diseases, tuberculosis, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer are also becoming increasingly prevalent.

Healthcare System and Access:
Ethiopia's healthcare system is structured in tiers, from primary health care units (health posts, health centers) at the community level to general and specialized hospitals at higher levels. The Health Extension Program (HEP), launched in the early 2000s, has been a cornerstone of efforts to expand primary healthcare access, utilizing community-based health extension workers.
Access to healthcare services remains limited, especially in rural and remote areas. There is a shortage of health facilities, trained health professionals (doctors, nurses, midwives), essential medicines, and medical equipment. The physician density is very low; the World Health Organization (WHO) reported about 2.6 physicians per 100,000 people in 2003, a figure that has improved but remains critically low. Financial barriers also limit access for many.

Major Health Issues:

• Communicable Diseases: Malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and diarrheal diseases are major public health problems, often exacerbated by poor sanitation, lack of clean water, and malnutrition.
• Malnutrition: Stunting, wasting, and micronutrient deficiencies are prevalent, particularly among children and pregnant women, impacting long-term health and development.
• Maternal and Child Health: High rates of maternal and child mortality are linked to limited access to skilled birth attendants, emergency obstetric care, and postnatal care.
• Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH): Inadequate access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities contributes significantly to the burden of infectious diseases. As of 2023, nearly half the population lacked access to clean water.
• Mental Health: Mental health services are underdeveloped and under-resourced. A National Mental Health Strategy was published in 2012 aiming to integrate mental health into primary care, but implementation has faced challenges, including stigma and lack of awareness.

Public Health Policies:
The Ethiopian government has focused on strengthening the primary healthcare system, improving maternal and child health, controlling communicable diseases, and addressing malnutrition. International partners and NGOs play a significant role in supporting health programs. The impact of recent conflicts on the health system has been severe, with damage to health facilities, displacement of health workers, and disruption of essential services, particularly in regions like Tigray.

9.7. Food Security and Hunger

Food security remains a persistent and critical challenge in Ethiopia, despite improvements in agricultural production and economic growth in recent decades. Millions of Ethiopians regularly face food shortages and hunger, particularly in rural areas vulnerable to drought and conflict.

Current Situation:
According to the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Ethiopia ranks 102nd out of 127 countries, with a score of 26.2, indicating a serious level of hunger. While this represents an improvement from previous decades, food insecurity and malnutrition continue to affect a significant portion of the population. About 16% of the population lived on less than 1 USD per day in 2008. Only 65% of rural households in Ethiopia consumed the World Health Organization's minimum standard of 2,200 kilocalories per day, and 42% of children under five were underweight (data from earlier periods reflecting chronic issues).

Causes of Hunger and Food Insecurity:

• Climate Change and Drought: Ethiopia is highly susceptible to climate variability, particularly recurrent droughts that devastate agricultural production, especially in rain-fed farming systems. The Horn of Africa has experienced increasingly frequent and severe droughts.
• Conflict and Instability: Internal conflicts, such as the Tigray War and unrest in Oromia and Amhara regions, have severely disrupted agricultural activities, displaced millions of people from their farmlands, destroyed food stocks and markets, and hindered humanitarian access.
• Poverty and Low Agricultural Productivity: Widespread rural poverty limits farmers' ability to invest in improved seeds, fertilizers, and technology, leading to low yields. Small landholdings and land degradation further constrain production.
• Population Growth: Rapid population growth puts increasing pressure on land and food resources.
• Market System Inefficiencies: Poor infrastructure (roads, storage), limited access to markets for smallholders, and price volatility can affect food availability and affordability.
• Pests and Diseases: Crop losses due to pests (like desert locusts) and livestock diseases can significantly impact food supplies.

Impacts of Food Insecurity:
Food insecurity leads to malnutrition, particularly among children (stunting, wasting), increased vulnerability to disease, reduced productivity, and long-term impacts on human development. During severe food crises, it can lead to famine conditions and loss of life.

National and International Efforts:
The Ethiopian government has implemented various programs aimed at enhancing food security, including:

• The Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP), one of the largest social protection programs in Africa, provides food or cash transfers to food-insecure households in exchange for participation in public works that build community assets (e.g., soil and water conservation, road construction).
• Agricultural development strategies focused on increasing productivity, promoting irrigation, and improving market access.
• Early warning systems for drought and food shortages.

International organizations (like the World Food Programme, FAO, UNICEF) and NGOs play a crucial role in providing humanitarian food assistance, nutritional support, and long-term resilience-building programs. However, the scale of need often outstrips available resources, especially during major crises.

Addressing food security in Ethiopia requires a multi-faceted approach, including investing in climate-resilient agriculture, promoting peace and stability, strengthening social protection systems, improving natural resource management, and empowering rural communities.

10.1. National Symbols

Ethiopia's national symbols reflect its long history, aspirations, and diverse identity.

• National Flag: The current flag of Ethiopia was adopted on October 31, 1996 (with minor modifications to the emblem later). It consists of three horizontal bands of green (top), yellow (middle), and red (bottom).
  • Green typically symbolizes the land, fertility, and hope.
  • Yellow represents peace, justice, and harmony among Ethiopia's peoples, as well as hope and the country's Christian traditions.
  • Red signifies strength, sacrifice, and the blood shed in defense of the nation's sovereignty and freedom.

  These three colors, often referred to as Pan-African colors, have a long history in Ethiopia, associated with the Solomonic dynasty, and have inspired the flags of many other African nations.
  In the center of the flag is the National Emblem, a blue disc bearing a gold, rayed star with equidistant rays. The star represents the unity of the Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples of Ethiopia, as well as a bright future. The rays symbolize prosperity. The blue background signifies peace.

  • National Emblem: As described above, it is a gold, rayed star on a blue circular background. It appears on the national flag and is used on official documents and government insignia. Its design is intended to reflect the unity and equality of Ethiopia's diverse ethnic groups under the federal constitution.
  • National Anthem: The national anthem is titled "ወደፊት ገስግሺ፣ ውድ እናት ኢትዮጵያ_{Wodefit Gesgeshi Widd Innat Ityopp'ya}^Amharic" (March Forward, Dear Mother Ethiopia_{March Forward, Dear Mother Ethiopia}^English). The lyrics were written by Dereje Melaku Mengesha, and the music was composed by Solomon Lulu Mitiku. It was adopted in 1992, following the fall of the Derg regime. The anthem emphasizes themes of respect for citizenship, national pride, justice, equality, and the progress of a united Ethiopia.

  These symbols serve as unifying elements for the nation, though their interpretation and acceptance can sometimes be influenced by the complex political and ethnic dynamics within the country.

10.2. Public Holidays and Festivals

Ethiopia observes a variety of national and religious public holidays and festivals, reflecting its rich cultural and religious heritage. Many of these are unique to the country or celebrated with distinctive traditions. The Ethiopian calendar is used for many of these, meaning their dates on the Gregorian calendar can vary.

Major National (Secular) Public Holidays:

• Adwa Victory Day** (March 2): Commemorates the Ethiopian victory over Italian colonial forces at the Battle of Adwa in 1896. It is a significant symbol of Ethiopian independence and African resistance to colonialism.
• May Day** (May 1): Celebrated as a workers' holiday.
• Ethiopian Patriots' Victory Day** (May 5): Marks the end of the Italian occupation in 1941 and the return of Emperor Haile Selassie I to Addis Ababa.
• Downfall of the Derg Day** (May 28): Commemorates the fall of the Derg military regime in 1991.
• Enkutatash (Ethiopian New Year)** (September 11 or 12 on the Gregorian calendar; Meskerem 1 on the Ethiopian calendar): Marks the end of the rainy season and the beginning of spring. It is celebrated with family gatherings, feasts, and the exchange of gifts. The yellow Adey Abeba flower is a common symbol.
• Defense Day** (October 26): Honors the Ethiopian National Defense Force.

Major Religious Holidays and Festivals (often public holidays):

• Genna (Ethiopian Christmas)** (January 7 on the Gregorian calendar; Tahsas 29 on the Ethiopian calendar): Celebrated by Ethiopian Orthodox Christians.
• Timkat (Epiphany)** (January 19 or 20 on the Gregorian calendar; Tirr 11 on the Ethiopian calendar): Commemorates the baptism of Jesus Christ in the Jordan River. It is one of the most important and colorful festivals of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, involving processions with replicas of the Ark of the Covenant (Tabots) to bodies of water for ceremonial blessings. Timkat is recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage.
• Fasika (Ethiopian Easter)** (movable date, typically in April or May): The most important festival for Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, preceded by a long period of fasting (Hudadi or Great Lent).
• Meskel (Finding of the True Cross)** (September 27 or 28 on the Gregorian calendar; Meskerem 17 on the Ethiopian calendar): Commemorates the legendary discovery of the True Cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Celebrations include the lighting of large bonfires (Demera) on the eve of Meskel. Meskel is also a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.
• Mawlid (Prophet Muhammad's Birthday)** (movable date according to the Islamic lunar calendar): Celebrated by Ethiopian Muslims.
• Eid al-Fitr (End of Ramadan)** (movable date): Marks the end of the month-long fast of Ramadan, celebrated by Muslims.
• Eid al-Adha (Feast of Sacrifice)** (movable date): Commemorates the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son, celebrated by Muslims.

Other regional and ethnic festivals, such as Irreechaa (an Oromo thanksgiving festival), are also significant cultural events, though not always national public holidays. The diverse religious and cultural calendar contributes to the vibrant social life of Ethiopia.

10.3. Cuisine

Ethiopian cuisine is distinctive and renowned for its unique flavors, communal eating style, and use of characteristic ingredients. The centerpiece of most Ethiopian meals is injera, a large, spongy, sourdough flatbread made from teff flour. Teff is a tiny, iron-rich grain endemic to Ethiopia. Injera serves as both the plate and the utensil; pieces are torn off and used to scoop up various stews and side dishes.

Wat (or wot) is a thick stew, which can be meat-based or vegetarian. Common types of wat include:

• Doro wat: A spicy chicken stew, often considered the national dish. It is typically made with chicken, hard-boiled eggs, onions, garlic, ginger, berbere (a spicy chili powder blend), and niter kibbeh (spiced clarified butter).
• Siga wat: A beef stew, also often spicy.
• Misir wat: A lentil stew, popular during fasting periods.
• Shiro wat: A stew made from powdered chickpeas or broad beans.
• Gomen wat: Collard greens or kale cooked with spices.

Other notable dishes include:

• Kitfo: Minced raw beef marinated in mitmita (another hot spice blend) and niter kibbeh. It can also be served lightly cooked (leb leb) or fully cooked. Originating from the Gurage people.
• Tibs: Sautéed or grilled meat (beef, lamb, or goat) cooked with onions, peppers, and spices.
• Fit-fit or Fir-fir: Shredded injera mixed with wat or other sauces. Kitcha fit-fit (or chechebsa) is made with unleavened bread.
• Tihlo: Dumplings made from roasted barley flour, originating from the Tigray Region, typically served with a spicy sauce.
• Marqa, Chukko, Michirra, and Dhanga are popular dishes from the Oromo people.

Ethiopian cuisine often features a variety of vegetarian and vegan dishes, partly due to the fasting traditions of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, which involve abstaining from meat and dairy products on Wednesdays, Fridays, and during longer fasting periods like Lent. Pork is generally not consumed due to religious prohibitions in both Orthodox Christianity and Islam.

Coffee Culture and Ceremony:

Ethiopia is the birthplace of Coffea arabica, and coffee plays a central role in Ethiopian culture. The coffee ceremony (ቡና ማፍላት_{bunna mafflat}^Amharic) is an important social ritual. It involves roasting green coffee beans over a brazier, grinding the roasted beans, brewing the coffee in a traditional clay pot called a jebena, and serving it in small, handleless cups. The ceremony is a sign of hospitality and can last for hours, often involving three rounds of coffee (Abol, Tona, and Bereka), each progressively weaker. Incense is often burned during the ceremony.

Eating is typically a communal affair, with food served on a large platter shared by everyone. A common custom is gursha, where individuals feed each other by hand as a gesture of friendship and affection.

10.4. Literature

Ethiopian literature has a long and rich tradition, dating back to ancient times, primarily written in Geʽez (Classical Ethiopic) and later in Amharic and other Ethiopian languages.

Ancient and Medieval Literature (Ge'ez):
The earliest Ethiopian literature is associated with the Kingdom of Aksum (4th-7th centuries AD) and was predominantly religious in nature, following the adoption of Christianity. Key works from this period include:

• Translations of the Bible into Ge'ez.
• Hagiographies (lives of saints), theological treatises, and liturgical texts.
• Important original Ge'ez works include the Kebra Nagast (Glory of Kings), a national epic compiled in the 14th century that recounts the legend of the Queen of Sheba, King Solomon, and the Solomonic dynasty's divine origins, including the bringing of the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia.
• Works by figures like Saint Yared (6th century), credited with inventing Ethiopian church music and notation, and Giyorgis of Segla (14th-15th century), author of the Book of Hours (Mäṣḥafä Sä'atat) and hymns.
• Philosophical works, such as the 17th-century treatise Hatata by Zera Yacob and his student Walda Heywat, which explored rationalist philosophy.

Ethiopian literary works were traditionally preserved in handwritten codices (ብራና_branna^Amharic), made from parchment leaves. Protective scrolls (written amulets) were also common.

Modern Literature (Primarily Amharic):
The development of modern Ethiopian literature began in the early 20th century, with Amharic becoming the primary literary language.

• Early modern writers include Afawarq Gabra Iyasus, who wrote the first Amharic novel, Libb Walled Tarik (A Story Born of the Heart, 1908).
• The "Haile Selassie era" saw a flourishing of Amharic literature. Notable authors include:
  • Haddis Alemayehu, whose novel Fəqər Əskä Mäqabər (Love to the Grave, 1968) is considered a classic of Ethiopian literature.
  • Kebede Michael, a prolific writer of plays, poems, and historical works.
  • Mengistu Lemma, known for his plays and short stories.
• During the Derg regime, literary expression was often constrained by censorship, but some writers continued to produce significant works, sometimes allegorically or critically. Baalu Girma was a prominent novelist and journalist of this period, whose works like Oromay (The End) offered critiques of the government; his disappearance in 1984 is widely attributed to the regime.
• Contemporary Ethiopian literature continues to evolve, with writers exploring diverse themes in Amharic and other Ethiopian languages, as well as in English. Themes often include social issues, history, identity, and the challenges of modern life.

Poetry:
Poetry has a strong tradition in Ethiopia. Qəne is a sophisticated form of Amharic poetry characterized by its use of "wax and gold" (ሰምና ወርቅ_{sämənna wärq}^Amharic), a metaphorical style where a poem has an obvious surface meaning (the "wax") and a deeper, hidden meaning (the "gold"). Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin was a renowned poet laureate, playwright, and historian.

Preservation of Ethiopia's literary heritage, particularly ancient manuscripts, is an ongoing effort, facing challenges such as political instability and resource limitations.

10.5. Music

The music of Ethiopia is exceptionally diverse, reflecting the country's many ethnic groups, each with its unique sounds, instruments, and traditions. Ethiopian music often employs a distinct pentatonic modal system, known as qenet, characterized by particular intervals.

Traditional and Religious Music:

• Saint Yared** (6th century AD) is a pivotal figure, considered the father of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church music. He developed a system of musical notation and composed numerous hymns and chants (zema) that form the basis of Ethiopian liturgical music. This music is an integral part of church services and religious festivals.
• Folk Music**: Each ethnic group has its own traditional folk music, often associated with specific life events (births, weddings, funerals), agricultural activities, and cultural celebrations. Traditional instruments vary by region and include:
  • Krar: A five or six-stringed lyre.
  • Masenqo: A single-stringed bowed lute.
  • Begena: A large, ten-stringed lyre, often associated with religious meditation.
  • Washint: A wooden flute.
  • Kebero: A large, double-headed hand drum used in religious ceremonies and secular music.
  • Tom-tom (atamo): A small hand drum.

  Traditional singing styles include various forms of polyphony like heterophony, drone, imitation, and counterpoint.
  
  Azmari: Azmaris are traditional wandering minstrels or bards, skilled in playing the masenqo or krar and improvising songs about current events, social commentary, praise, or satire. They play an important role in Ethiopian social life.
  
  Popular Music (Modern Ethiopian Music):
  Modern Ethiopian popular music began to develop in the early 20th century, particularly during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie.

  • The arrival of the Arba Lijoch ("Forty Orphans"), a group of Armenian orphans who formed an imperial brass band in the 1920s, influenced the development of modern instrumental music.
    • The "Golden Age" (1960s-1970s)**: This period saw a flourishing of Ethiopian popular music, often blending traditional Ethiopian melodies and modes with Western jazz, funk, soul, and Latin influences. This era produced many iconic artists, including:
      • Tilahun Gessesse
      • Alemayehu Eshete
      • Mahmoud Ahmed
      • Bizunesh Bekele
      • Muluken Melesse
      • Aster Aweke (began her career in this era)

      This music, often referred to as "Ethio-jazz," gained international recognition, notably through the Éthiopiques CD series.

      • Derg Era (1974-1991)**: The Derg regime imposed censorship and restrictions, leading many musicians to go into exile. However, music continued to be produced, sometimes with patriotic or revolutionary themes. Bands like the Roha Band, Walias Band, and Ethio Stars were prominent. Neway Debebe emerged as a popular singer, sometimes critical of the regime.
      • Post-Derg Era (1991-Present)**: The 1990s and 2000s saw a resurgence of popular music, with artists like Aster Aweke and Gigi Shibabaw achieving international fame. Teddy Afro became one of the most popular and sometimes controversial contemporary artists.
• Modern Ethiopian music continues to evolve, incorporating elements of electronic dance music (EDM), hip hop, and R&B. DJ Rophnan is known for pioneering Ethiopian EDM.

Lyricism in Ethiopian music often explores themes of patriotism, love, friendship, and a unique form of nostalgic reminiscence known as tizita.

10.6. Art and Architecture

Ethiopian art and architecture have a long and distinctive history, deeply influenced by its ancient civilizations, religious traditions (particularly Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity), and unique cultural context.

Art:
Ethiopian art is predominantly religious, characterized by Christian iconography.

• Ancient Aksumite Art**: Little Christian art survives from the Aksumite period itself, but their architectural achievements like stelae involved stone carvings.
• Medieval and Gondarine Periods**: This era saw the flourishing of:
  • Illuminated manuscripts: Beautifully decorated religious texts, often Bibles or hagiographies, with vibrant illustrations.
  • Panel Paintings and Icons: Depicting biblical scenes, saints, Mary, and Christ, often in a distinctive Ethiopian style characterized by bold colors, expressive figures, and large eyes. These were created for churches and private devotion.
  • Crosses: Elaborate and diverse processional and hand crosses made of wood or metal, often featuring intricate lattice designs.
  • Church Murals: Walls of churches were often adorned with religious paintings.

  Ethiopian Christian art was influenced by Byzantine art but developed its own unique characteristics.

  • Influence of Foreign Contact**: Portuguese Jesuit presence in the 16th-17th centuries had some impact, and later, Western art styles began to influence Ethiopian artists in the 20th century, though many artists continued to work in traditional styles or blend them with modern approaches.
  • Contemporary Art**: Modern and contemporary Ethiopian artists have explored a wide range of styles and themes. Notable 20th and 21st-century artists include Laureate Afewerk Tekle (known for his large-scale murals, paintings, and stained glass, including works in Africa Hall), Gebre Kristos Desta, Skunder Boghossian, Lemma Guya, Martha Nasibù, and Ale Felege Selam.

  Architecture:
  Architecture of Ethiopia showcases a variety of styles from different historical periods.

  • Aksumite Architecture**: Characterized by monumental stone structures, including the famous Aksumite stelae (obelisks), palaces (like Dungur), and tombs. They used sophisticated dry-stone construction techniques.
  • Rock-Hewn Churches of Lalibela**: Dating from the Zagwe dynasty (12th-13th centuries), these eleven churches are carved directly out of solid volcanic rock. They are considered masterpieces of rock-cut architecture and are a UNESCO World Heritage site. Examples include Biete Ghiorgis (Church of St. George) and Biete Medhane Alem. Some scholars suggest they were intended to create a "New Jerusalem."
  • Cave Churches and Monasteries**: Numerous other rock-hewn churches and monasteries are found throughout Ethiopia, particularly in the Tigray Region (e.g., Debre Damo, Gheralta cluster).
  • Gondarine Architecture (17th-18th centuries)**: The imperial capital of Gondar features a unique architectural style, notably in the Fasil Ghebbi royal enclosure (a UNESCO World Heritage site). This style blends Ethiopian traditions with influences from Arab, Indian (Gujarati), and possibly Portuguese Baroque architecture, seen in its castles and palaces.
  • Traditional Rural Dwellings**: Vary by region and ethnic group, including circular thatched-roof houses (tukul) in the highlands and other vernacular styles.
  • Modern Architecture**: Addis Ababa and other cities showcase 20th and 21st-century architectural styles, including Art Deco buildings from the Italian period and contemporary structures.

  Both art and architecture in Ethiopia reflect a deep connection to history, spirituality, and cultural identity.

10.7. Cinema

The cinema of Ethiopia is a relatively young but growing industry. The first film screenings in Ethiopia occurred in the late 19th or early 20th century, with Emperor Menelik II reportedly being shown films around 1898. Early cinematic activity primarily involved documentary films and newsreels, often focusing on imperial events. For example, the coronations of Empress Zewditu and Emperor Haile Selassie were filmed.

The development of a local feature film industry, often called "Ethiowood," gained momentum in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

• Pioneering Filmmakers**: Ethiopian filmmakers who studied abroad, such as Haile Gerima (known for films like Sankofa and Teza), played a significant role in bringing Ethiopian stories to international audiences and influencing local cinema. Other notable figures include Salem Mekuria, Yemane Demissie, and Teshome Gabriel.
• Modern Ethiopian Cinema (2000s-Present)**: The 2000s saw an increase in local film production, primarily in the Amharic language. These films often cater to domestic audiences and explore themes of romance, drama, comedy, and social issues. Challenges for the industry include limited funding, lack of infrastructure (cinemas, production facilities), and distribution issues.
• Internationally Recognized Films**: Some Ethiopian films have gained international recognition at film festivals. Examples include:
  • Teza (2008) by Haile Gerima.
  • Difret (2014), executive produced by Angelina Jolie, which won awards at Sundance and Berlin film festivals.
  • Lamb (2015) by Yared Zeleke, the first Ethiopian film to be an official selection at the Cannes Film Festival (Un Certain Regard).
  • Other popular films include Selanchi, Prince of Love, and Lambadina.
• Actors**: Ethiopian cinema has seen the rise of popular actors, including Selam Tesfaye, Fryat Yemane, Hanan Tarik, Mahder Assefa, and Amleset Muchie. Ethiopian-born actress Ruth Negga has achieved international fame in Hollywood and beyond.
• Film Festivals and Awards**: Local film festivals and awards aim to promote Ethiopian cinema.
  • The Gumma Film Awards, established in 2014 in Addis Ababa, is a prominent film award ceremony.
  • The Addis International Film Festival (AIFF), established in 2007, focuses on documentary films.
  • The Ethiopian International Film Festival (EIFF), established in 2005, showcases a range of films.

  The Ethiopian film industry continues to develop, striving to tell diverse Ethiopian stories and reach wider audiences both domestically and internationally.

10.8. Calendar

Ethiopia uses its own ancient Ethiopian calendar, also known as the Ge'ez calendar. This calendar is derived from the older Alexandrian or Coptic calendar, which in turn originates from the ancient Egyptian calendar. It is the official calendar for civil and religious purposes in Ethiopia.

Key features of the Ethiopian calendar:

• Year Structure**: The Ethiopian calendar has twelve months of exactly 30 days each, followed by a thirteenth month consisting of five or six epagomenal days (called Pägume or Pagumien).
  • The sixth epagomenal day is added every four years without exception, corresponding to a leap day. This makes the Ethiopian leap year rule similar to that of the Julian calendar.
• Year Numbering**: The Ethiopian calendar is approximately seven to eight years behind the Gregorian calendar. This difference arises from an alternate calculation in determining the date of the Annunciation of Jesus. For example, the Ethiopian year 2000 began on September 11, 2007, Gregorian calendar.
• New Year**: The Ethiopian New Year, called Enkutatash, falls on Meskerem 1 in the Ethiopian calendar. This usually corresponds to September 11 in the Gregorian calendar (or September 12 in years before a Gregorian leap year).
• Months**: The names of the months are in Ge'ez:

1. Mäskäräm
2. Ṭəqəmt
3. Ḫədar
4. Taḫśaś
5. Ṭərr
6. Yäkatit
7. Mägabit
8. Miyazya
9. Gənbo
10. Säne
11. Ḥamle
12. Nähase
13. Pägume (5 or 6 days)

• Era**: The calendar counts years from the Incarnation (birth of Jesus), but uses a different calculation for the date of this event than the one used for the Gregorian calendar.
• Timekeeping**: Traditionally, Ethiopian timekeeping also differs from Western conventions, with the day often considered to begin at sunrise rather than midnight. This can mean that 6:00 AM Western time might be referred to as 12 o'clock in Ethiopian local time.

The Ethiopian calendar's unique structure and year numbering are important aspects of Ethiopian culture and national identity, influencing the dates of holidays, festivals, and daily life.

In addition to the Ethiopian (Ge'ez) calendar, the Oromo people have their own traditional Oromo calendar, a lunar-stellar system based on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with specific stars or constellations. It was developed around 300 BC. This calendar has its own set of month names (related to stars/lunar phases) and is used for traditional Oromo cultural and religious practices.

10.9. Sport

Sport plays an important role in Ethiopian culture and national pride, with certain disciplines achieving significant international success.

Athletics (Track and Field):
This is by far Ethiopia's most successful and popular sport internationally, particularly long-distance running. Ethiopian athletes are renowned for their dominance in events ranging from the 5,000 meters to the marathon. The country's high altitude is often cited as a contributing factor to the endurance of its runners.

• Olympic Success**: Ethiopia has won numerous Olympic gold, silver, and bronze medals, almost exclusively in long-distance running.
• Famous Athletes**:
  • Abebe Bikila: A legendary figure, he became the first Black African to win an Olympic gold medal when he won the marathon at the 1960 Rome Olympics running barefoot. He won a second marathon gold at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics (wearing shoes), becoming the first athlete to win the Olympic marathon twice.
  • Miruts Yifter: Nicknamed "Yifter the Shifter" for his explosive finishing kicks, he won double gold in the 5,000m and 10,000m at the 1980 Moscow Olympics.
  • Haile Gebrselassie: Considered one of the greatest distance runners of all time, he won two Olympic gold medals in the 10,000m (1996, 2000), multiple World Championship titles, and set numerous world records.
  • Kenenisa Bekele: Another all-time great, he won three Olympic gold medals (10,000m in 2004 & 2008, 5,000m in 2008), numerous World titles, and held world records in the 5,000m and 10,000m for many years.
  • Derartu Tulu: The first Black African woman to win an Olympic gold medal (10,000m at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics). She won a second 10,000m gold in 2000.
  • Tirunesh Dibaba: Won three Olympic gold medals (5,000m & 10,000m in 2008, 10,000m in 2012) and multiple World titles.
  • Fatuma Roba: The first African woman to win the Olympic marathon (1996).
  • Other prominent runners include Gezahegne Abera, Meseret Defar, Almaz Ayana, Letesenbet Gidey, and many others.

  Football (Soccer):
  Football is the most popular spectator sport in Ethiopia.

  • The Ethiopia national football team (nicknamed the "Walias") was one of the founding members of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) in 1957.
  • They won the Africa Cup of Nations in 1962 when Ethiopia hosted the tournament. This remains their most significant achievement.
  • The team has qualified for the Africa Cup of Nations several times but has not yet qualified for the FIFA World Cup.
  • The domestic league is the Ethiopian Premier League.

  Basketball:
  Ethiopia has one of Sub-Saharan Africa's longest basketball traditions, establishing a national team in 1949 and participating in early African basketball championships.
  
  Other Sports:
  Other sports like volleyball, boxing, and traditional games are also played, but athletics and football receive the most attention and participation. The success of its long-distance runners has brought immense pride and international recognition to Ethiopia.

10.10. World Heritage Sites

Ethiopia is home to a significant number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, reflecting its rich cultural, historical, and natural heritage. As of 2024, Ethiopia has 11 sites inscribed on the list (9 cultural and 2 natural).

Cultural World Heritage Sites:
1. Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela (Inscribed 1978): A complex of eleven monolithic churches carved out of solid rock in the 12th and 13th centuries during the Zagwe dynasty. Often referred to as the "New Jerusalem."
2. Fasil Ghebbi, Gondar Region (Inscribed 1979): The fortress-city of Gondar, which was the imperial capital in the 17th and 18th centuries, featuring palaces, churches, and other buildings in a unique architectural style.
3. Aksum (Inscribed 1980): The ruins of the ancient capital of the Aksumite Kingdom, including monolithic obelisks (stelae), tombs, and palace ruins, dating from the 1st to the 13th century AD.
4. Lower Valley of the Awash (Inscribed 1980): A significant paleoanthropological site where numerous hominid fossils have been discovered, including "Lucy" (Australopithecus afarensis), providing crucial evidence for human evolution.
5. Lower Valley of the Omo (Inscribed 1980): Another important prehistoric site, yielding numerous hominid fossils and archaeological remains that contribute to the understanding of early human history.
6. Tiya (Inscribed 1980): An archaeological site containing 36 stelae or megaliths, many engraved with enigmatic symbols, representing an ancient Ethiopian culture whose age has not yet been precisely determined.
7. Harar Jugol, the Fortified Historic Town (Inscribed 2006): A historic walled city considered the fourth holiest city of Islam, with 82 mosques, three of which date from the 10th century, and distinctive traditional Harari houses.
8. Konso Cultural Landscape (Inscribed 2011): A living cultural landscape characterized by stone-walled terraces, fortified settlements (paletas), and traditional community structures of the Konso people, reflecting centuries of adaptation to a dry and rugged environment.
9. The Gedeo Cultural Landscape (Inscribed 2023): Located in the Gedeo Zone, this site is recognized for its agroforestry systems, megalithic sites, and traditional knowledge systems.

Natural World Heritage Sites:
1. Simien Mountains National Park (Inscribed 1978): Features spectacular mountain scenery, including Ras Dashen, Ethiopia's highest peak. It is home to endemic wildlife such as the Walia ibex, Gelada baboon, and Ethiopian wolf.
2. Bale Mountains National Park (Inscribed 2023): Known for its diverse Afromontane habitats, unique biodiversity including a large population of Ethiopian wolves, and stunning landscapes.

These sites underscore Ethiopia's profound historical depth, cultural diversity, and unique natural environments, attracting both researchers and tourists. The preservation and management of these sites are ongoing efforts, sometimes facing challenges from environmental pressures, development, and conflict.