Zimbabwe

3.1. Pre-colonial era

Archaeological evidence indicates that human settlement in present-day Zimbabwe dates back at least 500,000 years. The earliest known inhabitants were likely the San people, who left a legacy of arrowheads and cave paintings. Around 2,000 years ago, the first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived in the region as part of the Bantu expansion.

Societies speaking proto-Shona languages first emerged in the middle Limpopo River valley in the 9th century before migrating to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau subsequently became the center of Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast, which contributed to the development of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the 13th century. This kingdom was a precursor to the Shona civilizations that would dominate the region. These states traded gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass.

By 1300, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe had eclipsed Mapungubwe, establishing its capital at Great Zimbabwe near present-day Masvingo. This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture, creating unique dry-stone structures. From circa 1450 to 1760, the Kingdom of Mutapa (also known as Mwene Mutapa or Monomotapa) ruled much of present-day Zimbabwe and parts of central Mozambique. It was renowned for its strategic trade routes with Arab and Portuguese traders. The Portuguese attempted to monopolize this trade, leading to a series of wars that nearly caused the empire's collapse in the early 17th century.

In response to increased European presence, a new Shona state, the Rozvi Empire, emerged. Relying on centuries of military, political, and religious development, the Rozvi (meaning "destroyers") expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean plateau by 1683.

Around 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled against King Shaka and established his own clan, the Ndebele. The Ndebele migrated northwards into the Transvaal, leaving a trail of destruction in an era known as the Mfecane. When Dutch Trekboers converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they, with the assistance of Tswana Barolong warriors and Griqua commandos, drove the Ndebele further north. By 1838, the Ndebele had conquered the Rozvi Empire and other smaller Shona states, reducing them to vassal status. After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe, an area that became known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo as their capital. Mzilikazi organized his society into a military system with regimental kraals, similar to Shaka's, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868, and after a violent power struggle, his son Lobengula succeeded him.

3.2. Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888-1964)

In the 1880s, European colonists arrived with Cecil Rhodes's British South Africa Company (BSAC), chartered in 1889. In 1888, Rhodes obtained the Rudd Concession, a mining rights agreement, from King Lobengula of the Ndebele. Rhodes used this concession to persuade the British government to grant a royal charter to the BSAC over Matabeleland and its subject states like Mashonaland. In 1890, Rhodes dispatched the Pioneer Column, a group of Europeans protected by well-armed British South Africa Police (BSAP), through Matabeleland into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury (present-day Harare). This marked the beginning of company rule over the area.

In 1893 and 1894, the BSAP, equipped with new Maxim guns, defeated the Ndebele in the First Matabele War. Rhodes also sought concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and Lake Tanganyika, then known as "Zambesia." Mass European settlement was encouraged, with the British maintaining control over labor, precious metals, and other mineral resources.

In 1895, the BSAC named the territory "Rhodesia" in honor of Rhodes. In 1898, "Southern Rhodesia" became the official name for the region south of the Zambezi, which would later become Zimbabwe. The region to the north, administered separately, was termed Northern Rhodesia (present-day Zambia). Following the disastrous Rhodes-sponsored Jameson Raid on the South African Republic, the Ndebele, led by their religious leader Mlimo, rebelled against white rule in the Second Matabele War (1896-1897). This war lasted until Mlimo was assassinated by American scout Frederick Russell Burnham. Shona groups also staged unsuccessful revolts (known as the First Chimurenga) against company rule during 1896 and 1897. After these failed insurrections, the Rhodes administration subdued the Ndebele and Shona groups and organized the land with a strong bias favoring Europeans, displacing many indigenous peoples. This displacement and the inequitable land distribution sowed seeds of resentment that would fuel future conflicts.

The United Kingdom annexed Southern Rhodesia on 12 September 1923. Shortly after, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force, making it a self-governing British colony following a 1922 referendum where white settlers voted against union with South Africa. Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during World War I and World War II. Proportionally, Southern Rhodesia contributed more per capita to both wars than any other part of the British Empire, including Britain itself.

The Land Apportionment Act of 1930 restricted Black land ownership to certain segments of the country, setting aside large, fertile areas exclusively for the white minority. This act institutionalized racial segregation, led to rapidly rising inequality, and became a central grievance for African nationalists, fueling frequent calls for land reform. The social and economic impact on indigenous populations was severe, leading to overcrowding in designated "native reserves", loss of traditional livelihoods, and forced labor migration.

In 1953, despite African opposition, Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with Nyasaland (Malawi) into the Central African Federation, which Southern Rhodesia largely dominated. Growing African nationalism and dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, led Britain to dissolve the federation in 1963, forming three separate entities. While multiracial democracy was introduced in Northern Rhodesia (which became Zambia) and Nyasaland (which became Malawi), Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to maintain minority rule.

Following Zambian independence in October 1964, Ian Smith's Rhodesian Front government in Salisbury dropped the "Southern" designation, and the country became known simply as Rhodesia. Intent on repudiating the British policy of "no independence before majority rule" (NIBMAR), Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. This was the first such action by a British colony since the American declaration of 1776, which Smith cited as a precedent.

3.3. Declaration of Independence and Civil War (1965-1980)

The United Kingdom deemed Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) an act of rebellion but did not intervene militarily to re-establish control. Instead, the British government petitioned the United Nations for economic sanctions against Rhodesia. After unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in 1966 and 1968, the UN complied in December 1966, imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state. These sanctions were expanded in 1968.

A civil war, known as the Rhodesian Bush War or the Second Chimurenga, ensued. Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), actively supported by communist powers and neighboring African nations, initiated guerrilla warfare against Rhodesia's predominantly white government. ZAPU, backed by the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact, and allied nations like Cuba, adopted a Marxism-Leninism ideology. ZANU, meanwhile, aligned itself with Maoism and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China. In 1970, Smith declared Rhodesia a republic following a referendum the previous year, but this move went unrecognized internationally. The internal conflict intensified, eventually forcing Smith to open negotiations with the militant nationalist forces. The human cost of the conflict was significant, with widespread casualties among combatants and civilians, and immense suffering due to displacement and disruption of livelihoods as the struggle for majority rule continued.

In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa, known as the Internal Settlement. This agreement offered to leave the white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial democracy. As a result, elections were held in April 1979, with the United African National Council (UANC) winning a majority of parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979, Muzorewa became prime minister, and the country's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. However, the Internal Settlement left control of the Rhodesian Security Forces, civil service, judiciary, and a third of parliamentary seats to whites, failing to satisfy the nationalist movements or gain international recognition. On 12 June, the United States Senate voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia.

Following the fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Lusaka, Zambia, in August 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to a constitutional conference at Lancaster House in London. The conference aimed to agree on an independence constitution and provide for elections supervised by British authorities, leading to legal independence. Chaired by Lord Carrington, the British Foreign Secretary, discussions were held from 10 September to 15 December 1979, comprising 47 plenary sessions. On 21 December 1979, all major parties reached the Lancaster House Agreement, effectively ending the guerrilla war.

On 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial status. With the arrival of Lord Soames, the new governor, on 12 December 1979, Britain formally took control of Zimbabwe Rhodesia as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia. Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December, and the United Nations followed on 16 December. In the elections of February 1980, Robert Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory. Prince Charles, representing Britain, formally granted independence to the new nation of Zimbabwe at a ceremony in Harare on 18 April 1980.

3.4. Independence era (1980-present)

Zimbabwe's independence in 1980 brought hope for a new era of equality and prosperity, but the subsequent decades have been marked by significant political, economic, and social challenges, including authoritarian rule, human rights violations, economic collapse, and ongoing struggles for democratic reform.

3.4.2. Economic crisis and hyperinflation (1999-2008)

In 2000, the government initiated its Fast Track Land Reform program, involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the white minority to the black majority. This program was often violent and chaotic, leading to the displacement of white farmers and many farm workers. The confiscations, combined with continuous droughts and a sharp drop in external finance, led to a severe decline in agricultural exports, which had traditionally been the country's leading export sector. While some 58,000 independent black farmers later experienced limited success in reviving cash crop sectors on a smaller scale, overall agricultural output plummeted, contributing to widespread food shortages.

Zimbabwe's involvement in the Second Congo War (1998-2002) drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy. The economic decline was precipitous. From 1999 to 2009, Zimbabwe experienced one of the lowest economic growth rates globally, with an annual GDP decrease of 6.1%. The economy suffered from hyperinflation, which peaked in 2008. The Central Statistical Office reported inflation at an estimated 11,200,000% in August 2008, and by November 2008, unofficial estimates put the annual inflation rate at 516 quintillion percent, with prices doubling every 1.3 days. The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe issued banknotes of increasingly higher denominations, culminating in a 100 trillion dollar note in January 2009.

President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF leadership faced a wide range of international sanctions. In 2002, the nation was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations due to the farm seizures and blatant electoral fraud. Zimbabwe voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership the following year. The United States enacted the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA), which froze credit to the Zimbabwean government. These sanctions further exacerbated the economic crisis.

By 2003, the country's economy had collapsed. An estimated quarter of Zimbabwe's 11 million people had fled the country, and three-quarters of those remaining lived on less than one U.S. dollar a day. Social hardships were immense, affecting vulnerable populations and crippling social services like healthcare and education. Following the 2005 elections, the government initiated "Operation Murambatsvina" (Operation Drive Out Trash), an effort to crack down on illegal markets and slums, which left a substantial section of the urban poor homeless and was widely condemned by human rights organizations.

3.4.3. Power-sharing and continued instability (2008-2017)

The presidential election on 29 March 2008, held alongside parliamentary elections, was highly contentious. The results were withheld for two weeks, after which it was acknowledged that the Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai (MDC-T) had achieved a majority of one seat in the lower house of parliament. However, official results for the presidential race necessitated a run-off between Mugabe and MDC-T leader Morgan Tsvangirai. The period leading up to the run-off was marred by widespread political violence and intimidation, primarily targeting MDC-T supporters. Citing the impossibility of a free and fair election, Tsvangirai withdrew from the run-off. Mugabe proceeded with the election and was declared the winner.

The disputed election and subsequent violence led to intense international pressure and mediation by the Southern African Development Community (SADC). In September 2008, a power-sharing agreement was reached, with Mugabe remaining president and Tsvangirai becoming prime minister. The Government of National Unity (GNU) was formed in February 2009. The GNU implemented some economic stabilization measures, most notably the abandonment of the Zimbabwean dollar in April 2009 and the adoption of a multi-currency system, primarily the US dollar and South African rand, which helped to curb hyperinflation and led to a period of economic recovery. GDP grew by 8-9% per year between 2009 and 2012.

However, the GNU was fraught with challenges. Deep-seated mistrust between ZANU-PF and MDC-T, continued human rights abuses, lack of significant political reforms, and disagreements over policy implementation hampered its effectiveness. Living conditions improved somewhat from the nadir of 2008, but remained precarious for many. A major cholera outbreak in late 2008, which killed thousands, highlighted the collapse of public health services. While the GNU brought a degree of stability, underlying issues of governance, human rights, and social welfare persisted. A new constitution, approved in the 2013 referendum, curtailed some presidential powers. Mugabe was re-elected president in the July 2013 general election, an outcome described by The Economist as "rigged" and by The Daily Telegraph as "stolen." The MDC alleged massive fraud. After the election, ZANU-PF re-instituted one-party dominance, and concerns about corruption and misrule continued.

4.1. Geology

Over geological time, Zimbabwe has experienced two major post-Gondwana erosion cycles (known as African and post-African), and a very subordinate Plio-Pleistocene cycle. The country's geology is characterized by ancient cratons, notably the Zimbabwe Craton, which is rich in mineral deposits. This geological foundation has made mining a significant sector of the Zimbabwean economy, with resources including gold, platinum group metals, diamonds, coal, chromite, nickel, copper, iron ore, vanadium, lithium, and tin. The Great Dyke, a massive linear intrusion of mafic and ultramafic rocks, is a prominent geological feature and a major source of chromium and platinum.

4.2. Climate

Zimbabwe has a subtropical climate with many local variations. The southern areas are known for their heat and aridity, parts of the central plateau receive frost in winter, and the Zambezi valley is known for its extreme heat. The Eastern Highlands generally experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. The country's wet season typically runs from late October to March, and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude. Zimbabwe faces recurring droughts; for example, in 2019, at least 55 elephants died due to drought. Severe storms are rare. Climate change is an increasing concern, with projections indicating potential impacts on rainfall patterns, temperature extremes, and agricultural productivity, further challenging the nation's food security and water resources.

4.3. Biodiversity

Zimbabwe boasts a rich variety of ecosystems and is home to diverse flora and fauna. The country contains seven terrestrial ecoregions: Kalahari acacia-baikiaea woodlands, Southern Africa bushveld, Southern miombo woodlands, Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands, Zambezian and mopane woodlands, Zambezian halophytics, and the Eastern Zimbabwe montane forest-grassland mosaic in the Eastern Highlands.

The country is mostly savanna, although the moist and mountainous Eastern Highlands support areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees found in the Eastern Highlands include teak, mahogany, enormous specimens of strangler fig, forest Newtonia, big leaf, white stinkwood, chirinda stinkwood, and knobthorn, among others. In the low-lying parts of the country, fever trees, mopane, combretum, and baobabs abound. Much of the country is covered by miombo woodland, dominated by Brachystegia species. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotis, cassia, tree wisteria, and dombeya.

Important national parks and conservation areas include Hwange National Park, Mana Pools National Park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), Matobo National Park, Gonarezhou National Park, and Victoria Falls National Park. These areas are crucial for preserving biodiversity and supporting tourism. However, challenges such as poaching, habitat loss due to deforestation and agricultural expansion, and human-wildlife conflict threaten conservation efforts. Zimbabwe has a Forest Landscape Integrity Index 2019 mean score of 6.31/10, ranking it 81st globally out of 172 countries.

4.4. Environmental issues

Zimbabwe faces several major environmental challenges. Deforestation is a significant problem, driven by agricultural expansion, demand for firewood and charcoal (especially due to energy shortages), tobacco curing, and urban sprawl. This leads to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and watershed degradation. Land degradation and soil erosion diminish the amount of fertile soil, impacting agricultural productivity.

Poaching remains a critical threat, particularly for elephants (for ivory) and rhinoceros (for their horns). Water pollution occurs from agricultural runoff (pesticides and fertilizers), industrial discharge, and municipal waste. Mining activities, both large-scale and artisanal, contribute to deforestation, soil erosion, water pollution (e.g., mercury and cyanide from gold mining), and habitat destruction. Air pollution is also a concern in urban and industrial areas.

Recurring droughts, potentially exacerbated by climate change, strain water resources and impact agriculture and wildlife. Efforts to mitigate these problems include reforestation programs, anti-poaching initiatives, promotion of sustainable agriculture practices, and improved waste management, but these are often hampered by lack of funding, institutional capacity, and socio-economic pressures.

5.1. Political system and government structure

Zimbabwe is a republic with a presidential system of government. The Constitution of Zimbabwe, adopted in 2013, provides the framework for its governance. The President is both the head of state and head of government, and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, with a two-term limit. The president appoints the Cabinet.

The Parliament of Zimbabwe is bicameral, consisting of:

• The Senate (the upper house), which has 80 members. Sixty are elected for five-year terms in multi-member constituencies representing the country's ten provinces, elected through proportional representation. An additional 18 seats are for traditional chiefs, two seats for representatives of people with disabilities, and the President and Deputy President of the National Council of Chiefs.
• The National Assembly (the lower house), which has 270 members. Of these, 210 are elected for five-year terms in single-member constituencies. An additional 60 seats are reserved for women, six per province, elected by proportional representation.

The judicial system is based on Roman-Dutch law and English law, with customary law also recognized in civil cases. The highest courts are the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Court. The independence of the judiciary has been a subject of concern, particularly during periods of political tension.

5.2. Political developments and elections

Since independence in 1980, ZANU-PF (Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front) has been the dominant political party. Robert Mugabe led the party and the country, first as Prime Minister (1980-1987) and then as President (1987-2017). His rule became increasingly authoritarian, marked by suppression of political opposition, human rights abuses, and economic mismanagement.

The main opposition party has been the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), which has undergone various splits and formations (e.g., MDC-T, MDC Alliance, now Citizens Coalition for Change). Elections in Zimbabwe have frequently been marred by allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation, and political violence. The 2002 presidential election and the 2008 general election were particularly controversial. The 2008 election led to a disputed outcome and a subsequent power-sharing agreement (Government of National Unity) between ZANU-PF and the MDC-T from 2009 to 2013.

The 2017 coup d'état resulted in Mugabe's resignation and the ascension of Emmerson Mnangagwa to the presidency. Mnangagwa and ZANU-PF won the 2018 general election, though the opposition again alleged irregularities. The 2023 general election saw Mnangagwa re-elected, but the outcome was rejected by the opposition and questioned by observers.

Ongoing challenges to democratic consolidation include the need for electoral reforms, strengthening the rule of law, ensuring media freedom, and addressing political polarization. Political discourse often revolves around economic recovery, land issues, sanctions, and national reconciliation.

5.3. Administrative divisions

Zimbabwe is a centralized state divided into eight provinces and two cities with provincial status for administrative purposes. Each province has a provincial capital from where government administration is usually carried out. The provinces are:

The names of most provinces were derived from the historical Mashonaland and Matabeleland divide at the time of colonization. Mashonaland was the territory first occupied by the British South Africa Company's Pioneer Column, and Matabeleland was the territory conquered during the First Matabele War. This roughly corresponds to the pre-colonial territories of the Shona and Ndebele peoples, respectively, although there are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces. Each province is headed by a Provincial Governor, appointed by the President. Provincial administration is run by a Provincial Administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission.

The provinces are further subdivided into districts (currently 63, including urban districts) and then into wards (1,958 as of 2012). Each district is headed by a District Administrator. Rural District Councils, composed of elected ward councillors and traditional leaders, manage local governance in rural areas. Urban councils govern cities and towns. At the ward level, Ward Development Committees operate, and wards are subdivided into villages with Village Development Committees and traditional headmen. The role of traditional leaders (chiefs, headmen) is recognized in customary law and local administration.

5.4. Armed forces

The Zimbabwe Defence Forces (ZDF) were established after independence in 1980 through the unification of three main armed groups: the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA, the armed wing of ZANU), the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA, the armed wing of ZAPU), and the Rhodesian Security Forces (RSF). The integration process aimed to create a unified national military.

The ZDF consists of the Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) and the Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ). The Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces is the highest-ranking military officer, appointed by the President, who is the Commander-in-chief. As of the early 2020s, the ZNA had an active duty strength of approximately 30,000 personnel, and the Air Force had around 5,000. The Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP), including its Police Support Unit, a paramilitary wing, also plays a role in national security, with a strength of about 25,000.

Historically, the ZDF has been involved in both domestic and international operations. Domestically, its role has sometimes been controversial, particularly the involvement of the Fifth Brigade in the Gukurahundi massacres in Matabeleland during the 1980s. The military also played a significant role in the political transition of 2017 that led to Robert Mugabe's resignation. Internationally, the ZDF participated in the Second Congo War (1998-2002) in support of the government of Laurent Kabila, and has contributed to regional peacekeeping missions. The British military initially assisted with the integration and training of the ZDF post-independence.

5.5. Human rights

The human rights situation in Zimbabwe has been a subject of significant concern for decades, particularly under the rule of Robert Mugabe and continuing into the presidency of Emmerson Mnangagwa. Numerous reports from domestic and international human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have documented systematic and often escalating violations.

Key areas of concern include:

• Freedom of expression and freedom of assembly: Restrictions on media freedom, harassment of journalists, and the use of repressive legislation like the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) and the Public Order and Security Act (POSA) (later replaced by the Maintenance of Peace and Order Act - MOPA) have historically curtailed free speech. Peaceful protests and opposition gatherings have frequently been met with excessive force by police, leading to arrests, injuries, and fatalities.
• Political violence and intimidation: Elections have often been marred by violence, intimidation, and harassment of opposition supporters and candidates. State security forces and ruling party militias have been implicated in abductions, torture, and extrajudicial killings, particularly during election periods and times of political unrest. The Gukurahundi massacres of the 1980s remain a significant unaddressed atrocity.
• Rule of law and impunity: The independence of the judiciary has been compromised at times, and there is a prevailing culture of impunity for perpetrators of human rights abuses, especially those connected to the state. Lack of accountability for past and present violations remains a major challenge.
• Economic, social and cultural rights: Widespread poverty, food insecurity, and the collapse of public services (healthcare, education, water, and sanitation) have severely impacted the socio-economic rights of Zimbabweans. Forced evictions, such as those during Operation Murambatsvina in 2005, have violated the right to adequate housing for hundreds of thousands of people.
• Treatment of minorities and vulnerable groups: LGBT individuals face legal discrimination and social stigma, with male homosexuality being illegal. Child marriage remains a concern. Human trafficking is also an issue.
• Arbitrary arrests and detentions: Human rights defenders, journalists, and political activists have often faced arbitrary arrest, detention, and politically motivated prosecutions.

While the government under Mnangagwa has made some commitments to reform, human rights organizations report that progress has been limited, and repressive practices continue. International bodies and foreign governments have frequently called for improvements in the human rights situation and for accountability for past abuses. The #ZimbabweanLivesMatter campaign, which gained international attention in 2020, highlighted ongoing concerns about abuses under the Mnangagwa administration.

5.6. Foreign relations

Zimbabwe's foreign relations have been shaped by its colonial history, its role in the Southern African region, its liberation struggle, and the controversial policies of the post-independence era, particularly under Robert Mugabe.

Since independence in 1980, Zimbabwe has been an active member of regional and international organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the African Union (AU) (formerly the Organization of African Unity, OAU), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). It played a significant role in the fight against apartheid in South Africa and supported independence movements in neighboring countries.

Relations with Western countries, particularly the United Kingdom (the former colonial power) and the United States, were initially positive but deteriorated significantly from the late 1990s due to concerns over human rights abuses, lack of democratic reforms, and the controversial land reform program. This led to the imposition of targeted sanctions by the US, the European Union (EU), and other countries against individuals and entities associated with the Mugabe regime. Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations in 2002 and subsequently withdrew its membership in 2003. Under President Mnangagwa, Zimbabwe has sought to rejoin the Commonwealth, with a formal application submitted in 2018.

Zimbabwe has maintained closer ties with other African nations, particularly within SADC, although regional responses to Zimbabwe's political and economic crises have varied. South Africa, as a major regional power and neighbor, has played a key role in mediation efforts during periods of political instability. Zimbabwe has also cultivated relationships with countries in Asia, notably China, which has become an important economic partner and political partner, especially during the period of Western sanctions. Relations with Russia have also been maintained, with Zimbabwe sometimes aligning with these powers on international issues.

Key foreign policy issues for Zimbabwe include regional security and cooperation (e.g., through SADC), economic development and trade, efforts to lift international sanctions, and re-engagement with the international community to attract investment and aid. The country's foreign policy often reflects a stance of sovereignty and anti-imperialism, stemming from its liberation history.

5.7. International sanctions

International sanctions have been a significant feature of Zimbabwe's political and economic landscape since the early 2000s. These measures were primarily imposed by the United States, the European Union (EU), Australia, Canada, and other Western nations in response to concerns about human rights abuses, democratic deficits, electoral fraud, and the controversial fast-track land reform program initiated by the Mugabe government.

The sanctions typically took the form of:

• Targeted financial sanctions: Freezing of assets belonging to specific individuals (government officials, security chiefs, business people linked to the regime) and entities.
• Travel bans: Preventing listed individuals from traveling to sanctioning countries.
• Arms embargoes: Prohibiting the sale or supply of arms and related material.
• Restrictions on development aid: While humanitarian aid often continued, some forms of direct government-to-government development assistance were suspended or redirected through non-governmental organizations.

The United States enacted the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA), which, among other things, restricted Zimbabwe's access to credit from international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank until certain democratic and economic reforms were implemented. The EU imposed its own set of restrictive measures in 2002.

The impact of these sanctions has been a subject of intense debate. The Zimbabwean government has consistently blamed sanctions for the country's severe economic decline, arguing they are illegal and aimed at regime change. Supporters of sanctions contend they are targeted and designed to pressure the government to respect human rights and the rule of law, and that economic problems are primarily due to domestic economic mismanagement and corruption.

Since the 2017 change in leadership, there have been discussions about modifying or lifting sanctions. The EU has gradually eased some of its measures, but many, particularly those from the US (like ZDERA and the targeted sanctions program), remain in place due to ongoing concerns about the pace of political and economic reforms and continued human rights issues under the Mnangagwa administration. The Zimbabwean government continues to campaign for the unconditional removal of all sanctions.

6.1. Economic overview

Historically, Zimbabwe possessed a relatively diversified economy with strong agricultural and mining sectors, and a reasonably developed manufacturing base. In the 1980s, following independence, the economy saw positive growth (average 5% GDP growth per year). This continued into the 1990s (average 4.3% GDP growth per year), though structural adjustment programs and droughts began to impact performance.

From the late 1990s and particularly after 2000, the economy entered a period of severe decline. Key factors included the controversial fast-track land reform program which disrupted commercial agriculture, involvement in the Second Congo War which drained national resources, and increasing political instability. This led to a collapse in agricultural and industrial output, soaring unemployment, and a decline in foreign investment and aid. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) contracted significantly: 5% in 2000, 8% in 2001, 12% in 2002, and 18% in 2003. Between 1999 and 2009, Zimbabwe experienced one of the lowest average economic growth rates globally, with an annual GDP decrease of 6.1%.

The period from 2008 to 2009 saw the peak of hyperinflation, rendering the Zimbabwean dollar virtually worthless and leading to the formal adoption of a multi-currency system in 2009 (primarily the United States dollar and South African rand). This brought a period of economic stabilization and growth (8-9% per year between 2009-2012). However, growth faltered again from 2012 due to policy inconsistencies, continued political uncertainty, and limited access to international finance.

Major exports include minerals (platinum, gold, diamonds, ferroalloys), tobacco, and cotton. Key imports are machinery and transport equipment, fuels, chemicals, and food. Main trade partners include South Africa, China, and other SADC countries. Remittances from Zimbabweans living abroad also form a significant part of the economy. As of the early 2020s, Zimbabwe continues to face challenges including high inflation, currency instability, external debt, and the need for structural reforms to promote sustainable growth and poverty reduction.

6.2. Currency

Zimbabwe's currency history has been tumultuous, particularly marked by one of the most extreme cases of hyperinflation in modern history.

• Rhodesian Dollar (1970-1980): Used during the Rhodesian era.
• Zimbabwean Dollar (First, ZWD; 1980-2006): Introduced at independence, initially stronger than the US dollar. Its value eroded significantly due to economic mismanagement and inflation.
• Zimbabwean Dollar (Second, ZWN; 2006-2008): Introduced after a redenomination (1 new dollar = 1,000 old dollars) to combat rising inflation. Hyperinflation continued to accelerate.
• Zimbabwean Dollar (Third, ZWR; 2008-2009): Another redenomination (1 new dollar = 10 billion ZWN) occurred. Hyperinflation reached unprecedented levels, with banknotes issued in denominations up to 100 trillion dollars.
• Multi-currency system (2009-2019): In January/February 2009, the government officially allowed the use of foreign currencies for transactions. In April 2009, the Zimbabwean dollar was indefinitely suspended. The United States dollar and South African rand became the primary currencies, alongside others like the Botswana pula, pound sterling, and Euro. This stabilized the economy and ended hyperinflation.
• Bond Coins and Notes (2014/2016-2019): To address a shortage of US dollar coins, bond coins were introduced in 2014, officially pegged 1:1 to the US dollar. Bond notes (paper currency) followed in 2016, also officially at par with the US dollar, but they quickly lost value on the parallel market.
• Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS) Dollar / Zimbabwean Dollar (Fourth, ZWL; 2019-2024): In February 2019, the RTGS dollar was introduced, initially as an electronic currency comprising bond notes, bond coins, and electronic balances. In June 2019, it was declared the sole legal tender, and the use of foreign currencies was banned for local transactions (though this ban was later partially reversed). This new Zimbabwean dollar also suffered significant inflation and devaluation.
• Zimbabwe Gold (ZiG; April 2024-present): On April 5, 2024, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe announced a new structured currency called Zimbabwe Gold (ZiG), backed by a basket of foreign currencies, gold, and other precious minerals. The ZWL was to be converted to ZiG. The multi-currency system, allowing the use of foreign currencies, was stated to remain in place.

The persistent currency instability has severely impacted savings, investment, and overall economic confidence in Zimbabwe.

6.3. Major sectors

Zimbabwe's economy is characterized by several key sectors, each contributing to its GDP and employment, though their performance has fluctuated significantly due to political and economic conditions.

6.3.2. Agriculture

Agriculture has traditionally been the backbone of Zimbabwe's economy, providing livelihoods for a large portion of the population and contributing significantly to exports and GDP.

• Main Agricultural Products:
  • Tobacco: Zimbabwe is a major global producer of high-quality flue-cured tobacco, which has historically been its most valuable agricultural export.
  • Maize: The primary staple food crop, grown by both commercial and small-scale farmers. Production is highly dependent on rainfall.
  • Cotton: An important cash crop, particularly for smallholder farmers.
  • Other crops: Sugarcane, wheat, soybeans, groundnuts, horticultural products (flowers, fruits, vegetables), and coffee (though production has declined).
  • Livestock: Cattle ranching for beef production is significant, along with dairy farming, poultry, and pig production.
  • Impact of Land Reforms: The fast-track land reform program starting in 2000 led to a dramatic restructuring of the agricultural sector. Large-scale commercial farms, mostly white-owned, were expropriated and redistributed, primarily to black Zimbabweans. This process was often chaotic and sometimes violent, leading to a sharp decline in production of many key crops, loss of agricultural expertise, disruption of farming systems, and a collapse in food security, transforming Zimbabwe from a net food exporter to a net importer for many years. While the reforms aimed to address historical land imbalances, their implementation had severe negative consequences for agricultural productivity and the broader economy. Small-scale farmers, who became the majority landholders, faced challenges such as lack of access to credit, inputs (seeds, fertilizers), and technical support.
  • Food Security: Zimbabwe has faced recurrent food shortages and food insecurity, exacerbated by droughts, economic instability, and disruptions to agricultural production. Vulnerable populations, particularly in rural areas, often rely on food aid.
  • Agricultural Policies: Government policies have focused on supporting small-scale farmers, promoting food self-sufficiency (e.g., through input subsidy programs like Pfumvudza/Intwasa), and reviving the agricultural sector. Labor conditions on farms and support for sustainable farming practices remain ongoing concerns.

6.3.3. Tourism

Tourism has historically been a significant contributor to Zimbabwe's economy, driven by its rich natural and cultural attractions.

• Major Tourist Attractions:
  • Victoria Falls: One of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World, located on the Zambezi River bordering Zambia. It is the country's premier tourist destination, offering spectacular views and various adventure activities.
  • National Parks and Wildlife: Zimbabwe has numerous national parks and safari areas renowned for their diverse wildlife, including Hwange National Park (the largest), Mana Pools National Park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), Matobo National Park (known for its granite kopjes and rock art), and Gonarezhou National Park. Wildlife viewing and safaris are major draws.
  • Great Zimbabwe: A UNESCO World Heritage Site featuring the impressive stone ruins of an ancient city, offering insight into the region's pre-colonial history. Other archaeological sites include Khami and Dhlo-Dhlo.
  • Eastern Highlands: A mountainous region with scenic beauty, hiking trails, and unique flora, including areas like Nyanga, Vumba, and Chimanimani.
  • Lake Kariba: One of the world's largest man-made lakes, offering fishing, boating, and wildlife viewing.
  • Economic Importance: The tourism industry generates foreign exchange, creates employment (directly and indirectly), and supports local communities. In 2016, the total contribution of tourism to Zimbabwe's GDP was estimated at 1.10 B USD (about 8.1% of GDP), and it supported 5.2% of national employment. Tourism peaked in 2018 with 2.6 million tourist arrivals.
  • Recent Trends and Challenges: The sector suffered a significant decline from the early 2000s due to political instability, economic crisis, and negative international perceptions, which led several international airlines to suspend flights. However, there have been efforts to revive the industry. Challenges include the need for infrastructure development and upgrades (accommodation, transport), marketing and promotion, conservation of wildlife and natural attractions in the face of poaching and environmental degradation, and ensuring political and economic stability to restore international tourist confidence. Several major commercial airlines had resumed flights to Zimbabwe by 2017.

6.4. Water supply and sanitation

Access to clean water supply and sanitation remains a significant challenge in Zimbabwe, particularly in rural areas and high-density urban settlements. While there have been successful small-scale programs, the overall infrastructure has suffered from underinvestment, mismanagement, and the economic crisis.

According to the World Health Organization in 2012, 80% of Zimbabweans had access to improved (i.e., clean) drinking water sources, and only 40% had access to improved sanitation facilities. These figures often mask significant disparities between urban and rural areas, and between affluent and poor communities.

Challenges include:

• Infrastructure decay: Aging and poorly maintained water treatment plants, pipelines, and sewage systems lead to frequent breakdowns, water losses, and contamination.
• Economic constraints: The government and local authorities often lack the financial resources to invest in new infrastructure or maintain existing systems.
• Water scarcity: Recurrent droughts and the impacts of climate change put pressure on water sources.
• Pollution: Rivers and groundwater sources are often polluted by untreated sewage, industrial effluent, and agricultural runoff.
• Sanitation: Lack of access to proper sanitation facilities, especially in rural areas and informal settlements, leads to practices like open defecation, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases.

These issues have severe public health consequences, contributing to outbreaks of diseases like cholera (e.g., the major 2008-2009 outbreak) and typhoid fever. Efforts to improve water supply and sanitation involve government initiatives, donor-funded projects, and community-based programs, but progress is often hindered by economic instability and governance challenges.

6.5. Science and technology

Zimbabwe has a history of promoting research and development (R&D), particularly in agriculture (e.g., through a levy on tobacco growers for market research since the 1930s). The country possesses relatively well-developed national infrastructure and a strong education system, with a significant proportion of adults holding tertiary degrees, indicating a solid knowledge base and potential for innovation.

However, the development and application of science and technology have been hampered by several factors:

• Economic crisis: Severe economic downturns have led to underfunding of research institutions, universities, and R&D initiatives. This has resulted in a lack of resources, outdated equipment, and a "brain drain" of skilled professionals and academics. More than 22% of Zimbabwean tertiary students were completing their degrees abroad in 2012.
• Human Resources: While Zimbabwe has a good educational foundation, it lacks a critical mass of researchers in many fields. In 2012, there were 200 researchers (head count) in the public sector.
• Policy and Regulatory Environment: The country's Second Science and Technology Policy was launched in 2012, prioritizing biotechnology, ICTs, space sciences, nanotechnology, indigenous knowledge systems, and environmental technologies. It aimed to allocate at least 1% of GDP to R&D. However, implementation has been challenging, and the regulatory environment has sometimes hampered the transfer of new technologies to the business sector.
• Innovation and Linkages: Linkages between research institutions, universities, and the private sector (industry) have often been weak, hindering the commercialization of research and innovation.

Despite these challenges, there are pockets of excellence, particularly in agricultural research, medical research, and ICT adoption. The Global Innovation Index ranked Zimbabwe 118th in 2024, down from 107th in 2022. In 2014, Zimbabwe had 21 scientific publications per million inhabitants in internationally cataloged journals, placing it sixth among the 15 SADC countries. The government has created initiatives like the Zimbabwe Human Capital Website to attract diaspora talent back to the country. Strengthening investment in R&D, retaining skilled personnel, and fostering a conducive environment for innovation are crucial for Zimbabwe's future development.

7.1. Population

As of a 2024 census estimate by the United Nations, the population of Zimbabwe was approximately 16.6 million. The Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT) conducted its latest census in 2022, which reported a population of 15,178,979. Population growth rates have varied over the decades, influenced by health conditions, economic stability, and migration. The population density is moderate, with higher concentrations in urban areas like Harare and Bulawayo, and in fertile agricultural regions. Zimbabwe has a youthful age structure, typical of many African countries, which presents both opportunities (demographic dividend) and challenges (pressure on education, health, and employment services).

7.2. Ethnic groups

According to the 2022 census, 99.6% of Zimbabwe's population is of African origin. The main ethnic groups are:

• The Shona, who are the largest ethnic group, comprising about 82% of the population. The Shona are themselves a group of culturally related peoples, including distinct sub-groups like the Karanga, Zezuru, Manyika, Korekore, and Ndau.
• The Ndebele, who make up about 14% of the population. They are primarily concentrated in the western part of the country (Matabeleland region) and descended from Zulu migrations in the 19th century, intermarrying with other local groups.
• Other African ethnic groups include the Venda, Tonga, Shangaan/Tsonga, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau (sometimes considered a Shona sub-group), Nambya, Tswana, Xhosa, and Lozi. These groups collectively form a smaller percentage of the population.

Minority ethnic groups include:

• White Zimbabweans: They make up less than 1% of the total population. Mostly of British origin, there are also Afrikaners, and smaller communities of Greek, Portuguese, French, and Dutch descent. The white population dropped from a peak of around 278,000 (4.3% of the population) in 1975 to 24,888 (roughly 0.16%) in the 2022 census. Significant emigration has been to the United Kingdom, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, particularly after 2000.
• Coloureds (people of mixed race): They form about 0.1% of the population.
• Asian Zimbabweans: Mostly of Indian and Chinese origin, they constitute about 0.04% of the population.

Inter-ethnic relations have at times been strained, most notably during the Gukurahundi period in the 1980s. National unity and inclusive development remain important societal goals.

7.3. Largest cities

Zimbabwe is becoming increasingly urbanized, though a significant portion of the population still resides in rural areas. The major urban centers are key to the country's economic, political, and cultural life.

Harare is the capital, largest city, and the political, financial, commercial, and communications center of Zimbabwe.
Bulawayo is the second-largest city and the industrial and business capital of the Matabeleland region.
Chitungwiza and Epworth are large, high-density satellite towns near Harare.
Other significant urban centers include Mutare (gateway to the Eastern Highlands), Gweru (centrally located), Kwekwe and Kadoma (mining and industrial towns), and Masvingo (near the Great Zimbabwe ruins). These cities serve as administrative, commercial, and service hubs for their respective provinces.

7.4. Languages

Zimbabwe has a rich linguistic diversity and officially recognizes 16 languages under its 2013 Constitution. An Act of Parliament may prescribe other languages as officially recognized.
The 16 official languages are: Chewa, Chibarwe, English, Kalanga, "Koisan" (likely referring to Tsoa or other Khoisan languages spoken in the country), Nambya, Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani (Tsonga), Shona, "Sign language" (referring to Zimbabwean Sign Language), Sotho, Tonga, Tswana, Venda, and Xhosa.

• English is the primary language used in education, the judicial system, government administration, and business. While it is an official language and widely understood, less than 2.5% of the population, mainly the white and Coloured minorities, consider it their native language.
• Shona is the most widely spoken indigenous languages of Africa|indigenous language]], spoken by about 70-80% of the population. It has several dialects, including Karanga, Zezuru, Manyika, Korekore, and Ndau. Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel, Feso by Solomon Mutswairo, published in 1956.
• Ndebele (or Sindebele) is the second most common indigenous language, spoken by about 15-20% of the population, primarily in the Matabeleland region.
• Other minority Bantu languages listed as official are spoken by smaller communities across the country.
• There is also a community of Portuguese speakers, mainly in border areas with Mozambique and in major cities. Since 2017, teaching Portuguese has been included in the secondary education curriculum.

Radio and television news is typically broadcast in Shona, Ndebele, and English. The recognition of multiple official languages aims to promote linguistic diversity and inclusivity.

7.5. Religion

Zimbabwe is a predominantly Christian country. According to the 2017 Inter Censal Demography Survey by the Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT), approximately 84% of Zimbabweans identify as Christian. About 10% report no religious affiliation, 0.7% are Muslim, and smaller percentages follow other faiths or traditional beliefs. An estimated 62% of the population attends religious services regularly.

• Christianity:
  • Protestantism is the largest branch, with about 69% of Zimbabweans belonging to various Protestant denominations. These include Anglican, Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist, Baptists, Lutherans, and a significant and rapidly growing number of Pentecostal and Charismatic churches (Apostolic and Zionist churches are particularly prominent). These newer Christian movements play a significant role in public, social, and political life.
  • The Roman Catholic Church accounts for about 8% of the population.
• Indigenous Beliefs: Traditional African religions, often involving ancestor veneration, belief in a high god (Mwari), and the role of spirit mediums (n'anga or traditional healers), continue to be influential, often coexisting or syncretizing with Christianity. The mbira dzavadzimu ("voice of the ancestors"), a traditional musical instrument, plays a central role in many ceremonial proceedings.
• Islam: A small minority, primarily composed of immigrants from South Asia (India and Pakistan), North Africa, and other African countries, as well as a community of indigenous Lemba people.
• Other Religions: Small communities of Hindus, Baháʼís, and Jews also exist.

Freedom of religion is constitutionally protected, and religious groups generally worship freely. Religious institutions often play important roles in education, healthcare, and social welfare.

7.6. Health

Zimbabwe's public health situation has seen periods of significant progress followed by severe decline, largely influenced by economic conditions and the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
In the first five years after independence (1980-1985), Zimbabwe made rapid gains in health indicators, including immunization coverage, access to health care, and contraceptive prevalence, and was internationally recognized for its health development.

However, these gains were eroded by structural adjustment programs in the 1990s, the devastating impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and the severe economic crisis from 2000 onwards.

• Life expectancy: Life expectancy plummeted from around 60 years in 1990 to one of the world's lowest in the mid-2000s (around 43-44 years). This was mainly attributed to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. There has been some recovery since, with life expectancy reaching around 60 years by 2015, due to improved HIV treatment and prevention.
• HIV/AIDS: Zimbabwe was one of the countries hardest hit by HIV/AIDS. The prevalence rate was estimated at 14% for people aged 15-49 in 2009, down from a peak of around 25-30% in the late 1990s. Increased access to antiretroviral therapy (ART) and prevention programs have contributed to this decline. By 2016, prevalence was around 13.5%.
• Infant and Maternal Mortality: Infant mortality rose from 6% in the late 1990s to 12.3% by 2004. The under-five mortality rate was 75 per 1,000 births in 2014 (down from 94 in 2009). Maternal mortality remains high, at 614 per 100,000 births in 2014, though this was an improvement from 960 in 2010-11.
• Healthcare System Collapse: During the peak of the economic crisis (around 2008), the healthcare system virtually collapsed. Hospitals lacked basic drugs, equipment, and staff (due to a "brain drain" of medical professionals). At the end of November 2008, some operations at three of Zimbabwe's four major referral hospitals had shut down.
• Disease outbreaks: Zimbabwe has experienced outbreaks of preventable diseases, notably the cholera outbreak in 2008-2009, which infected tens of thousands and killed over 4,000 people, highlighting the breakdown in water and sanitation infrastructure. Typhoid fever outbreaks have also occurred.

The formation of the Government of National Unity in 2009 and subsequent economic stabilization led to some improvements in the health sector, but challenges related to funding, infrastructure, staffing, and drug availability persist.

7.7. Education

Zimbabwe has historically been recognized for its strong emphasis on education, achieving one of the highest adult literacy rates in Africa following independence. In 2013, the adult literacy rate was 90.70%, a slight decrease from 92% recorded in 2010 by the UNDP, and 97.0% in the 2002 census, but still substantially higher than the 80.4% in 1992.

• Structure: The education system consists of two years of pre-school, seven years of primary education, four years of lower secondary education (leading to "O" level examinations), and two years of upper secondary education (leading to "A" level examinations). Successful completion of "A" levels is typically required for university entrance. The academic year runs from January to December, with three terms.
• Access and Enrollment: Primary education was made free in 1980, leading to a massive expansion in enrollment. However, since 1988, the government has steadily reintroduced and increased fees for school enrollment, even in government-run schools. Independent (private) schools, often charging higher fees, cater to a wealthier segment of the population.
• Challenges: The economic crisis from 2000 severely impacted the education sector.
  • Teacher Attrition: Low salaries and poor working conditions led to strikes and a significant exodus of qualified teachers (an estimated 20,000 left by 2007).
  • Resource Shortages: Schools faced shortages of textbooks, learning materials, and basic infrastructure.
  • Impact on Students: Students were affected by hunger, inability to afford fees and uniforms, and disrupted schooling. It was reported that half of Zimbabwe's children did not progress beyond primary school during the crisis.
  • Political Interference: Teachers were sometimes targeted during periods of political repression.
• Higher education: Zimbabwe has several public (government) universities, including the University of Zimbabwe (the oldest and largest, established in 1952), the National University of Science and Technology (NUST), and others. There are also church-related and private universities. These institutions have produced many notable alumni but have also faced challenges related to funding, staffing, and resources.

Efforts to revitalize the education sector have been ongoing, but it continues to grapple with the legacy of the economic crisis and the need for sustained investment.

7.8. Gender equality

The status of gender equality in Zimbabwe presents a mixed picture, with legal frameworks in place to promote equality but significant challenges remaining in practice due to entrenched patriarchal attitudes, cultural norms, and socio-economic factors.

• Legal Framework: The Constitution of Zimbabwe (2013) includes provisions for gender equality and non-discrimination. Zimbabwe is also a signatory to international and regional conventions on women's rights, such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the Maputo Protocol. Legislation like the Domestic Violence Act aims to protect women.
• Political Participation: Women's representation in parliament and other decision-making positions has increased, partly due to constitutional quotas (e.g., 60 reserved seats for women in the National Assembly). However, women remain underrepresented in higher levels of political leadership and face barriers to effective participation.
• Economic Empowerment: Women constitute a significant portion of the agricultural labor force and informal sector. However, they often face unequal access to land, credit, resources, and economic opportunities compared to men. Customary laws regarding inheritance and property rights can disadvantage women, particularly in rural areas.
• Education: While there has been progress in girls' access to education, disparities persist, especially at higher education levels and in certain fields. Child marriage remains a problem, often curtailing girls' educational and economic prospects.
• Health: Women face specific health challenges, including high maternal mortality rates and a disproportionate burden of the HIV/AIDS epidemic (women aged 15-49 have a higher HIV prevalence rate than men in the same age group and constitute a majority of those infected). Access to reproductive health services can be limited.
• Gender-Based Violence (GBV): GBV, including domestic violence, sexual assault, and harmful traditional practices, is widespread. While laws exist, enforcement can be weak, and survivors may face barriers in access to justice and support services. Cultural norms often perpetuate silence around GBV.
• Cultural and Societal Norms: Deep-rooted patriarchal attitudes and traditional beliefs often assign women subordinate roles in the family and society. Expressions like "vakadzi ngavanyarare" (Shona for "women should keep quiet") reflect these norms, limiting women's participation in decision-making. The Ubuntu philosophy, while having positive aspects, has sometimes been interpreted in ways that devalue girls compared to boys.

Efforts by the government, civil society organizations, and international partners aim to promote gender equality through legal reforms, awareness campaigns, economic empowerment programs, and support services for GBV survivors. However, achieving substantive gender equality requires sustained efforts to address both structural barriers and deeply ingrained societal attitudes.

8.1. Arts and literature

Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include pottery, basketry, textiles, jewelry, and carving. Symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved from a single piece of wood are distinctive. Shona sculpture, which has a long cultural history, began evolving into its modern form in the mid-20th century and has gained significant international popularity. Most sculptures, often depicting stylized birds, human figures, and spiritual themes, are made from sedimentary rocks like soapstone, as well as harder igneous rocks such as serpentine and the rare verdite. World-renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas Nesbert, Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi, and Locardia Ndandarika. A recurring theme is the metamorphosis of man into beast.

Zimbabwean literature encompasses works in English, Shona, Ndebele, and other indigenous languages. Charles Mungoshi is renowned for his traditional stories in English and Shona. Catherine Buckle gained international recognition for her books detailing experiences under the 2000 Land Reform. Dambudzo Marechera's The House of Hunger won the Guardian Fiction Prize in 1979. Nobel laureate Doris Lessing set her first novel, The Grass Is Singing, and parts of her Children of Violence sequence in Rhodesia. More recently, NoViolet Bulawayo's novel We Need New Names (2013) was shortlisted for the Booker Prize, as was her second novel Glory (2022), a satire based on the 2017 coup. Tsitsi Dangarembga's novels have also received widespread critical acclaim, with This Mournable Body shortlisted for the Booker Prize in 2020. Zimbabwean literature often reflects societal issues, political struggles, and cultural identity.

8.2. Music

Music plays a vital role in Zimbabwean culture, from traditional ceremonial music to contemporary popular genres.

• Traditional Music: The mbira (thumb piano) is a central instrument, particularly in Shona culture, used in religious ceremonies like the bira to call upon ancestral spirits. Drums, hosho (rattles), and call-and-response singing are also integral to traditional music.
• Chimurenga Music: Popularized by Thomas Mapfumo, Chimurenga music (meaning "struggle" music) evolved during the liberation war, blending traditional Shona music with electric instrumentation and politically charged lyrics.
• Jit: A fast-paced, guitar-driven popular music style. The Bhundu Boys were internationally successful exponents of Jit.
• Sungura: A popular genre characterized by intricate guitar work, often with social commentary. Alick Macheso is a leading Sungura artist.
• Oliver "Tuku" Mtukudzi: One of Zimbabwe's most iconic musicians, Tuku's music, often called "Tuku Music," blended various influences and addressed social issues.
• Other notable musicians include Stella Chiweshe (mbira) and Audius Mtawarira.

Music is a powerful medium for cultural expression, social commentary, and storytelling in Zimbabwe.

8.3. Cuisine

Zimbabwean cuisine is centered around staple foods, with regional variations and influences from its history.

• Sadza: The most common staple food, a thick porridge made from maize (cornmeal) (mealie meal), known as isitshwala in Ndebele. It is typically eaten with a relish (muriwo or usavi), which can be meat stew (beef, goat, chicken), fish (especially dried Tanganyika sardine, known as kapenta or matemba), or vegetables (such as spring greens/collard greens, chomolia, spinach), often cooked with tomatoes, onions, and sometimes peanut butter.
• Bota: A thinner porridge, also made from mealie meal, usually eaten for breakfast, often flavored with peanut butter, milk, butter, or jam.
• Meats: Beef, goat, and chicken are commonly consumed. Barbecued meat (braai) is popular, especially at social gatherings. Biltong (dried, spiced raw meat, similar to jerky) and boerewors (a long, spiced sausage, often barbecued), both of Afrikaner origin, are also popular.
• Other traditional dishes:
  • Mutakura: A mixture of boiled and sun-dried maize, peanuts (nzungu), black-eyed peas (nyemba), and Bambara groundnuts (nyimo).
  • Rice cooked with peanut butter (Mupunga unedovi).
• Colonial influences: Some English eating habits, like having porridge for breakfast and tea times (10 o'clock and 4 o'clock tea), are common.

Rice, pasta, and potato-based foods also feature in the diet, particularly in urban areas.

8.4. Sports

Sports are popular in Zimbabwe, with several disciplines having a strong following and international representation.

• Football (Soccer): The most popular sport. The men's national team (The Warriors) has qualified for the Africa Cup of Nations five times (2004, 2006, 2017, 2019, 2021) and won the COSAFA Cup (Southern Africa championship) six times. The women's national team competed in the 2016 Olympic Games.
• Cricket: Very popular, initially among the white minority but now widely followed. Zimbabwe is one of twelve Test-playing nations and a full member of the International Cricket Council (ICC). Notable players include Andy Flower, Heath Streak, and Brendan Taylor.
• Rugby Union: A significant sport. The national side (The Sables) represented the country at the 1987 and 1991 Rugby World Cup tournaments.
• Tennis: Zimbabwe has had success in tennis, particularly with the Black family (Byron Black, Wayne Black, and Cara Black) and Kevin Ullyett, who have achieved Grand Slam doubles titles.
• Swimming: Kirsty Coventry is Zimbabwe's most decorated Olympian, having won eight Olympic medals (two gold, four silver, two bronze) in swimming at the 2004 and 2008 Games. She has also won numerous medals at the Commonwealth Games and All-Africa Games.
• Golf: Nick Price is a notable Zimbabwean golfer who reached World Number 1 status.
• Other Sports: Field hockey (the women's team won gold at the 1980 Moscow Olympics), athletics, basketball, volleyball, netball, water polo, squash, motorsport, martial arts (Samson Muripo became a Kyokushin karate world champion in 2009), chess, cycling, polocrosse, and horse racing are also played.

8.5. Media

The media landscape in Zimbabwe has experienced periods of diversity as well as tight government control. The Constitution of Zimbabwe guarantees freedom of the media and expression, but in practice, these freedoms have often been curtailed.

• Print Media: Major state-controlled newspapers include The Herald (Harare) and The Chronicle (Bulawayo). Several privately-owned newspapers exist, such as NewsDay, Daily News (which was shut down by the government for several years before being relicensed), and The Zimbabwean (often published from outside the country during repressive periods).
• Broadcast Media: The Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC) is the state-owned broadcaster and has historically dominated the television and radio landscape, often accused of being a propaganda tool for the ruling party. The licensing of private radio stations began in 2012, ending ZBC's monopoly, but concerns about independence and political influence remain.
• Online Media: The internet has become an important source of alternative news and information, with numerous online news sites and blogs, many operated by exiled journalists or independent voices within the country. However, the government has at times sought to control online expression through legislation and internet shutdowns during protests.
• Media Legislation and Press Freedom: Laws such as the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) (passed in 2002) were used to restrict media operations and accredit journalists, leading to the closure of some outlets and the harassment of media professionals. While some repressive sections have been challenged or replaced (e.g., AIPPA was repealed and replaced by the Freedom of Information Act), concerns about media freedom persist. Reporters Without Borders ranked Zimbabwe 130th out of 180 countries in its 2021 Press Freedom Index, noting improvements in access to information but continued attacks or arrests of journalists.
• Foreign Media: Foreign news organizations like the BBC and CNN were banned from reporting from Zimbabwe for several years but were allowed to resume operations in 2009. Sky News and other international outlets often report from neighboring countries.

Since the 2017 change in government, there have been some openings in the media environment, but challenges related to political interference, economic viability of independent media, and the safety of journalists continue.

8.6. National symbols

Zimbabwe's national symbols reflect its history, culture, and aspirations.

• National Flag: Adopted on 18 April 1980. It features seven horizontal stripes of green, gold (yellow), red, and black, with a white triangle at the hoist. The triangle contains a red five-pointed star and the Zimbabwe Bird.
  • Green symbolizes agriculture and rural Zimbabwe.
  • Gold (Yellow) represents the country's mineral wealth.
  • Red symbolizes the blood shed during the liberation struggle.
  • Black represents the heritage and majority black population.
  • The white triangle stands for peace.
  • The Zimbabwe Bird is the national emblem.
  • The red star symbolizes the nation's aspirations (often linked to socialism or hope).
• Coat of Arms: Adopted on 21 September 1981. It features two kudus (antelopes) supporting a shield. The shield displays the Zimbabwe Bird on a representation of the Great Zimbabwe ruins, and wavy blue and white lines symbolizing water. Above the shield is a hoe and an AK-47 rifle, symbolizing the transition from war to peace. A red star and the Zimbabwe Bird are at the crest. The motto is "Unity, Freedom, Work."
• Zimbabwe Bird: This stone-carved soapstone bird is an emblem found at the ruins of Great Zimbabwe. Several original carvings exist. It is a powerful symbol of national identity and heritage, likely representing the bateleur eagle or the African fish eagle.
• National Anthem: "Blessed Be the Land of Zimbabwe" (Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe_{Raise Our Zimbabwean Flag}^Shona; Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe_{Blessed Be the Land of Zimbabwe}^{Ndebele, North}). It was introduced in March 1994, replacing "Ishe Komborera Africa." The lyrics were written by Professor Solomon Mutswairo, and the music was composed by Fred Changundega. It has been translated into all three main languages of Zimbabwe.
• Balancing rocks of Zimbabwe: These geological formations, where rocks are perfectly balanced without other supports, are found throughout Zimbabwe, notably in Epworth (the Banknote Rocks depicted on Zimbabwean currency) and Matobo National Park. They symbolize balance and stability.
• Flame Lily (Gloriosa superba): The national flower of Zimbabwe, known for its vibrant red and yellow petals.