Sudan

3.1. Prehistoric Sudan

Evidence of early human habitation in the Sudan region dates back tens of thousands of years. The Affad 23 archaeological site, located in the Affad region of southern Dongola Reach in northern Sudan, contains well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps, including relics of what are considered the oldest open-air huts in the world, and diverse hunting and gathering loci dating back some 50,000 years. The Khormusan industry flourished between 40,000 and 16,000 BC. The Halfan culture existed from around 20,500 to 17,000 BC, followed by the Sebilian culture (13,000-10,000 BC) and the Qadan culture (15,000-5,000 BC). The site of Jebel Sahaba is notable for evidence of the earliest known organized warfare in the world, dating to around 11,500 BC.

By the eighth millennium BC, people of a Neolithic culture had settled into a sedentary way of life in fortified mudbrick villages along the Nile. They supplemented hunting and fishing with grain gathering and cattle herding. Neolithic peoples created cemeteries such as R12. During the fifth millennium BC, migrations from the drying Sahara brought Neolithic people into the Nile Valley, along with agriculture. The A-Group culture (c. 3800-3100 BC) emerged during this period. The population resulting from this cultural and genetic mixing developed a social hierarchy over the next centuries, which eventually became the Kingdom of Kerma around 2500 BC. Anthropological and archaeological research indicates that during the predynastic period, Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were ethnically and culturally nearly identical, and thus, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC.

3.2. Ancient Nubian Kingdoms

Ancient Nubia, located in present-day Sudan and southern Egypt, was home to a series of powerful indigenous kingdoms that flourished for millennia. These kingdoms, including Kerma, the various phases under Egyptian rule, and the influential Kingdom of Kush, developed sophisticated cultures, engaged in extensive trade, and had complex political and military interactions, particularly with their northern neighbor, Egypt.

3.2.1. Kerma culture

The Kerma culture, flourishing from approximately 2500 BC to 1500 BC, was an early civilization centered in Kerma, Sudan. It was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia," in what is now northern and central Sudan, and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the Egyptian border. The polity appears to have been one of several Nile Valley states during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt.

Kerma was characterized by its urban centers, distinctive pottery (often highly polished black-topped red ware), and monumental mud-brick structures known as deffufas. The Western Deffufa, a massive temple-like structure, stands as a testament to Kerma's architectural and organizational capabilities. The society was hierarchical, with powerful rulers who controlled extensive trade networks, particularly in gold, ivory, cattle, and slaves, which were highly sought after by Egypt. Archaeological evidence, including rich burial sites with numerous sacrificial retainers and imported goods, indicates a wealthy and powerful elite. The Kerma culture maintained a distinct identity while also absorbing influences from Egypt and other African cultures. In its latest phase, from about 1700-1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of Saï and became a sizable, populous empire that rivaled and often conflicted with Egypt.

3.2.2. Egyptian rule of Nubia

Ancient Egypt exerted significant influence and, at various times, direct control over Nubia, driven by the desire for Nubia's rich resources, including gold, ivory, ebony, incense, and manpower. Egyptian rule in Nubia was established through military campaigns and the construction of fortified settlements and temples.

Mentuhotep II, the 21st century BC founder of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, is recorded to have undertaken campaigns against Kush in the 29th and 31st years of his reign. This is the earliest Egyptian reference to Kush; the Nubian region had gone by other names in the Old Kingdom. Under Thutmose I during the New Kingdom (circa 1504 BC), Egypt made several campaigns south, conquering Kush and destroying its capital, Kerma. This marked the beginning of a long period of Egyptian domination.

After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly Egyptianized, yet rebellions continued for centuries, lasting about 220 years until circa 1300 BC. Nubia became a key province of the New Kingdom, economically, politically, and spiritually. Major pharaonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata. As an Egyptian colony from the 16th century BC, Nubia ("Kush") was governed by an Egyptian Viceroy of Kush. Egyptian administration brought Egyptian language, religion, and culture to Nubia, and many Nubians served in the Egyptian military or administration. Temples to Egyptian gods were built throughout Nubia, and Egyptian artistic styles influenced Nubian art.

Resistance to early Eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian rule by neighboring Kush is evidenced in the writings of Ahmose, son of Ebana, an Egyptian warrior. At the end of the Second Intermediate Period (mid-sixteenth century BC), Egypt faced threats from the Hyksos in the North and the Kushites in the South. The Egyptians undertook campaigns to defeat Kush and conquer Nubia under Amenhotep I (1514-1493 BC). In Ahmose's writings, the Kushites are described as archers. By 1200 BC, direct Egyptian involvement in the Dongola Reach was nonexistent. Egypt's international prestige declined considerably towards the end of the Third Intermediate Period, facilitating the later resurgence of an independent Kushite kingdom. According to Josephus Flavius, the biblical Moses led the Egyptian army in a siege of the Kushite city of Meroe. To end the siege, Princess Tharbis was reportedly given to Moses as a diplomatic bride, and the Egyptian army retreated.

3.2.3. Kingdom of Kush

The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state centered on the confluences of the Blue Nile and White Nile, and the Atbarah River and the Nile River. It was established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt. The kingdom had two major phases: the Napatan period and the Meroitic period.

The Napatan period (c. 1070 BC - c. 350 BC, though often considered to begin with Kashta's reign around 760 BC for the dynasty that conquered Egypt) was initially centered at Napata, near Jebel Barkal. After King Kashta invaded Egypt in the eighth century BC, the Kushite kings, including notable figures like Piye and Taharqa, ruled as pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt for nearly a century. They controlled an empire stretching from South Kordofan to the Sinai. Pharaoh Piye attempted to expand into the Near East but was thwarted by the Assyrian king Sargon II. The Kushite dynasty was eventually defeated and driven out of Egypt by the Assyrians under Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal. Ashurbanipal sacked Thebes, effectively ending Kushite rule in Egypt.

Following their expulsion from Egypt, the Kushite kingdom continued to thrive, with its capital eventually shifting south to Meroë (c. 300 BC - c. 350 AD). The Meroitic period is characterized by a stronger indigenous African influence. Meroë became a major center for iron production, agriculture (especially sorghum), and trade, connecting sub-Saharan Africa with the Mediterranean world, India, and China. The Meroites developed their own script, Meroitic, which remains largely undeciphered, and continued the tradition of pyramid building for royal burials, though distinct in style from Egyptian pyramids. Nubian pyramids were built in locations such as El-Kurru, Nuri, Jebel Barkal, and Meroë. The Kingdom of Kush is mentioned in the Bible, notably as having potentially aided the Israelites against the Assyrians. The decline of Meroë is attributed to various factors, including environmental degradation, loss of trade routes to the rising Aksumite Kingdom, and possible internal strife. It eventually collapsed around 350 AD, traditionally attributed to an invasion by King Ezana of Aksum.

3.3. Medieval Christian Nubian kingdoms

After the fall of Kush, Nubia saw the emergence of three Christian kingdoms: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia. These kingdoms flourished from approximately the 6th to the 15th centuries and played a significant role in the history of Northeast Africa.

Around the turn of the fifth century, the Blemmyes established a short-lived state in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia, possibly centered around Talmis (Kalabsha). However, before 450 AD, they were driven out of the Nile Valley by the Nobatians, who subsequently founded the kingdom of Nobatia. By the sixth century, three distinct Nubian kingdoms had emerged:

• Nobatia in the north, with its capital at Pachoras (modern Faras).
• Makuria in the center, with its capital at Tungul (Old Dongola), about 8.1 mile ^{(13 km)} south of modern Dongola.
• Alodia in the south, in the heartland of the old Kushitic kingdom, with its capital at Soba (near modern-day Khartoum).

These kingdoms converted to Christianity in the sixth century, largely through the efforts of missionaries from the Byzantine Empire. Coptic Christianity became the dominant form. In the seventh century, probably between 628 and 642, Nobatia was incorporated into Makuria.

Between 639 and 641, Muslim Arabs conquered Byzantine Egypt. They subsequently invaded Nubia in 641 or 642 and again in 652 but were repelled by Makurian forces. This led to the Baqt treaty, a unique non-aggression pact between Makuria and Muslim Egypt that included an annual exchange of goods (including slaves from Nubia and grain from Egypt) and acknowledged Makuria's independence. This treaty largely stabilized relations for several centuries. While the Arabs failed to conquer Nubia militarily, some Arab traders and settlers began to live east of the Nile, intermarrying with the local Beja people.

From the mid-eighth to the mid-eleventh century, Christian Nubia experienced a golden age of political power and cultural development. Makuria invaded Egypt in 747 during the decline of the Umayyad Caliphate and again in the early 960s, pushing as far north as Akhmim. Makuria maintained close dynastic ties with Alodia, possibly resulting in a temporary unification of the two kingdoms. The culture of medieval Nubians has been described as "Afro-Byzantine," though it was also increasingly influenced by Arab culture. The state organization was highly centralized, based on Byzantine bureaucracy. Arts flourished, particularly pottery painting and vibrant wall paintings in churches. The Nubians developed an alphabet for their language, Old Nobiin, based on the Coptic alphabet, while also using Greek, Coptic, and Arabic. Women enjoyed a relatively high social status, with access to education, land ownership, and often endowed churches. Royal succession was often matrilineal.

From the late 11th/12th century, Makuria's capital Dongola began to decline, and Alodia's capital Soba also declined in the 12th century. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Bedouin Arab tribes overran most of Sudan, migrating to the Butana, Gezira, Kordofan, and Darfur. In 1365, a civil war forced the Makurian court to flee to Gebel Adda in Lower Nubia, while Dongola was destroyed and left to the Arabs. Makuria continued as a petty kingdom. After the reign of King Joel of Dotawo (c. 1463-1484), Makuria collapsed. Coastal areas from southern Sudan up to Suakin were succeeded by the Adal Sultanate in the fifteenth century. To the south, the kingdom of Alodia fell to either Arab tribal leader Abdallah Jamma or the Funj, an African people from the south, with dates ranging from the late 14th to early 16th century (often cited as 1504). An Alodian rump state might have survived as the kingdom of Fazughli until 1685.

3.4. Islamization and Islamic Sultanates

The gradual process of Islamization in Sudan began with increased Arab migration and trade following the decline of the Christian Nubian kingdoms. Sufi holy men played a crucial role in spreading Islam, particularly from the 15th and 16th centuries onwards.

In 1504, the Funj, an African people of uncertain origin, are recorded to have founded the Funj Sultanate of Sennar, which incorporated Abdallah Jamma's realm. By 1523, when Jewish traveler David Reubeni visited Sudan, the Funj state already extended as far north as Dongola. King Amara Dunqas, previously a Pagan or nominal Christian, was recorded to be Muslim by Reubeni's visit. However, the Funj retained un-Islamic customs like divine kingship and alcohol consumption until the 18th century. Sudanese folk Islam preserved many rituals stemming from Christian traditions.

The Funj soon came into conflict with the Ottoman Empire, which had occupied Suakin around 1526 and eventually pushed south along the Nile, reaching the third Nile cataract area by 1583/1584. An Ottoman attempt to capture Dongola was repelled by the Funj in 1585. Hannik, south of the third cataract, became the border. Following the Ottoman invasion, Ajib the Great, a minor king of northern Nubia, attempted usurpation. Though the Funj eventually killed him in 1611/1612, his successors, the Abdallab, were granted governance over the region north of the confluence of the Blue and White Niles with considerable autonomy.

During the 17th century, the Funj state reached its widest extent. However, it began to decline in the 18th century. A coup in 1718 brought a dynastic change, and another in 1761-1762 resulted in the Hamaj Regency, where the Hamaj (a people from the Ethiopian borderlands) effectively ruled while the Funj sultans were mere puppets. The sultanate then began to fragment, and by the early 19th century, it was essentially restricted to the Gezira region. The coup of 1718 initiated a policy of pursuing a more orthodox Islam, which promoted the Arabization of the state. To legitimize their rule over Arab subjects, the Funj began to propagate an Umayyad descent. North of the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, as far downstream as Al Dabbah, the Nubians adopted the tribal identity of the Arab Ja'alin. By the 19th century, Arabic had become the dominant language of central riverine Sudan and most of Kordofan.

West of the Nile, in Darfur, the Islamic period saw the rise of the Tunjur kingdom, which replaced the old Daju kingdom in the 15th century and extended as far west as Wadai. The Tunjur were likely Arabized Berbers, and their ruling elite were Muslims. In the 17th century, the Tunjur were driven from power by the Fur Keira Sultanate. The Keira state, nominally Muslim since the reign of Sulayman Solong (r. c. 1660-1680), was initially a small kingdom in northern Jebel Marra but expanded significantly in the early 18th century. Under Muhammad Tayrab (r. 1751-1786), it conquered Kordofan in 1785. The Keira Sultanate reached its peak, roughly the size of present-day Nigeria, and lasted until its conquest during the Turco-Egyptian period in 1874, though it was later briefly restored.

3.5. Turco-Egyptian Rule and the Mahdist War

This period covers the conquest of Sudan by Muhammad Ali of Egypt, the establishment of Turco-Egyptian administration (known as the Turkiyya), the subsequent Mahdist Uprising led by Muhammad Ahmad, the creation of the Mahdist State, and its eventual overthrow by Anglo-Egyptian forces. This era fundamentally reshaped Sudanese society, economy, and its relationship with external powers, laying some of the groundwork for modern Sudan.

3.5.1. Turco-Egyptian Sudan (Turkiyya)

In 1821, Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Ottoman wali (governor) of Egypt who ruled as a virtually independent Khedive, initiated the conquest of Sudan. His primary motives were to secure access to gold, slaves, and to eliminate Mamluk remnants who had fled south. His third son, Ismail Kamil Pasha, led the invasion force, which conquered northern and central Sudan. With the exception of the Shaiqiya tribe and the Darfur Sultanate in Kordofan, he met little resistance. The Egyptian policy of conquest was expanded and intensified by Ibrahim Pasha's son, Isma'il Pasha (Khedive Isma'il), under whose reign (1863-1879) most of the remainder of modern-day Sudan was conquered, extending Egyptian control far south along the Nile and into Darfur (annexed in 1874).

The Turco-Egyptian administration, known as the Turkiyya, brought significant changes. It established a centralized government, introduced new administrative structures, and attempted to modernize aspects of the Sudanese economy, particularly focusing on agriculture (e.g., cotton) and trade. However, the rule was often harsh, characterized by heavy taxation, forced labor, and the brutal expansion of the slave trade, particularly from the southern regions. These policies generated widespread resentment among the Sudanese population. European powers increasingly pressured Egypt to suppress the slave trade, leading to the appointment of European governors like Charles George Gordon in Equatoria, but the trade persisted.

In 1879, the Great Powers forced the removal of Khedive Isma'il, replacing him with his son Tewfik Pasha. Tewfik's perceived weakness, corruption, and mismanagement within his administration, including in Sudan, contributed to the 'Urabi Revolt in Egypt. Tewfik appealed for British help, leading to the British occupation of Egypt in 1882. Sudan remained under nominal Khedivial control but was increasingly mismanaged. The harsh taxes and the adverse impact of European anti-slavery initiatives on the northern Sudanese economy, which relied on slave labor and trade, precipitated widespread discontent and paved the way for the Mahdist Uprising.

3.5.2. Mahdist State

In June 1881, Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd Allah, a Sufi religious leader from Dongola, proclaimed himself the Mahdi (the "Guided One" expected in Islamic eschatology). He denounced the Turco-Egyptian rulers as corrupt and un-Islamic and called for a jihad to purify Islam and establish an Islamic state. His movement rapidly gained support from various Sudanese groups, including religious followers (Ansar), displaced pastoralists, and those resentful of Egyptian taxation and administration.

The Mahdist War (1881-1899) began with an incident at Aba Island. The Mahdist forces, despite being poorly equipped initially, won a series of stunning victories against Egyptian forces, culminating in the Siege of Khartoum. In January 1885, Khartoum fell, and the British-appointed Governor-General Charles George Gordon was killed. This victory effectively ended Turco-Egyptian rule and established the Mahdist State.

Muhammad Ahmad died in June 1885, just six months after capturing Khartoum. After a power struggle, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, known as the Khalifa, emerged as his successor. The Khalifa consolidated power, primarily with the support of the Baggara Arabs from western Sudan, and established a centralized administration. The Mahdist State enforced a strict interpretation of Sharia law. It faced internal rebellions and external threats. The Khalifa pursued an expansionist policy, launching campaigns against Ethiopia (capturing Gondar in 1887, though King Yohannes IV was killed in a counter-attack at Metemma in 1889), Egypt (defeated at Tushkah in 1889), and Italian Eritrea (repelled at Agordat in 1893). These campaigns, often brutal, strained the state's resources and alienated some populations. The failure of the Egyptian invasion, in particular, diminished the Ansar's reputation for invincibility.

By the 1890s, Britain, concerned about French and Belgian colonial ambitions in the Nile headwaters and seeking to secure the Nile for Egypt (and its planned Aswan Dam), decided to reconquer Sudan. General Herbert Kitchener led a well-equipped Anglo-Egyptian force. The reconquest campaign (1896-1898) utilized modern weaponry and infrastructure (like railways and gunboats). The decisive Battle of Omdurman on September 2, 1898, resulted in a catastrophic defeat for the Mahdist forces. The Khalifa Abdallahi was killed a year later at the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat on November 25, 1899, effectively ending the Mahdist State and the Mahdist War.

3.6. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

Following the defeat of the Mahdist State, Sudan entered a period of joint Anglo-Egyptian rule, known as the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1899-1956). In 1899, Britain and Egypt signed an agreement establishing this shared sovereignty. However, in practice, Britain held the dominant administrative power, with the Governor-General of Sudan typically being British and appointed by Egypt with British consent. Sudan was effectively administered as a British colonial possession. The British were keen to reverse the process started under Muhammad Ali of uniting the Nile Valley under Egyptian leadership and sought to frustrate efforts aimed at further uniting the two countries.

British administration focused on establishing law and order, developing infrastructure (railways, telegraphs), and promoting export-oriented agriculture, notably the Gezira Scheme for cotton cultivation. A system of taxation was enacted. British policies often aimed to govern the North and South as separate entities. After the assassination of Sir Lee Stack, Governor-General of Sudan, in Cairo in 1924, this "Southern Policy" became more pronounced. It restricted movement and interaction between the predominantly Muslim, Arabic-speaking North and the largely animist or Christian, African South, aiming to prevent Northern cultural and political influence from spreading south and to allow Christian missionary activity in the South. This policy exacerbated existing divisions and contributed to future conflict.

Sudanese nationalism began to emerge during this period, fueled by opposition to colonial rule and inspired by Egyptian nationalism. Educated Sudanese formed political groups, advocating for greater self-governance and eventually independence. The Sudan Defence Force (SDF), formed in 1925, replaced the Egyptian army garrison and saw action during World War II, particularly in the East African Campaign against Italian forces in Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland.

The Egyptian revolution of 1952, which overthrew the monarchy, significantly impacted Sudan's path to independence. Egypt's new leaders, Muhammad Naguib (who was half-Sudanese) and later Gamal Abdel Nasser, demanded British withdrawal from both Egypt and Sudan and officially abandoned Egypt's claims of sovereignty over Sudan to expedite the end of British rule. Facing pressure from both Egyptian and Sudanese nationalists, Britain agreed to terminate the condominium and grant Sudan independence. The British had supported the Mahdist successor, Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, hoping he would resist Egyptian pressure, but his regime suffered from political ineptitude. Both Britain and Egypt sensed growing instability and opted for self-determination.

3.7. Independence and Post-Colonial Era

Sudan was declared an independent state on January 1, 1956. The post-colonial era has been characterized by a series of unstable parliamentary governments, military coups, and devastating civil wars, primarily between the North and South, and later in Darfur. These conflicts have profoundly affected Sudan's political development, human rights record, and socio-economic progress.

Upon independence, Ismail al-Azhari became the first Prime Minister. However, political stability proved elusive. The legacy of colonial policies, particularly the North-South divide, ethnic and religious tensions, and competition for resources and power, quickly led to conflict.

3.7.2. Gaafar Nimeiry Era (1969-1985)

Colonel Gaafar Nimeiry came to power in a military coup on May 25, 1969, overthrowing the existing parliamentary government. His rule, which lasted until 1985, was marked by shifting ideologies, authoritarian policies, and ultimately, the reignition of civil war. Initially, Nimeiry's regime adopted a socialist and pan-Arabist stance, nationalizing banks and industries. He abolished parliament and outlawed all political parties. In July 1971, a short-lived communist-backed coup briefly ousted him, but he was restored to power within days with the help of anti-communist military elements and external support.

A significant achievement of Nimeiry's early rule was the 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement, which ended the First Sudanese Civil War and granted autonomy to the South. This brought a period of peace but also saw American investment in projects like the Jonglei Canal, intended to irrigate the Upper Nile region, though its construction was later halted by renewed conflict and had negative environmental and social impacts on local tribes like the Dinka.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Nimeiry's regime shifted towards a more pro-Western and Islamist orientation. In 1976, the Ansars mounted an unsuccessful coup attempt. In July 1977, Nimeiry met with Ansar leader Sadiq al-Mahdi, leading to a brief reconciliation and the release of political prisoners. However, economic problems worsened, exacerbated by declining commodity prices, rising debt from agricultural mechanization projects, and an IMF-negotiated Structural Adjustment Program in 1978, which caused hardship for pastoralists.

A pivotal and highly controversial move was Nimeiry's decision in September 1983 to implement a strict form of Sharia law, known as the "September Laws," across the country, including the predominantly non-Muslim South. This involved public amputations for theft and the symbolic disposal of alcohol. He declared himself the imam of the Sudanese Umma in 1984. The imposition of Sharia law, along with other grievances such as the redrawing of regional boundaries to benefit the North (especially concerning oil-rich areas) and the abrogation of parts of the Addis Ababa Agreement, directly led to the outbreak of the Second Sudanese Civil War in 1983. Nimeiry was overthrown in a popular uprising and subsequent military coup in April 1985 while he was out of the country. His era left a legacy of political repression and deepened societal divisions.

3.7.4. Omar al-Bashir Era (1989-2019)

Colonel (later General) Omar al-Bashir seized power in a bloodless military coup on June 30, 1989, overthrowing the democratically elected government of Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi. His rule, spanning three decades, was characterized by authoritarianism, the consolidation of an Islamist state, severe human rights abuses, internal conflicts, and international isolation.

Immediately after the coup, Bashir, in alliance with the National Islamic Front (NIF) led by Hassan al-Turabi, suspended the constitution, banned political parties and independent newspapers, and dissolved parliament. He carried out purges in the army and civil service, imprisoning political opponents and journalists. In 1993, Bashir appointed himself President and disbanded the Revolutionary Command Council. Sudan became a one-party state under the National Congress Party (NCP), the successor to the NIF.

During the 1990s, under al-Turabi's influence, Sudan pursued a radical Islamist agenda, hosting figures like Osama bin Laden. This led the United States to list Sudan as a state sponsor of terrorism. Following Al Qaeda's 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, the U.S. launched retaliatory missile strikes against targets in Sudan, including the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory, which the U.S. mistakenly believed was producing chemical weapons. Later, al-Bashir marginalized al-Turabi to consolidate his own power and sought to improve international relations by expelling bin Laden.

The most devastating event of the Bashir era was the War in Darfur, which began in February 2003. Rebel groups, the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), took up arms, accusing the government of oppressing non-Arab Darfuris in favor of Sudanese Arabs. The government responded with a brutal counter-insurgency campaign, heavily relying on Arab militias known as the Janjaweed. This conflict resulted in widespread atrocities, including mass killings, systematic rape, forced displacement, and the destruction of villages, leading to accusations of genocide and crimes against humanity. An estimated 300,000 to 400,000 people died, and millions were displaced. In 2009 and 2010, the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued arrest warrants for al-Bashir for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide related to Darfur, making him the first sitting head of state to be indicted by the ICC. Bashir's government consistently denied the charges and refused to cooperate with the ICC.

The Second Sudanese Civil War with the South continued under Bashir until the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed in 2005. This agreement led to the 2011 referendum and the secession of South Sudan. Despite the CPA, conflicts persisted in border regions like South Kordofan and Blue Nile.

Throughout his rule, Bashir's regime was marked by severe repression of political dissent, restrictions on freedom of speech and the press, and systematic human rights violations. International sanctions and isolation further crippled Sudan's economy. Protests against his rule, fueled by economic hardship and lack of political freedoms, grew in intensity, culminating in the Sudanese Revolution of 2018-2019. On April 11, 2019, following months of mass demonstrations, the military removed al-Bashir from power and placed him under arrest, ending his 30-year dictatorship.

3.7.5. Secession of South Sudan

The secession of South Sudan in 2011 was a landmark event in Sudanese history, resulting from the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) signed in 2005, which ended the Second Sudanese Civil War. A key provision of the CPA was the right of the people of Southern Sudan to hold a referendum on independence after a six-year interim period of autonomy.

The 2011 South Sudanese independence referendum was held from January 9 to 15, 2011. The result was an overwhelming vote in favor of secession, with nearly 99% of voters choosing independence. The Sudanese government under Omar al-Bashir, which had initially resisted southern autonomy, accepted the outcome. On July 9, 2011, the Republic of South Sudan was officially declared an independent nation, with its capital in Juba.

The secession had profound implications for both Sudan and South Sudan. Sudan lost approximately three-quarters of its oil reserves, which were located in the South, leading to severe economic challenges, including high inflation and a currency crisis. South Sudan, despite its oil wealth, faced immense challenges in nation-building, including establishing governance structures, addressing internal ethnic conflicts, and developing its infrastructure.

Several critical issues remained unresolved between the two countries post-secession. These included:

• Border Demarcation:** The precise border between Sudan and South Sudan, particularly in oil-rich and contested areas, remained a source of tension.
• Oil Revenue Sharing:** Agreements on transit fees for South Sudanese oil, which had to be transported through pipelines in Sudan to reach Port Sudan for export, were contentious and led to disputes, including a temporary shutdown of oil production by South Sudan.
• Status of Abyei:** The oil-rich Abyei region, claimed by both sides, was due to have its own referendum to decide whether to join Sudan or South Sudan. However, disagreements over voter eligibility and security arrangements prevented the referendum from taking place, leaving Abyei's status in limbo and a persistent flashpoint for conflict.
• Citizenship:** The status of southerners living in Sudan and northerners in South Sudan became a complex issue, with concerns about statelessness and discrimination.
• Debt:** The division of Sudan's substantial external debt was another point of negotiation.

Conflicts erupted in border regions like South Kordofan and Blue Nile, where populations with historical ties to the South resisted Khartoum's authority, leading to further displacement and humanitarian crises (e.g., Heglig Crisis in 2012). Relations between Sudan and South Sudan have remained fragile, oscillating between cooperation and conflict over these unresolved issues.

3.7.6. 2019 Revolution and Transitional Government

The Sudanese Revolution, which began in December 2018 and culminated in 2019, was a period of major political upheaval driven by widespread popular protests demanding an end to Omar al-Bashir's three-decade rule and a transition to democratic governance.

Background and Protests: The protests were initially triggered by a government decision to triple the price of bread and address fuel shortages, amid a severe economic crisis marked by high inflation (around 70%) and a scarcity of foreign currency. These economic grievances quickly transformed into broader demands for political change, an end to corruption, improved human rights, and the resignation of President al-Bashir. The Sudanese Professionals Association (SPA) played a key role in organizing and sustaining the protests, which spread across the country, involving diverse segments of society, particularly youth and women. The government responded with force, leading to arrests of activists and protesters, and dozens of deaths, though civilian reports indicated much higher casualty figures.

Overthrow of al-Bashir: After months of persistent demonstrations, including a massive sit-in outside the military headquarters in Khartoum, the Sudanese Armed Forces intervened. On April 11, 2019, the military announced the removal and arrest of President al-Bashir, declared a state of emergency, and established a Transitional Military Council (TMC) to govern the country.

Transitional Period and Challenges: The overthrow of Bashir did not immediately lead to civilian rule. Protesters, organized under the Forces of Freedom and Change (FFC) coalition, continued their sit-in, demanding a swift transfer of power to a civilian-led government. Negotiations between the TMC and FFC were fraught with tension. A major crisis occurred on June 3, 2019, when security forces, including the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), violently dispersed the Khartoum sit-in, resulting in the deaths of over 100 protesters (known as the Khartoum massacre). This event drew international condemnation and led to Sudan's suspension from the African Union.

Despite the violence, negotiations resumed, mediated by the African Union and Ethiopia. In July 2019, the TMC and FFC signed a Political Agreement, followed by the August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration. These agreements outlined a 39-month transitional period leading to elections. A joint military-civilian Sovereignty Council of Sudan was established as the collective head of state, initially chaired by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan (from the military) to be followed by a civilian chair. Abdalla Hamdok, an economist with international experience, was appointed Prime Minister to lead a civilian cabinet.

The transitional government faced immense challenges, including a dire economic situation, the need for justice and accountability for past abuses, reforming the security sector, achieving peace with various rebel groups, and navigating the complex power-sharing arrangement between civilian and military components. The government initiated economic reforms, sought international financial assistance, and began peace talks with rebel groups. There was a focus on repealing repressive laws, improving human rights, and addressing issues of social justice. By August 2021, the country was jointly led by Chairman of the Transitional Sovereign Council, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok.

3.7.8. Sudanese Civil War (2023-present)

In April 2023, Sudan plunged into a devastating civil war, primarily between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan (the de facto national leader), and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), led by his former deputy, General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, commonly known as Hemedti. The conflict erupted from a power struggle between the two generals as an internationally brokered plan for a transition to civilian rule was being discussed. Tensions had been building over the integration of the RSF into the regular army, a key component of the proposed transition.

Fighting broke out on April 15, 2023, with intense battles in the capital, Khartoum, and other parts of the country, particularly in the Darfur region. The conflict quickly escalated, involving heavy artillery, airstrikes, and street fighting, leading to a catastrophic humanitarian situation. By the third day, hundreds had been reported killed and thousands injured.

Consequences and Humanitarian Catastrophe:
The war has had devastating consequences for the civilian population. Millions have been displaced internally, and over 1.5 million have fled to neighboring countries as refugees. Access to food, water, healthcare, and other essential services has been severely disrupted. Widespread atrocities and human rights violations have been reported, including targeted attacks on civilians, sexual violence, looting, and the destruction of infrastructure. Both the SAF and RSF have been accused of committing war crimes.

The World Food Programme reported in February 2024 that over 95% of Sudan's population could not afford a meal a day. By April 2024, the UN reported over 8.6 million people displaced, 18 million facing severe hunger, and 5 million at emergency levels of food insecurity. Estimates of the death toll vary, with US government officials suggesting at least 150,000 deaths in the first year alone.

Darfur Crisis Renewed:
The conflict has led to a resurgence of ethnic violence in Darfur, with reports of mass killings, particularly of the Masalit people, by the RSF and allied Arab militias. The city of Geneina in West Darfur experienced particularly brutal attacks, with estimates of up to 15,000 people killed. International officials have warned of the risk of another genocide in Darfur, echoing the atrocities of the early 2000s.

International Response and Allegations:
The international response has included calls for ceasefires, humanitarian aid efforts, and mediation attempts, but these have largely failed to halt the fighting. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has been accused by Sudanese General Yasser al-Atta and others of providing supplies and arms to the RSF, allegedly fueling the conflict. In May 2024, a US congressional briefing focused on the UAE's involvement in Sudan, including allegations of war crimes and arms exports, with calls for an end to such support.

As of early 2025, the UN anticipates that 30.4 million people in Sudan will require humanitarian aid due to the ongoing military conflict, highlighting the deepening crisis and the immense suffering of the Sudanese people.

4.1. Topography

The terrain of Sudan is generally characterized by vast flat plains, punctuated by several mountain ranges. In the west, the Marrah Mountains are a prominent feature, with the Deriba Caldera (3.04 K abbr=on) being the highest point in Sudan. In the east, along the Red Sea coast, are the Red Sea Hills. The northern part of the country is dominated by the Nubian Desert to the northeast and the Bayuda Desert to the east, which are extensions of the Sahara Desert. Central and southern Sudan feature more extensive plains, including the fertile Gezira plain between the Blue and White Niles, and savanna grasslands further south. The Nuba Mountains are an isolated range in South Kordofan.

4.2. Climate

Sudan's climate varies significantly from north to south. The north is characterized by an arid desert climate with extremely hot summers and very little rainfall. The central regions have a semi-arid or steppe climate, with a rainy season that typically lasts from June to September in the north and up to six months (May to October) in the south. Rainfall increases towards the south, which experiences a tropical savanna climate with more abundant precipitation and lusher vegetation.

Temperatures are generally high throughout the country, especially during the summer months. In the desert regions, daytime temperatures can be extreme. Sandstorms, known locally as haboob, are common in the dry regions and can completely block out the sun, reducing visibility significantly. The sunshine duration is very high across the country, particularly in the deserts where it can exceed 4,000 hours per year.

4.3. Rivers and Lakes

The Nile River system is the dominant hydrological feature of Sudan. The two main tributaries, the White Nile and the Blue Nile, converge at the capital, Khartoum, to form the main Nile River, which then flows northwards through Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea.

The White Nile enters Sudan from South Sudan and flows north. Within Sudan, it has no significant tributaries. The Blue Nile originates from Lake Tana in Ethiopia and flows west and then northwest into Sudan. Its course through Sudan is nearly 800 abbr=on long, and it is joined by the Dinder River and Rahad Rivers between Sennar and Khartoum. The Blue Nile carries a larger volume of water and most of the sediment, especially during the rainy season in the Ethiopian Highlands.

Several dams have been constructed on the Blue and White Niles for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation. Notable dams include the Sennar Dam and Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile, and the Jebel Aulia Dam on the White Nile. Lake Nubia, the Sudanese part of Lake Nasser, created by the Aswan High Dam in Egypt, is located on the Sudanese-Egyptian border.

4.4. Environmental issues

Sudan faces significant environmental challenges that impact its natural resources and the livelihoods of its population.
Desertification is a major problem, particularly in the northern and central regions. Overgrazing, deforestation for fuelwood and agriculture, and unsustainable land management practices contribute to the expansion of desert areas and the degradation of arable land.
Soil erosion is another serious concern, exacerbated by deforestation and inappropriate agricultural techniques. This leads to loss of soil fertility and reduced agricultural productivity.
Deforestation is widespread, driven by demand for fuelwood (the primary energy source for many Sudanese), expansion of agriculture, and logging. This contributes to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and desertification.
Water scarcity and pollution are critical issues. While the Nile provides a major water source, access to clean water is limited for many. Water resources are under pressure from agriculture, population growth, and climate change. Pollution from agricultural runoff and industrial waste also affects water quality.
Agricultural expansion, both public and private, has often proceeded without adequate conservation measures, leading to land degradation and the lowering of the water table. Climate change is expected to exacerbate these environmental problems, potentially leading to more frequent droughts and increased variability in rainfall.

4.5. Wildlife and Conservation

Sudan possesses a diverse range of wildlife, reflecting its varied ecosystems from desert to savanna. Notable fauna includes elephants, giraffes, lions, leopards, cheetahs, various antelope species, and a rich birdlife. The Red Sea coast hosts important marine biodiversity, including coral reefs.

However, Sudan's wildlife is under significant threat from poaching, habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and deforestation, and the impacts of conflict. As of 2001, twenty-one mammal species and nine bird species were listed as endangered, along with two plant species. Critically endangered species include the waldrapp (northern bald ibis), northern white rhinoceros (though likely extirpated from Sudan), tora hartebeest, rhim gazelle (slender-horned gazelle), and hawksbill turtle. The Sahara oryx has become extinct in the wild in Sudan.

Conservation efforts in Sudan have been hampered by political instability, conflict, and lack of resources. There are several national parks and protected areas, such as Dinder National Park and Radom National Park, but enforcement of conservation laws is often weak. Poaching for ivory, bushmeat, and other wildlife products remains a serious challenge. International and local organizations are involved in conservation initiatives, but the scale of the threats requires greater commitment and resources.

5.1. Government Structure

Prior to the 2021 coup and the 2023 civil war, the transitional government structure established in 2019 aimed for a balance between civilian and military components.

• Executive: The Sovereignty Council, composed of military and civilian members, served as the collective head of state. The Prime Minister, a civilian, headed the Council of Ministers (cabinet) and was responsible for the day-to-day administration of the government.
• Legislative: A Transitional Legislative Council was planned but had not been fully formed before the 2021 coup. Under Bashir, Sudan had a bicameral National Legislature, consisting of the National Assembly (lower chamber) and the Council of States (upper chamber), but this was dissolved in 2019.
• Judicial: The judiciary is intended to be independent. Key institutions include the Constitutional Court, the National Supreme Court, and other national courts. A National Judicial Service Commission is responsible for the overall management of the judiciary. The appointment of a new Chief Justice, Nemat Abdullah Khair (the first woman to hold the post in Sudan and the Arab world), was a significant step during the 2019-2021 transition.

The ongoing conflict since 2023 has effectively dismantled these transitional structures, with power concentrated in the hands of the warring military factions.

5.2. Sharia Law

The application of Sharia (Islamic law) has been a contentious and defining issue in Sudanese politics and law for decades, significantly impacting human rights and religious freedom.

5.3. Administrative divisions

Sudan is divided into 18 states (wilayat, singular wilayah). These states are further subdivided into 133 districts. The states are:

• Gezira
• Al Qadarif
• Blue Nile
• Central Darfur
• East Darfur
• Kassala
• Khartoum
• North Darfur
• North Kordofan
• Northern
• Red Sea
• River Nile
• Sennar
• South Darfur
• South Kordofan
• West Darfur
• West Kordofan
• White Nile

5.4. Disputed Territories and Conflict Zones

Sudan has several disputed territories and regions affected by internal conflict, which significantly impact local populations and regional stability.

• Abyei: Located on the border between Sudan and South Sudan, Abyei is an oil-rich region claimed by both countries. The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) granted Abyei special administrative status and stipulated a referendum for its residents to decide whether to join Sudan or South Sudan. However, disagreements over voter eligibility and security have prevented the referendum from taking place. The area has experienced sporadic violence and displacement, and its final status remains a major point of contention. It is currently under a complex administrative arrangement, often with UN peacekeeping presence.
• Hala'ib Triangle: This area on the Red Sea coast is disputed between Sudan and Egypt. Egypt has exercised de facto administrative control over the Hala'ib Triangle since the 1990s, but Sudan maintains its claim to the territory.
• South Kordofan and Blue Nile States: These two states, often referred to as the "Two Areas," are located in Sudan but have significant populations with historical ties to South Sudan and who fought alongside the SPLA during the civil wars. The CPA mandated "popular consultations" for these states to determine their future constitutional relationship with Khartoum. However, these consultations were not satisfactorily completed, and conflict between the Sudanese government and factions of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North (SPLM-N) erupted in 2011. These conflicts have caused widespread displacement and a severe humanitarian crisis. The fighting in these regions has often been linked to broader national power struggles.
• Darfur: While not a border dispute, the Darfur region has been a major conflict zone since 2003. The conflict involves government forces, allied militias (like the Janjaweed, predecessors to the RSF), and various rebel groups. The conflict has led to massive human rights violations, displacement, and a humanitarian crisis. The Darfur Regional Government, established by peace agreements, aims to coordinate the states within Darfur, but ongoing insecurity and the current civil war (2023-present) have severely hampered its effectiveness and exacerbated suffering.
• Heglig: An oil field near the Sudan-South Sudan border, Heglig was a flashpoint in April 2012 when South Sudanese forces briefly captured it from Sudan. Sudan later recaptured it. The area remains sensitive due to its oil resources.
• Kafia Kingi and Radom National Park: These areas, historically part of Bahr el Ghazal (now in South Sudan) in 1956, are claimed by South Sudan based on the 1 January 1956 border demarcation, but Sudan exercises control. This is part of the broader border demarcation disputes.
• Bir Tawil: An unusual case, Bir Tawil is an area of approximately 0.8 K mile^{2 (2.06 K km2)} along the Egyptian-Sudanese border that is terra nullius, claimed by neither state due to discrepancies arising from different historical border definitions for the Hala'ib Triangle.

These disputed territories and conflict zones contribute significantly to regional instability, humanitarian crises, and strained relations between Sudan and its neighbors. The ongoing civil war since 2023 has further complicated the situation in these areas, often intensifying existing conflicts and creating new waves of displacement and suffering for civilian populations.

6.1. Bilateral relations

• Egypt: Relations with Egypt have historically been close yet complex, given shared Nile resources, cultural ties, and border disputes (Hala'ib Triangle). Both countries have influenced each other's internal politics.
• Ethiopia: Relations have been strained by border disputes (especially around the al-Fashaga triangle), issues related to the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) impacting Nile water flow, and refugee movements. The Tigray conflict in Ethiopia led to a significant influx of refugees into Sudan.
• South Sudan: Since South Sudan's independence in 2011, relations have been volatile, marked by disputes over oil transit fees, border demarcation (including Abyei), and mutual accusations of supporting rebel groups. However, there have also been periods of cooperation.
• Chad: Relations have been tense due to cross-border rebel activities and the Darfur conflict, which spilled over into Chad. Agreements have been signed to manage border security.
• Libya: The porous border has been a concern for arms trafficking and movement of militants, especially given Libya's instability.
• Eritrea: Relations have fluctuated, with periods of tension and cooperation, often linked to regional conflicts and alliances.
• China: China has been a major economic partner, particularly in the oil sector, and a significant arms supplier. China has generally maintained a policy of non-interference in Sudan's internal affairs while pursuing its economic interests.
• United States: Relations were highly strained during much of the Bashir era, with the U.S. imposing sanctions and listing Sudan as a state sponsor of terrorism. Following Bashir's overthrow, there was a rapprochement, and the U.S. removed Sudan from the terrorism list in December 2020 as part of a deal that included Sudan normalizing ties with Israel (Abraham Accords). However, the 2021 coup and 2023 civil war have led to renewed U.S. criticism and calls for a return to civilian rule.
• Russia: Russia has sought to expand its influence in Sudan, engaging in military cooperation and pursuing economic interests, including potential access to Red Sea ports.
• Middle Eastern Nations:
  • Saudi Arabia and UAE: These Gulf states have been influential, providing financial support and engaging in diplomatic efforts. Sudan participated in the Saudi-led intervention in Yemen. However, the UAE has also faced accusations of supporting the RSF in the current civil war.
  • Iran: Sudan had close ties with Iran in the 1990s but later distanced itself, aligning more with Saudi Arabia, including severing diplomatic ties with Iran in 2016.
• Turkey: Turkey has also sought to increase its influence in Sudan, particularly through economic and cultural ties, including development projects like the Suakin Island initiative.
• Israel: In October 2020, under U.S. brokerage, Sudan agreed to normalize ties with Israel. Envoys have exchanged visits, but the full implementation has been affected by Sudan's internal instability.
• Indonesia: Sudan and Indonesia established diplomatic relations in 1960 and have embassies in each other's capitals. They have agreed to enhance bilateral cooperation in various fields.

The international conference hosted by France in April 2024, marking one year of the current civil war, aimed to draw global attention to Sudan's humanitarian crisis, which has been overshadowed by other global conflicts.

6.2. Membership in international organizations

Sudan is a member of several international and regional organizations, reflecting its engagement with the global community, although its participation has sometimes been affected by internal conflicts and political sanctions. Key memberships include:

• United Nations (UN): Sudan has been a UN member since November 12, 1956. Various UN agencies (e.g., WFP, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNDP, WHO) operate in Sudan, providing humanitarian aid, development assistance, and peacekeeping support (e.g., UNMIS, UNAMID, UNITAMS).
• African Union (AU): Sudan is a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the AU's predecessor. However, its membership has been suspended at times due to unconstitutional changes of government, such as after the 2019 Khartoum massacre and the 2021 military coup. The AU has been involved in mediation efforts in Sudan's conflicts.
• Arab League: Sudan is an active member of the Arab League, participating in its political, economic, and cultural initiatives.
• Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC): As a predominantly Muslim country, Sudan is a member of the OIC and participates in its activities.
• Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA): Sudan is a member of this regional economic bloc aimed at promoting trade and integration.
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): Sudan is a member of NAM, a forum of countries not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc.
• Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD): Sudan is a member of this East African regional organization, which has played a key role in peace negotiations concerning Sudan and South Sudan.

Sudan also engages with international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank for economic assistance and reform programs. International Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and aid agencies play a crucial role in providing humanitarian relief and development support, especially in conflict-affected areas like Darfur, South Kordofan, Blue Nile, and regions impacted by the 2023 civil war.

8.1. Economic overview and structure

In 2010, before the secession of South Sudan, Sudan was considered the 17th-fastest-growing economy globally, largely due to oil profits. GDP growth was around 5.2% in 2010. However, after South Sudan's independence in July 2011, Sudan lost a significant portion of its oil revenue, leading to stagflation. GDP growth slowed (e.g., 3.1% in 2015), and inflation remained high (21.8% in 2015). Sudan's GDP fell sharply from US$123.053 billion in 2017 to US$40.852 billion in 2018.

Even with oil revenues, Sudan faced formidable economic problems, including a low level of per capita output, high external debt, and the impact of international sanctions related to terrorism sponsorship and human rights abuses. The economy was heavily reliant on oil exports, and production in Sudan (post-secession) fell from around 450,000 barrels per day to under 60,000 barrels per day, though it recovered somewhat to around 250,000 barrels per day by 2014-15. South Sudan relied on Sudanese pipelines and refineries to export its oil, leading to disputes over transit fees.

The economy has been plagued by high inflation, currency devaluation, and shortages of essential goods. International sanctions, though partially lifted in 2017 and with the removal from the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism in 2020, had a long-term negative impact. The transitional government (2019-2021) initiated reforms and sought assistance from the IMF and World Bank to stabilize the economy, but these efforts were derailed by the 2021 coup and subsequently the 2023 civil war.

Sudan is classified as a least developed country and ranks very low on the Human Development Index (170th in 2024). Poverty is widespread, with 45% of the population living on less than US$3.20 per day in 2014. Corruption is a significant issue, with Sudan ranking among the most corrupt nations globally according to the Corruption Perception Index. The Global Hunger Index has consistently shown alarming levels of hunger. The 2023 civil war has exacerbated these issues, leading to widespread famine conditions, destruction of infrastructure, and a near-total collapse of formal economic activity in many areas.

8.2. Key sectors

Sudan's economy is based on several key sectors, though their productivity and stability have been severely affected by conflict and political instability.

8.2.1. Agriculture

Agriculture has historically been the backbone of the Sudanese economy, employing over 80% of the workforce and contributing significantly to GDP (about a third before the recent conflict). Key agricultural products include:

• Crops:** Cotton (historically a major export), sorghum (a staple food crop), millet, wheat, groundnuts (peanuts), sesame, gum arabic (Sudan is the world's largest producer), and sugarcane. Fruits and vegetables are also grown.
• Livestock:** Cattle, sheep, goats, and camels are important for livelihoods, food security, and export.

The fertile Gezira Scheme, located between the Blue and White Niles, has been a major irrigated agricultural project, primarily for cotton and wheat. However, the agricultural sector faces numerous challenges:

• Dependence on rainfall:** Much of the agriculture is rain-fed and vulnerable to drought and climate variability.
• Land degradation and desertification:** Unsustainable farming practices, overgrazing, and deforestation contribute to soil erosion and loss of arable land.
• Water scarcity:** Competition for water resources and inefficient irrigation systems are major constraints.
• Conflict and insecurity:** Displacement of farmers, destruction of infrastructure, and disruption of markets severely impact agricultural production, particularly in regions like Darfur, South Kordofan, and Blue Nile, and now nationwide due to the 2023 civil war.
• Land rights:** Disputes over land ownership and access are common and often fuel conflict.
• Food security:** Despite its agricultural potential, Sudan frequently faces food shortages and relies on food aid, especially during conflicts and droughts. The 2023 war has led to famine conditions in many parts of the country.
• Lack of investment and technology:** Limited access to credit, modern inputs, and technology hampers productivity.

Sustainable development, ensuring land rights for smallholders, and adapting to climate change are critical for the future of Sudanese agriculture, especially for improving social equity and food security for vulnerable populations.

8.3. Science and technology

The state of science, research, and technological development in Sudan has faced significant challenges due to political instability, conflict, economic hardship, and brain drain. Instruction in universities is primarily in Arabic or English. Education at the secondary and university levels has been hampered by requirements for military service for most males. The "Islamisation" policies under President Al-Bashir also alienated many researchers, with the official language of instruction in universities changing from English to Arabic and Islamic courses becoming mandatory. Internal science funding has been meager.

According to UNESCO, over 3,000 Sudanese researchers left the country between 2002 and 2014. By 2013, Sudan had only about 19 researchers per 100,000 citizens, significantly lower than neighboring countries like Egypt. In 2015, Sudan published only about 500 scientific papers, a stark contrast to countries of similar population size.

Key institutions involved in research include universities (such as the University of Khartoum, which was established as Gordon Memorial College in 1902), and the National Centre for Research. Research areas have traditionally included agriculture, medicine, engineering, and environmental sciences, often focused on addressing local challenges.

Sudan has a National Space Program which has reportedly produced multiple CubeSat satellites and had plans for a Sudanese communications satellite (SUDASAT-1) and a remote sensing satellite (SRSS-1). The Sudanese government contributed to an offer pool for Arabsat 6A, a private-sector ground surveying satellite, successfully launched in 2019. In 2012, then-President Omar al-Bashir called for an African Space Agency, but these plans did not materialize.

Challenges for science and technology in Sudan include insufficient funding, lack of modern equipment and infrastructure, limited international collaboration (partly due to past sanctions), and the emigration of skilled scientists and researchers. Revitalizing the sector would require sustained investment, improved educational systems, and a stable political and economic environment.

9.1. Darfur conflict and human rights

The War in Darfur, which began in February 2003, has been one of the most devastating conflicts in Sudan's recent history, characterized by massive human rights atrocities, alleged genocide, mass displacement, and a profound humanitarian crisis.

The conflict erupted when rebel groups, primarily the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), took up arms against the Sudanese government, accusing it of oppressing Darfur's non-Arab populations (such as the Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa) and marginalizing the region economically and politically.

The government's response involved a brutal counter-insurgency campaign, heavily relying on Arab militias known as the Janjaweed. These militias, often acting in concert with Sudanese government forces, engaged in systematic attacks against civilian populations perceived as supporting the rebels. The atrocities committed include:

• Mass Killings:** Widespread and indiscriminate killings of civilians.
• Ethnic Cleansing:** Deliberate targeting of non-Arab ethnic groups.
• Systematic Rape and Sexual Violence:** Used as a weapon of war to terrorize and humiliate communities.
• Forced Displacement:** Millions of people were driven from their homes and villages, many of which were looted and burned. Large numbers became internally displaced persons (IDPs) within Darfur, while others fled as refugees to neighboring Chad.
• Destruction of Livelihoods:** Livestock were looted, wells poisoned, and agricultural lands destroyed, leading to food insecurity and famine-like conditions.
• Attacks on Humanitarian Aid:** Humanitarian workers and operations were often targeted, hindering relief efforts.

The scale and nature of the violence led to accusations of genocide against the Sudanese government and its allied militias. The United States government, among others, described the atrocities as genocide. The International Criminal Court (ICC) launched an investigation into the situation in Darfur. In 2009 and 2010, the ICC issued arrest warrants for then-President Omar al-Bashir on charges of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. Other Sudanese officials were also indicted. However, the Sudanese government refused to cooperate with the ICC, and Bashir remained in power until 2019.

Numerous peace agreements were attempted, such as the 2006 Darfur Peace Agreement, but they largely failed to end the violence or address the root causes of the conflict. Rebel groups also fragmented, and some were accused of human rights abuses as well. The United Nations-African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) was deployed to protect civilians, but its effectiveness was often limited by logistical challenges, government restrictions, and the scale of the violence.

Over 2.8 million civilians were displaced, and the death toll is estimated at 300,000 or more. The conflict has left deep scars on Darfuri society and continues to have repercussions, with ongoing insecurity and humanitarian needs. The rise of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), which evolved from the Janjaweed, and their central role in the 2023 Sudanese civil war, has led to a resurgence of similar patterns of ethnic violence in Darfur.

9.2. Freedom of expression and media

Freedom of expression and media in Sudan has historically been severely restricted, particularly under authoritarian regimes, with brief periods of relative openness often followed by renewed crackdowns.

Under the government of Omar al-Bashir (1989-2019), media outlets faced significant constraints. Censorship was common, with security agencies, particularly the National Intelligence and Security Service (NISS), closely monitoring and controlling media content. Newspapers often faced pre-publication censorship, confiscation of print runs, and suspension. Journalists reporting on sensitive topics such as corruption, human rights abuses, or the conflicts in Darfur, South Kordofan, and Blue Nile faced harassment, intimidation, arbitrary arrest, detention, and sometimes torture. Self-censorship became widespread among journalists to avoid repercussions. State-controlled media dominated the landscape, promoting government propaganda. Access to information was limited, and independent media struggled to operate. In 2014, Reporters Without Borders ranked Sudan 172nd out of 180 countries in its press freedom index.

Following al-Bashir's ousting in the 2019 revolution, there was a brief period of increased press freedom under the civilian-led transitional government. Some repressive media laws were reviewed, and journalists reported a more open environment. However, this progress was short-lived.

The military coup in October 2021 led to a swift reversal of these gains. The coup leaders quickly reimposed restrictions on the media. Journalists critical of the military takeover faced arrest and intimidation. Internet shutdowns became a common tactic to disrupt communication, block the flow of information, and hinder the organization of protests.

The outbreak of the Sudanese civil war in April 2023 has further devastated the media landscape. Reporting on the conflict is extremely dangerous, with journalists facing threats from all warring parties. Many media outlets have been forced to cease operations or relocate. Access to conflict zones is severely restricted, making independent verification of information difficult. Disinformation and propaganda have become rampant.

Reporters Without Borders' 2023 summary noted that the media sector was "deeply polarised" and that "journalistic critics have been arrested, and the internet is regularly shut down in order to block the flow of information." The ongoing conflict continues to pose extreme challenges to freedom of expression and the ability of journalists to report safely and independently in Sudan.

10.1. Public order and security challenges

Beyond active conflict zones, public order and security for civilians, particularly in urban areas and regions affected by general instability, present significant challenges. Issues related to law enforcement, crime, and the overall security environment are pressing. Decades of conflict have led to a proliferation of small arms and light weapons, contributing to increased crime rates, including armed robbery and banditry.

The capacity and professionalism of law enforcement agencies have often been undermined by political interference, corruption, and lack of resources and training. In many areas, particularly those affected by past or ongoing conflict, formal state security institutions may be weak or absent, leading to a reliance on traditional justice mechanisms or the emergence of local militias, which can sometimes exacerbate insecurity.

The breakdown of state authority during periods of intense conflict, such as the current civil war (2023-present), leads to a near-total collapse of public order in affected areas. Urban centers like Khartoum have experienced widespread looting, occupation of civilian homes, and a general state of lawlessness. The inability of state institutions to provide basic security has forced many civilians to flee or to form local self-defense groups. Even before the current war, urban crime, inter-communal clashes over resources (like land and water), and the activities of criminal gangs were concerns in various parts of the country. Addressing these public order and security challenges requires comprehensive security sector reform, strengthening the rule of law, and tackling the root causes of violence and criminality.

10.2. Poverty and humanitarian crises

Poverty is widespread and deeply entrenched in Sudan, affecting a large proportion of the population. Economic instability, decades of internal conflict, political mismanagement, and environmental factors such as drought and desertification have all contributed to high poverty rates. The secession of South Sudan in 2011, which took with it a significant portion of Sudan's oil revenue, further exacerbated economic challenges.

Sudan has experienced recurrent humanitarian crises, often driven by conflict and climate shocks. These crises are characterized by:

• Food Insecurity and Malnutrition:** Millions of Sudanese regularly face food shortages. Malnutrition rates, especially among children and vulnerable groups, are often alarmingly high. Conflict disrupts agricultural production, displaces farming communities, and hinders access to markets and humanitarian aid. Droughts and floods also destroy crops and livelihoods.
• Displacement:** Internal conflicts have led to massive internal displacement, with millions forced to flee their homes. These Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) often live in squalid camps with limited access to food, water, shelter, and healthcare. Sudan also hosts a significant number of refugees from neighboring countries.
• Health Crises:** The healthcare system is weak and under-resourced, particularly in rural and conflict-affected areas. Access to basic healthcare is limited, and preventable diseases are common. Malnutrition exacerbates vulnerability to illness. Conflict often leads to the destruction of health facilities and the flight of medical personnel.
• Water and Sanitation:** Access to clean water and adequate sanitation is a major challenge for a large part of the population, contributing to the spread of waterborne diseases.

The ongoing civil war that began in April 2023 has precipitated one of the worst humanitarian catastrophes in the world. It has led to unprecedented levels of displacement, widespread famine conditions, the collapse of essential services, and a massive increase in humanitarian needs. National and international relief efforts, led by UN agencies and NGOs, are struggling to cope with the scale of the crisis, often facing challenges related to access, security, and funding. These crises disproportionately affect the most vulnerable populations, including women, children, the elderly, and those living in conflict zones.

11.1. Population statistics

As of Sudan's 2008 census, the population of northern, western, and eastern Sudan (the current territory) was recorded to be over 30 million. Current estimates (as of 2024 by some sources) place the population around 50 million, though precise figures are difficult due to ongoing conflict and displacement. This represents a significant increase from the 1983 census, which put the total population of a united Sudan at 21.6 million.

The population of Greater Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) has been growing rapidly and was recorded at 5.2 million in 2008; current estimates are much higher due to urbanization and displacement. Population density varies greatly, with higher concentrations along the Nile River and in urban centers, and sparser populations in desert and remote rural areas.

Sudan has experienced high population growth rates. Birth rates are high, while death rates have declined over time, though they remain affected by conflict and inadequate healthcare. Life expectancy has generally improved but is still impacted by these factors. Urbanization is a significant trend, with people moving from rural areas to cities in search of economic opportunities and security.

Sudan is both a source and a host country for refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs). Decades of internal conflict have resulted in millions of IDPs. As of August 2019, UNHCR reported over 1.1 million refugees and asylum seekers in Sudan, mainly from South Sudan, Eritrea, Syria, Ethiopia, the Central African Republic, and Chad, along with nearly 1.9 million IDPs. The civil war that began in April 2023 has led to a massive new wave of internal displacement (over 5.8 million by late 2023) and refugees fleeing Sudan (over 1.5 million by late 2023).

11.2. Ethnic groups

Sudan is a country of rich ethnic diversity, with approximately 578 distinct ethnic groups. The population is broadly categorized into Arab and non-Arab (often termed African) groups, though this distinction is complex and often based on linguistic and cultural affiliation rather than strict genetic lines. Intermarriage over centuries has created a diverse genetic landscape.

• Sudanese Arabs:** This is the largest broad ethnic grouping, estimated at around 70% of the population before the current large-scale displacements. They are predominantly Arabic-speaking Muslims and are themselves composed of numerous tribes and clans, many claiming descent from migrants from the Arabian Peninsula who intermarried with indigenous African populations. Prominent Arab tribal confederations include the Ja'alin, Shaigiya, Baggara (cattle-herding Arabs, particularly in Darfur and Kordofan), Rashaida, and others. The degree of Arab identity can vary, often emphasizing patrilineal descent and adherence to Arab culture and the Arabic language. Historians note that "Arabization" was a historical process of cultural and linguistic assimilation.
• Non-Arab African Groups:** These groups are numerous and diverse, speaking a wide array of languages from different language families (Nilo-Saharan, Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo).
  • Nubians:** Inhabiting the northern Nile Valley, they have a long and distinct history predating Arab influence and speak Nubian languages. Many are also bilingual in Arabic.
  • Beja:** Residing in the eastern desert regions along the Red Sea coast, the Beja are a Cushitic-speaking people with a distinct pastoralist culture.
  • Fur:** The largest non-Arab group in Darfur, giving the region its name. They are primarily agriculturalists.
  • Nuba:** A collective term for various ethnic groups inhabiting the Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan, speaking diverse languages. They have faced significant marginalization and conflict.
  • Other Darfuri groups:** Masalit, Zaghawa, Tama, and others, each with distinct languages and cultures, have been heavily impacted by the Darfur conflict.
  • Groups in Blue Nile and border regions:** Berta, Ingessana, Gumuz, and others.
  • West African origin groups:** Hausa, Fulani, and Bornu communities are found in various parts of Sudan, often having migrated for trade, religious pilgrimage, or as agricultural laborers.

  Inter-ethnic relations have often been fraught with tension, particularly over resources (land, water), political power, and cultural identity. Government policies have at times exacerbated these tensions, contributing to internal conflicts. Issues of identity, marginalization, and the demand for equitable representation and social inclusion are central to Sudan's political and social challenges.
  
  

  

11.3. Languages

Sudan is a linguistically diverse country, with approximately 70 native languages spoken, belonging to several major African language families.

• Official Languages:** According to the 2005 constitution, Arabic and English are the official languages of Sudan.
  • Arabic:** Sudanese Arabic, a dialect of Arabic, is the most widely spoken language and serves as a lingua franca throughout much of the country. Modern Standard Arabic is used in formal contexts, education, and media. There are also regional Arabic dialects spoken by specific Arab tribes, such as Najdi Arabic and Hejazi Arabic variants, and Chadian Arabic among some Baggara and Tunjur groups.
  • English:** English has official status and is taught in higher education and used in some government and business contexts. Its prevalence varies.
  • Indigenous Languages:** Numerous indigenous languages are spoken across Sudan, reflecting its ethnic diversity. These belong to various language families:
    • Nilo-Saharan languages:** This family is well-represented and includes Nubian languages (e.g., Nobiin, Kenzi-Dongolawi), Daju languages, Nyima languages, languages of the Nuba Mountains (e.g., Dilling, Kadaru), Fur, Masalit, Zaghawa, Berta, Gumuz, and Ingessana.
    • Afro-Asiatic languages:** Besides Arabic (Semitic branch), this family includes Cushitic languages like Beja (Bidhaawyeet).
    • Niger-Congo languages:** Represented by Kordofanian languages (spoken in parts of the Nuba Mountains) and some West African languages like Hausa and Fulfulde (spoken by migrant communities).

    Many Sudanese are multilingual, often speaking their native ethnic language, Sudanese Arabic, and sometimes English or other regional languages. Language has been a significant factor in identity politics and cultural expression. The promotion and preservation of indigenous languages alongside the official languages is an ongoing challenge.
    
    Sudan also has multiple regional sign languages which are not mutually intelligible. A 2009 proposal for a unified Sudanese Sign Language was developed.
    
    The literacy rate in Sudan is estimated at 70.2% of the total population (male: 79.6%, female: 60.8%), though this figure can vary significantly by region and gender, and has likely been impacted by recent conflicts.

11.4. Religion

Religion plays a significant role in Sudanese society and politics. The overwhelming majority of the population adheres to Islam, with smaller Christian minorities and followers of traditional indigenous beliefs. Prior to the secession of South Sudan in 2011, which had a large Christian and animist population, the religious composition of united Sudan was more varied.

• Islam:** Approximately 90-97% of the population in present-day Sudan is Muslim, predominantly Sunni. Islam was Sudan's state religion, and Islamic (Sharia) laws were applied from 1983 until 2020 when the transitional government took steps to separate religion and state and establish a secular state.
  • Sufism:** Sufism has a strong historical presence in Sudan, with various Sufi orders (tariqas) like the Khatmiyya and Ansar (associated with the Mahdist movement) having significant followings. These orders often play important social and sometimes political roles. Popular religious practices and festivals are often influenced by Sufi traditions.
  • Salafism:** Salafi interpretations of Islam have also gained prominence, particularly promoted by some political movements.

  Only the Darfur region has traditionally been less influenced by the large Sufi brotherhoods common elsewhere in the country.

  • Christianity:** Christian minorities constitute a small percentage of the population (estimated around 1.5% to 5.4% by different sources after South Sudan's secession).
    • The Coptic Orthodox Church has a long-established presence, particularly in Khartoum and other northern cities.
    • The Greek Orthodox Church also has a historic community.
    • Communities of Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Christians exist, largely composed of refugees and migrants.
    • The Armenian Apostolic Church serves the Sudanese-Armenian community.
    • Various Protestant denominations, including the Sudan Evangelical Presbyterian Church, and the Roman Catholic Church also have adherents.

    Christian communities have faced periods of persecution and discrimination, especially under regimes that strictly enforced Sharia law.

    • Traditional Indigenous Beliefs (Animism):** Some communities, particularly in more remote areas or among certain ethnic groups (e.g., in parts of the Nuba Mountains and Blue Nile state), continue to practice traditional African religions, often involving reverence for ancestors and nature spirits. These beliefs sometimes coexist or are syncretized with Islam or Christianity.

    Religious identity has often intersected with political and ethnic divisions in Sudan. The northern and western Muslim populations have historically dominated the political and economic system. Islamist parties like the National Congress Party (NCP) drew support from conservative Arab-Muslims. The Umma Party has traditionally been associated with the Ansar Sufi sect, while the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) has links to the Khatmia Sufi sect. Issues of religious freedom and the role of religion in law and governance remain critical aspects of Sudan's ongoing political and social discourse. The 2020 legal reforms aimed at promoting religious freedom by abolishing the apostasy law and ensuring equal treatment, but the long-term impact is subject to political developments.

11.5. Urban areas and major cities

Sudan has a growing urban population, with several major cities serving as centers of administration, commerce, and culture. Urbanization has been driven by rural-to-urban migration due to economic factors, conflict, and drought.

• Khartoum**: The capital city of Sudan, located at the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile rivers (the " مقرن al-Muqran" or "the Confluence"). Khartoum is the political, economic, and administrative heart of the country. It hosts most government institutions, foreign embassies, universities, and major businesses. The city has experienced rapid growth and significant infrastructure development, particularly during periods of oil revenue, but also faces challenges of overcrowding, informal settlements, and strained public services.
• Omdurman**: Located across the White Nile from Khartoum, Omdurman is historically significant as the former capital of the Mahdist State. It is one of the largest cities in Sudan and forms part of the Khartoum metropolitan area (often referred to as the "Three Towns" or "Tri-Capital" along with Khartoum and Khartoum North). Omdurman is a major commercial center with large traditional markets (souqs) and is also a cultural and religious hub.
• Khartoum North** (الخرطوم بحري_{al-Kharṭūm Baḥrī}^Arabic): Situated north of the Blue Nile from Khartoum, it is the third city of the Tri-Capital metropolitan area. Khartoum North is a significant industrial center with factories and manufacturing plants. It also has residential areas and commercial zones.
• Port Sudan** (بور سودان_{Būr Sūdān}^Arabic): Located on the Red Sea coast, Port Sudan is Sudan's primary seaport and a vital hub for international trade, handling most of the country's exports and imports. It is also an important administrative and commercial center for eastern Sudan.
• Kassala**: A major city in eastern Sudan, near the Eritrean border. It is an important agricultural and trading center, known for its fruit orchards and the distinctive Taka Mountains.
• El-Obeid** (الأبيض_Al-Ubayyiḍ^Arabic): The capital of North Kordofan state, El-Obeid is a significant commercial and transportation hub in central Sudan, known for its gum arabic market.
• Wad Madani**: The capital of Gezira state, located south of Khartoum. It is an important agricultural center, particularly associated with the Gezira Scheme for cotton and wheat cultivation.
• Nyala**: The capital of South Darfur state and one of the largest cities in the Darfur region. It has been heavily affected by the Darfur conflict and subsequent insecurity, hosting large numbers of internally displaced persons.
• Al-Fashir**: The capital of North Darfur state, Al-Fashir is another major urban center in Darfur with historical significance. It has also been impacted by conflict and displacement.
• Al Qadarif** (Gedaref): A city in eastern Sudan known for its large-scale mechanized farming, particularly sorghum and sesame.

These urban centers face various challenges, including rapid population growth, inadequate infrastructure (housing, water, sanitation, transport), unemployment, and the social and economic impacts of conflict and displacement. The ongoing civil war since 2023 has severely affected Khartoum and other urban areas, leading to widespread destruction and displacement.

11.6. Health

The public health situation in Sudan is characterized by significant challenges, though some progress had been made in certain areas before recent conflicts. Access to healthcare is limited, particularly in rural and conflict-affected regions. The health system is often under-resourced, understaffed, and heavily impacted by political instability and economic crises.

• Life Expectancy and Mortality:** Life expectancy in Sudan was approximately 65.1 years as of 2019. Infant mortality was around 44.8 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2016. Maternal mortality rates have also been high. These indicators vary significantly by region and socio-economic status.
• Common Diseases:** Sudan faces a high burden of communicable diseases, including malaria, diarrheal diseases, respiratory infections, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS. Neglected tropical diseases are also prevalent in some areas. Non-communicable diseases like hypertension and diabetes are increasingly common.
• Nutritional Status:** Malnutrition is a serious public health problem, especially among children and pregnant women. Stunting, wasting, and micronutrient deficiencies are widespread, exacerbated by food insecurity, poverty, and conflict.
• Access to Healthcare:** There is a significant disparity in healthcare access between urban and rural areas. Many rural populations lack access to basic health services, and health facilities are often poorly equipped and lack essential medicines and qualified personnel. The cost of healthcare can be a barrier for many.
• Impact of Conflict:** Decades of internal conflict have devastated the health infrastructure in many parts of the country. Health facilities have been destroyed or damaged, medical personnel have fled, and supply chains for medicines and medical equipment have been disrupted. Conflict also leads to increased trauma injuries, displacement (which increases vulnerability to disease), and psychological distress. The ongoing civil war since April 2023 has led to a near-collapse of the health system in affected areas, with hospitals targeted and essential services ceasing.
• Female Genital Mutilation (FGM):** FGM has been a widespread practice. A 2013 UNICEF report estimated that 87% of Sudanese females aged 15-49 had undergone FGM. While FGM was criminalized in 2020, eradicating the practice requires sustained efforts in education and community engagement.

Public health initiatives, often supported by international organizations like WHO and UNICEF, have focused on immunization programs, maternal and child health, disease control, and improving access to primary healthcare. However, the scale of the challenges, compounded by ongoing instability, requires substantial and sustained investment in the health sector and addressing the social determinants of health. The impact on vulnerable groups, including women, children, IDPs, and refugees, is particularly severe.

11.7. Education

The education system in Sudan has faced numerous challenges, including underfunding, regional disparities in access and quality, the impact of conflict, and political interference. Efforts have been made to expand access to education, but significant hurdles remain.

• Structure:** The education system generally consists of basic education (compulsory for 8 years, typically for children aged 6 to 13), followed by secondary education (3 years). The former 6+3+3 ladder was changed in 1990. Higher education is provided by universities and other tertiary institutions.
• Literacy and Enrollment:** The literacy rate is estimated at 70.2% of the total population (79.6% for males, 60.8% for females). However, these figures can vary significantly. While primary education is nominally compulsory and free, enrollment rates are not universal. The World Bank estimated in 2001 that primary enrollment was 46% and secondary enrollment was 21%. Enrollment often falls below 20% in some provinces. More than 40% of children do not attend school due to economic situations, environmental factors (like distance to school), and social factors, which particularly affect girls' access to education.
• Language of Instruction:** Arabic is the primary language of instruction at all levels. English is also used, particularly in higher education for certain disciplines.
• Challenges:**
  • Access and Equity:** There are significant disparities in access to education between urban and rural areas, and between different regions. Girls, children in conflict zones, nomadic communities, and impoverished families often have limited educational opportunities.
  • Quality:** The quality of education is a concern, with issues such as overcrowded classrooms, lack of qualified teachers, inadequate learning materials, and outdated curricula.
  • Impact of Conflict:** Years of civil war have devastated the education infrastructure in many parts of Sudan. Schools have been damaged or destroyed, teachers have been displaced, and children's education has been severely disrupted. The ongoing civil war since 2023 has further exacerbated this crisis, with many schools closed or repurposed as shelters.
  • Funding:** The education sector has often been underfunded, impacting infrastructure development, teacher salaries, and the availability of resources.
  • Political Interference:** The education system has at times been subject to political interference, including changes in curriculum to reflect ideological agendas (e.g., "Islamisation" of education under Bashir, which included mandatory Islamic courses and a shift from English to Arabic as the main language of instruction in universities).
• Higher Education:** Sudan has around 25-30 universities. The University of Khartoum, established as Gordon Memorial College in 1902, is one of the oldest and most prominent. Higher education has also been affected by military service requirements for males and brain drain of academic staff.

Addressing the challenges in the education sector is crucial for Sudan's long-term development, requiring increased investment, focus on quality and equity, and ensuring that education systems are resilient in the face of conflict and crisis.

12.1. Traditions and social customs

Traditional customs and social norms vary significantly across Sudan's diverse ethnic groups but share some common threads, often emphasizing community, hospitality, and respect for elders. Family structures are typically extended, and kinship ties play a crucial role in social and economic life.

Traditional attire is widely worn. For men, the jalabiya is common - a loose-fitting, long-sleeved, often white or colored ankle-length gown, similar to that worn in Egypt. This is frequently accompanied by a turban (عمامة_ʿimāmah^Arabic) and sometimes a scarf. The style and fabric of the jalabiya and turban can vary by region and occasion.

For women, the traditional outer garment is the thawb (pronounced tobe in Sudanese dialect). This is a long, often colorful or white, one-piece cloth that women wrap gracefully around their inner garments, typically covering their head and hair, though styles of wearing it vary. Under a 1991 penal code (Public Order Law) during the Bashir era, women were effectively prohibited from wearing trousers in public, as it could be interpreted as an "obscene outfit," punishable by up to 40 lashes or fines. This law was highly controversial and seen as repressive.

Hospitality is a cornerstone of Sudanese culture, with guests typically offered food and drink (often tea or coffee). Social gatherings, particularly for occasions like weddings, religious festivals, and funerals, are important community events. Storytelling, proverbs, and oral traditions play a significant role in transmitting cultural values and history. Respect for elders and adherence to social etiquette are highly valued.

12.2. Cuisine

Sudanese cuisine is diverse, reflecting its ethnic mix and historical connections with Middle Eastern, African, and Mediterranean culinary traditions. Egyptian cuisine has had a notable influence. Staples often include sorghum, millet, wheat, and rice.

Common dishes and ingredients include:

• Kisra**: A thin, fermented sorghum or wheat bread, similar to Ethiopian injera, often served with stews.
• Asida**: A thick porridge made from sorghum or wheat flour, often eaten with savory or sweet sauces.
• Ful medames**: Stewed fava beans, a staple shared with Egypt and other Middle Eastern countries, often eaten for breakfast with bread, eggs, and cheese.
• Falafel (Ta'amiya)**: In Sudan, often made with chickpeas rather than fava beans.
• Meat dishes**: Lamb, goat, beef, and chicken are common. Stews (mullah) are popular, often incorporating dried okra (waika), tomatoes, onions, and spices. Elmaraara and umfitit are dishes made from sheep's offal, sometimes eaten raw. Miris is a stew made from sheep fat, onions, and dried okra. Abiyad is made from dried meat.
• Fish**: Particularly along the Nile and Red Sea coast. Kajaik is dried fish.
• Vegetables and Legumes**: Okra, lentils, chickpeas, eggplant, and various greens are widely used.
• Jibna bayda**: A soft white cheese.
• Salads**: Salatat dakwa is a peanut salad.
• Spices**: Common spices include garlic, cumin, coriander, and chili. Ni'aimiya is a Sudanese spice blend.
• Beverages**: Tea (often sweetened and spiced) and coffee (jabana, traditionally brewed) are very popular. Hibiscus tea (karkade) is also common.

Traditional meals are often communal, eaten by hand from a shared platter.

12.3. Arts

Sudanese arts encompass a variety of traditional and contemporary forms, reflecting the country's diverse cultural heritage and historical experiences. This includes music, literature, cinema, photography, and visual arts.

12.3.1. Music

Sudan has a rich and unique musical culture that has faced challenges due to chronic instability and periods of repression. Traditional music varies greatly by region and ethnic group, featuring diverse instruments such as drums (like the daluka and tabla), lyres (like the tanbur or kissar), flutes, and stringed instruments. Call-and-response vocals and complex rhythms are common. Sufi music and rituals (zikr), often involving drumming and chanting, are important spiritual and cultural expressions.

In the 20th century, a vibrant urban popular music scene emerged, particularly in Khartoum, blending traditional Sudanese melodies and rhythms with Western and Arab influences. Genres like Haqiba music, popular in the early to mid-20th century, featured poetic lyrics and orchestral arrangements. Prominent musicians like Mohammed Wardi, Mohammed el Amin, Abdel Karim al-Kabli, and Sayed Khalifa gained widespread acclaim.

The imposition of strict Sharia law in 1983 and under subsequent regimes led to periods of repression where many artists were imprisoned or fled into exile (e.g., Mahjoub Sharif, Mohammed Wardi for a time). Traditional Zār healing ceremonies were sometimes interrupted, and drums confiscated. European military influence also contributed to Sudanese music by introducing new instruments and styles; military bands, especially those using Scottish bagpipes, were known, and traditional music was sometimes set to military march music (e.g., March Shulkawi No 1, based on Shilluk sounds).

Northern Sudan listens to different music than the rest of the country. A type of music called Aldlayib uses a musical instrument called the Tambur. The Tambur has five strings, is made from wood and makes music accompanied by the voices of human applause and singing artists. Despite challenges, Sudanese music continues to evolve, with contemporary artists blending traditional sounds with global genres.

12.4. Architecture

Sudanese architecture reflects a blend of indigenous traditions, environmental adaptations, Islamic influences, and colonial and modern styles.
Traditional architecture varies significantly by region and ethnic group, utilizing locally available materials. In northern Nubia, ancient architectural forms included mud-brick structures and distinctive domed and vaulted roofs. Along the Nile, mud-brick (jalous) construction has been common for centuries, providing good insulation against the heat. Houses often feature courtyards for ventilation and private outdoor space. In rural areas, round huts with conical thatched roofs (tukuls) made of mud, wood, and grass are prevalent, particularly in southern and western regions.

With the spread of Islam, mosque architecture became prominent, often characterized by simple, functional designs adapted to local materials, though larger urban mosques may feature more elaborate minarets and domes influenced by broader Islamic architectural styles. The Great Mosque of Sennar, built in the 17th century, is an example from the Funj Sultanate.

During the Anglo-Egyptian colonial period, new architectural styles were introduced, particularly in Khartoum and other administrative centers. Buildings often featured verandas, high ceilings, and thick walls to cope with the climate, sometimes incorporating neoclassical or British colonial design elements. Gordon Memorial College (now University of Khartoum) is an example of this era.

Contemporary architecture in urban areas includes modern buildings, sometimes influenced by international styles, alongside traditional structures. However, urban planning and development face challenges due to rapid urbanization, informal settlements, and economic constraints. Climate adaptation remains a key consideration in Sudanese architecture, with traditional techniques for cooling and ventilation still relevant. The rich archaeological heritage, including the pyramids of Meroë and temples of Kush, also forms an important part of Sudan's architectural legacy.

12.5. Sports

Football (soccer) is overwhelmingly the most popular sport in Sudan, as in many African countries. The Sudan Football Association was founded in 1936, making it one of the oldest football associations in Africa. Football was introduced to the country by British colonizers via Egypt in the early 20th century. Prominent clubs like Al-Hilal Omdurman and Al-Merrikh, both based in Omdurman, have large fan bases and a fierce rivalry. The Khartoum League was the first national league. The Sudan Premier League is the top professional league. The Sudan national football team has participated in the Africa Cup of Nations, winning the tournament in 1970. They have not yet qualified for the FIFA World Cup.

Since September 2019, an official national league for women's football clubs has been established, building on informal women's clubs that existed since the early 2000s. In 2021, the Sudan women's national football team participated for the first time in the Arab Women's Cup.

Other sports practiced in Sudan include basketball, volleyball, athletics (track and field), and wrestling. Sudan's national beach volleyball team competed in the 2018-2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup. Sudanese athletes have participated in the Olympic Games, with Ismail Ahmed Ismail winning a silver medal in the 800 meters at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Sudan's first Olympic medal. Traditional sports and recreational activities also exist in various communities. In June 2022, Patricia Seif El Din El Haj, the first Sudanese woman wrestler to participate in an African championship, was noted for her efforts to prepare for the 2024 Summer Olympics.

12.6. Public holidays

Sudan observes a number of official public holidays, which include both national and religious celebrations. Religious holidays are based on the Islamic lunar calendar, so their dates on the Gregorian calendar vary each year.

• National Holidays (Fixed Dates):**
  • January 1:** Independence Day (commemorates Sudan's independence in 1956)
  • January 7:** Coptic Christmas (observed by the Coptic Christian community)
  • December 19:** Revolution Day (commemorates the start of the 2018 revolution)
  • December 25:** Christmas Day (observed by Christian communities)
  • Religious Holidays (Variable Dates, based on Islamic Lunar Calendar):**
    • Mawlid an-Nabi al-Sharif:** Prophet Muhammad's Birthday
    • Eid al-Fitr**: Festival of Breaking the Fast (marks the end of Ramadan)
    • Eid al-Adha**: Festival of Sacrifice (coincides with the Hajj pilgrimage)
    • Islamic New Year** (Muharram 1st)
    • Other Observances (may or may not be public holidays):**

The specific public holidays and their observance can sometimes be subject to government declarations.

12.7. World Heritage Sites

Sudan is home to several sites recognized by UNESCO for their outstanding universal value. These sites highlight the country's rich ancient history and natural beauty.

• Gebel Barkal and the Sites of the Napatan Region** (Inscribed 2003): This cultural heritage site comprises five archaeological areas in the Nile valley, representing the Napatan (900 to 270 BC) and Meroitic (270 BC to 350 AD) cultures of the Kingdom of Kush. The sites include Gebel Barkal (a sacred mountain with temples and pyramids), Kurru (royal necropolis), Nuri (pyramid field), Sanam (temple and settlement), and Zuma (burial mounds). These sites testify to a sophisticated civilization that interacted closely with ancient Egypt and developed its own distinct cultural expressions.
• Archaeological Sites of the Island of Meroe** (Inscribed 2011): This cultural heritage site, located between the Nile and Atbara rivers, was the heartland of the later Kushite kingdom (Meroitic period). It includes the royal city of the Kushite kings at Meroe, with its extensive pyramid fields, the nearby religious center of Naqa with its well-preserved temples (such as the Amun Temple and the Lion Temple), and Musawwarat es-Sufra, a vast religious complex. These sites showcase the art, architecture, and iron-working technology of the Meroitic civilization.
• Sanganeb Marine National Park and Dungonab Bay - Mukkawar Island Marine National Park** (Inscribed 2016): This natural heritage site is located in the Red Sea. It consists of two separate areas: Sanganeb, an isolated coral atoll, and Dungonab Bay and Mukkawar Island, which include diverse coastal habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, beaches, and islets. The site is recognized for its rich marine biodiversity, including populations of dugongs, sharks, dolphins, marine turtles, and numerous fish and coral species. It serves as an important habitat for seabirds and marine life.

Sudan also has several sites on UNESCO's Tentative List, indicating potential future nominations for World Heritage status. These sites reflect the depth and breadth of Sudan's cultural and natural heritage.