Libya

3.1. Ancient and Medieval Periods

This period covers Libya's earliest inhabitants, the influence of major ancient Mediterranean civilizations, the spread of Christianity, the Arab Islamic conquest, and the subsequent rule by various medieval dynasties, significantly shaping the region's cultural and religious landscape.

The coastal plain of Libya was inhabited by Neolithic peoples from as early as 8000 BC. The Afroasiatic ancestors of the Berber people are assumed to have spread into the area by the Late Bronze Age. The earliest known name of such a tribe was the Garamantes, based in Germa. The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya, founding cities like Oea (modern Tripoli), Labdah (later Leptis Magna), and Sabratha, which collectively became known as Tripolis. By the 5th century BC, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, Carthage, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being.

In 630 BC, the ancient Greeks colonized Eastern Libya, founding the city of Cyrene. Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as Cyrenaica: Barca, Euhesperides (later Berenice, modern Benghazi), Teuchira (later Arsinoe, modern Tukrah), and Apollonia (modern Susah), the port of Cyrene. Together, these formed the Pentapolis (Five Cities). The area was also home to the renowned philosophy school of the Cyrenaics. In 525 BC, the Persian army of Cambyses II overran Cyrenaica, which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule. Alexander the Great ended Persian rule in 331 BC and received tribute from Cyrenaica. Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom.

After the fall of Carthage, the Romans did not immediately occupy Tripolitania (the region around Tripoli), leaving it instead under the control of the kings of Numidia, until the coastal cities requested and obtained Roman protection. Ptolemy Apion, the last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BC and joined it to Crete as the province of Creta et Cyrenaica. As part of the Africa Nova province, Tripolitania was prosperous and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, when Leptis Magna, home to the Severan dynasty, was at its height.

On the eastern side, Cyrenaica's first Christian communities were established by the time of Emperor Claudius. The region was heavily devastated during the Kitos War and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike. Although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies, its decline began thereafter. Libya was an early convert to Nicene Christianity and was the home of Pope Victor I; however, it was also home to many non-Nicene varieties of early Christianity, such as Arianism and Donatism. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area of Libya was mostly occupied by the Vandals until the Byzantine reconquest in the 6th century.

Under the command of Amr ibn al-As, the Rashidun army conquered Cyrenaica in the 7th century. In 647, an army led by Abdullah ibn Saad definitively took Tripoli from the Byzantines. The Fezzan was conquered by Uqba ibn Nafi in 663. The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam, but they resisted Arab political rule. For the next several decades, Libya was under the purview of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus. The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad. When Caliph Harun al-Rashid appointed Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab as his governor of Ifriqiya in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty. By the 10th century, the Shiite Fatimids controlled Western Libya, ruling the entire region by 972 and appointing Bologhine ibn Ziri as governor.

Ibn Ziri's Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids and recognized the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from mainly two Arab Qaisi tribes, the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal, to North Africa. This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region. Zirid rule in Tripolitania was short-lived, and by 1001 the Berbers of the Banu Khazrun broke away. Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146, when the region was overtaken by the Normans of Sicily. For the next 50 years, Tripolitania was the scene of numerous battles among Ayyubids, the Almohad rulers, and insurgents of the Banu Ghaniya. Later, a general of the Almohads, Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the later establishment of the Tunisian Hafsid dynasty independent from the Almohads. In the 14th century, the Banu Thabit dynasty ruled Tripolitania before it reverted to direct Hafsid control. By the 16th century, the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire. After Abbasid control weakened, Cyrenaica was under Egypt-based states such as the Tulunids, Ikhshidids, Ayyubids, and Mamluks before the Ottoman conquest in 1517. Fezzan acquired independence under the Awlad Muhammad dynasty after Kanem rule. The Ottomans finally conquered Fezzan between 1556 and 1577.

3.2. Ottoman Era

This section details Libya's period under the Ottoman Empire, including autonomous rule by the Karamanli dynasty and the Barbary Wars, leading to the reassertion of direct Ottoman control.

After a successful invasion of Tripoli by Habsburg Spain in 1510 and its handover to the Knights of St. John, the Ottoman admiral Sinan Pasha took control of Libya in 1551. His successor Turgut Reis was named the Bey of Tripoli and later Pasha of Tripoli in 1556. By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a pasha appointed directly by the sultan in Constantinople/Istanbul. In the 1580s, the rulers of Fezzan gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in Cyrenaica, a bey was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as an agent of the government in Tripoli. European slaves and large numbers of enslaved Black Africans transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo, some 5,000 people, sending them to Libya.

In time, real power came to rest with the pasha's corps of janissaries. In 1611, the deys staged a coup against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government. For the next hundred years, a series of deys effectively ruled Tripolitania. The two most important Deys were Mehmed Saqizli (r. 1631-49) and Osman Saqizli (r. 1649-72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region. The latter also conquered Cyrenaica.

Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup, and few deys survived in office more than a year. One such coup was led by Turkish officer Ahmed Karamanli. The Karamanli dynasty ruled from 1711 until 1835, mainly in Tripolitania, and had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid-18th century. Ahmed's successors proved to be less capable than himself; however, the region's delicate balance of power allowed the Karamanli to continue. The 1793-95 Tripolitanian civil war occurred in those years. In 1793, Turkish officer Ali Pasha Burghul deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule. Hamet's brother Yusuf Karamanli (r. 1795-1832) re-established Tripolitania's independence.

In the early 19th century, war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War. By 1819, the various treaties of the Napoleonic Wars had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons, and civil war soon resulted. Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania. Order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyans under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858. The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes and greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. Ottoman rule finally reasserted itself in Fezzan between 1850 and 1875 for earning income from Saharan commerce.

3.3. Italian Colonization and Allied Occupation

This section describes the Italian conquest of Libya, the significant Libyan resistance, the socio-economic impacts of colonization, Libya's role in World War II, and the subsequent Allied occupation, highlighting the human cost involved.

After the Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912), Italy simultaneously turned the three regions of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and Fezzan into colonies. From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania, run by Italian governors. Approximately 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting about 20% of the total population.

Omar Mukhtar rose to prominence as a leader of the Libyan resistance movement against Italian colonization and became a national hero despite his capture and execution on 16 September 1931. His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism. Another prominent resistance leader, Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I), Emir of Cyrenaica, continued to lead the Libyan resistance until the outbreak of the Second World War.

The so-called "pacification of Libya" by the Italians resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica, killing approximately one-quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000 people. The human cost of this period was immense, with Ilan Pappé estimating that between 1928 and 1932, the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in Italian concentration camps)." This brutal suppression aimed to quell resistance and solidify Italian control.

In 1934, Italy combined Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan and adopted the name "Libya" (a name used by the Ancient Greeks for all of North Africa except Egypt) for the unified colony, with Tripoli as its capital. The Italians emphasized infrastructure improvements and public works. In particular, they greatly expanded Libyan railway and road networks from 1934 to 1940, building hundreds of kilometres of new roads and railways and encouraging the establishment of new industries and dozens of new agricultural villages.

In June 1940, Italy entered World War II. Libya became the setting for the hard-fought North African campaign that ultimately ended in defeat for Italy and its German ally in 1943. During this period, the Italian population in Libya began to decline.

From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under Allied occupation. The British military administered the two former Italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaïca, while the French administered the province of Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.

3.4. Kingdom of Libya (1951-1969)

This section outlines Libya's independence as a monarchy under King Idris I, the discovery of oil, and the subsequent socio-economic and political developments that characterized this era, laying groundwork for future discontent due to inequitable wealth distribution and rising Arab nationalism.

On November 21, 1949, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. Sayyid Idris, the Emir of Cyrenaica and leader of the influential Senussi religious brotherhood, represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. A national assembly crafted a constitution that established a monarchy and extended an offer for the throne to Sayyid Idris. His devout Islamic movement had garnered significant support from the Bedouin population and had effectively governed the Libyan interior during the declining years of the Ottoman Empire. Born in an oasis in Cyrenaica in 1890, Sayyid Idris assumed leadership of the Senussi at a young age, spent considerable time in exile in Egypt under Italian rule, and returned to Libya after the Axis powers were ousted in 1943.

On December 24, 1951, as King Idris I, he addressed the nation via radio from Benghazi, declaring Libya's independence as the United Kingdom of Libya, a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The new kingdom faced challenging prospects, lacking significant industry and agricultural resources. Its primary exports consisted of hides, wool, horses, and ostrich feathers. Despite having one of the lowest income per capita figures globally, it also suffered from one of the highest illiteracy rates. King Idris I, already in his sixties, had no direct heir; his son born in 1953 tragically died shortly after birth. Crown Prince Rida, Idris's brother, was the designated heir, but the royal family was riddled with incessant disputes. King Idris's devout Muslim piety, which solidified his support among the Bedouin, clashed with the modernizing and urban intellectual currents in Libya. To address the rivalry between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, Benghazi and Tripoli alternated as the capital every two years. The swift emergence of a large number of bureaucrats resulted in a costly royal government.

The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales transformed one of the world's poorest nations into an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, popular resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris and the national elite. This growing inequality fueled discontent, which continued to mount with the rise of Nasserism and Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East.

3.5. Gaddafi Era (1969-2011)

This era details the 1969 coup led by Muammar Gaddafi, the establishment of the Libyan Arab Republic and later the Jamahiriya, Gaddafi's unique political ideology, his regime's foreign policy and international isolation, and significant socio-economic developments alongside severe human rights abuses. The subsections cover his governance and ideology, foreign relations marked by anti-Western stances and support for militant groups leading to isolation, and socio-economic impacts including oil-funded welfare alongside corruption and inequality.

On September 1, 1969, a group of rebel military officers led by Muammar Gaddafi launched a coup d'état against King Idris, which became known as the Al Fateh Revolution. Gaddafi, referred to as the "Brotherly Leader and Guide of the Revolution" in government statements and the official Libyan press, dominated Libya's history and politics for the next four decades. Moving to reduce Italian influence, in October 1970, all Italian-owned assets were expropriated, and the 12,000-strong Italian community was expelled from Libya alongside the smaller community of Italian Libyan Jews. The day became a national holiday known as "Day of Revenge"; it was later renamed the "Day of Friendship" due to improvements in Italy-Libya relations.

3.5.2. Foreign Relations and International Isolation

Libya's foreign policy under Gaddafi was marked by a strong anti-Western stance, support for various international movements and militant groups, and involvement in regional conflicts. Gaddafi financed a wide array of groups, from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions, and supported leaders like Idi Amin of Uganda, Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the Central African Empire, Mengistu Haile Mariam of Ethiopia, Charles Taylor of Liberia, and Slobodan Milošević of Yugoslavia. In February 1977, Libya began delivering military supplies to Goukouni Oueddei and the People's Armed Forces in Chad, escalating into the Chadian-Libyan War. Later that year, Libya and Egypt fought a four-day border war known as the Libyan-Egyptian War, which ended with a ceasefire mediated by Algerian President Houari Boumédiène. Hundreds of Libyans lost their lives supporting Idi Amin's Uganda in its war against Tanzania.

Libya's regime was accused of state-sponsored terrorism, most notably the 1988 Lockerbie bombing, which killed 270 people. This event, along with others like the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing, led to United Nations sanctions and significant international isolation. An American airstrike in 1986, ordered by U.S. President Ronald Reagan, aimed to kill Gaddafi but failed. The 1990s saw the regime threatened by militant Islamism and an unsuccessful assassination attempt on Gaddafi, which was met with repressive measures. Cyrenaica was particularly unstable between 1995 and 1998 due to tribal allegiances of local troops.

In 2003, Gaddafi announced that Libya would dismantle all its weapons of mass destruction programs and transition toward nuclear power. This decision, coming after the Iraq War and the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, led to a complex process of rapprochement with Western nations and the lifting of sanctions. The humanitarian impact of the long period of international isolation on the Libyan population was significant, affecting access to goods and services. On November 19, 1977, Libya adopted its plain green national flag, which remained the only plain-colored national flag in the world until it was replaced in 2011.

3.6. First Libyan Civil War and Fall of Gaddafi (2011)

This section covers the 2011 uprising, its escalation into civil war, the role of the National Transitional Council, the controversial NATO intervention, Gaddafi's death, and the collapse of his regime, focusing on the human cost and the quest for democratic change.

The first Libyan Civil War erupted in the context of the Arab Spring movements that had overturned rulers in Tunisia and Egypt. Protests against Gaddafi's regime began on February 15, 2011, with a full-scale revolt commencing on February 17, Revolution Day. Gaddafi's authoritarian regime offered much more resistance than those in Egypt and Tunisia. The first announcement of a competing political authority, the National Transitional Council (NTC), appeared online, declaring itself an alternative government. One of Gaddafi's senior advisors resigned, defected, and advised Gaddafi to flee. By February 20, the unrest had spread to Tripoli. On February 27, 2011, the NTC was formally established to administer areas under rebel control. By March 10, 2011, the United States and many other nations recognized the council, headed by Mahmoud Jibril as acting prime minister, as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people, withdrawing recognition of Gaddafi's regime.

Pro-Gaddafi forces responded militarily to rebel pushes in Western Libya and launched a counterattack along the coast toward Benghazi, the de facto center of the uprising. The town of Zawiya, 30 mile ^{(48 km)} from Tripoli, was bombarded by air force planes and army tanks and seized by Jamahiriya troops, "exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict." United Nations organizations, including Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and the United Nations Human Rights Council, condemned the crackdown as violating international law, with the latter body expelling Libya in an unprecedented action.

On March 17, 2011, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973 with a 10-0 vote and five abstentions (Russia, China, India, Brazil, and Germany). The resolution sanctioned the establishment of a no-fly zone and the use of "all means necessary" to protect civilians within Libya. This NATO-led military intervention was controversial, with debates surrounding its mandate and impact. On March 19, NATO allies began operations, with French military jets entering Libyan airspace. American forces were at the forefront of these operations, deploying over 8,000 U.S. personnel. At least 3,000 targets were struck in 14,202 strike sorties, including flights of B-2 Stealth bombers. The support from NATO air forces contributed significantly to the eventual success of the revolution.

By August 22, 2011, rebel fighters had entered Tripoli and occupied Green Square, which they renamed Martyrs' Square in honor of those killed since February 17. On October 20, 2011, the last heavy fighting of the uprising ended in the city of Sirte, Gaddafi's birthplace and last stronghold. Muammar Gaddafi was captured and killed by NATO-backed forces on this day, marking the collapse of his 42-year regime. The defeat of loyalist forces was celebrated on October 23, 2011. The civil war exacted a heavy human toll, with at least 30,000 Libyans dying and an estimated 50,000 wounded, underscoring the profound cost of the conflict and the struggle for democratic change.

3.7. Post-Gaddafi Transition and Second Libyan Civil War (2011-2020)

This period covers the challenging aftermath of Gaddafi's overthrow, marked by state-building difficulties, militia proliferation, political fragmentation into rival governments, the rise of extremist groups, and the devastating Second Libyan Civil War. It is further divided into subsections on Political Fragmentation and Power Struggles, and International Intervention and Peace Efforts.

Following the defeat of loyalist forces, Libya was torn among numerous rival, armed militias affiliated with distinct regions, cities, and tribes, while the central government remained weak and unable to effectively exert its authority. Competing militias pitted themselves against each other in a political struggle between Islamist politicians and their opponents.

3.7.2. International Intervention and Peace Efforts

The United Nations and various international actors attempted to mediate the conflict, facilitate peace negotiations, and enforce arms embargoes. In January 2015, meetings known as the Geneva-Ghadames talks aimed to find a peaceful agreement, but the GNC did not participate. The UN, through Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) Bernardino León and the United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL), supported dialogue processes throughout 2015. In July 2015, a political agreement outlining a framework for transition was achieved, but implementation proved difficult. The UN Human Rights Council also requested a report on the Libyan situation and established an investigative body to report on human rights and the justice system.

Chaos-ridden Libya emerged as a major transit point for people trying to reach Europe. Between 2013 and 2018, nearly 700,000 migrants reached Italy by boat, many from Libya. In May 2018, rival Libyan leaders agreed in Paris to hold parliamentary and presidential elections, but these were repeatedly postponed.

In April 2019, Khalifa Haftar, leading the Libyan National Army (LNA), launched Operation Flood of Dignity, an offensive to seize Western territories from the Tripoli-based Government of National Accord (GNA). In June 2019, GNA forces captured Gharyan, a strategic town used by Haftar. In March 2020, the UN-backed GNA, led by Fayez al-Sarraj, commenced Operation Peace Storm in response to LNA assaults. External actors played significant roles: on August 28, 2020, BBC investigations revealed that a drone operated by the United Arab Emirates from Al-Khadim airbase had killed 26 unarmed cadets in Tripoli on January 4, 2020, using a Chinese-made Wing Loong II drone armed with a Blue Arrow 7 missile. The Guardian reported on October 7, 2020, that both the UAE and Turkey were blatantly violating the UN arms embargo by sending large-scale military cargo planes to support their respective proxies. These interventions highlighted the complexities of foreign involvement and its impact on humanitarian efforts. Finally, on October 23, 2020, the two main warring sides signed a permanent ceasefire agreement.

3.8. Recent Developments (2020-Present)

This section outlines post-ceasefire efforts towards stable governance, persistent instability, election postponements, and recent major events like the Derna floods, underscoring ongoing challenges to democratic consolidation and human security.

Following the 2020 ceasefire, efforts focused on establishing a stable, unified national government and preparing for democratic elections. However, Libya's first presidential election, initially scheduled for December 2021, was repeatedly delayed due to political rivalries and disagreements over electoral laws, and has yet to take place.

In February 2022, the eastern-based House of Representatives appointed Fathi Bashagha as prime minister to lead a transitional administration, the Government of National Stability (GNS). However, the incumbent interim prime minister of the Government of National Unity (GNU), Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh, based in Tripoli and recognized by the international community, refused to hand over power. This led to a renewed period of dual power, with both governments functioning simultaneously. Political instability persisted, with tribal leaders from Ubari shutting down the El Sharara oil field, Libya's largest, on April 18, 2022, in protest against the Dbeibah government. On July 2, 2022, the House of Representatives building in Tobruk was stormed and set on fire by protesters angered by deteriorating living conditions and political deadlock.

On September 10, 2023, Storm Daniel caused catastrophic floods due to dam failures in the port city of Derna. The floods resulted in the deaths of more than 5,900 people, with some estimates suggesting as many as 24,000 fatalities, making it the worst natural disaster in Libya's modern history. The disaster highlighted the vulnerability of the population and infrastructure, exacerbated by years of conflict and neglect.

In November 2024, the Tripoli-based Government of National Unity reportedly instated a morality police force to crack down on "weird haircuts," enforce "modest" clothing, and require male guardians for women, raising concerns about human rights and personal freedoms. These developments underscore the persistent political instability and significant challenges to democratic consolidation and the establishment of rule of law in Libya.

4.1. Topography and Climate

The main geographical regions of Libya include the Mediterranean coastal plain, which hosts most of the population and agricultural activity. The vast Sahara Desert interior dominates the country, characterized by extensive sand seas, rocky plateaus, and arid plains. Notable mountainous areas include the Nafusa Mountains in the northwest and the Jebel Akhdar (Green Mountain) in the east, which receives higher rainfall and supports more vegetation.
The climate is mostly extremely dry and desertlike in nature. However, the northern coastal regions enjoy a milder Mediterranean climate, with warm, dry summers and mild, wetter winters. Further inland, an arid desert climate prevails, with extreme temperature fluctuations between day and night and very sparse rainfall.

4.2. Libyan Desert

The Libyan Desert, which covers most of Libya, is one of the most arid and sun-baked places on earth. In places, decades may pass without seeing any rainfall at all, and even in the highlands rainfall seldom happens, once every 5-10 years. At Jebel Uweinat, as of 2006, the last recorded rainfall was in September 1998.

Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan Desert can be extreme; on 13 September 1922, the town of 'Aziziya, located southwest of Tripoli, recorded an air temperature of 136.4 °F ^{(58 °C)}, which was long considered to be a world record. However, in September 2012, the World Meteorological Organization determined this figure to be invalid.

There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases, usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging a few feet in depth. In the west, there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebianae, and Kufra. Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of plateaus and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan borders.

Slightly further to the south are the massifs of Arkenu, Uweinat, and Kissu. These granite mountains are ancient, having formed long before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the Aïr Mountains. Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west. The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features. With the discovery of oil in the 1950s also came the discovery of a massive aquifer underneath much of Libya. The water in the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System pre-dates the last Ice ages and the Sahara Desert itself. This area also contains the Arkenu structures, which were once thought to be two impact craters.

4.3. Ecology and Environmental Issues

Libya's biodiversity is adapted to its arid and semi-arid conditions, with ecosystems ranging from coastal Mediterranean habitats with maquis shrubland and some woodlands, to vast desert ecosystems with sparse vegetation, and unique mountain habitats in the Jebel Akhdar and Nafusa Mountains, as well as the southern Tibesti fringes. Wildlife includes desert-adapted species such as gazelles, fennec foxes, and various reptiles and rodents. Coastal areas and wetlands, though limited, serve as important stopover points for migratory birds.

Libya was a pioneer state in North Africa in species protection, with the creation in 1975 of the El Kouf protected area. However, significant environmental challenges persist. Desertification is a major concern, exacerbated by overgrazing and unsustainable agricultural practices. Water scarcity is a critical issue, with the country heavily reliant on the Great Man-Made River project, which extracts fossil water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, a non-renewable resource. The impact of prolonged conflict has led to further degradation of natural resources and weakened environmental governance. Environmental degradation is also linked to oil exploitation, including pollution from spills and industrial activities, and unregulated development along the coast. The fall of Muammar Gaddafi's regime favored intense poaching: "Before the fall of Gaddafi even hunting rifles were forbidden. But since 2011, poaching has been carried out with weapons of war and sophisticated vehicles in which one can find up to 200 gazelle heads killed by militiamen who hunt to pass the time. We are also witnessing the emergence of hunters with no connection to the tribes that traditionally practice hunting. They shoot everything they find, even during the breeding season. More than 500,000 birds are killed in this way each year, when protected areas have been seized by tribal chiefs who have appropriated them. The animals that used to live there have all disappeared, hunted when they are edible or released when they are not," explains zoologist Khaled Ettaieb. There is a pressing need for sustainable practices, effective environmental protection measures, and conservation efforts to preserve Libya's unique ecosystems.

4.4. Major Cities

Libya's population is predominantly urban, with a few major cities housing a significant portion of its inhabitants.

• Tripoli: The capital and largest city, located in northwestern Libya on the Mediterranean coast. It is the country's primary political, economic, and cultural center, with a rich history dating back to Phoenician times.
• Benghazi: The second-largest city, situated in eastern Libya (Cyrenaica) on the Gulf of Sidra. Benghazi is a major economic hub and port, and has historically played a crucial role in Libyan politics and commerce.
• Misrata: A coastal city in northwestern Libya, east of Tripoli. It is a significant commercial and industrial center, known for its port and free trade zone, and played a prominent role during the 2011 revolution.
• Sirte: Located on the Gulf of Sidra, roughly midway between Tripoli and Benghazi. It was Muammar Gaddafi's birthplace and became an important administrative center during his rule. It suffered extensive damage during the civil wars.
• Sabha: The largest city in the southern Fezzan region and a historical crossroads for trans-Saharan trade. It serves as an administrative and commercial center for the sparsely populated south.

These cities are vital to Libya's demographic profile, economic activity, and cultural identity, each possessing unique historical importance within the nation.

5.1. Government Structure

Libya's current governmental framework is complex and contested, reflecting the deep political divisions that persist. The internationally recognized Government of National Unity (GNU), headed by Prime Minister Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh, is based in Tripoli and was formed through a UN-led process in early 2021. It is theoretically supported by the Presidential Council, currently chaired by Mohamed al-Menfi, which acts as the collective head of state.

However, the eastern-based House of Representatives (HoR), located in Tobruk and led by Speaker Aguila Saleh Issa, challenges the GNU's authority. In February 2022, the HoR appointed a rival prime minister, Fathi Bashagha, to head an alternative administration called the Government of National Stability (GNS), though Bashagha later stepped down and was replaced by Osama Hamada. The HoR considers the GNU's mandate to have expired.

The High Council of State, an advisory body based in Tripoli and largely composed of members from the former General National Congress, also plays a role in the political process, often acting as a counterweight to the HoR.

Ongoing efforts for political stabilization, constitutional reform, and the organization of long-delayed national elections are hampered by these divisions and the influence of various armed groups. The lack of a unified national vision and persistent power struggles pose significant challenges to democratic consolidation and the establishment of the rule of law across the country.

5.2. Major Political Factions and Militias

Libya's political and security landscape is characterized by a multitude of influential actors beyond formal government institutions. While formal political parties exist, their influence is often overshadowed by regional power brokers, prominent tribal leadership structures, and numerous armed groups or militias. These militias, which emerged or gained prominence after the 2011 revolution, often have local allegiances and varying ideologies, ranging from Islamist to secularist, and federalist to nationalist.

Key armed factions include forces aligned with the Tripoli-based GNU, and the Libyan National Army (LNA) under the command of Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar, which is allied with the HoR in the east. Various other militias control specific territories or cities, such as in Misrata, Zintan, and Zawiya, and their loyalties can be fluid. These groups exert significant influence on governance, often controlling critical infrastructure like oil facilities or border crossings, and their actions heavily impact national cohesion and the safety of civilians. The proliferation of these groups and their competition for resources and power are major obstacles to forming a unified national security apparatus and achieving lasting stability.

5.3. Administrative Divisions

Historically, the area of Libya was considered three provinces (or states): Tripolitania in the northwest, Cyrenaica (also Barka) in the east, and Fezzan in the southwest. The conquest by Italy in the Italo-Turkish War united them into a single political unit.

Since 2007, Libya has been divided into 22 districts (singular: shabiyah, plural: shabiyat):

• 1. Nuqat al Khams
• 2. Zawiya
• 3. Jafara
• 4. Tripoli
• 5. Murqub
• 6. Misrata
• 7. Sirte
• 8. Benghazi
• 9. Marj
• 10. Jabal al Akhdar
• 11. Derna
• 12. Tobruk (Butnan)
• 13. Nalut
• 14. Jabal al Gharbi
• 15. Wadi al Shatii
• 16. Jufra
• 17. Al Wahat
• 18. Ghat
• 19. Wadi al Hayaa
• 20. Sabha
• 21. Murzuq
• 22. Kufra

In 2022, the Government of National Unity announced a plan to reorganize the country into 18 provinces, potentially superseding the 2007 district structure. These proposed provinces are: the Eastern Coast, Jabal Al-Akhdar, Al-Hizam, Benghazi, Al-Wahat, Al-Kufra, Al-Khaleej, Al-Margab, Tripoli, Al-Jafara, Al-Zawiya, West Coast, Gheryan, Zintan, Nalut, Sabha, Al-Wadi, and Murzuq Basin. The implementation and practical effect of this new provincial system remain subject to the evolving political situation.

5.4. Foreign Relations

Libya's foreign policies have fluctuated significantly since its independence in 1951. As a Kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance and was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the Arab League, which it joined in 1953. The government was friendly towards Western countries such as the United Kingdom, United States, France, Italy, and Greece, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955. Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the Arab-Israeli conflict or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s.

After the 1969 coup, Muammar Gaddafi closed American and British bases and partly nationalized foreign oil and commercial interests. Gaddafi was known for backing a number of leaders viewed as anathema to Westernization and political liberalism, including Ugandan President Idi Amin, Central African Emperor Jean-Bédel Bokassa, Ethiopian strongman Haile Mariam Mengistu, Liberian President Charles Taylor, and Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević.

Relations with the West were strained by a series of incidents for most of Gaddafi's rule, including the killing of London policewoman Yvonne Fletcher, the bombing of a West Berlin nightclub frequented by US servicemen, and the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, which led to UN sanctions in the 1990s. By the late 2000s, the United States and other Western powers had normalized relations with Libya. Gaddafi's decision to abandon the pursuit of weapons of mass destruction after the Iraq War saw Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein overthrown and put on trial, leading to Libya being hailed as a success for Western soft power initiatives in the War on Terror. In October 2010, Gaddafi apologized to African leaders on behalf of Arab nations for their involvement in the trans-Saharan slave trade.

Since the 2011 revolution, Libya's foreign policy has been shaped by its internal fragmentation and the competing interests of its rival factions. Relationships with neighboring countries (Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Sudan, Chad, Niger), European powers (notably Italy and France), Turkey, Qatar, the UAE, and global organizations like the UN, EU, and African Union are critical. Libya's involvement in international bodies continues, but its representation has often been contested. The country plays a crucial role in regional security, counter-terrorism efforts, and migration issues affecting the Mediterranean. The humanitarian dimensions of its international engagements, particularly concerning migrants and refugees, are a significant concern for the international community. Differing perspectives among Libyan factions often lead to conflicting foreign policy approaches, complicating diplomatic efforts.

Libya is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbors closer. However, Libyan authorities have rejected EU plans aimed at stopping migration from Libya by establishing processing centers on its territory. In 2017, Libya signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

5.5. Military

Libya's national military structure has been deeply fragmented since the 2011 revolution and the subsequent civil wars. The previous national army under Muammar Gaddafi was defeated and largely disbanded during the First Libyan Civil War.

In the ensuing period, various armed groups emerged. The Tobruk-based House of Representatives (HoR) attempted to re-establish a formal military known as the Libyan National Army (LNA), led by Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar. The LNA exerts control over much of eastern and parts of southern Libya. As of May 2012, an estimated 35,000 personnel had reportedly joined its ranks, though its composition includes regular soldiers as well as allied militias.

The internationally recognized Government of National Accord (GNA), established in 2015 and succeeded by the Government of National Unity (GNU) in 2021, also commands forces, often comprising various militia groups from western Libya aligned with the Tripoli-based authorities. These forces are often referred to collectively as the Libyan Army, though a truly unified command structure remains elusive.

A major challenge for Libya is the establishment of a unified national military under civilian control. Efforts towards Demobilization, Disarmament, and Reintegration (DDR) of the numerous militias and broader Security Sector Reform (SSR) are critical for long-term stability but have been hampered by ongoing political divisions and the power of these armed groups. Many militias remain disciplined primarily to their local or regional leadership rather than a central state authority. The "Libya Shield Force" was an example of a parallel national force operating at the request of, rather than under the direct order of, the Ministry of Defence. President Mohammed Magariaf in 2012 had promised that empowering the army and police force was the government's biggest priority and ordered that all militias must come under government authority or disband, but this has largely not been achieved.

5.6. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Libya has been a matter of grave concern, particularly since the 2011 uprising and the subsequent conflicts. Under the Gaddafi regime, systematic human rights abuses were common, including suppression of freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and the freedom of the press, arbitrary detention, torture, and extrajudicial killings. Political dissent was not tolerated.

In the post-Gaddafi era, the situation remains dire, exacerbated by political instability, the proliferation of militias, and a weak justice system. Human Rights Watch's 2016 annual report noted that journalists continued to be targeted by armed groups, and Libya ranked very low in the Press Freedom Index (154th out of 180 countries in 2015, worsening to 165th in 2021).

Key human rights issues include:

• Freedoms of Expression, Assembly, and Press: These remain severely restricted, with journalists, activists, and ordinary citizens facing threats, intimidation, and violence from various armed groups and state-affiliated actors.
• Rights of Women: While women played a role in the 2011 revolution, their participation in public life is challenged by insecurity and conservative interpretations of social norms. Issues include gender-based violence and discrimination. In November 2024, the GNU's re-establishment of a morality police with powers to enforce "modest" clothing and require male guardians for women raised further concerns.
• Ethnic and Religious Minorities: Berbers (Amazigh), Toubou, and other ethnic minorities face discrimination and challenges in asserting their cultural and linguistic rights. Religious minorities, including small Christian communities (primarily Coptic Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and some Protestant denominations, largely among expatriates), face risks, and proselytizing is illegal. Homosexuality is illegal and punishable by severe penalties.
• Due Process and Detention Conditions: Arbitrary detention is widespread, with thousands held in official and unofficial detention centers run by militias, often without charge or trial. Conditions in these facilities are frequently inhumane, with reports of torture, overcrowding, and lack of medical care.
• Migrants, Refugees, and Asylum Seekers: Libya is a major transit country for migrants and refugees attempting to reach Europe. They face extreme human rights abuses, including human trafficking, forced labor, torture, sexual violence, arbitrary detention in horrific conditions, and killings, at the hands of smugglers, traffickers, militias, and sometimes state-affiliated entities.
• Accountability and Transitional Justice: There is a profound lack of accountability for past and ongoing abuses. Efforts towards transitional justice and holding perpetrators accountable are severely hampered by the weak rule of law and the power of armed groups. The impact of ongoing conflict and political instability continues to devastate civilian populations.

6.1. Oil and Gas Sector

The oil and gas sector is the cornerstone of Libya's economy, accounting for the vast majority of its export earnings and a significant portion of its GDP. Libya boasts the largest proven crude oil reserves in Africa, estimated at around 43.6 billion barrels, and substantial natural gas reserves. Its oil is predominantly light and sweet, making it desirable on the international market. The National Oil Corporation (NOC) is the state-owned entity responsible for overseeing oil and gas exploration, production, and export. Production capacity has historically been high, with major export infrastructure including numerous oil fields, pipelines, and coastal terminals such as Es Sider, Ras Lanuf, and Brega. Libya is a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and has historically played an influential role within the organization.

However, the sector has been severely impacted by political instability, conflict, and blockades since 2011. Damage to infrastructure, disputes over revenue distribution, and shutdowns of oil fields and ports by various armed groups or political factions have led to highly volatile production levels and significant losses in national revenue, undermining economic stability and development efforts.

6.2. Agriculture and Water Resources

Libya's agricultural sector plays a relatively small role in its GDP but is important for employment in certain regions. Main crops include dates, olives, grains (wheat and barley), citrus fruits, and vegetables. Livestock rearing, primarily sheep and goats, is also practiced. Before the discovery of oil in 1958, agriculture was the country's main source of revenue, making up about 30% of GDP. By 2005, its contribution had declined to less than 5% of GDP. Libya imports up to 90% of its cereal consumption requirements; in 2012/13, wheat imports were estimated at 1 million tonnes, while domestic wheat production was around 200,000 tonnes. The government had hoped to increase cereal production to 800,000 tonnes by 2020, but natural and environmental conditions, particularly water scarcity and limited arable land (about 1.2% of the total land area), severely restrict agricultural potential.

Water resources are critically important in this predominantly arid country. The Great Man-Made River project is the world's largest irrigation project, designed to transport vast quantities of fossil water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System in the southern desert to coastal cities and agricultural areas in the north. It is estimated to provide 70% of all freshwater used in Libya. However, the sustainability of relying on non-renewable fossil water is a long-term concern. The water infrastructure suffered neglect and occasional breakdowns during the second Libyan civil war (2014-2020). Challenges of food security and sustainable water management remain paramount for Libya's future.

6.3. Economic Structure and Challenges

The overall structure of the Libyan economy is characterized by its acute dependence on oil revenue, making it highly vulnerable to fluctuations in global oil prices and internal political instability that affects production. This "rentier state" model has historically led to a large public sector, high levels of state subsidies, and limited development of a diversified private sector.

Key challenges include:

• Diversification: Efforts to diversify the economy away from hydrocarbons have faced significant obstacles due to a lack of investment, institutional capacity, and a challenging business environment.
• Unemployment: High rates of unemployment, especially among the youth, persist despite oil wealth. The public sector has traditionally been the largest employer, but this is not sustainable.
• Inflation: Political instability and disruptions to supply chains have contributed to inflationary pressures.
• Infrastructure: Prolonged conflict has devastated national infrastructure, including transportation, power, and water systems, requiring massive investment for reconstruction.
• Governance and Corruption: Weak governance, corruption, and lack of transparency in managing national resources, particularly oil revenues, hinder economic development and fuel public discontent.
• Wealth Distribution and Social Equity: Despite high per capita GDP figures historically, issues of wealth distribution and social equity remain contentious, with regional disparities and perceptions of unequal access to resources and opportunities.
• Security Situation: The ongoing fragile security environment deters foreign investment and impedes normal economic activity.

By 2017, reports indicated that 60% of the Libyan population were malnourished, and 1.3 million people (out of a total population of about 6.3 million at the time) were in need of emergency humanitarian aid, reflecting the severe impact of conflict and economic collapse.

6.4. Tourism

Libya possesses considerable potential for tourism, owing to its rich historical and archaeological sites, diverse desert landscapes, and Mediterranean coastline. The country is home to five UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Archaeological Site of Leptis Magna, the Archaeological Site of Sabratha, the Archaeological Site of Cyrene, the Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus, and the Old Town of Ghadames. These sites represent immense historical, archaeological, and cultural significance, drawing from Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and indigenous Berber civilizations. The vast Sahara Desert offers unique opportunities for adventure tourism and exploring diverse geological formations and oases.

However, the tourism sector currently faces severe constraints due to persistent political instability, widespread security concerns, and underdeveloped infrastructure. Before the 2011 revolution, there were efforts to develop the tourism industry, including the Green Mountain Sustainable Development Area project involving Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, which aimed to promote tourism in Cyrene while preserving its antiquities. The ongoing conflicts and lack of a stable security environment have made international tourism virtually non-existent, and domestic tourism is also severely limited. Significant investment in security, infrastructure (hotels, transport, services), and marketing would be required for Libya to realize its tourism potential once stability is achieved.

7.1. Population Overview

Libya's total population is estimated to be around 7 million people. The population density is low overall, approximately 3 people per square kilometer, but this figure is misleading as most Libyans live in coastal urban areas, particularly in and around Tripoli, Benghazi, and Misrata, where densities are much higher. The urbanization rate is high, with about 88% of the population residing in urban centers. Libya has a youthful population, with a significant "youth bulge" - approximately 27.7% of the population is under the age of 15. The population growth rate has historically been relatively high for the region, though recent conflicts may have impacted these trends.

7.2. Ethnic Groups

The population of Libya is primarily of Arab ancestry, with many tracing their lineage to Bedouin Arab tribes like the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal. Arabs and Arabized Berbers constitute the vast majority, estimated at around 92%.

Significant minority groups include the indigenous Berbers (Amazigh), who make up an estimated 5% to 10% of the population (approximately 600,000 people). They have a distinct cultural and linguistic heritage and are concentrated mainly in the Nafusa Mountains of the northwest, the coastal town of Zuwarah, and some oases like Ghadames.

Other ethnic minorities include the Tuareg, semi-nomadic Berber-speaking people found primarily in the southwestern desert regions around Ghat, and the Toubou, a Nilo-Saharan speaking group inhabiting the Tibesti Mountains region in the south, near the Chadian border. There is also a small Turkish minority, often called "Kouloughlis" (descendants of Ottoman Turkish men and local women), concentrated in and around some coastal towns and villages.

Traditional tribal structures remain influential in Libyan society, often playing a significant role in local governance, social cohesion, and political dynamics, particularly in the absence of strong state institutions. The status and rights of minority groups, especially the Amazigh, Toubou, and Tuareg, have been a subject of political discourse, with calls for greater cultural recognition and political representation, particularly since 2011. The Gaddafi regime suppressed Amazigh identity, but there has been a resurgence of Amazigh cultural expression since its fall.

Most Italian settlers, who at their height numbered over half a million, left after Italian Libya's independence in 1947. More repatriated in 1970 after the accession of Muammar Gaddafi, but a few hundred reportedly returned in the 2000s.

7.3. Languages

The official language of Libya is Arabic. The local spoken variety is Libyan Arabic, which has regional dialects, with notable differences between the western (Tripolitanian) and eastern (Cyrenaican) forms. Modern Standard Arabic is used in formal contexts, education, and media.

Various Berber languages (also known as Amazigh or Tamazight) are spoken by Berber communities. These include Nafusi in the Nafusa Mountains, Ghadamès in the oasis of Ghadames, Awjilah in the Awjila oasis, Suknah, and Tamasheq (the Tuareg language) in the south. Following the 2011 revolution, there has been a greater push for the recognition and teaching of Berber languages. The Libyan Amazigh High Council (LAHC) has declared the Amazigh language to be an official language in the cities and districts predominantly inhabited by Berbers in Libya.

English is widely understood as a second language, particularly in business, academia, and among younger generations. It is commonly taught in schools. The Italian, the language of the former colonial power, is still spoken by some, especially older Libyans and in certain commercial circles, though its use has declined significantly.

7.4. Religion

Islam is the state religion of Libya, and approximately 97% of the population are Muslims, the vast majority of whom belong to the Sunni branch, predominantly following the Maliki school of jurisprudence. There are small numbers of Ibadi Muslims in the country.

Before the 1930s, the Senussi Sufi movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya, particularly influential in Cyrenaica. It played a significant role in unifying tribal people and resisting Italian colonization. The Senussi order was largely suppressed by the Italian invasion and later by the Gaddafi regime. Gaddafi asserted that he was a devout Muslim, and his government supported Islamic institutions and worldwide proselytizing on behalf of Islam. Libyan Islam has traditionally been characterized as moderate.

Since the fall of Gaddafi in 2011, more ultra-conservative and Salafist strains of Islam have reasserted themselves in some areas. Derna in eastern Libya, historically a hotbed of jihadist thought, came under the control of militants aligned with the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in 2014 for a period. Jihadist elements also spread to Sirte and Benghazi during the Second Libyan Civil War.

There are small Christian minorities in Libya, primarily comprising expatriate workers and long-standing communities. The Coptic Orthodox Church, originating from Egypt, is the largest and most historic Christian denomination, with an estimated 60,000 adherents, mainly Egyptian Copts. There are three Coptic Churches in Libya (Tripoli, Benghazi, and Misurata). The Roman Catholic community consists of an estimated 40,000 members, served by two bishops (one in Tripoli for the Italian community and one in Benghazi for the Maltese community). A small Anglican community, mostly African immigrant workers in Tripoli, is part of the Anglican Diocese of Egypt. Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal, and Christians have faced threats and violence from radical Islamists, notably the mass beheading of Coptic Christians by ISIL in February 2015. Libya was ranked fourth on Open Doors' 2022 World Watch List of countries where Christians face the most extreme persecution.

Libya was once home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC. In 1942, during World War II, Italian Fascist authorities established forced labor camps for Jews, including at Giado (around 3,000 Jews), Gharyan, Jeren, and Tigrinna, where hundreds died. After a series of pogroms starting in November 1945, in which over 140 Jews were murdered, most of the approximately 38,000 Jews remaining by 1948 emigrated, largely after Libya's independence in 1951. The last remaining Jew in Libya, Rina Debach, left the country in 2003.

Issues of religious freedom and interfaith relations remain complex, particularly in the context of ongoing political instability and the influence of conservative religious interpretations.

7.5. Education

Libya's population includes approximately 1.7 million students, with over 270,000 of them studying at the tertiary level. Basic education in Libya is free for all citizens and is compulsory up to the secondary level. The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 89.2%.

After Libya's independence in 1951, its first university - the University of Libya - was established in Benghazi by royal decree. In the 1975-76 academic year, the number of university students was estimated to be 13,418. By 2004, this number had increased to more than 200,000, with an additional 70,000 enrolled in the higher technical and vocational sector. This rapid increase in student numbers was mirrored by an increase in the number of higher education institutions. Since 1975, the number of public universities grew from two to twelve, and since their introduction in 1980, the number of higher technical and vocational institutes grew to 84. Since 2007, some new private universities, such as the Libyan International Medical University, have been established. Although a small number of private institutions were given accreditation before 2011, the majority of Libya's higher education has always been financed by the public budget. In 1998, the budget allocation for education represented 38.2% of Libya's national budget.

However, the education sector has faced significant challenges due to underfunding, the impact of conflict (damage to infrastructure, displacement of students and teachers), and political instability. Efforts towards reform and reconstruction are ongoing. In 2024, the Ministry of Education announced the launch of the Full-Day School Project, in which 12 schools in different parts of the country will have longer school days, aiming to provide 800 hours of instruction per year to 3,300 elementary school students.

7.6. Health

Libya's public healthcare system, once relatively well-funded due to oil revenues, has faced severe strain due to political instability, conflict, and economic challenges since 2011. In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.88% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 18.71 physicians and 66.95 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants. The life expectancy at birth was 74.95 years in 2011 (72.44 years for males and 77.59 years for females).

Key health indicators like infant mortality rates have been affected by the disruptions. Common health issues include non-communicable diseases, but infectious diseases can also pose a threat, particularly in situations of displacement or breakdown in sanitation. The impact of conflict has led to damaged healthcare infrastructure, shortages of medical supplies and personnel (many expatriate health workers left), and reduced access to medical services for large segments of the population. Many hospitals and primary health facilities, particularly in conflict-affected areas like Derna after the 2023 floods, have been rendered partially or completely nonfunctional.

In 2023, the Libyan health ministry announced the launch of the National Strategy for Primary Healthcare 2023-2028, aiming to improve services provided by group clinics and health centers, including the introduction of a unique health number for each citizen to facilitate access to medical records. Libya's 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI) score is 19.2, indicating a moderate level of hunger, ranking 83rd out of 127 countries.

7.7. Migrants and Refugees

Libya has long been a country of destination and transit for foreign workers, migrants, asylum seekers, and refugees, primarily from sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa (especially Egypt and Sudan), and Asia. Prior to the 2011 revolution, official and unofficial figures of migrant labor ranged from 25% to 40% of the population (between 1.5 and 2.4 million people), with millions of Egyptian migrants in particular. During the 2011 revolution, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) calculated that 768,362 immigrants fled Libya. As of 2023, the IOM estimates that approximately 10% of Libya's population (upwards of 700,000 people) constituted foreign labor. Migrants have historically played significant economic roles, particularly in construction, agriculture, and services.

However, migrants, asylum seekers, and refugees in Libya face severe human rights challenges and extreme vulnerability. They are often subjected to arbitrary detention in inhumane conditions in official and unofficial detention centers run by government-affiliated groups or militias. Reports of forced labor, exploitation, torture, extortion, sexual violence, and lack of legal protection are widespread. Libya's role as a major transit country for migration to Europe has exacerbated this humanitarian crisis. Many attempt perilous sea crossings to Italy and Malta, often facilitated by human smuggling and trafficking networks that thrive in the lawless environment. International organizations and human rights groups have repeatedly documented horrific abuses against migrants, calling for urgent reforms and accountability. Policy responses, both domestically and internationally (e.g., EU support for Libyan coast guard to intercept migrants), have been controversial due to their impact on migrant rights and safety.

8.1. Traditions and Lifestyles

Traditional Libyan customs are deeply rooted in Arab and Berber heritage, with a strong emphasis on family values, particularly extended family ties. Hospitality is a cornerstone of Libyan social life, and guests are typically welcomed with generosity. Social etiquette often reflects Islamic traditions and local customs. The influence of Bedouin nomadic heritage is evident in certain cultural practices, particularly in rural and desert areas, while sedentary Berber cultures have maintained their unique traditions, languages, and social structures, especially in regions like the Nafusa Mountains and oases like Ghadames. These diverse traditions contribute to the contemporary Libyan identity and way of life. Traditional attire varies by region but often includes flowing robes for men (like the jellabiya or jerd) and colorful, often intricately embroidered, garments for women, sometimes accompanied by headscarves or veils.

8.2. Cuisine

Libyan cuisine is a flavorful blend of Arab, Berber, Mediterranean (especially Italian), and Ottoman culinary traditions. It features a variety of staple dishes, with pasta being common in the western regions and rice more prevalent in the east.
Common Libyan foods include:

• Couscous: A staple across North Africa, often steam-cooked and served with a rich stew of meat (typically lamb or chicken), vegetables (like courgettes/zucchini and chickpeas), and a red (tomato) sauce. It is typically served with cucumber slices, lettuce, and olives.
• Bazeen: A distinctive Libyan dish made from barley flour (or sometimes wheat) that is cooked into a firm, dome-shaped dough. It is customarily eaten communally from a single large dish, with the dough surrounded by a tomato-based stew, often with lamb, potatoes, and hard-boiled eggs. This dish is commonly served at traditional weddings or festivities.
• Asida: A wheat flour pudding, often served as a sweet dish with honey, ghee, or butter. Another popular way to serve Asida is with rub (fresh date syrup) and olive oil. It can also be a savory version similar to Bazeen.
• Usban: Animal tripe (usually sheep's stomach) stitched and stuffed with a mixture of rice, herbs, minced meat, and vegetables, then cooked in a tomato-based soup or steamed.
• Shurba: A red tomato sauce-based soup, usually hearty and often containing small grains of pasta, lamb or chicken, and vegetables.
• Red sauce based pasta dishes: Similar to Italian sugo, these are very popular.

A common snack is khubs bi'tun, meaning "bread with tuna fish," usually a baked baguette or pita bread stuffed with tuna mixed with harissa (chili sauce) and olive oil.

The four main ingredients of traditional Libyan food are olives (and olive oil), dates, grains, and milk. Dates are harvested, dried, and can be eaten as they are, made into syrup (rub), or slightly fried and eaten with bsisa (roasted ground grain powder) and milk. After eating, Libyans often drink black tea. This is normally repeated a second time, and in the third round, tea is often served with roasted peanuts or roasted almonds known as shay bi'l-luz (mixed with the tea in the same glass). Alcohol consumption is illegal in Libya.

8.3. Arts and Media

Traditional Libyan arts and crafts include distinctive forms of pottery, often with geometric designs, intricate weaving (carpets, rugs, and textiles, particularly by Berber communities), and traditional silver jewelry, which is highly prized.

Libyan music encompasses a variety of styles, including Bedouin folk traditions characterized by poetic lyrics and instruments like the oud and percussion. Tuareg music, with its unique rhythms and instrumentation (like the imzad fiddle), is prominent in the southern regions. Modern Arab pop music is also popular. Traditional dances often accompany musical performances at celebrations and festivals.

The media landscape in Libya has undergone significant changes. Under the Gaddafi regime, media was tightly controlled by the state. A 1996 analysis by the Committee to Protect Journalists found Libya's media was the most tightly controlled in the Arab world. State-run television and radio were the primary sources of information. Since the 2011 revolution, there has been a proliferation of independent media outlets, including television stations, radio stations, newspapers, and online platforms. However, ongoing political instability, insecurity, and the influence of various factions continue to pose challenges to press freedom and have led to instances of censorship, intimidation, and violence against journalists. A large number of Libyan television stations are devoted to political review, Islamic topics, and cultural phenomena. Libyan television broadcasts programs mostly in Arabic, though some may have time slots for English and French.

8.4. Sports

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Libya. The country hosted the 1982 African Cup of Nations and reached the final, losing to Ghana on penalties. The national team won the African Nations Championship in 2014, again defeating Ghana in the final. Although the national team has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup, there is significant passion for the sport, and domestic leagues, such as the Libyan Premier League, are followed by many.

Horse racing is also a popular sport, deeply rooted in Libyan tradition, particularly among Bedouin communities. It is often featured at special occasions and holidays. Other sporting activities include various martial arts, volleyball, and basketball. Libya has participated in the Summer Olympics and other regional and international competitions, though ongoing instability has impacted sports development and participation.

8.5. World Heritage Sites

Libya is home to five UNESCO World Heritage Sites, each testifying to its rich and diverse history and immense archaeological and cultural significance:
1. Archaeological Site of Leptis Magna: One of the most spectacular and unspoiled Roman ruined cities in the Mediterranean. Originally a Phoenician port, it was greatly expanded under Emperor Septimius Severus, who was born there. Its impressive remains include a forum, basilica, theatre, amphitheater, and baths.
2. Archaeological Site of Sabratha: Another ancient port city, part of the Phoenician Tripolis, later Romanized. It is renowned for its well-preserved 3rd-century Roman theatre, as well as temples and early Christian basilicas.
3. Archaeological Site of Cyrene: An ancient Greek colony, later a major Roman city, and one of the principal cities in the Hellenic world. It was famed for its medical school, philosophers, and mathematicians. Its ruins include temples (like the Temple of Zeus), agoras, and a necropolis.
4. Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus: Located in the Sahara Desert, these mountains contain thousands of cave paintings and engravings spanning a vast period from 12,000 BC to AD 100. The art depicts dramatic changes in flora, fauna, and human lifestyles.
5. Old Town of Ghadames: Known as the "pearl of the desert," Ghadames is an ancient oasis town with a distinctive domestic architecture adapted to the desert climate, featuring interconnected, covered alleyways and multi-story mud-brick houses.

These sites have faced threats due to political instability and lack of resources for conservation, placing them on UNESCO's List of World Heritage in Danger.