Oman

3.1. Prehistory and ancient history

Evidence of early human habitation in Oman dates back over 100,000 years. In 2011, a site at Aybut Al Auwal in the Dhofar Governorate revealed more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools belonging to a regionally specific African lithic industry-the late Nubian Complex-previously known only from Northeast Africa and the Horn of Africa. Optically stimulated luminescence dating placed the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old, supporting the theory that early human populations migrated from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene.

Surveys in recent years have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites on the eastern coast, with Saiwan-Ghunaim in the Barr al-Hikman region being a main Palaeolithic site. Archaeological remains are particularly numerous for the Bronze Age Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods. At sites like Bat, Al-Janah, and Al-Ayn, archaeologists have found wheel-turned pottery, hand-made stone vessels, metal industry artifacts, and monumental architecture. These findings indicate sophisticated early societies.

Ancient Sumerian tablets refer to Oman as "Magan", and in the Akkadian language as "Makan". These names are often linked to Oman's ancient copper resources, suggesting its importance in regional trade networks. Frankincense was a significant trade commodity from Oman by 1500 BCE, and the Land of Frankincense, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, testifies to the wealth and sophistication of South Arabian civilizations built on this trade.

During the 8th century BCE, it is believed that the Yaarub, descendants of Qahtan, ruled the region of Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin Abd-Shams (Saba) bin Yashjub (Yaman) bin Yarub bin Qahtan later ruled Oman, suggesting early Yemeni influence. Some scholars, like John C. Wilkinson, based on oral history, believed that in the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenid Empire exerted control over the Omani peninsula, likely ruling from a coastal center such as Sohar. Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage, named eponymously from Samad al-Shan. In the northern part of the Oman Peninsula, the Recent Pre-Islamic Period begins in the 3rd century BCE and extends into the 3rd century CE. However, the lack of Persian archaeological finds casts some doubt on the extent of Achaemenid control. Armand-Pierre Caussin de Perceval suggests that Shammir bin Wathil bin Himyar recognized the authority of Cyrus the Great over Oman in 536 BCE.

3.2. Arab settlement and Islamization

Over centuries, tribes from western Arabia settled in Oman, engaging in fishing, farming, herding, and stock breeding. Many present-day Omani families trace their ancestry to various parts of Arabia. Arab migration to Oman primarily originated from northwestern and southwestern Arabia. These settlers competed with the indigenous population for arable land.
Two distinct groups of Arab tribes migrated to Oman. One group, a segment of the Azd tribe, migrated from Yemen around 120/200 CE following the collapse of the Marib Dam. The other group, known as Nizari, migrated a few centuries before the advent of Islam from Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia). Some historians believe the Yaarubah from Qahtan, an older branch, were the first settlers from Yemen, followed by the Azd.
The Azd settlers in Oman, descendants of Nasr bin Azd, became known as "the Al-Azd of Oman". About seventy years after the initial Azd migration, another branch of Alazdi, under Malik bin Fahm (founder of the Tanukhite kingdom west of the Euphrates), is believed to have settled in Oman. According to Al-Kalbi, Malik bin Fahm was the first settler of Alazd, establishing himself initially in Qalhat. With an armed force of over 6,000 men and horses, Malik reportedly fought and defeated Persian forces under a Marzban (governor) in the battle of Salut in Oman. However, this account is considered semi-legendary, likely condensing centuries of migration, conflict, and merging traditions from Arab tribes and the region's original inhabitants.
In the 7th century CE, Omanis came into contact with and accepted Islam. The conversion is largely attributed to Amr ibn al-As, who was sent by the Prophet Muhammad. Amr met with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman at the time, and they readily embraced Islam, leading to the decline of Persian influence.

3.3. Imamate of Oman

Omani Azd tribesmen frequently traveled to Basra for trade during the Umayyad era. Basra was a significant center of Islamic learning and commerce, and the Omani Azd were granted a section of the city to settle and conduct their affairs. Many became wealthy merchants and, under their leader al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra, expanded their influence eastward towards Khorasan.
The Ibadi school of Islam originated in Basra with its founder, Abd Allah ibn Ibad, around 650 CE. The Omani Azd in Iraq subsequently adopted Ibadism as their predominant faith. Later, Al-Hajjaj, the governor of Iraq, came into conflict with the Ibadis, which compelled many of them to return to Oman. Among those who returned was the scholar Jaber bin Zaid. His return, along with that of other scholars, greatly strengthened the Ibadi movement in Oman.
Al-Hajjaj also attempted to subjugate Oman, then ruled by Suleiman and Said, sons of Abbad bin Julanda. Al-Hajjaj dispatched Mujjaah bin Shiwah, who was confronted by Said bin Abbad. Said's army was defeated, and he retreated to the Jebel Akhdar mountains. Mujjaah pursued and eventually dislodged them from Wadi Mastall. Mujjaah then moved towards the coast, where he confronted Suleiman bin Abbad. Suleiman's forces initially won, but Al-Hajjaj sent another force under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman, who eventually conquered Oman and took over its governance.
The first elective Imamate of Oman is believed to have been established shortly after the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate in 750/755 CE, when Janaħ bin ʕibadah Alħinnawi was elected. Other scholars claim that Janaħ bin Ibadah served as a Wāli (governor) under the Umayyads and later ratified the Imamate, and that Julanda bin Masud was the first elected Imam in 751 CE. This first Imamate reached its peak power in the ninth century CE. It established a maritime empire whose fleet controlled the Gulf, at a time when trade with the Abbasid Caliphate, the Far East, and Africa flourished. The authority of the Imams later declined due to internal power struggles, constant interventions by the Abbasids, and the rise of the Seljuk Empire.

3.4. Nabhani dynasty

During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Omani coast came under the sphere of influence of the Seljuk Empire. They were expelled in 1154 when the Nabhani dynasty (Banu Nabhan) came to power. The Nabhanis ruled as muluk (kings), while the Imams were reduced to largely symbolic significance. The capital of the dynasty was Bahla.
The Banu Nabhan controlled the trade in frankincense on the overland route via Sohar to the Yabrin oasis, and then north to Bahrain, Baghdad, and Damascus. The mango tree was introduced to Oman during the Nabhani dynasty's rule, by ElFellah bin Muhsin.
The Nabhani dynasty began to deteriorate in 1507 when Portuguese colonizers captured the coastal city of Muscat and gradually extended their control along the coast up to Sohar in the north and down to Sur in the southeast. Some historians argue that the Nabhani dynasty ended earlier, around 1435 CE, due to conflicts between the dynasty and the Alhinawis, which led to the restoration of the elective Imamate.

3.5. Portuguese era

A decade after Vasco da Gama's successful voyage around the Cape of Good Hope and to India in 1497-1498, the Portuguese arrived in Oman. They occupied Muscat in 1507 and controlled it for 143 years, until 1650. The Portuguese needed an outpost to protect their sea lanes, so they built up and fortified the city, where remnants of their architectural style still exist. Several other Omani cities were colonized in the early 16th century by the Portuguese to control the entrances of the Persian Gulf and trade in the region, as part of a network of fortresses extending from Basra to Hormuz Island.
However, in 1552, an Ottoman fleet briefly captured the fort in Muscat during their struggle for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. They soon departed after destroying the surroundings of the fortress.
Later, in the 17th century, using its bases in Oman, Portugal engaged in the largest naval battle ever fought in the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese force fought against a combined armada of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the English East India Company, supported by the Safavid empire. The battle was a draw but resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf.

3.6. Yaruba dynasty (1624-1744)

The Ottoman Empire temporarily captured Muscat from the Portuguese again in 1581 and held it until 1588. During the 17th century, the Omanis were reunited by the Yaruba Imams. Nasir bin Murshid became the first Yaruba Imam in 1624, when he was elected in Rustaq. His energy and determination are believed to have led to his election.
Imam Nasir and his successors succeeded in the 1650s in expelling the Portuguese from their coastal domains in Oman and subsequently from their possessions in East Africa. The Omanis established a maritime empire that pursued the Portuguese, driving them from Zanzibar and Mombasa. To capture Zanzibar, Saif bin Sultan, the Imam of Oman, pressed down the Swahili Coast. A major obstacle was Fort Jesus at Mombasa, which fell to Imam Saif bin Sultan in 1698 after a two-year siege. Saif bin Sultan also occupied Bahrain in 1700.
The Yaruba dynasty weakened due to internal rivalries over power following the death of Imam Sultan in 1718. With their power dwindling, Imam Saif bin Sultan II eventually sought help against his rivals from Nader Shah of Persia. A Persian force arrived in March 1737 to aid Saif. From their base at Julfar, the Persian forces eventually turned against the Yaruba in 1743. The Persian empire then attempted to take possession of the coast of Oman until 1747.

3.7. 18th and 19th centuries

This period saw the rise of the Al Busaidi dynasty, the expansion of the Omani Empire, its subsequent division into the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman and the Sultanate of Zanzibar, and the increasing influence of European powers, particularly Great Britain.

After the Omanis expelled the Persians, Ahmed bin Said Al Busaidi became the elected Imam of Oman on November 20, 1744, with Rustaq serving as the capital. The Omanis continued with an elective system for the Imamate, but preference was given to members of the ruling family if deemed qualified.
Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin Ahmed, became the elected Imam. However, Said bin Ahmed's son, Seyyid Hamed bin Said, overthrew his father's representative in Muscat and obtained possession of Muscat fortress, ruling as "Seyyid." Subsequently, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took power. Seyyid Said bin Sultan, son of Sultan bin Ahmed, succeeded him and became one of Oman's most notable rulers. Under Said bin Sultan, the Omani Empire reached its zenith, with its capital moved to Zanzibar in 1832 due to its importance in the slave, ivory, and spice trades.
Throughout the 19th century, apart from Imam Said bin Ahmed who retained the title until his death in 1803, Azzan bin Qais was the only other elected Imam of Oman, ruling from 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler, viewing him as detrimental to their interests. This played a role in supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, Sayyid Turki, a son of the late Sayyid Said bin Sultan and brother of Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar, whom Britain deemed more acceptable.
Oman's Imam Sultan, the defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar, an area in modern-day Pakistan, in 1783. Gwadar remained an Omani possession until 1958 when it was purchased by Pakistan.
After the death of Said bin Sultan in 1856, a dispute between his sons led to the division of the empire, arbitrated by the British. Majid bin Said inherited Zanzibar and its East African dominions, while Thuwaini bin Said inherited Muscat and Oman. This division significantly weakened both entities. Zanzibar became a British protectorate, and Oman's influence in East Africa diminished.

3.7.1. British influence and de facto protectorate

The British Empire was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to counter the growing power of other European states and to curb Omani maritime power, which had grown during the 17th century. Starting from the late 18th century, Britain began to establish a series of treaties with the Sultans of Muscat to advance British political and economic interests, while offering military protection.
In 1798, the first treaty between the British East India Company and the Al Busaidi dynasty was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. This treaty aimed to block French and Dutch commercial competition and to obtain a concession to build a British factory at Bandar Abbas. A second treaty in 1800 stipulated that a British representative would reside at the port of Muscat and manage all external affairs with other states.
As the Omani Empire weakened, British influence over Muscat grew throughout the 19th century. In 1854, a deed of cession of the Omani Kuria Muria Islands to Britain was signed by the Sultan of Muscat and the British government. The British government achieved predominating control over Muscat, largely impeding competition from other nations.
Between 1862 and 1892, British Political Residents like Lewis Pelly and Edward Ross were instrumental in securing British supremacy over the Persian Gulf and Muscat through a system of indirect governance. By the end of the 19th century, with the loss of its African dominions and revenues, British influence increased to the point that the Sultans became heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all important matters. The Sultanate thus came under de facto British control, effectively becoming a British protectorate, although it was never formally declared as such.

3.7.2. Treaty of Seeb (1920)

The Hajar Mountains, including the Jebel Akhdar range, separate Oman into two distinct regions: the interior and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat. The British imperial development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to a renewed revival of the Imamate in the interior of Oman, a cause that had appeared in cycles for over 1,200 years. The British Political Agent in Muscat attributed the alienation of the interior to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which was seen as self-interested and disregardful of local conditions.
In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion by the interior tribes, which lasted until 1920. In that year, the Sultanate of Muscat established peace with the Imamate of Oman by signing the Treaty of Seeb. The treaty was brokered by Britain, which at that time had no significant economic interest in the interior of Oman. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior regions, while recognizing the sovereignty of the Sultanate of Muscat over the coastal areas. Imam Salim Alkharusi died in 1920, and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected as the new Imam. This treaty effectively created a bifurcated state, with the Sultan controlling Muscat and the coast, and the Imam controlling the interior.

3.8. Reign of Sultan Said bin Taimur (1932-1970)

Said bin Taimur became the Sultan of Muscat and Oman on February 10, 1932. His rule, backed by the British government, was characterized as feudal, reactionary, and isolationist. Oman under his reign remained largely undeveloped, with severe restrictions on personal freedoms and minimal spending on education, health, or infrastructure. The Sultan feared that modernization would lead to instability and undermine his authority. The British government maintained vast administrative control over the Sultanate, with British officials holding key advisory and ministerial positions, including defense secretary, chief of intelligence, and chief adviser to the Sultan.
In 1937, an agreement was signed between the Sultan and the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), a consortium 23.75% British-owned, granting oil concessions. After failing to discover oil elsewhere in the Sultanate, IPC became interested in promising geological formations near Fahud, an area within the Imamate's territory. IPC offered financial support to the Sultan to raise an armed force against any potential resistance from the Imamate.
During World War II, Oman declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939. The country played a strategic role in defending British trade routes. The Royal Air Force (RAF) established stations on Masirah Island (RAF Masirah) and at Ras al Hadd. Air-sea rescue units were also stationed in Oman. No. 244 Squadron RAF flew Bristol Blenheim V light bombers and Vickers Wellington XIIIs out of RAF Masirah on anti-submarine duties. On October 16, 1943, the German U-boat U-533 was sunk in the Gulf of Oman by depth charges from a Blenheim of No. 244 Squadron.
The 1951 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Oman and the United Kingdom recognized the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman as a fully independent state. In 1955, the exclave coastal Makran strip acceded to Pakistan and was made a district of its Balochistan province, while Gwadar remained in Oman. On September 8, 1958, Pakistan purchased the Gwadar enclave from Oman for 3.00 M USD.

3.9. Modern history (1970-present)

Oman's modern history is largely defined by the reign of Sultan Qaboos bin Said, who transformed the country from an isolated and underdeveloped state into a modern nation, and the subsequent transition to Sultan Haitham bin Tariq. This period has seen significant political, economic, and social changes, as well as challenges.

3.9.1. Reign of Sultan Qaboos bin Said (1970-2020)

Sultan Qaboos bin Said ascended to the throne on July 23, 1970, after overthrowing his father, Said bin Taimur, in a British-supported palace coup. His long reign, which lasted nearly 50 years until his death on January 10, 2020, marked a period of profound transformation for Oman, often referred to as the "Omani Renaissance."
Upon taking power, Sultan Qaboos immediately ended his father's isolationist policies and initiated widespread modernization programs. He utilized the country's growing oil revenues to develop infrastructure, education, healthcare, and social services. Key achievements included the abolition of slavery in 1970, the successful conclusion of the Dhofar Rebellion in 1976, and the promulgation of Oman's first written "Basic Law" (constitution) in 1996. This Basic Law established the framework for governance, though it solidified the Sultan's absolute power.
Under Sultan Qaboos, Oman pursued a moderate and independent foreign policy, often acting as a mediator in regional conflicts. He maintained good relations with Western powers, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, while also fostering ties with Iran, a unique position among GCC states.
Social reforms included expanding education and healthcare access to all citizens, including women. In 1997, a royal decree granted women the right to vote and stand for election to the Majlis al-Shura (Consultative Assembly). The first female minister was appointed in 2004.
Despite these modernizations, political power remained highly centralized in the hands of the Sultan. Political parties were banned, and freedom of expression, assembly, and press were significantly restricted. Criticism of the Sultan or the government was not tolerated. Human rights organizations frequently reported on the lack of political freedoms, arbitrary detentions, and restrictions on civil society.
The 2011 Omani protests, inspired by the Arab Spring, saw Omanis take to the streets demanding political reforms, more jobs, and better living conditions, though not the overthrow of the Sultan. Sultan Qaboos responded by dismissing unpopular ministers, promising more jobs, increasing benefits, and granting more legislative powers to the elected Majlis al-Shura. However, these reforms were seen by critics as insufficient to address underlying issues of democratic participation and accountability. A crackdown on internet criticism and activists followed in subsequent years.
Economically, while oil wealth fueled development, efforts were made towards diversification under plans like "Vision 2020." Tourism and logistics were identified as key growth sectors.
Sultan Qaboos's impact on Oman was transformative in terms of development and raising living standards. He unified the country and established its place on the international stage. However, his reign was also marked by a lack of significant democratic progress and persistent human rights concerns. While providing stability and material progress, his rule did not foster a culture of broad political participation or dissent. Criticisms often centered on the concentration of power and the slow pace of genuine political reform.

3.9.2. Reign of Sultan Haitham bin Tariq (2020-present)

Sultan Haitham bin Tariq succeeded his cousin, Sultan Qaboos bin Said, on January 11, 2020, following Qaboos's death. Sultan Qaboos, who died childless, had named Haitham as his successor in a sealed letter opened by the royal family council.
Upon assuming power, Sultan Haitham pledged to continue his predecessor's foreign policy of neutrality and non-interference, emphasizing Oman's role as a regional mediator. He also vowed to continue the path of development and modernization initiated by Sultan Qaboos.
One of Sultan Haitham's early significant moves was the amendment of the Basic Law in January 2021 to establish the position of Crown Prince, naming his eldest son, Theyazin bin Haitham, as the heir apparent. This move aimed to ensure a smooth succession process in the future, a matter of some speculation during Sultan Qaboos's later years.
Economically, Sultan Haitham inherited challenges including fluctuating oil prices, high government debt, and the need for continued economic diversification and job creation for a young population. His government has focused on fiscal consolidation, austerity measures, and accelerating the "Oman Vision 2040" plan, which aims to reduce reliance on oil, promote private sector growth, and attract foreign investment.
In terms of political and social landscape, there have been limited signs of significant shifts towards greater democratic development or expansion of civil liberties under Sultan Haitham thus far. The fundamental structure of absolute monarchy remains. Challenges to social equity, such as youth unemployment and the rights of migrant workers, continue to be pertinent issues. The government has faced some protests related to economic conditions, particularly unemployment, and has responded with promises of job creation and economic reforms.
The COVID-19 pandemic also presented significant public health and economic challenges early in his reign, impacting government revenues and development plans. Sultan Haitham's leadership is navigating Oman through a period of economic transition while trying to maintain the stability and unique foreign policy stance established by his predecessor. The extent to which his reign will address calls for deeper democratic reforms and enhance social equity remains a key question for Oman's future.

4.1. Climate

Oman's climate varies significantly by region. Overall, it is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the coast. Like the rest of the Persian Gulf, Oman generally experiences some of the hottest temperatures in the world, particularly during the summer months.
In Muscat and northern Oman, summer temperatures average between 86 °F ^{(30 °C)} and 104 °F ^{(40 °C)}. The region receives little rainfall, with Muscat's annual average around 3.9 in ^{(100 mm)}, mostly occurring in January.

The southern region of Dhofar, near Salalah, has a tropical-like climate due to the Khareef (monsoon) from late June to late September. This phenomenon brings moisture from the Indian Ocean, resulting in cooler temperatures, typically ranging from 68 °F ^{(20 °C)} to 86 °F ^{(30 °C)} during the summer, along with drizzle and heavy fog, transforming the landscape into a lush green area. This makes Salalah a popular summer destination.
The mountainous areas, such as the Jebel Akhdar ("Green Mountain") in the Al Hajar range, receive more rainfall, with annual amounts possibly exceeding 16 in ^{(400 mm)}. These higher elevations also experience cooler temperatures, and snow cover can occur once every few years.
Some coastal parts, particularly near Masirah Island, may receive no rain at all in a given year. The climate is generally very hot, with peak temperatures in the hot season (May to September) capable of reaching around 129.2 °F ^{(54 °C)}. On June 26, 2018, the city of Qurayyat set a record for the highest minimum temperature in a 24-hour period, 108.68 °F ^{(42.6 °C)}.
Climate change poses challenges for Oman, particularly concerning water resources. The country is ranked among the most water-stressed globally. The CO2 emissions from energy consumption are high, although imported CO2 emissions are relatively low.

4.2. Wadis

Oman is characterized by numerous wadis, which are dry riverbeds or valleys that temporarily fill with water after rainfall. These wadis are crucial geographical features and play a significant role in the country's hydrology, ecology, and human life.
They are distributed throughout the country, particularly in mountainous regions like the Al Hajar Mountains and the Dhofar Mountains. When rain occurs, often in intense, short bursts, these wadis can quickly transform into flowing rivers, sometimes leading to flash floods.
Wadis are vital water resources in an arid country like Oman. Historically, settlements and agriculture, especially date palm cultivation using the traditional aflaj (irrigation channels), developed along wadis where water was more accessible. Many aflaj systems draw water from wadis or their underground sources.
The ecosystems associated with wadis are unique. Even when dry, they often support more vegetation than the surrounding desert due to residual moisture. When water flows, they become hotspots for biodiversity, attracting various plants, insects, birds, and other animals. Some wadis, like Wadi Shab and Wadi Bani Khalid, retain water in pools year-round, creating oases with lush vegetation and are popular destinations for recreation and tourism. Human uses of wadis include agriculture, grazing, water collection, and increasingly, tourism and leisure activities such as hiking, swimming, and picnicking. However, wadis also pose risks due to flash floods, and sustainable management is crucial to protect their ecological and water resource values.

4.3. Biodiversity

Oman possesses a diverse range of flora and fauna, adapted to its varied environments, from arid deserts and mountains to coastal areas. Desert shrub and desert grass, common in southern Arabia, are found in Oman, but vegetation is sparse in the interior plateau, which is largely gravel desert.

The greater monsoon rainfall in Dhofar and the Al Hajar Mountains supports more luxuriant growth. In Dhofar, coconut palms grow plentifully on the coastal plains, and frankincense trees are native to the hills. Oleander and varieties of acacia are also common. The Al Hajar Mountains form a distinct ecoregion, hosting unique wildlife, including the Arabian tahr.
Indigenous mammals include the Arabian leopard (critically endangered), hyena, fox, wolf, hare, Arabian oryx, and ibex. Birdlife is also rich, with species such as the vulture, eagle, stork, bustard, Arabian partridge, bee-eater, falcon, and sunbird.
Oman has several endangered species. As of 2001, these included nine mammal species and five bird species. Nineteen plant species were also listed as threatened. The government has passed decrees to protect endangered species, including the Arabian leopard, Arabian oryx, mountain gazelle, goitered gazelle, Arabian tahr, green sea turtle, hawksbill turtle, and olive ridley turtle.
Despite conservation efforts, challenges remain. The Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was the first site ever to be deleted from UNESCO's World Heritage List in 2007, following the government's decision to reduce the site's area by 90% to clear the way for oil prospecting. This decision was criticized by conservationists as detrimental to the oryx population and broader biodiversity goals.
Nature reserves and protected areas have been established to safeguard critical habitats and species. These areas also support ecotourism, which is a growing sector in Oman. However, balancing development with environmental protection and sustainable resource use remains a significant challenge. The ethical treatment of animals, particularly stray dogs and cats, has also been noted as an area of concern by local and national entities, with calls for more humane population control methods like spay and neuter programs and the establishment of animal shelters.
Oman's coastal waters are rich in marine life. In recent years, Oman has become a notable destination for whale watching, featuring species such as the critically endangered Arabian humpback whale (a unique non-migratory population), sperm whales, and pygmy blue whales.

5.1. Political system

Oman is a unitary state and an absolute monarchy. The Sultan is the hereditary head of state and head of government, and holds ultimate authority. All legislative, executive, and judiciary power ultimately rests in the hands of the Sultan. Power is passed down through the male line of the Al Said dynasty.
The current Sultan is Haitham bin Tariq, who succeeded Sultan Qaboos bin Said in January 2020. In January 2021, Sultan Haitham amended the Basic Law to establish the position of Crown Prince, appointing his eldest son, Theyazin bin Haitham, as the heir apparent, formalizing the line of succession.
The Basic Statute of the State, issued in 1996 and amended in 2011 and 2021, functions as the country's constitution. It outlines the system of governance, the rights and duties of citizens, and the powers of the state. However, the Sultan's authority is paramount, and he issues laws by decree. Political parties are banned, and any affiliations based on religion are also prohibited. Consequently, Freedom House has routinely rated the country as "Not Free." While the system provides stability, it significantly curtails democratic participation and political dissent.

5.2. Government and Legislature

The government of Oman is led by the Sultan, who also serves as Prime Minister and holds key ministerial portfolios such as Defence, Foreign Affairs, and Finance (though he may delegate day-to-day responsibilities or appoint ministers to oversee these areas). The Council of Ministers is appointed by the Sultan and is responsible for implementing state policy. Ministers are accountable to the Sultan.
The legislature is the bicameral Council of Oman (Majlis Oman). It consists of:
1. The Council of State (Majlis al-Dawla): This is the upper chamber, with its members (currently 71) appointed by the Sultan from among prominent Omanis, including former senior government officials, academics, and business leaders. It has advisory powers and can propose legislation and review laws passed by the lower house before they are submitted to the Sultan.
2. The Consultative Assembly (Majlis al-Shura): This is the lower chamber, with its members (currently 85, with the number evolving over time) elected by universal suffrage for four-year terms. All citizens over the age of 21 have the right to vote. While the Majlis al-Shura can propose legislation, review and amend draft laws prepared by the government (except those related to defense, security, and foreign policy), and question ministers, its powers are largely consultative. The Sultan retains the final authority on all legislation.
Political parties are banned, so candidates run as individuals. The extent of democratic participation is limited by the overarching authority of the Sultan and the consultative nature of the Council of Oman. While elections are held for the Majlis al-Shura, the true locus of power remains with the monarch.

5.3. Legal system

Oman's legal system is based on a mixture of Sharia law (Islamic law) and English common law, with influences from Egyptian and French civil codes. The Sultan's decrees form the primary source of legislation. The Basic Statute of the State, issued in 1996, serves as the country's constitution and outlines the fundamental principles of the legal and judicial framework.
According to the Basic Statute, Sharia law is a source of legislation. Sharia court departments within the civil court system are primarily responsible for family law matters, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and child custody. Commercial and criminal law are largely based on codified statutes.
The judiciary is nominally independent, but it is subordinate to the Sultan, who appoints judges and can grant pardons and commute sentences. The highest court is the Supreme Court. There are also Courts of Appeal and Primary Courts. Specialized courts, such as commercial courts, also exist.
While the legal code theoretically protects civil liberties and personal freedoms, human rights organizations have noted that these protections are often limited in practice, especially in political and security-related cases. Due process protections can be insufficient, and fair trial standards are not always met. The administration of justice can be highly personalized.
Legal discrimination against women exists in areas such as personal status law (marriage, divorce, inheritance) and certain state benefits. Children also face some legal discrimination. The rule of law is developing, but significant challenges remain in ensuring full judicial independence, access to justice for all, and consistent application of due process.

5.4. Foreign policy

Since 1970, under Sultan Qaboos and continued by Sultan Haitham, Oman has pursued a pragmatic and moderate foreign policy characterized by neutrality, non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries, and a role as a regional mediator. This approach has allowed Oman to maintain generally good relations with a wide range of international actors, including those who are adversaries to each other.
Key tenets of Omani foreign policy include:

• Neutrality and Mediation: Oman often avoids taking sides in regional disputes and has frequently served as a go-between for conflicting parties. It played a role in facilitating talks between the United States and Iran, and has been involved in mediation efforts in Yemen and other regional conflicts.
• Relations with GCC Nations: Oman is a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). While it participates in GCC initiatives, it has sometimes charted an independent course, for example, by maintaining diplomatic relations with Iran when other GCC states have had strained ties, and by not participating in the blockade of Qatar.
• Relations with Iran: Uniquely among Arab Gulf states, Oman has historically maintained strong and stable diplomatic and economic ties with Iran. The two countries share control of the strategically important Strait of Hormuz.
• Relations with Western Powers: Oman has close political, economic, and military ties with Western countries, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States. These relationships include defense cooperation agreements and access to Omani military facilities. The port of Duqm is strategically important and has seen investment and use by international navies, including the UK and India.
• International Organizations: Oman is an active member of the United Nations, the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Oman's foreign policy is driven by a desire to maintain its own stability and security in a volatile region, promote peaceful conflict resolution, and foster economic development through international partnerships. This balanced approach has given Oman a distinct and often influential voice in regional and international affairs, though its success is also dependent on the broader geopolitical landscape. Diverse perspectives on its impact highlight both its stabilizing influence and the limitations of a small state in a complex region.

5.5. Military

The Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces (SAF) are responsible for the defense of Oman. They consist of the Royal Army of Oman (RAO), the Royal Navy of Oman (RNO), and the Royal Air Force of Oman (RAFO). The Sultan is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. Additionally, the Royal Household maintains its own guard and special forces units.
Oman's military expenditure as a percentage of GDP has historically been high, often ranking among the highest in the world. For example, in 2020, SIPRI estimated it at 11% of GDP. This reflects the country's security concerns in a volatile region and its commitment to maintaining a well-equipped, albeit moderately sized, military.
The Royal Army of Oman is the largest branch, with approximately 25,000 active personnel. Its equipment includes main battle tanks such as M60A1/A3s and Challenger 2s, as well as armored personnel carriers and artillery.
The Royal Navy of Oman has around 4,200 personnel and operates from several bases, including Seeb, Wudam, Musandam, and Salalah. Its fleet includes corvettes, patrol boats, and landing craft. The navy's primary role is to protect Oman's long coastline and maritime interests, particularly in the strategically vital Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman.
The Royal Air Force of Oman comprises about 4,100 personnel. Its combat aircraft include F-16C/D Fighting Falcons, Eurofighter Typhoons, and Hawk advanced trainer/light attack aircraft. It also operates transport aircraft and helicopters.
Oman maintains close defense cooperation with several countries, most notably the United Kingdom, with which it has a long-standing military relationship that includes joint exercises, training, and procurement of British military equipment. The United States also has defense agreements with Oman and has access to Omani facilities. India has also increased its military cooperation with Oman, including access to the port of Duqm for its navy.
The national defense policy focuses on protecting the Sultanate's sovereignty and territorial integrity, securing its maritime trade routes, and contributing to regional stability. Despite its relatively small size, Oman's military is considered well-trained and equipped, benefiting from significant investment and international partnerships.

5.6. Human rights

The human rights situation in Oman has been a subject of concern for international human rights organizations. While Oman has made significant socio-economic progress, its record on political freedoms and civil liberties is poor, reflecting its status as an absolute monarchy.
Key human rights issues in Oman include:

• Freedom of Expression, Assembly, and Association: These freedoms are severely restricted. Criticism of the Sultan or the government is prohibited by law and can lead to arrest and imprisonment. Public meetings and demonstrations require government approval, and independent civil society organizations, including human rights groups, face significant obstacles to formation and operation. Journalists and online activists often practice self-censorship due to fear of reprisal. Several journalists and activists have been arrested, prosecuted, and imprisoned for expressing critical views or reporting on sensitive topics like corruption. Books and other media are subject to censorship.
• Torture and Ill-Treatment: There have been credible reports from human rights organizations detailing allegations of torture and other forms of ill-treatment of detainees by Omani security forces, particularly against protesters and those detained for political reasons. Reported methods include mock execution, beatings, hooding, solitary confinement, and subjection to extreme temperatures and constant noise.
• Due Process and Fair Trial: While the Basic Law provides for some legal protections, due process rights are often not respected in practice, especially in security-related cases. Search warrants are not always required for police to enter homes. Detainees may be held incommunicado without access to lawyers or family for extended periods.
• Women's Rights: While women in Oman have access to education and employment, and the right to vote and stand for election, they continue to face legal and societal discrimination. Personal status laws, based on Sharia, can disadvantage women in matters of marriage, divorce, inheritance, and child custody. Women may also face restrictions on their autonomy concerning health and reproductive rights and require government permission to marry foreigners (though this law was liberalized in 2023).
• Migrant Workers' Rights: Migrant workers constitute a significant portion of Oman's labor force. While some legal protections exist, they are often inadequately enforced. Migrant workers, particularly domestic workers, are vulnerable to exploitation, including unpaid wages, excessive working hours, confiscation of passports, and physical or sexual abuse. The kafala (sponsorship) system ties workers to their employers, limiting their ability to change jobs or leave the country.
• LGBTQ+ Rights: Homosexual acts are illegal in Oman and are punishable by imprisonment. Societal discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals is prevalent.

The Omani government has established a National Human Rights Commission, but its independence and effectiveness have been questioned by international observers. While Oman presents an image of stability and moderation, the overarching authority of the Sultan and the state security apparatus significantly limits fundamental freedoms and democratic participation.

5.7. Administrative divisions

Oman is administratively divided into eleven governorates (محافظات_{muḥāfaẓāt}^Arabic, singular محافظة_{muḥāfaẓah}^Arabic). These governorates were established in October 2011, replacing the previous system of regions (mintaqah) and governorates. Each governorate is further subdivided into wilayats (ولايات_wilāyāt^Arabic, singular ولاية_wilāyah^Arabic). There are a total of 60 wilayats.
The eleven governorates are:

• Ad Dakhiliyah (The Interior)
• Ad Dhahirah (The Back)
• Al Batinah North
• Al Batinah South
• Al Buraimi
• Al Wusta (The Central)
• Ash Sharqiyah North (The Eastern North)
• Ash Sharqiyah South (The Eastern South)
• Dhofar
• Muscat (The Capital)
• Musandam

Each governorate is headed by a governor appointed by the Sultan. The wilayats are administered by Walis. This system of administrative divisions facilitates governance and the delivery of public services across the country. The governorates and wilayats vary significantly in terms of population, geographical area, and economic characteristics. For example, Muscat Governorate is the most populous and economically active, while Al Wusta Governorate is vast but sparsely populated. Dhofar Governorate in the south has unique climatic and cultural features. The Musandam Governorate is an exclave strategically located on the Strait of Hormuz.

6.1. Oil and gas

Oman's economy is heavily reliant on its oil and natural gas resources. The country's proved reserves of petroleum total about 5.5 billion barrels, ranking it 25th largest in the world. Oil is primarily extracted and processed by Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), a joint venture with the Omani government holding a majority stake. While proven oil reserves have remained relatively steady due to new discoveries and enhanced oil recovery techniques, overall oil production has faced challenges and has seen periods of decline, though efforts are made to sustain or increase output.
The Ministry of Energy and Minerals is responsible for all oil and gas infrastructure and projects in Oman. Following the 1970s energy crisis, Oman significantly increased its oil output between 1979 and 1985.
In 2018, oil and gas revenues accounted for 71 percent of the government's total revenues, a slight decrease from 72 percent in 2016, indicating slow progress in fiscal diversification. The oil and gas sector represented 30.1 percent of the nominal GDP in 2017.
Between 2000 and 2007, oil production fell by more than 26%, from 972,000 to 714,800 barrels per day. Production subsequently recovered, reaching 816,000 barrels per day in 2009 and 930,000 barrels per day in 2012.
Oman's natural gas reserves are estimated at 849.5 billion cubic metres, ranking 28th globally. In 2008, production was about 24 billion cubic metres per year. Natural gas is increasingly important for domestic power generation, industrial use (such as in petrochemicals and aluminum smelting), and as an export commodity in the form of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). The Oman LNG project is a key part of this strategy.
The state heavily controls the oil and gas sector, and revenues from these resources are crucial for funding government expenditure, social programs, and development projects. However, the volatility of global oil prices poses a significant risk to Oman's economy and fiscal stability, underscoring the urgency of economic diversification efforts. Management of these revenues, including investments in sovereign wealth funds, is critical for long-term economic health.
In September 2019, Oman was confirmed as the first Middle Eastern country to host the International Gas Union Research Conference (IGRC 2020), highlighting its growing role in the global gas industry.

6.2. Industry, innovation, and infrastructure

Oman faces significant challenges in industry, innovation, and infrastructure development, according to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals index (2019). While the country scores well on internet use, mobile broadband subscriptions, logistics performance, and the average ranking of its top universities, it lags in scientific and technical publications and research & development (R&D) spending.
Oman's manufacturing value added to GDP was 8.4 percent in 2016, lower than the Arab world average (9.8 percent) and the world average (15.6 percent). R&D expenditure as a percentage of GDP averaged only 0.20 percent between 2011 and 2015 (0.24% between 2016-2017), significantly below the world average of 2.11 percent (2.2% for 2016-2017). The majority of firms in Oman operate in the oil and gas, construction, and trade sectors.

Oman is actively refurbishing and expanding its port infrastructure in Muscat, Duqm, Sohar, and Salalah to boost tourism, local production, and export shares. A major refinery and petrochemical plant in Duqm, with a projected capacity of 230,000 barrels per day, was planned for completion by 2021 to expand downstream operations. Most industrial activity is concentrated in eight industrial estates and four free zones, focusing on mining-and-services, petrochemicals, and construction materials.
The largest employers in the private sector are construction (nearly 48% of the total labor force), wholesale-and-retail (around 15%), and manufacturing (around 12%). However, the percentage of Omanis employed in the construction and manufacturing sectors remains low as of 2011 statistics, with heavy reliance on expatriate labor. This reliance on 'low-skilled' and 'low-wage' foreign labor for infrastructure expansion hinders innovation and technology-based growth.
The Dutch disease phenomenon, where oil and gas investments dominate and other sectors rely heavily on imports, impedes local business growth and global competitiveness, thus hampering economic diversification. This suggests a 'factor-driven economy' with inefficiencies and bottlenecks. Innovation is further hindered by an economic structure dominated by a few large firms, with limited opportunities for SMEs to enter the market and foster healthy competition. The ratio of patent applications per million people was 0.35 in 2016, far below the MENA average (1.50) and high-income countries' average (around 48.0). Oman was ranked 74th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. These factors impact sustainable growth, employment for nationals, and the development of a knowledge-based economy.

6.3. Agriculture and fishing

Agriculture and fishing are traditional sectors of the Omani economy, contributing to food security and rural livelihoods, though their overall share of GDP is modest.
Agriculture: Less than 1% of Oman's land is under cultivation due to arid conditions and water scarcity. Dates are the most significant crop, representing 80 percent of all fruit crop production and occupying 50 percent of the total agricultural area. In 2016, Oman produced an estimated 350.00 K t of dates, making it the 9th largest producer globally. Date exports in 2016 amounted to 12.60 M USD, nearly equivalent to the value of imported dates (11.30 M USD). India is the main importer of Omani dates (around 60%). Other agricultural products include limes, bananas, coconuts (especially in Dhofar), wheat, and vegetables. The government supports agriculture through subsidies and research, and the traditional aflaj irrigation systems (a UNESCO World Heritage site) are crucial for water distribution in many farming areas. Challenges include water scarcity, soil salinity, and the need for modern farming techniques and better supply chain coordination. Oman also produces frankincense, historically a major export, primarily in the Dhofar region.
Fishing: Oman has a long coastline of about 2.0 K mile ^{(3.17 K km)} and rich fishing grounds in the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman. The fishing industry contributed 0.78 percent to GDP in 2016. Fish exports grew from 144.00 M USD in 2000 to 172.00 M USD in 2016, an increase of 19.4 percent. Vietnam was the main importer of Omani fish in 2016 (80.00 M USD, 46.5%), followed by the United Arab Emirates (26.00 M USD, 15%). Other importers include Saudi Arabia, Brazil, and China. Omani fish consumption per capita is almost twice the world average. The ratio of exported fish to total fish captured (by weight) fluctuated between 49 and 61 percent from 2006 to 2016.
Strengths in the fishing industry include a good market system and extensive water areas. However, weaknesses include insufficient modern infrastructure, limited research and development, and inconsistent quality and safety monitoring. The government aims to develop the fisheries sector further to enhance its contribution to GDP, create employment, and improve food security, including investments in modern fishing fleets, ports, and processing facilities. Sustainable fishing practices are also a growing concern to prevent overexploitation of fish stocks.

6.4. Tourism

Tourism is a rapidly growing sector in Oman's economy and is a key pillar of its diversification strategy under "Vision 2040." The World Travel & Tourism Council has identified Oman as one of the fastest-growing tourism destinations in the Middle East.
Tourism contributed 2.8 percent to Oman's GDP in 2016. The revenue from tourism grew from 505.00 M OMR in 2009 to 719.00 M OMR in 2017, a 42.3 percent increase.
Oman offers a diverse range of attractions, including:

• Natural landscapes: Deserts like Wahiba Sands, mountain ranges such as Jebel Akhdar and Jebel Shams, numerous wadis (riverbeds) with pools and greenery (e.g., Wadi Shab, Wadi Bani Khalid), and a long coastline with beaches and opportunities for diving and watersports. The Khareef (monsoon) season in Salalah transforms the southern region into a lush, green area, attracting many visitors.
• Cultural and historical sites: Oman has a rich history and culture, with numerous forts (e.g., Nizwa Fort, Bahla Fort - a UNESCO site), traditional souqs (markets), ancient irrigation systems (Aflaj - also a UNESCO site), and archaeological sites like Bat, Al-Khutm and Al-Ayn. Muscat, the capital, was named the second-best city to visit in the world in 2012 by Lonely Planet and was chosen as the Capital of Arab Tourism in 2012.
• Ecotourism and adventure tourism: Activities include whale watching (for species like the Arabian humpback whale), turtle watching (e.g., at Ras al-Jinz, a nesting site for green turtles), hiking, rock climbing, and desert safaris.

Citizens of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, including Omanis residing abroad, represent the largest group of tourists (estimated at 48 percent). Visitors from other Asian countries form the second-largest group (17 percent).
The Omani government actively promotes tourism through investments in infrastructure (airports, hotels, resorts), marketing campaigns, and visa facilitation. In November 2019, Oman largely shifted from visa-on-arrival to an e-visa system for tourists.
Challenges in the tourism sector include the heavy reliance on the government-owned firm Omran for development, which may create barriers for private sector participation. There is also a need for a deeper understanding and protection of ecosystems and biodiversity to ensure sustainable tourism. The socio-economic impact of tourism includes job creation and revenue generation, but careful planning is needed to manage environmental impacts and ensure benefits are distributed equitably.

8.1. Population

As of 2020, Oman's population exceeded 4.5 million people, and by 2024, it was estimated to be around 5.28 million, reflecting a 4.60% increase from 2023. It is the 123rd most-populous country globally. The total fertility rate in 2020 was estimated to be 2.8 children born per woman, a rate that has been rapidly decreasing in recent years.
Approximately half of the population resides in Muscat and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital. Omani citizens are predominantly of Arab, Baluchi, and African origins. Around 20 percent of Omanis are of Baloch descent, whose ancestors migrated to Oman centuries ago and are now considered native. Historical connections with Zanzibar also mean that many Omanis have East African ancestry. The population of Gwadar in Pakistan, a former Omani territory, also shares Omani heritage.
Omani society is largely tribal, and tribal structures and affiliations continue to play a role in social and political life, particularly in rural areas. There are three major cultural identities: that of the tribe, the Ibadi faith, and maritime trade. The first two are closely tied to tradition and are especially prevalent in the interior. The third identity pertains mostly to Muscat and coastal areas, reflected in business, trade, and the diverse origins of many Omanis.
A significant portion of Oman's resident population consists of foreign workers (expatriates), who play a crucial role in the economy, particularly in the construction, domestic service, and private sectors. In 2014, expatriates constituted about 44% of the total population (1.76 million out of over 4 million). The largest expatriate communities are from India (particularly Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Punjab), Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The status and conditions of these foreign workers, particularly issues related to wages, working conditions, and rights under the kafala (sponsorship) system, are ongoing social concerns.

8.2. Religion

Islam is the official state religion of Oman, and the vast majority of Omani citizens are Muslims. The Omani government does not keep official statistics on religious affiliation for its citizens. Statistics from the US Central Intelligence Agency estimate that 85.9% of the total population (including expatriates) are Muslims.
A distinctive feature of Islam in Oman is the predominance of the Ibadi school of Islam among Omani Muslims. Ibadism is a branch of Islam separate from Sunni and Shia Islam, though it shares some commonalities with Sunnism. It originated from the Kharijites but evolved into a more moderate form. The Sultan of Oman is traditionally an Ibadi Muslim. Estimates suggest that Ibadis constitute more than half of the Omani Muslim population.
There are also significant communities of Sunni Muslims in Oman, particularly those following the Shafi`i school of jurisprudence, and a smaller community of Shia Muslims (primarily Twelvers), concentrated in the Muscat area and along the Batinah coast.
Virtually all non-Muslims in Oman are foreign workers. These communities include:

• Christians (estimated at 6.4% of the total population): These communities are centered in major urban areas like Muscat, Sohar, and Salalah. They include Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and various Protestant congregations, often organized along linguistic and ethnic lines. Over 50 different Christian groups and fellowships are active, primarily serving migrant workers from Southeast Asia and other regions.
• Hindus (estimated at 5.7%): Mostly comprising ethnic Indian expatriates. There are two long-standing Hindu temples in Muscat.
• Buddhists (estimated at 0.8%), Jains, Zoroastrians, and Sikhs also form smaller communities among expatriates.

The Basic Law of Oman states that Islam is the state religion and Sharia is a basis for legislation. However, it also provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right for non-Muslims to practice their faith in private and in designated places of worship. Proselytizing by non-Muslims is restricted. Interfaith relations are generally amicable, and Oman is known for its religious tolerance compared to some other countries in the region.

8.3. Languages

The official language of Oman is Arabic. It belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. Several dialects of Arabic are spoken within Oman, all part of the Peninsular Arabic family:

• Omani Arabic: This is the most widespread dialect, distinct from the Gulf Arabic spoken in eastern Arabia and Bahrain. It is used in Central Oman and has spread with mobility.
• Dhofari Arabic (also known as Dhofari or Zofari): Spoken in Salalah and the surrounding coastal regions of the Dhofar Governorate.
• Gulf Arabic: Spoken in parts of Oman bordering the United Arab Emirates.
• Shihhi Arabic: Spoken by the Shihuh tribe in the Musandam Peninsula.

English is widely spoken as a second language, particularly in the business community, tourism sector, and among educated Omanis. It is taught in schools from an early age, and almost all signs and official writings in tourist sites and major cities appear in both Arabic and English.
Due to Oman's historical connections and diverse population, several minority languages are also spoken:

• Balochi (Southern Balochi): Spoken by the Baloch community, who have a long history in Oman, with ancestral roots in Balochistan (modern-day Pakistan and Iran).
• Swahili: Widely spoken due to the historical relations between Oman and Zanzibar, particularly among Omanis of Zanzibari descent.
• Modern South Arabian languages: These are ancient Semitic languages indigenous to southern Arabia, distinct from Arabic. In Oman, they include:
  • Mehri: Spoken in the Dhofar region and westward into Yemen.
  • Jibbali (also known as Shahri or Shehri): Spoken in the mountains of Dhofar.
  • Harsusi: Spoken by a small community in the Jiddat al-Harasis region.
  • Hobyot: Spoken by a very small number of people on the border with Yemen.
  • Bathari: Nearly extinct, spoken along the southeastern coast.
• Kumzari: An Iranian language spoken by fishermen in the Musandam Peninsula, notable for its unique linguistic features.
• Languages of expatriate communities: Due to a large expatriate workforce, languages such as Malayalam, Hindi, Urdu, Tamil, Bengali, Tagalog, and other Indian languages are commonly heard.

Omani Sign Language is used by the deaf community.

8.4. Education

Oman has made significant strides in education since 1970, when Sultan Qaboos bin Said initiated modernization efforts. Prior to this, formal education was extremely limited. The government has since invested heavily in building a comprehensive education system, from primary schools to universities, with a focus on increasing access and quality.
The education system is structured as follows:

• Primary Education: Typically 6 years.
• Lower Secondary Education (Preparatory): 3 years.
• Upper Secondary Education: 3 years, often with streams like science, arts, or vocational.
• Higher Education: Includes universities, colleges of technology, and vocational training institutes.

School education is free for Omani citizens and largely compulsory, though enforcement in remote areas can be challenging. As of 2019, Oman scored high on the percentage of students completing lower secondary school and on the literacy rate for ages 15-24 (99.7% and 98.7% respectively). The net primary school enrollment rate in 2019 was 94.1%. The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 86.9%.
The government's expenditure on education was 6.11% of GDP in 2016, which is higher than the world average.
Sultan Qaboos University (SQU), established in 1986, is the premier public university in Oman. Other public higher education institutions include Colleges of Applied Sciences and Higher Colleges of Technology. There are also several private universities and colleges. Dhofar University and the University of Nizwa are other notable institutions.
Challenges in the education sector include:

• Meeting the demands of the labor market: Higher education produces a surplus in humanities and liberal arts but an insufficient number of graduates in technical and scientific fields with the skills required by the job market.
• Quality and Accreditation: While access has expanded, ensuring the quality of education and aligning it with international standards remains an ongoing effort. Accreditation standards and quality control mechanisms are areas for improvement.
• Curriculum Development: There is a recognized need for curricula that promote critical thinking, personal initiative, and innovation to support Oman's economic diversification goals.
• Innovation Ranking: Oman was ranked 84th in the Global Innovation Index in 2020. The education system's role in fostering innovation is a key area for development.

The government's "Vision 2040" places a strong emphasis on human capital development and improving the education system to create a skilled Omani workforce capable of contributing to a diversified and knowledge-based economy.

8.5. Healthcare

Oman has made remarkable progress in its healthcare sector since 1970, transforming from a system with very limited access to one that provides comprehensive services to its population. The government has heavily invested in healthcare infrastructure, personnel, and public health programs.
Key aspects of Oman's healthcare system:

• Access and Coverage: Healthcare services are largely free for Omani citizens at public facilities. Expatriates typically access private healthcare or public facilities with fees. In 2000, 99% of the population had access to healthcare services, and by 2015, Oman's coverage of essential health services was 77 percent, higher than the world average (around 54%) but slightly lower than high-income economies (83%).
• Health Indicators: Life expectancy at birth in Oman was estimated to be 76.1 years in 2010 and has continued to improve. Infant and maternal mortality rates have decreased significantly. Since 1995, the percentage of Omani children receiving key vaccines has consistently been very high (above 99 percent).
• Infrastructure: The country has a network of primary healthcare centers, polyclinics, and hospitals, including tertiary care facilities like the Royal Hospital and Sultan Qaboos University Hospital in Muscat.
• Public Health Policies: The Ministry of Health oversees the healthcare system and implements public health policies focusing on preventative care, maternal and child health, communicable disease control, and chronic disease management.
• Challenges:
  • Non-communicable diseases (NCDs):** Like many developing nations, Oman faces a rising burden of NCDs such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer, linked to lifestyle changes.
  • Road traffic injuries:** Despite decreases since 1990, the road incident death rate (47.1 per 100,000 in 2017) remains significantly above the world average (15.8 per 100,000 in 2017).
  • Nutrition:** While the undernourished share of the population dropped from 11.7% (2003) to 5.4% (2016), it remains higher than the average for high-income economies (2.7% in 2016).
  • Healthcare Spending:** Oman's health spending to GDP (averaged 4.3% between 2015-2016) is lower than the world average (10%).
  • Human Resources:** Ensuring an adequate supply of skilled Omani healthcare professionals is an ongoing goal.
• Air Quality: Mortality due to air pollution (household and ambient) was 53.9 per 100,000 population as of 2016. However, in 2019, the WHO ranked Oman as the least polluted country in the Arab world, with a score of 37.7 in the pollution index, and 112th in Asia among the list of highest polluted countries.

In 2000, Oman's health system was ranked 8th globally by the World Health Organization (WHO), recognizing its significant achievements in improving health outcomes and access to care. Continuous efforts are focused on enhancing the quality, efficiency, and sustainability of the healthcare system to meet the evolving needs of the population, including those of vulnerable groups.

9.1. Traditional dress

Traditional Omani attire reflects the country's cultural heritage and varies slightly by region.
For Omani men, the national dress typically consists of:

• The dishdasha: A simple, ankle-length, collarless gown with long sleeves. It is most frequently white but can also be found in other colors like beige, brown, or blue. A distinctive feature is the furakha (tassel) sewn into the neckline, which can be perfumed. Embroidery styles on the dishdasha can vary by region and age group.
• Worn underneath the dishdasha is a plain, wide strip of cloth wrapped around the body from the waist down.
• Headwear: Men wear two main types of headdress:
  • The ghutra (also called mussar): A square piece of woven wool or cotton fabric, often of a single color but decorated with various embroidered patterns. It is wrapped around the head in different styles.
  • The kummah: A round, brimless cap, often intricately embroidered, worn during leisure hours or as an alternative to the mussar.
• Bisht: On formal occasions, a black, brown, or beige cloak called a bisht may be worn over the dishdasha. The embroidery edging the bisht is often intricate, using silver or gold thread.
• Khanjar: This traditional curved dagger is a significant part of the national dress and a symbol of Omani identity. Men wear the khanjar on all formal public occasions and festivals, typically tucked into a belt at the waist. The sheaths and hilts can range from simple to highly ornate, often decorated with silver or gold. A depiction of a khanjar appears on the national flag.
• Assa: Some men carry an assa (stick or cane), which can be for practical use or as an accessory during formal events.
• Footwear: Sandals are commonly worn.

For Omani women, traditional costumes are vibrant and eye-catching, with distinctive regional variations in color, embroidery, and design. These generally include:

• The kandoorah or dishdasha: A long tunic whose sleeves (radoon) and neckline are often adorned with elaborate hand-stitched embroidery using colorful threads, sequins, and sometimes silver or gold.
• Sirwal: Loose-fitting trousers worn underneath the kandoorah, often tight at the ankles and sometimes embroidered.
• Head shawl (lihaf or shayla): A scarf or shawl used to cover the head. Styles and colors vary.
• Abaya: In contemporary daily life, particularly in urban areas, many Omani women wear a loose black cloak called an abaya over their personal choice of clothing when in public.
• Burqa: In some regions, particularly among Bedouin women and older generations, a traditional facial covering or mask (burqa) made of cloth or metal is still worn. This is different from the niqab.

Most Omani women observe hijab (modest Islamic dress). While some cover their faces and hands, many do not. The Sultan has forbidden the covering of faces in public office. Traditional dress is often reserved for special occasions like weddings, festivals, and cultural events.

9.2. Music and cinema

Omani music is diverse, reflecting its historical role as a maritime trading empire with connections to Africa, India, Persia, and other parts of the Arab world. There are over 130 different forms of traditional Omani songs and dances. These vary by region and often accompany social events, celebrations, and work activities.
The Oman Centre for Traditional Music was established in 1984 to preserve and document these diverse musical forms.
In 1985, Sultan Qaboos founded the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra (ROSO). Uniquely, he decided that the orchestra should be composed entirely of Omani musicians rather than engaging foreign players. The ROSO gave its inaugural concert on July 1, 1987, at the Al Bustan Palace Hotel's Oman Auditorium and has since performed both domestically and internationally.
Popular music in Oman includes Khaleeji (Gulf) styles as well as influences from contemporary Arab and Western music. In November 2015, a seven-minute a cappella music video about Oman went viral, featuring Khaleeji musician Al Wasmi, Omani poet Mazin Al-Haddabi, and actress Buthaina Al Raisi.

The cinema of Oman is still in its nascent stages. As of 2007, there was only one notable Omani feature film, Al-Boom (The Dawn), released in 2006. It was directed by Khaled Abdul Raheem Al-Zadjali and is considered the first Omani feature film. Since then, there has been some growth in short film production and initiatives to support local filmmakers.
Movie exhibition is more developed. The Oman Arab Cinema Company LLC is the largest motion picture exhibitor chain in Oman, operating under the brand City Cinema. International films, particularly from Hollywood, Bollywood, and other Arab countries, are popular. Film festivals and workshops are occasionally held to encourage local talent.

9.3. Media

The media landscape in Oman is significantly influenced and controlled by the government. While there has been some expansion in media outlets, restrictions on content and freedom of the press remain.
Television: The government has continuously held a monopoly on national television broadcasting. Oman TV is the state-owned national broadcaster, operating several channels including Oman TV General, Oman TV Sport, Oman TV Live, and Oman TV Cultural (HD channels). While private ownership of television stations is permitted, Majan TV was the first and, for a long time, the only privately owned television channel, though its activity seems to have waned. Access to foreign satellite broadcasts is allowed, providing alternative sources of news and entertainment.
Radio: Oman Radio is the primary state-owned radio channel, broadcasting in both Arabic and English since July 1970. Several private radio stations have emerged, including Hala FM, Hi FM, Al-Wisal, Virgin Radio Oman FM, and Merge. Muscat Media Group (MMG) also launched new private radio stations in early 2018.
Print Media: Oman has several main newspapers, with around five in Arabic (e.g., Oman Daily, Al Watan, Al Shabiba, Azamn before its suspension) and four in English (e.g., Times of Oman, Oman Daily Observer, Muscat Daily, TheWeek).
Press Freedom and Censorship: The media environment in Oman is often described as restrictive and censored. The Ministry of Information (now Ministry of Information and Culture) has the authority to censor material deemed politically, culturally, or sexually offensive in both domestic and foreign media. Criticism of the Sultan or the government is strictly prohibited. Journalists often practice self-censorship.
Reporters Without Borders ranked Oman 127th out of 180 countries in its 2018 World Press Freedom Index. In 2016, the government suspended the newspaper Azamn and arrested three of its journalists following a report on alleged corruption in the judiciary. This drew international criticism. Although an appeal court later ruled that the paper could resume operations, the incident highlighted the pressures faced by independent media.
Internet: Internet penetration is high. The government monitors online content, and laws have been extended to cover blogs and other websites. Activists and citizens expressing critical views online have faced arrest and prosecution.
Overall, while media outlets exist, the level of press freedom is low, and the government maintains significant control over the information landscape, impacting public discourse and access to diverse and critical information.

9.4. Art

Omani art encompasses a rich heritage of traditional crafts and a developing contemporary art scene.
Traditional Arts and Crafts: Oman has a long history of material culture, with traditional arts stemming from tribal handicrafts. These include:

• Silverwork: Omani silverwork is renowned, particularly the crafting of the khanjar (traditional dagger), jewelry (necklaces, bracelets, anklets), and household items. Intricate filigree and engraving are characteristic.
• Pottery: Pottery has been practiced for millennia, with regional variations in style and technique. Unglazed earthenware for water storage and cooking is common.
• Weaving (Sadu): Bedouin communities traditionally weave textiles from wool and cotton for tents, rugs, camel bags, and clothing, often featuring geometric patterns.
• Shipbuilding: The crafting of traditional wooden dhows is a significant heritage art, reflecting Oman's maritime history.
• Frankincense Burners (Majmar): Ornate incense burners, often made of clay or metal, are a common household item.
• Palm Leaf Weaving (Khoos): Baskets, mats, fans, and other items are woven from palm fronds.

Contemporary Art: The contemporary art scene in Oman began to emerge more prominently in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Early practices included self-portraiture in painting from the 1960s.

• Painting and Sculpture: Omani artists explore various themes, blending traditional motifs with modern expressions.
• Key Artists: Several Omani artists have gained international recognition. Alia Al Farsi was the first Omani artist to exhibit at the Venice Biennale, and Radhika Khimji has exhibited at the Marrakesh and Haiti Ghetto Biennales. Anwar Sonya is considered one of the pioneers of modern Omani art.
• Galleries and Institutions:
  • Bait Muzna Gallery: Established in 2000 by Sayyida Susan Al Said, it was the first art gallery in Oman and has served as a platform for emerging Omani artists. It also operates as an art consultancy and has a space in Salalah focusing on art film and digital art.
  • The Omani Society for Fine Arts: Established in 1993, it offers educational programs, workshops, and artist grants.
  • The National Museum of Oman: Opened in 2016, it is the Sultanate's flagship cultural institution, showcasing national heritage from prehistory to the present day, including traditional crafts and contemporary art. It notably provides information in Arabic Braille for the visually impaired, a first in the Gulf region.
  • Bait Al Zubair Museum: A private, family-funded museum opened in 1998, displaying a collection of Omani artifacts, including traditional dress, weaponry, and historical photographs. It received the Sultan Qaboos Award for Architectural Excellence in 1999.

  The Omani government has shown increasing support for the arts as part of its cultural development and national identity initiatives. The contemporary art scene, while still developing, is gaining visibility both regionally and internationally.

9.5. Cuisine

Omani cuisine is diverse, influenced by its geography, maritime trade history, and interactions with Arab, Persian, Indian, Balochi, and African cultures. Spices, herbs, rice, meat (lamb, chicken), and fish are staple ingredients.
Representative traditional Omani foods and culinary characteristics include:

• Shuwa: Considered a national dish, shuwa is typically prepared for special occasions like Eid. It involves marinating meat (lamb or goat) in a blend of Omani spices, then wrapping it in banana leaves or palm leaves and cooking it very slowly (sometimes for up to two days) in an underground sand oven or a specialized oven. The result is extremely tender and flavorful meat.
• Harees (or Jareesh): A porridge-like dish made from wheat berries boiled with meat (usually chicken or lamb) until it forms a thick, smooth consistency. It is often seasoned with ghee and spices.
• Maqbous (or Kabsa): A spiced rice dish, similar to biryani or kabsa found in other Gulf countries. It typically includes rice cooked with meat (chicken, lamb, or fish), vegetables, and a mixture of aromatic spices like cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, and turmeric.
• Mashuai: A dish consisting of a whole spit-roasted kingfish served with lemon rice or plain rice.
• Arsia: A festival meal consisting of mashed rice and meat (sometimes chicken).
• Fish Dishes: Given Oman's long coastline, fish is a prominent part of the diet. Grilled, fried, or curried fish, particularly kingfish, tuna, and hammour, are common.
• Rukhal Bread: A thin, round, unleavened bread, often cooked on a griddle. It can be eaten with honey for breakfast, or crumbled over curries and stews for dinner. Other types of bread include khubz Omani (a thicker flatbread).
• Omani Halwa: A very popular sweet, considered a symbol of Omani hospitality. It is a gelatinous dessert made from cooked raw sugar (or refined sugar), starch, ghee, and flavored with ingredients like rosewater, saffron, cardamom, and nuts (cashews, almonds, or pistachios). There are many different flavors and consistencies, with black halwa (original) and saffron halwa being popular.
• Dates: Dates are a staple food and an important part of Omani hospitality, often served with qahwa (Arabic coffee). Oman produces many varieties of dates.
• Beverages:
  • Qahwa (Coffee): Omani coffee is traditionally prepared with cardamom and sometimes other spices like cloves or saffron. It is served unsweetened in small cups and is a central part of social gatherings and hospitality.
  • Laban: A cooling yogurt drink.
  • Tea (Chai): Often served with milk and spices.

  Omanis usually eat their main daily meal at midday, while the evening meal is lighter. During Ramadan, dinner (iftar) is served after sunset, and a pre-dawn meal (suhoor) is also consumed. Alcohol is generally available only to non-Muslims in licensed hotels and restaurants.

9.6. Sports

Sports in Oman encompass both traditional and modern activities, with increasing participation and government support.
Traditional Sports:

• Dhow Racing: Reflecting Oman's maritime heritage, dhow racing is a popular traditional sport, especially in coastal areas.
• Horse Racing and Camel Racing: These are significant cultural sports with organized events and festivals. Arabian horses are highly valued. Camel races are major social events, often involving substantial prizes.
• Falconry: An ancient tradition in the Arabian Peninsula, falconry is practiced as a sport and a symbol of Bedouin heritage.
• Bull Butting (Al-Mnahtayh): A unique Omani sport, particularly in the Al-Batinah region, where two bulls lock horns in a test of strength. Unlike Spanish bullfighting, it does not involve harming the animals severely, and the first bull to retreat or fall loses. Oman, along with Fujairah in the UAE, are the only regions in the Middle East known for this variant.

Modern Sports:

• Football (Soccer): This is the most popular modern sport in Oman. The Oman national football team has achieved notable successes, including winning the Arabian Gulf Cup twice (2009 and 2017). The Oman Professional League is the top domestic football league.
• Cricket: Cricket has gained significant popularity, partly due to the large South Asian expatriate community. The Oman national cricket team has made significant progress, qualifying for the ICC T20 World Cup in 2016 and 2021 (co-hosting some matches in 2021). Oman gained One Day International (ODI) status in 2019.
• Athletics, Basketball, Volleyball, Handball, Swimming, Tennis: These sports are also practiced and have representative associations.
• Watersports: Including sailing, diving, and waterskiing, popular along Oman's extensive coastline.
• Sandboarding: Practiced on the desert dunes.

Sports Facilities and Events:
The Omani government, through the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Youth (formerly Ministry of Sports Affairs, established in 2004), supports sports development. The Sultan Qaboos Sports Complex in Muscat is a major multi-purpose stadium. Oman has hosted various regional and international sporting events, including the Arabian Gulf Cup, the Asian Beach Games (2010 in Muscat), the Men's and Women's Beach Handball World Championships (2012 in Mussanah), and the Tour of Oman (a professional cycling stage race). The country has also hosted FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup qualifiers. An "El Clasico" legends match was played in Muscat in 2014.
Oman participates in the Olympic Games and other international competitions. The Oman Olympic Committee organizes participation and promotes sports development. In 2024, Oman participated in the 2024 Touch Rugby World Cup in Nottingham, its first participation in an international rugby tournament.

9.7. Public holidays

Public holidays in Oman consist of national holidays and Islamic religious holidays. The dates of Islamic holidays vary each year as they are based on the lunar Hijri calendar.
National Holidays (Fixed Dates):

• January 1:** New Year's Day
• July 23:** Renaissance Day. This holiday commemorates the accession of Sultan Qaboos bin Said to the throne in 1970, marking the beginning of Oman's modernization period.
• November 18 & 19:** National Day. This celebrates the birthday of Sultan Qaboos bin Said (November 18). It is typically a two-day public holiday. (The significance may evolve under Sultan Haitham, but November 18th has deep historical roots as a national celebration).

Islamic Holidays (Variable Dates - based on the Hijri calendar):

• Hijri New Year (Islamic New Year):** Marks the beginning of the Islamic lunar calendar.
• Mawlid an-Nabi (The Prophet's Birthday):** Commemorates the birth of Prophet Muhammad.
• Isra' and Mi'raj (The Prophet's Ascension):** Commemorates Prophet Muhammad's night journey to Jerusalem and ascension to heaven.
• Eid al-Fitr (Festival of Breaking the Fast):** Marks the end of Ramadan, the Islamic month of fasting. It is usually a multi-day holiday (typically 3-5 days).
• Eid al-Adha (Festival of Sacrifice):** Commemorates Ibrahim's (Abraham's) willingness to sacrifice his son. It occurs during the Hajj pilgrimage period and is also a multi-day holiday (typically 4-5 days).

If a public holiday falls on a weekend (Friday and Saturday in Oman), it may be compensated by a day off on a weekday, as determined by official announcements. The government officially declares the dates for Islamic holidays based on moon sightings.

9.8. World Heritage Sites

Oman is home to several sites inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List, recognized for their outstanding cultural or natural significance.

• Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman (2006):** This site comprises five representative examples of ancient irrigation systems dating back to as early as 2500 BCE. These aflaj (singular: falaj) are a testament to Omani ingenuity in channeling water from underground sources or springs for agriculture and domestic use. They demonstrate a sustainable and equitable water management system that has supported life in arid regions for millennia.
• Archaeological Sites of Bat, Al-Khutm and Al-Ayn (1988):** These sites represent one of the most complete and well-preserved collections of settlements and necropolises from the 3rd millennium BCE in the world. They include distinctive circular "beehive" tombs (at Bat and Al-Ayn) and remnants of Bronze Age settlements (at Bat and Al-Khutm), providing insights into early societies in the Arabian Peninsula.
• Land of Frankincense (2000):** Located in the Dhofar region, this site encompasses ancient frankincense trees in Wadi Dawkah, the remains of the fortified trading port of Khor Rori (Sumhuram), the archaeological site of Al-Balid (the ancient city of Zafar), and the oasis of Shisr/Wubar (a caravan oasis). These sites collectively illustrate the ancient and medieval trade in frankincense, a precious aromatic resin that was highly valued in antiquity and brought prosperity to southern Arabia.
• Bahla Fort (1987):** Situated at the foot of the Jebel Akhdar highlands, Bahla Fort is an immense mud-brick fortress. Its origins are believed to date back to the pre-Islamic era, with major construction undertaken by the Banu Nebhan (Nabhani dynasty) who dominated the region from the 12th to the 15th century. The fort, along with its adjacent oasis and ancient city walls, represents a remarkable example of a fortified oasis settlement.
• Ancient City of Qalhat (2018):** Located on the east coast of Oman, Qalhat was an important port city from the 11th to the 15th centuries CE, flourishing under the Hormuz rulers. It played a significant role in trade networks across the Indian Ocean. The site includes the remains of the city, notably the Mausoleum of Bibi Maryam, which is a unique example of ancient architecture in the region.

Formerly, the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary (inscribed in 1994) was also a World Heritage Site. However, it was delisted in 2007 due to the Omani government's decision to reduce the sanctuary's size by 90% for hydrocarbon prospecting, which significantly impacted the habitat and population of the Arabian oryx. This was the first-ever delisting of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
These sites are crucial for understanding Oman's rich cultural and historical heritage and are subject to ongoing conservation and management efforts.