Qatar

3.1. Antiquity

Human habitation in the Qatar peninsula dates back as far as 50,000 years. Archaeological discoveries include Stone Age settlements and tools. Artifacts from the Ubaid period (circa 6500-3800 BC) of Mesopotamia have been found in abandoned coastal settlements, indicating early cultural exchange. Al Da'asa, a settlement on the western coast, is the most significant Ubaid site in Qatar, believed to have been a small seasonal encampment. The ancient polity of Dilmun, prominent from the 3rd millennium BC, is thought to have encompassed areas including Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and parts of eastern Saudi Arabia, with some theories suggesting a Sumerian origin in this broader region.

Trade relations with the Kassite Babylonians in the second millennium BC are evidenced by materials found on Al Khor Islands, including crushed snail shells and Kassite potsherds. This has led to suggestions that Qatar was an early site for shellfish dye production, particularly Tyrian purple.

In 224 AD, the Sasanian Empire gained control over the territories surrounding the Persian Gulf. Qatar played a role in Sasanian commercial activities, contributing valuable pearls and purple dye. During Sasanian rule, Christianity was introduced to many inhabitants of eastern Arabia by Mesopotamian Christians. Monasteries were built, and new settlements were founded. In this period, Qatar was part of a region known in Syriac as 'Beth Qatraye' ("house of the Qataris"), which also included Bahrain, Tarout Island, Al-Khatt, and the Al-Hasa oasis.

3.2. Islamic Period

In 628 AD, the Islamic prophet Muhammad sent an envoy to Munzir ibn Sawa Al-Tamimi, a ruler in eastern Arabia, requesting that he and his subjects accept Islam. Munzir complied, and most Arab tribes in the region, including Qatar, converted to Islam. The subsequent Muslim conquest of Persia led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire.

During the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 AD), Qatar was known as a center for horse and camel breeding. By the 8th century, its strategic position in the Persian Gulf enabled it to become a significant pearl trading hub. The pearling industry saw substantial development during the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 AD). Ships traveling from Basra to India and China made stops at Qatari ports. Discoveries of Chinese porcelain, West African coins, and artifacts from Thailand in Qatar attest to its role in international trade. Archaeological remains from the 9th century in Murwab, including over 100 stone-built houses, two mosques, and an Abbasid fort, suggest increased wealth and construction of higher quality buildings. However, as the Abbasid Caliphate's prosperity declined in Iraq, so did it in Qatar.

In the 13th century, the Muslim scholar Yaqut al-Hamawi, in his work Mu'jam Al-Buldan, mentioned Qataris' fine striped woven cloaks and their skills in spear-making. Much of eastern Arabia was controlled by the Usfurids in 1253, but the Prince of Ormus seized control of the region in 1320. Qatar's pearls were a primary source of income for the Kingdom of Ormus.

3.3. Portuguese Era

In 1515, Manuel I of Portugal made the Kingdom of Ormus a vassal state. Portugal subsequently seized a significant portion of eastern Arabia by 1521. The Portuguese aimed to dominate the Arabian coast up to Al-Ahsa. Archaeological finds, such as those from the fortress at Ruwayda, suggest a Portuguese base of operations in the region. The first known depiction of Qatar on a map appeared in a Portuguese map by Luis Lázaro in 1563, showing a "city of Qatar," possibly referring to Ruwayda.

In 1550, the inhabitants of Al-Ahsa voluntarily submitted to Ottoman rule, preferring them over the Portuguese. Ottoman attempts to dominate the region were challenged, notably with the Siege of Qatif in 1551. The Ottomans maintained a limited military presence but were eventually expelled by the Bani Khalid tribe and their emirate in 1670.

3.4. Bahraini and Saudi Rule

In 1766, members of the Al Khalifa family, part of the Utub tribal confederation, migrated from Kuwait to Zubarah in Qatar. At this time, the Bani Khalid tribe exercised weak authority over the peninsula. In 1783, Qatar-based Bani Utbah clans and allied Arab tribes invaded and annexed Bahrain from the Persians. The Al Khalifa established their authority over Bahrain while retaining jurisdiction over Zubarah.

Following his anointment as crown prince of the Wahhabi state in 1788, Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz sought to expand Wahhabi territory eastward towards the Persian Gulf and Qatar. After defeating the Bani Khalid in 1795, the Wahhabis faced attacks on two fronts: from the Ottomans and Egyptians in the west, and from the Al Khalifa in Bahrain and the Omanis in the east. In 1811, aware of the Egyptian advance on the western frontier, the Wahhabi amir reduced his garrisons in Bahrain and Zubarah to redeploy troops. Said bin Sultan, ruler of Muscat, capitalized on this by raiding the Wahhabi garrisons on the eastern coast, setting fire to the fort in Zubarah. The Al Khalifa were subsequently effectively returned to power in the area.

As a punitive measure against piracy, an East India Company vessel bombarded Doha in 1821, destroying the town and forcing hundreds of residents to flee. In 1825, the House of Thani was established, with Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani as its first leader.

Although Qatar was considered a dependency of Bahrain, the Al Khalifa faced opposition from local Qatari tribes. In 1867, the Al Khalifa, along with the ruler of Abu Dhabi, sent a large naval force to Al Wakrah to crush Qatari rebels. This led to the maritime Qatari-Bahraini War of 1867-1868, during which Bahraini and Abu Dhabi forces sacked and looted Doha and Al Wakrah. These hostilities violated the Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship of 1861. The joint incursion, along with a Qatari counter-attack, prompted the British Political Resident, Colonel Lewis Pelly, to impose a settlement in 1868. His mission and the resulting peace treaty implicitly recognized Qatar's distinctness from Bahrain and explicitly acknowledged the position of Mohammed bin Thani. This marked an early stage in Qatar's development as a separate sheikhdom.

3.5. Ottoman Period

Under military and political pressure from Midhat Pasha, the Ottoman governor of the Baghdad Vilayet, the ruling Al Thani tribe submitted to Ottoman rule in 1871. The Ottoman government implemented Tanzimat reforms concerning taxation and land registration to integrate these areas into the empire. Despite local tribal disapproval, the Al Thani continued to support Ottoman rule. However, Qatari-Ottoman relations soon stagnated. In 1882, relations suffered further setbacks when the Ottomans refused to aid Al Thani in his expedition against Abu Dhabi-occupied Khor Al Adaid and offered only limited support in the Qatari-Abu Dhabi War, largely due to fears of British intervention on Abu Dhabi's side. Additionally, the Ottomans supported Mohammed bin Abdul Wahab, an Ottoman subject who attempted to supplant Al Thani as kaymakam (district governor) of Qatar in 1888.

These events eventually led Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani to rebel against the Ottomans, whom he believed were seeking to usurp control of the peninsula. He resigned as kaymakam and stopped paying taxes in August 1892. In February 1893, Mehmed Hafiz Pasha arrived in Qatar seeking unpaid taxes and to counter Jassim bin Mohammed's opposition to proposed Ottoman administrative reforms. Fearing for his life, Jassim retreated to Al Wajbah (about 10 mile west of Doha) with several tribe members. Mehmed's demand that Jassim disband his troops and pledge loyalty to the Ottomans was refused. In March, Mehmed imprisoned Jassim's brother and 13 prominent Qatari tribal leaders on the Ottoman corvette Merrikh. After Mehmed declined an offer to release the captives for a fee of 10,000 Ottoman liras, he ordered a column of approximately 200 troops to advance towards Jassim's Al Wajbah fort, under the command of Yusuf Effendi, marking the beginning of the Battle of Al Wajbah.

Effendi's troops came under heavy gunfire from a sizable Qatari force shortly after arriving at Al Wajbah. They retreated to Shebaka fortress, where they were again forced to withdraw from a Qatari incursion. After they withdrew to Al Bidda fortress, Jassim's advancing column besieged it, resulting in the Ottomans' concession of defeat. They agreed to relinquish their captives in return for the safe passage of Mehmed Pasha's cavalry to Hofuf by land. Although Qatar did not gain full independence from the Ottoman Empire, the battle's outcome forced a treaty that later formed the basis of Qatar's emergence as an autonomous country within the empire, significantly reducing Ottoman authority and bolstering the Al Thani family's standing.

3.6. British Protectorate Period

Under the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, the Ottomans agreed to renounce their claim to Qatar and withdraw their garrison from Doha. However, with the outbreak of World War I, this was not implemented, and the garrison remained, though its numbers dwindled due to desertions. In 1915, with British gunboats in the harbor, Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani, who was pro-British, persuaded the remaining Ottoman soldiers to abandon the fort. When British troops approached the following morning, they found it deserted.

Qatar became a British protectorate on November 3, 1916, when the United Kingdom signed a treaty with Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani, bringing Qatar under its Trucial System of Administration. The treaty reserved foreign affairs and defense for the United Kingdom but allowed internal autonomy. While Abdullah agreed not to enter into relations with any other power without British consent, Britain guaranteed Qatar's protection from aggression by sea and offered its 'good offices' in case of a land attack, an undertaking left deliberately vague.

On May 5, 1935, while agreeing to an oil concession with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Abdullah signed another treaty with the British government, granting Qatar protection against internal and external threats. Oil reserves were first discovered in 1939, but exploitation was delayed by World War II.

After World War II, British interests in Qatar shifted with the independence of India, the creation of Pakistan in 1947, and the development of Qatari oil. In 1949, the appointment of the first British political officer in Doha, John Wilton, signified strengthening Anglo-Qatari relations. Oil exports began in 1949, and oil revenues became the country's main source of income, replacing the declining pearl trade. These revenues funded the expansion and modernization of Qatar's infrastructure. This period saw initial improvements in living standards for some, but also laid the groundwork for a society heavily reliant on expatriate labor, a system that would later come under scrutiny for human rights issues.

When Britain announced in 1968 its intention to withdraw from the Persian Gulf within three years, Qatar joined talks with Bahrain and seven other Trucial States to create a federation. However, regional disputes led Qatar and Bahrain to withdraw and pursue independence separately from the Trucial States, which later became the United Arab Emirates. This decision marked a crucial step towards Qatar's self-determination, though the transition maintained close ties with Britain.

3.7. Independence and Later

Qatar's path following its independence in 1971 was characterized by efforts to establish itself as a sovereign nation, leveraging its burgeoning oil wealth for development. The late 20th century saw the consolidation of state institutions and Qatar's entry into regional geopolitics, while the 21st century brought unprecedented economic growth, an enhanced international profile, and significant social and diplomatic challenges, including concerns over human rights and labor conditions, particularly in the lead-up to major international events.

3.7.1. Late 20th Century

On September 3, 1971, under an agreement with the United Kingdom, the "special treaty arrangements" inconsistent with full international responsibility as a sovereign and independent state were terminated, and Qatar formally declared its independence. This period was pivotal for nation-building, with the Al Thani family consolidating power and beginning to utilize oil revenues for national development. State institutions were established, and Qatar started to navigate its foreign policy in a complex regional environment.

In 1972, Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani deposed his cousin, Emir Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani, in a coup and began a program of modernization. This included social and economic reforms, although political power remained firmly within the ruling family. Qatar joined the United Nations and the Arab League in 1971, and became a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981.

Qatar played a significant role in the Gulf War in 1991, particularly during the Battle of Khafji, where Qatari tanks supported Saudi Arabian National Guard units against Iraqi Army troops. Qatar allowed coalition forces, including those from Canada, the United States, and France, to use its territory as an airbase and for launching combat air patrols. This participation marked an important step in Qatar's alignment with Western powers and its growing regional security role.

In 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani seized control from his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a bloodless coup, with the support of the armed forces, cabinet, neighboring states, and France. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar experienced a degree of liberalization. Key developments included the launch of the Al Jazeera television station in 1996, which significantly raised Qatar's international profile and sometimes strained relations with neighboring autocratic states due to its critical reporting. Women's suffrage was endorsed for municipal elections in 1999, a step towards greater female participation in public life, though political power remained concentrated.

4.1. Climate

Qatar has a desert climate characterized by intense heat and humidity during the summer months and mild winters. Average summer temperatures (June to September) frequently exceed 104 °F ^{(40 °C)} and can reach as high as 122 °F ^{(50 °C)}. Humidity levels are also very high along the coast during the summer.
Winters (December to February) are mild, with average temperatures ranging from 57.2 °F ^{(14 °C)} to 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)}. Rainfall is scarce, averaging around 2.8 in ^{(70 mm)} per year, and typically occurs in short, infrequent downpours, mainly during the winter months. Sandstorms and dust storms, locally known as shamal winds, can occur throughout the year, particularly in spring and summer, reducing visibility and impacting air quality. The surrounding Persian Gulf moderates coastal temperatures slightly but also contributes to high humidity. Due to climate change, Qatar is experiencing rising temperatures and increased frequency of extreme weather events, posing challenges to water security and public health.

4.2. Biodiversity

Qatar's desert ecosystem supports a range of flora and fauna adapted to arid conditions. The country signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity in 1996 and subsequently developed a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan in 2005. Native terrestrial mammals include the Arabian oryx (the national animal), Arabian gazelle, sand cat, and various rodents and bats. Marine life in the Persian Gulf waters surrounding Qatar is diverse, including dugongs, dolphins, sea turtles, and numerous fish species. Coral reefs, though under stress from coastal development and climate change, are also present.

Birdlife is notable, especially during migration seasons, with Qatar serving as a stopover point for many species. Flamingos, cormorants, and various waders can be found in coastal areas and wetlands. Reptiles include several species of lizards and snakes. Indigenous plant life consists mainly of drought-resistant shrubs, grasses, and acacia trees. Mangroves exist in some coastal areas, providing important habitats.

Qatar has established several protected areas to conserve its biodiversity, such as the Al Reem Biosphere Reserve (which includes Brouq Nature Reserve) and Khor Al Adaid. Conservation efforts focus on protecting endangered species like the Arabian oryx and sea turtles, managing water resources, and combating desertification. However, rapid urbanization, industrial development, and high per capita carbon emissions pose significant threats to Qatar's environment and biodiversity. The country is one of the highest emitters of carbon dioxide per capita globally, a stark contrast to its conservation initiatives. As of 2024, the latest official details on its greenhouse gas emissions submitted to the UNFCCC are for 2007, highlighting a lag in transparent reporting on this critical environmental issue.

5.1. Government Structure

The government of Qatar is structured around the Emir, who is the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Emir appoints the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers (Cabinet), who are responsible for the executive functions of the state. The Council of Ministers also initiates legislation, which is then typically approved by the Emir.

The legislative branch consists of the Consultative Assembly (Majlis al-Shura). The 2003 constitution provided for 30 of its 45 members to be popularly elected, with the remaining 15 appointed by the Emir. The Assembly has the power to propose legislation, approve the national budget, and question ministers. It can block legislation with a simple majority and dismiss ministers, including the Prime Minister, with a two-thirds vote. However, the Emir retains ultimate authority and can dissolve the Assembly. The first elections for the Consultative Assembly were held in October 2021 after several postponements. Despite this step, the Assembly's power is limited, and the Emir's decrees often form the basis of law.

The judiciary, while nominally independent, is also influenced by the Emir, who appoints judges. The legal system is a mixture of civil law and Sharia law.

5.2. Law

Qatar's legal system is a blend of civil law, influenced by the Egyptian legal code, and Islamic law (Sharia). According to Qatar's Constitution, Sharia is the main source of legislation. It is applied in matters of family law (marriage, divorce, inheritance) and several criminal acts.

5.3. Human Rights

Qatar's human rights record has been a subject of significant concern for international organizations and academics, particularly regarding the treatment of its large migrant worker population, restrictions on civil liberties, and the slow pace of democratic reform. While the government has undertaken some reforms, particularly in labor laws, substantial challenges remain in ensuring the protection of fundamental rights for all residents. The center-left perspective emphasizes the social impact of these issues, the need for greater democratic development, and the rights of minorities and vulnerable groups.

7.1. Relations with Major Powers

Qatar maintains significant relationships with major global powers, balancing its interests across different geopolitical blocs.

• United States:** The U.S. is a key strategic ally. Qatar hosts the Al Udeid Air Base, the largest U.S. military installation in the Middle East, which is crucial for U.S. operations in the region. In 2022, the U.S. designated Qatar as a Major non-NATO ally. Relations involve extensive military, economic, and counter-terrorism cooperation, though tensions have arisen over Qatar's ties with groups like Hamas and its alleged role in financing extremism. Qatar has also played a mediating role for the U.S. in contexts like Afghanistan (hosting Taliban talks) and Iran (prisoner swaps). On September 24, 2024, Qatar was designated as the first Gulf country to join the U.S. Visa Waiver Program (VWP).
• European Nations:** Qatar has strong ties with several European countries, particularly France and the United Kingdom, involving significant Qatari investments in these nations and cooperation in defense and trade. France, for example, has been a major supplier of military equipment. European nations have also engaged Qatar on issues of regional stability and human rights, especially concerning labor conditions.
• China:** Relations with China have been growing, primarily driven by energy needs (China is a major importer of Qatari LNG) and increasing Chinese investment in the region under the Belt and Road Initiative. Qatar views China as an important economic partner and a balancing force in international affairs.
• Turkey:** Qatar and Turkey share a close strategic alliance, particularly strengthened during the 2017 diplomatic crisis. This relationship includes military cooperation, with Turkey establishing a military base in Qatar, and aligned positions on many regional issues, often supporting similar Islamist-leaning movements. This alliance has been a source of concern for some of Qatar's Gulf neighbors.

These relationships are managed with a view to maximizing Qatar's autonomy and influence, though they are often complicated by Qatar's independent foreign policy choices and the human rights critiques it faces from Western partners.

7.2. Relations within the Middle East

Qatar's relations within the Middle East are complex, marked by periods of cooperation, mediation, and significant conflict.

• Iran:** Qatar maintains a pragmatic relationship with Iran, with whom it shares the world's largest natural gas field (the North Field/South Pars). This shared economic interest necessitates a degree of cooperation, which has often been a point of friction with Saudi Arabia and other GCC states who view Iran as a regional threat. During the 2017 diplomatic crisis, Iran provided crucial support to Qatar by opening its airspace and seaports.
• Saudi Arabia, UAE, Bahrain, Egypt:** Relations with these neighboring Arab states have been volatile. Tensions escalated significantly during the Arab Spring, when Qatar supported Islamist movements like the Muslim Brotherhood, which these countries view as a threat. This led to a diplomatic rift in 2014 and the more severe 2017-2021 blockade, where these nations cut diplomatic and economic ties, accusing Qatar of supporting terrorism and interfering in their internal affairs. The blockade caused significant humanitarian and economic disruption. While diplomatic relations were restored in January 2021 with the AlUla declaration, underlying mistrust and divergent regional policies persist.
• Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and Arab League:** Qatar is a founding member of the GCC and a member of the Arab League. However, its independent foreign policy and differing stances on regional issues have often put it at odds with the GCC consensus, particularly with Saudi Arabia and the UAE.
• Mediation Efforts:** Qatar has actively sought to position itself as a mediator in regional conflicts. It played a role in negotiations between Palestinian factions (Fatah and Hamas), in Lebanon during the 2008 crisis, in Darfur (Sudan), and notably, hosted peace talks between the United States and the Taliban, leading to the 2020 Doha Agreement. It also played a key role in mediating the first ceasefire and hostage exchanges during the 2023 Israel-Hamas war. While these efforts have raised Qatar's international profile, its engagement with groups like Hamas has also drawn criticism.

The humanitarian impact of regional disputes, such as the 2017 blockade which affected families and freedom of movement, remains a concern from a human rights perspective. Qatar's foreign policy in the Middle East continues to be a delicate balancing act between asserting its independence and navigating complex regional rivalries.

9.1. Energy

Qatar's economy is fundamentally driven by its vast energy resources. As of 2012, it had proven oil reserves of 15 billion barrels and natural gas fields accounting for over 13% of the global total, making its gas reserves the third-largest in the world, exceeding 250.00 T ft³. The state-owned QatarEnergy is the primary entity managing the exploration, production, and sale of oil and gas.

The North Field, located offshore to the northeast, is the cornerstone of Qatar's gas industry and one of the largest non-associated natural gas fields globally. Its development, starting in the early 1990s, propelled Qatar to become the world's leading exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). The Qatargas project began exporting LNG to Japan in 1996, and since then, Qatar has significantly expanded its LNG production capacity, supplying markets across Asia, Europe, and North America.

Oil production, while secondary to gas in terms of reserve size, remains a significant contributor to the economy. The main onshore oil deposits are in the Dukhan Field on the west coast. Qatar was a member of OPEC from 1961 until January 2019, when it withdrew, stating a desire to focus on its natural gas industry and long-term strategic plans.

Qatar's heavy industrial projects, primarily located in Mesaieed and Ras Laffan, are based on its energy wealth. These include refineries, petrochemical plants, fertilizer plants (urea and ammonia), and steel plants, all utilizing natural gas as fuel. Many of these are joint ventures between QatarEnergy and international energy companies.

Recognizing the finite nature of hydrocarbon resources and global shifts towards cleaner energy, Qatar's National Vision 2030 emphasizes environmental development and sustainable energy. The country has set a goal to attain 20% of its energy from solar power by 2030, investing in photovoltaic systems and concentrated solar power. Qatar Foundation has been active in this area, establishing Qatar Solar and, through a joint venture, Qatar Solar Technologies (QSTec), which commissioned a polysilicon plant in Ras Laffan in 2017. Despite these efforts, Qatar remains one of the world's highest per capita emitters of carbon dioxide, highlighting the challenge of balancing its hydrocarbon-based economy with environmental sustainability. The "Qatarization" program aims to increase the number of Qatari nationals in skilled positions within the energy sector and government, reducing reliance on expatriate expertise.

9.2. Tourism

Qatar has been actively developing its tourism sector as part of its economic diversification strategy outlined in the Qatar National Vision 2030. The country aims to attract a diverse range of visitors, leveraging its cultural heritage, modern infrastructure, luxury hospitality, and by hosting major international events.

Key tourist attractions include:

• Museums and Cultural Sites:** The Museum of Islamic Art, designed by I.M. Pei, the National Museum of Qatar, and Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Art are prominent cultural institutions. Katara Cultural Village offers theaters, galleries, and concert halls. Souq Waqif is a traditional market in Doha, popular for its authentic atmosphere, local crafts, spices, and traditional Qatari cuisine.
• Modern Architecture and Urban Developments:** Doha's skyline features striking modern architecture. The Pearl-Qatar, a man-made island, offers luxury residences, marinas, and high-end retail. Lusail, a newly developed city, hosted major events for the 2022 FIFA World Cup and features attractions like Lusail Iconic Stadium and modern entertainment venues.
• Natural Attractions:** While primarily a desert landscape, Qatar offers unique natural experiences such as the Khor Al Adaid (Inland Sea), where sand dunes meet the sea, and various beaches along its coastline. Desert safaris, dune bashing, and camel riding are popular activities. Banana Island is a luxury resort island off the coast of Doha.

The hosting of the 2022 FIFA World Cup provided a significant impetus for tourism development, with massive investments in infrastructure, including hotels, transportation, and entertainment facilities. Qatar Airways, the national carrier, plays a crucial role in connecting Qatar to over 150 international destinations, facilitating tourist arrivals.

To boost tourism, Qatar has implemented visa facilitation policies, including visa-free entry for nationals of over 88 countries. The Qatar Tourism Authority (now Qatar Tourism) leads efforts to promote the country as a tourist destination. The sector experienced a strong recovery post-pandemic, with over 729,000 international visitors in the first half of 2022, and aims to increase tourism's contribution to 12% of GDP by 2030. Future events like the 2030 Asian Games are also expected to further drive tourism. However, challenges remain, including regional competition, the impact of the desert climate, and addressing international perceptions related to human rights and social conservatism.

9.3. Transport

Qatar has invested heavily in developing a modern and extensive transportation infrastructure to support its economic growth and growing population, particularly in preparation for major events like the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The Public Works Authority (Ashghal) and the Urban Planning and Development Authority have overseen these developments.

• Roads:** The road network is well-developed, with numerous multi-lane highways and expressways connecting Doha to other parts of the country and to Saudi Arabia. Major projects include the Doha Expressway and ongoing upgrades to ease traffic congestion. Driving is the primary mode of transport for many residents.
• Airports:** Hamad International Airport (HIA) in Doha is Qatar's main international gateway and a major global transit hub. Opened in 2014, it replaced the former Doha International Airport. HIA is the base for Qatar Airways, the national flag carrier, which connects to over 160 destinations worldwide and is renowned for its service quality.
• Ports:** Hamad Port, south of Doha, is Qatar's main seaport, officially inaugurated in 2017. It handles the bulk of the country's container and general cargo trade, including food and building materials. Ras Laffan Port, on the northern coast, is the world's largest facility for exporting liquefied natural gas (LNG). Qatar is also part of the maritime Silk Road.
• Public Transport:**
  • Doha Metro:** A state-of-the-art automated rapid transit system, the Doha Metro was launched in 2019. It consists of several lines (Red, Green, Gold) connecting key areas of Doha, including Hamad International Airport, major business districts, residential areas, and World Cup stadiums. It is a key component of Qatar's efforts to provide sustainable transport options and reduce road congestion. Future expansions are planned.
  • Buses:** Karwa is the national transport company operating public bus services across Qatar, connecting Doha with various towns and industrial areas.
  • Trams:** Lusail Tram and Education City Tram systems provide localized public transport within those specific developments.
• Railway:** Qatar Rail is developing a national railway network, which is envisioned to eventually connect with a wider GCC railway network, although progress on the regional network has been slow.

Infrastructure development has been rapid, but it has also brought challenges, including the environmental impact of large-scale construction and the reliance on migrant labor, which has faced human rights scrutiny.

9.4. Agriculture and Industry

Qatar's arid desert climate and limited arable land and water resources impose significant constraints on agriculture. The sector contributes a very small percentage to the GDP. However, the government has invested in initiatives to enhance food security, particularly after the 2017 diplomatic crisis highlighted vulnerabilities in supply chains. These efforts include promoting greenhouse farming, hydroponics, and aquaculture. Key locally produced agricultural products include dates, vegetables (such as tomatoes and cucumbers, primarily from greenhouses), and some dairy and poultry products. Despite these efforts, Qatar remains heavily reliant on food imports.

The industrial sector, beyond oil and gas, is a focus of Qatar's economic diversification strategy under National Vision 2030.

• Hydrocarbon-based Industries:** This is the dominant industrial segment, centered in industrial cities like Mesaieed and Ras Laffan. It includes petroleum refining, petrochemicals (ethylene, polyethylene, methanol), fertilizers (urea, ammonia), and steel production. These industries leverage Qatar's abundant natural gas as feedstock and fuel.
• Manufacturing:** Efforts are underway to develop other manufacturing sub-sectors, such as construction materials (cement, aluminum), food processing, and assembly of certain goods. The Qatar Science & Technology Park aims to foster technology-based industries and innovation.
• Construction:** The construction sector has been a major driver of non-oil economic activity, fueled by massive infrastructure projects, real estate development, and preparations for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.

Government policies aim to attract foreign investment in non-energy industries and promote the growth of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). However, the industrial landscape remains heavily weighted towards capital-intensive, energy-related activities. Challenges include a small domestic market, reliance on expatriate labor, and the need for greater development of a skilled local workforce.

9.5. Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Qatar has made significant strides in developing its Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector, recognizing its importance for economic diversification and creating a knowledge-based economy as outlined in Qatar National Vision 2030. The country boasts a high level of ICT infrastructure development and internet penetration.

• Infrastructure and Penetration:** Qatar has one of the highest internet and mobile phone penetration rates in the world. Extensive fiber optic networks have been deployed, providing high-speed broadband access to homes and businesses. The country ranked 23rd overall in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index in 2014.
• Telecommunication Providers:** The telecommunications market is primarily served by two main providers: Ooredoo (formerly Qtel), which is the incumbent operator, and Vodafone Qatar. These companies offer a range of mobile, fixed-line, and internet services.
• Media Landscape:**
  • Al Jazeera:** Qatar is home to the Al Jazeera Media Network, a globally influential news organization headquartered in Doha. Launched in 1996, Al Jazeera has expanded from an Arabic news channel to a global network with multiple channels and online platforms, known for its coverage of the Middle East and international affairs. While it has garnered international acclaim, it has also been a source of controversy and diplomatic tension due to its often critical reporting, particularly concerning other Arab governments.
  • Domestic Media:** Qatar has several daily newspapers published in Arabic and English. Television broadcasting began in 1970. However, domestic media outlets generally practice self-censorship, especially regarding criticism of the Qatari government, the Emir, and the ruling family, or issues deemed sensitive to Islam or local traditions. Press freedom is restricted, and a Cybercrime Prevention Law passed in 2014 has been criticized for potentially further curbing freedom of expression online.
• ICT Initiatives:** The government has launched various initiatives to promote ICT adoption, e-government services, and the development of a local tech industry. The Qatar Science & Technology Park (QSTP) was established to foster innovation and attract technology companies. Efforts are also focused on cybersecurity and developing smart city solutions.

Despite advanced infrastructure, challenges in the ICT sector include ensuring press freedom and freedom of expression online, developing a larger pool of local ICT talent, and fostering a more vibrant and competitive digital content and services market.

10.1. Demographics

The population of Qatar has experienced extraordinary growth in recent decades, primarily due to the influx of foreign workers. As of early 2017, the total population was approximately 2.6 million. Of this, only about 313,000 (around 12%) were Qatari citizens, while the remaining 2.3 million (around 88%) were expatriates. This demographic imbalance is one of the most defining features of Qatari society.

The population fluctuates seasonally due to the reliance on migrant labor. The influx of predominantly male laborers has resulted in a significant gender imbalance, with men outnumbering women considerably; women constitute only about a quarter of the total population.

Key demographic characteristics include:

• High Population Growth Rate:** Driven by immigration.
• Urbanization:** The vast majority of the population lives in urban areas, particularly in the capital, Doha, and its surrounding municipalities like Al Rayyan. Over 80% of the country's inhabitants reside in Doha.
• Age Structure:** The working-age population (fueled by migrants) is disproportionately large, while the proportion of children and elderly among Qatari citizens follows more typical patterns.
• Foreign Population Composition:** The expatriate population is highly diverse. The largest group consists of individuals from South Asian countries (India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan), who collectively represent over 1.5 million people, or about 60% of the total population. Indians form the largest single nationality (around 650,000 in 2017). Other significant expatriate communities include Filipinos, Egyptians, and nationals from other Arab countries, as well as smaller numbers of Europeans and North Americans.

This demographic structure has profound implications for social services, infrastructure, labor policies, social cohesion, and national identity.

10.2. Religion

Islam is the official and predominant religion in Qatar. The state constitution declares Islam as the state religion and Sharia (Islamic law) as a main source of legislation.

• Islam:** The vast majority of Qatari citizens are Muslims, adhering primarily to the Salafi interpretation of Sunni Islam, often referred to as Wahhabism, which is the state-sponsored version. There is also a minority of Shia Muslims among Qatari nationals, estimated to be between 5-15% of the citizen population. The Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs oversees religious matters, including the management of mosques and Islamic education.
• Minority Religions:** Due to the large expatriate population, other religions are practiced in Qatar.
  • Christianity:** Christians, primarily expatriates, form the largest religious minority (around 13.8% of the total population in 2010 estimates). Several denominations are present, including Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Orthodox Christians, and various Protestant groups. Since 2008, the government has permitted the construction of churches on land donated by the Emir. The Church of Our Lady of the Rosary in Doha was the first Christian church built. There is also an Anglican Centre.
  • Hinduism:** Hindus, mainly from India and Nepal, constitute another significant religious minority (around 13.8% in 2010).
  • Buddhism:** Buddhists, largely from Southeast and East Asian countries, also form a part of the religious landscape (around 3.1% in 2010).
  • Other Religions:** Smaller communities, including the Baháʼí Faith, also exist.
  • Religious Freedom:** While the constitution guarantees freedom of worship to an extent, this is subject to the maintenance of public order and morality. Non-Muslims are allowed to practice their faith privately. Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal and can lead to severe penalties. The construction of non-Islamic places of worship is tightly controlled and limited to specific complexes. Apostasy from Islam is considered a capital offense under Sharia law, though no executions for apostasy have been reported in recent times. Religion plays a significant role in Qatari society, influencing laws, customs, and daily life.

10.3. Languages

The official language of Qatar is Arabic. The local dialect is Qatari Arabic, which is a variant of Gulf Arabic. Standard Arabic is used in formal settings, education, and media.

English is widely used as a second language and serves as a lingua franca, especially in business, commerce, education, and when communicating with the large and diverse expatriate population. Road signs and official documents are often bilingual in Arabic and English. The widespread use of English has led to some concerns about its encroachment on the Arabic language, prompting efforts to preserve and promote Arabic.

Due to the multinational composition of its residents, many other languages are spoken by expatriate communities. These include:

• South Asian languages: Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Bengali, Nepali, Sinhalese.
• Southeast Asian languages: Tagalog (Filipino), Indonesian.
• Other languages: Persian (Farsi), Baluchi, Brahui, and various European and African languages.

Qatari Sign Language is used by the deaf community. The linguistic diversity reflects Qatar's status as a major hub for international labor and business.

10.4. Healthcare

Qatar has a high standard of healthcare, with significant government investment in medical facilities, technology, and personnel. The healthcare system is managed primarily by the state-owned Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC), which operates a network of public hospitals (including Hamad General Hospital, Women's Hospital, Heart Hospital, and Al Wakrah Hospital), primary healthcare centers, ambulance services, and specialized clinics. Many of HMC's facilities are accredited by international bodies like the Joint Commission.

Key features of Qatar's healthcare system include:

• Universal Coverage for Citizens:** Qatari citizens are covered by a national health insurance scheme, providing them with free or heavily subsidized access to public healthcare services.
• Expatriate Healthcare:** Expatriates are typically required to have health insurance, often provided by their employers, or they can purchase private insurance. They can access public healthcare services, though often with higher co-payments than citizens. A compulsory health insurance scheme for expatriates and visitors has been implemented.
• Investment and Modernization:** The government has invested billions of dollars in healthcare infrastructure. This includes building new hospitals and clinics, acquiring advanced medical technology, and expanding specialized services. Sidra Medicine, a state-of-the-art hospital and research center specializing in women's and children's health, is a notable example.
• Health Standards and Outcomes:** Qatar has achieved high health standards. Life expectancy is among the highest in the Middle East (around 82 years in 2014). Infant mortality rates are low. Common health concerns include lifestyle-related diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular conditions, reflecting trends in affluent societies.
• Healthcare Workforce:** The healthcare workforce is largely composed of expatriate professionals from various countries. Efforts are underway to train and recruit more Qatari nationals into the medical field.
• Government Health Policies:** National health strategies focus on preventive care, managing chronic diseases, promoting healthy lifestyles, and enhancing the quality and accessibility of healthcare services.

In 2010, healthcare spending accounted for 2.2% of Qatar's GDP. In 2006, there were approximately 23 physicians and 62 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants. While the country has a relatively low proportion of hospital beds per capita compared to some regional peers, the availability of physicians is among the highest in the GCC.

11.1. Arts

Qatar has made substantial investments in arts and culture, driven significantly by the Al Thani ruling family, particularly Sheikha Al-Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, chairperson of Qatar Museums. This entity oversees the development of museums, public art installations, and cultural exchange programs.

• Museums:**
  • The Museum of Islamic Art (MIA), designed by I.M. Pei and opened in 2008, houses a world-renowned collection spanning 1,400 years of Islamic art from across three continents.
  • The National Museum of Qatar, designed by Jean Nouvel and inspired by the desert rose crystal, opened in 2019, showcasing Qatar's heritage, history, and future.
  • Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Art focuses on modern and contemporary art from the Arab world.
• Visual Arts:** Traditional Qatari crafts include weaving (especially Sadu patterns), pottery, and jewelry making. Contemporary art is a growing field, with support for local and regional artists through galleries, exhibitions, and artist residency programs. Qatar has also become a major buyer in the international art market, acquiring significant works for its museum collections.
• Public Art:** Qatar has invested in numerous public art installations by renowned international and local artists, displayed in various locations including Hamad International Airport and public parks.
• Architecture:** Traditional Qatari architecture features elements adapted to the desert climate, such as courtyards, wind towers (barjeel), and decorative gypsum carvings. Modern architecture in Doha is characterized by innovative and iconic skyscrapers and public buildings.
• Government Promotion:** Qatar Museums plays a central role in sponsoring artistic events both domestically and internationally, such as major exhibitions by artists like Takahashi Murakami and Damien Hirst. These efforts aim to position Qatar as a global cultural hub and contribute to its "soft power."

The development of the cultural sector is part of Qatar's broader strategy to diversify its economy and enhance its international standing beyond its hydrocarbon wealth.

11.2. Literature

Qatari literature traces its origins to the 19th century, with poetry, particularly Nabati (Bedouin vernacular poetry) and classical Arabic poetry, being the dominant forms of expression. Early prominent poets include Abdul Jalil Al-Tabatabai and Mohammed bin Abdullah bin Uthaymeen. Traditional poetry often reflected Bedouin life, maritime traditions, and social values.

The mid-20th century, with the onset of oil wealth and increased access to formal education, brought significant societal changes that impacted the literary scene. While poetry, especially the Nabati form, retained its importance, other literary genres began to emerge.

• Short Stories and Novels:** The first short story anthology was published in 1970, marking a shift towards prose. The first locally authored novels appeared in 1993. Contemporary Qatari fiction often explores themes of tradition versus modernity, social change, identity, and the impact of rapid development.
• Women in Literature:** Unlike some other artistic fields in the region at the time, women have been actively involved in Qatar's modern literature movement, contributing as poets, novelists, and short story writers to a similar extent as men. Figures like Kaltham Jaber and Hessa Al Muhannadi are among the notable female writers.
• Literary Institutions:** Institutions such as the Ministry of Culture and various literary clubs and awards support the development of Qatari literature. The Qatar National Library also plays a role in preserving and promoting literary heritage.

Modern Qatari literature continues to evolve, reflecting the dynamic social and cultural landscape of the country.

11.3. Media

Qatar's media landscape is dominated by the state-funded Al Jazeera Media Network, but also includes local newspapers, television, and radio. However, it operates within a restrictive legal and political environment.

• Al Jazeera:** Headquartered in Doha and launched in 1996, Al Jazeera has become a globally influential news organization. It started as an Arabic-language satellite news channel and has since expanded into a network with multiple channels (including Al Jazeera English) and online platforms. Al Jazeera is known for its coverage of the Middle East and its willingness to broadcast dissenting views, which has often put it at odds with other governments in the region and beyond. While it has contributed to Qatar's international profile, its editorial independence, particularly concerning Qatari domestic affairs, has been questioned.
• Domestic Press:** Qatar has several daily newspapers, with prominent ones including Al Sharq, Al Watan, and Al Raya in Arabic, and Gulf Times, The Peninsula, and Qatar Tribune in English. Newspapers from India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka also have editions printed in Qatar for their respective expatriate communities.
• Broadcasting:** Television broadcasting began in 1970. Qatar TV is the state-run national television channel. Radio Sawaat Al Khaleej is a popular Arabic music station.
• Press Freedom and Censorship:** Media in Qatar is classified as "not free" by organizations like Freedom House. Journalists widely practice self-censorship, especially regarding the Emir, the ruling Al Thani family, government policies, and Islam. Criticism of these subjects is illegal and can lead to severe penalties under press laws and the penal code. A Cybercrime Prevention Law passed in 2014 has been criticized by human rights groups for imposing further restrictions on freedom of expression online, with vague provisions that can be used to penalize "false news" or content deemed to jeopardize local peace.
• Information and Communication Technology (ICT):** Qatar has a high level of ICT infrastructure development and internet penetration. The Qatar Science & Technology Park aims to foster a knowledge-based economy. Qatar ranked 23rd overall in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index in 2014.

While Al Jazeera projects an image of an open media environment internationally, the domestic media landscape operates under significant constraints, reflecting the authoritarian nature of the state.

11.4. Music

The music of Qatar is rooted in Bedouin poetry, song, and dance, reflecting the country's maritime heritage and Arab traditions.

• Traditional Music:**
  • Fijiri:** This is a genre of vocal music traditionally associated with pearl divers. It involves a lead singer (nahham) and a chorus of men who provide rhythmic accompaniment through clapping and the use of percussion instruments like mirwas (small double-sided drums) and jahalah (clay water pots used as idiophones). The songs often speak of the sea, diving, and longing.
  • Ardah:** A traditional Bedouin sword dance performed by men, usually at celebrations and festivals. Two rows of dancers face each other, chanting poetry and moving rhythmically, often accompanied by drums like the al-ras (a large drum whose leather is heated by an open fire), tambourines, and cymbals.
  • Liwa and Tanbura:** These are musical and dance traditions with African influences, brought to the Gulf region through historical trade and migration. They feature specific drums and stringed instruments like the tanbūra (a lyre).
• Musical Instruments:** Besides drums like al-ras, tabl (a longitudinal drum), and mirwas, traditional Qatari music utilizes galahs (tall clay jars) and tin drinking cups known as tus or tasat as percussion. String instruments like the oud (a lute-like instrument) and rebaba (a one or two-stringed fiddle) are also common.
• Contemporary Music:** Modern Qatari music incorporates traditional elements with contemporary Arab pop and Western influences. Young Qatari artists are emerging in various genres. The government supports music through institutions like the Qatar Music Academy and events such as the Doha Cultural Festival. The Qatar Philharmonic Orchestra, established in 2007, performs both Western classical music and works by Arab composers.

Music plays an important role in social gatherings, celebrations, and national events, serving as a vital expression of Qatari cultural identity.

11.5. Sport

Sport plays a significant role in Qatari society and national identity, with substantial government investment in facilities, hosting international events, and developing national teams.

• Football (Soccer):** Association football is the most popular sport in Qatar. The Qatar Stars League is the top professional league. The Qatar national football team achieved notable success by winning the AFC Asian Cup in 2019 and 2023. Qatar hosted the 2022 FIFA World Cup, a landmark event that involved the construction of seven new stadiums and the expansion of an existing one. While the event was a major undertaking, it was also surrounded by controversy regarding the treatment of migrant workers involved in construction, leading to international scrutiny of Qatar's labor laws and human rights record.
• Handball:** The national handball team has achieved international success, notably finishing as runners-up in the 2015 World Men's Handball Championship, which Qatar hosted.
• Other Sports:**
  • Basketball:** Qatar won the world championship in men's 3x3 basketball in 2014 and is set to host the 2027 FIBA Basketball World Cup.
  • Athletics:** Qatar has produced successful athletes in track and field, particularly in disciplines like high jump and running. Aspire Academy in Doha is a major sports development institution.
  • Motorsports:** The Lusail International Circuit hosts international events, including MotoGP races and, more recently, Formula One Grands Prix.
  • Equestrian Sports:** Traditional sports like horse racing (including purebred Arabian races) and camel racing are popular. Modern show jumping and endurance riding are also well-developed.
  • Cricket:** Popular among the South Asian expatriate community. The national team participates in ICC competitions.
  • Tennis:** The Qatar ExxonMobil Open (ATP Tour) and Qatar Total Open (WTA Tour) are annual professional tennis tournaments held in Doha.
  • Cycling:** The Tour of Qatar was an annual professional cycling race.

  Qatar has hosted numerous international sporting events, including the 2006 Asian Games and is scheduled to host the 2030 Asian Games. The government views sport as a tool for national development, international diplomacy, and promoting a healthy lifestyle. However, the focus on elite sports and mega-events has sometimes been contrasted with concerns about grassroots participation and the human rights implications of large-scale sports infrastructure development.

  11.5.1. 2022 FIFA World Cup

  

  

  Qatar was awarded the right to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup on December 2, 2010, becoming the first country in the Middle East and the Arab world to do so. The decision was met with enthusiasm in the region but also sparked significant controversy internationally.

  • Bidding Process and Preparations:** The bidding process itself was subject to allegations of bribery and corruption, which FIFA investigations later largely cleared Qatar of, though criticism of the process persisted. Qatar embarked on a massive infrastructure development program, investing an estimated 220.00 B USD. This included the construction of seven new state-of-the-art stadiums (Lusail, Al Bayt, Al Janoub, Ahmad bin Ali, Education City, Al Thumama, Stadium 974) and the extensive renovation of Khalifa International Stadium. Extensive upgrades to transportation (including the Doha Metro), accommodation, and other facilities were also undertaken. To mitigate extreme summer heat, the tournament was moved to November and December, a first in World Cup history, causing disruption to European domestic league schedules.

  • Labor Rights Issues:** The most significant controversy surrounded the treatment of migrant workers involved in the construction projects. Numerous reports from human rights organizations and media outlets detailed exploitative labor practices, including wage theft, hazardous working conditions, cramped and unsanitary accommodation, and restrictions on workers' freedom under the Kafala system. The Guardian reported in February 2021 that an estimated 6,500 migrant workers from India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka had died in Qatar since it won the World Cup bid in 2010, although Qatari authorities disputed these figures and their direct link to World Cup projects, attributing many deaths to natural causes or non-work-related incidents. International pressure led Qatar to implement labor reforms, including dismantling parts of the Kafala system, introducing a minimum wage, and improving health and safety standards. However, critics argued that these reforms were not always effectively enforced and that abuses continued.

  • Tournament Operations:** The World Cup was held from November 20 to December 18, 2022. The tournament itself was generally praised for its organization, modern facilities, and compact nature, allowing fans to attend multiple matches in a day. Argentina won the tournament, defeating France in the final.

  • Socio-Economic Impact and International Assessments:** The World Cup significantly raised Qatar's international profile. Economically, it spurred infrastructure development, but the long-term economic benefits versus the enormous cost are still being assessed. Socially, it brought diverse cultures together but also highlighted cultural differences regarding issues like alcohol consumption (which was restricted in and around stadiums shortly before the tournament) and LGBTQ+ rights (as homosexuality is illegal in Qatar). International assessments were mixed: while some praised the successful hosting and a unique World Cup experience, others continued to criticize Qatar's human rights record, particularly concerning migrant workers, women's rights, and LGBTQ+ rights. The tournament served as a catalyst for some labor reforms, but human rights organizations continue to call for more comprehensive and lasting changes to protect the rights of all individuals in Qatar. The impact on the affected migrant worker populations and their families remains a critical aspect of the World Cup's legacy.

11.6. Cuisine

Qatari cuisine reflects traditional Arab and Bedouin culinary traditions, with influences from India, Iran, the Levant, and North Africa due to historical trade and, more recently, its diverse expatriate population.

• Key Ingredients:** Common ingredients include seafood from the Persian Gulf (such as hammour, kingfish, and shrimp), lamb, chicken, rice, dates, yogurt, and various vegetables. Spices are central to Qatari cooking, with cardamom, saffron, turmeric, cinnamon, and black lime (loomi) being frequently used.
• Traditional Dishes:**
  • Machboos (or Kabsa):** This is often considered the national dish. It's a spiced rice dish, slow-cooked with either lamb, chicken, or fish. The rice is flavored with a blend of aromatic spices.
  • Harees:** A porridge-like dish made from boiled, cracked, or coarsely-ground wheat, mixed with meat (usually chicken or lamb) and seasoned.
  • Thareed:** A stew of meat and vegetables, often served with a layer of crispy bread (rigag) at the bottom to soak up the broth.
  • Balaleet:** Sweet vermicelli noodles cooked with sugar, cardamom, rose water, and saffron, often topped with an omelet. It can be served for breakfast or as a dessert.
  • Saloona:** A spicy meat and/or vegetable stew, typically eaten with rice.
  • Madrouba:** A savory rice porridge, often made with chicken and a variety of spices, cooked until the ingredients are well combined and tender.
• Seafood:** Given Qatar's coastal location, fish and shellfish are prominent. Grilled or fried fish, often served with spiced rice, is common.
• Sweets and Desserts:**
  • Luqaimat:** Sweet dumplings, similar to doughnuts, deep-fried and then drizzled with date syrup or honey.
  • Aseeda:** A sweet pudding made from flour, butter, sugar, and often flavored with cardamom and saffron.
• Dates are a staple and often served with Arabic coffee.
• Beverages:** Arabic coffee (gahwa), often flavored with cardamom, is a symbol of hospitality and is traditionally served to guests. Karak chai (strong tea boiled with milk and spices like cardamom and saffron) is also very popular.
• Food Culture:** Hospitality is a cornerstone of Qatari culture, and sharing food with guests is highly valued. Meals are often communal, and traditional dining involves sitting on the floor around a shared platter.
• Modern Culinary Trends:** Doha has a vibrant and diverse modern culinary scene, with numerous international restaurants offering cuisines from around the world, reflecting its cosmopolitan population. Fine dining and fusion cuisine are also increasingly popular.

Efforts are made to preserve traditional Qatari cuisine through food festivals and cultural events.

11.7. World Heritage Sites

As of 2024, Qatar has one site inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

• Al Zubarah Archaeological Site**: Inscribed in 2013, Al Zubarah is the archaeological site of a historic pearling and trading town located on the northwest coast of Qatar. Founded in the 18th century by merchants from Kuwait, Al Zubarah grew to become a significant center for pearling and commerce in the Persian Gulf. The site includes the remains of the fortified town, residential palaces, mosques, fishermen's huts, streets, double defensive walls, a harbor, a canal, and cemeteries. The most prominent feature is the restored Zubarah Fort, built in 1938. Al Zubarah provides important evidence of urban trading and pearl-diving traditions that sustained major coastal towns of the region from the early Islamic period to the 20th century. It illustrates the interaction between human settlement, trade, and the challenging desert and marine environment. The site was abandoned in the early 20th century and has been preserved under layers of sand, making it a valuable archaeological resource.

Qatar also has several sites on UNESCO's Tentative List, indicating potential future nominations for World Heritage status. These sites often represent other aspects of Qatar's natural and cultural heritage.

11.8. Public Holidays

Qatar observes several national and religious public holidays. The dates for religious holidays are based on the Islamic calendar (Hijri calendar) and thus vary each year in the Gregorian calendar.

• Qatar National Day**: Celebrated on December 18th annually. This holiday commemorates the assumption of power by Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani in 1878, who is considered the founder of the modern State of Qatar due to his unification of the various Qatari tribes. It is marked by parades, fireworks, cultural events, and patriotic displays. This date was adopted in 2007; previously, Independence Day (September 3rd) was the national holiday.
• Eid al-Fitr (Festival of Breaking the Fast)**: Celebrated on the first day of Shawwal, the month following Ramadan. It marks the end of the month-long fast. Public holidays typically last for three to four days. It involves special prayers, feasting, family gatherings, and giving charity (Zakat al-Fitr).
• Eid al-Adha (Festival of the Sacrifice)**: Celebrated on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, during the Hajj pilgrimage. It commemorates Prophet Ibrahim's (Abraham's) willingness to sacrifice his son. The public holiday usually lasts for three to four days. It involves animal sacrifice (with the meat distributed to the poor), prayers, and family gatherings.
• National Sports Day**: Observed on the second Tuesday of February each year. This holiday was established in 2012 to promote a healthy lifestyle and sports participation among the population. Various sports activities and events are organized across the country.
• New Year's Day**: January 1st is generally a holiday for banks and some international businesses, but not always a full public holiday for all sectors.

Fridays and Saturdays are the official weekend in Qatar. Government offices and many businesses are closed on these days. During Ramadan, working hours are often shortened.