South Africa

3.1. Prehistory and Indigenous Peoples

South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human-fossil sites in the world. Archaeologists have recovered extensive fossil remains from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. This area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has been branded "the Cradle of Humankind". The sites include Sterkfontein, one of the richest sites for hominin fossils in the world, as well as Swartkrans, Gondolin Cave, Kromdraai, Cooper's Cave and Malapa. In 1924, Raymond Dart identified the first hominin fossil discovered in Africa, the Taung Child, found near Taung. Other hominin remains have come from the sites of Makapansgat in Limpopo Province; Cornelia and Florisbad in Free State Province; Border Cave in KwaZulu-Natal Province; Klasies River Caves in Eastern Cape Province; and Pinnacle Point, Elandsfontein, and Die Kelders Cave in Western Cape Province.

These finds suggest that various hominid species existed in South Africa from about three million years ago, starting with Australopithecus africanus, followed by Australopithecus sediba, Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, Homo rhodesiensis, Homo helmei, Homo naledi and modern humans (Homo sapiens). Modern humans have inhabited Southern Africa for at least 170,000 years. Various researchers have located pebble tools within the Vaal River valley.

The first known inhabitants were the indigenous Khoisan (Khoikhoi and San peoples), who were hunter-gatherers and pastoralists. Rock paintings by the San people, some dated to be as old as 26,000 years, can be found in various parts of the country.

Settlements of Bantu-speaking peoples, who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen, were present south of the Limpopo River (now the northern border with Botswana and Zimbabwe) by the 4th or 5th century CE, as part of the Bantu expansion. The Bantu-speaking groups slowly moved southwards. The earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050 CE. The southernmost group was the Xhosa, whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan peoples. The Xhosa reached the Great Fish River, in today's Eastern Cape Province. As they migrated, these larger Iron Age populations displaced or assimilated earlier Khoisan peoples. In Mpumalanga Province, several stone circles have been found along with a stone arrangement that has been named Adam's Calendar; these ruins are thought to have been created by the Bokoni, a Northern Sotho people.

Around 1220 CE, in the Limpopo-Shashe River Basin, the elite of K2 moved to settle the flat-topped summit of Mapungubwe Hill, with the general population settling below. Rainmaking rituals were crucial to the development of sacral kingship. By 1250, the capital of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe had a population of approximately 5,000, and the state covered an area of about 12 K mile^{2 (30.00 K km2)}. It grew wealthy through trade in the Indian Ocean trade network. The reasons for Mapungubwe's collapse around 1300 CE are unknown, but trade routes shifted north from the Limpopo to the Zambezi, leading to the rise of Great Zimbabwe. Mapungubwe Hill was abandoned, and its population dispersed.

3.2. European Exploration and Early Colonization

In 1487, the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias led the first European voyage to land in southern Africa. On December 4, he landed at Walfisch Bay (now known as Walvis Bay in present-day Namibia). This was south of the furthest point reached in 1485 by his predecessor, the Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão (Cape Cross, north of the bay). Dias continued down the western coast of southern Africa. After January 8, 1488, prevented by storms from proceeding along the coast, he sailed out of sight of land and passed the southernmost point of Africa without seeing it. He reached as far up the eastern coast of Africa as what he called Rio do Infante_{Rio do Infante (River of the Prince)}^Portuguese, probably the present-day Groot River, in May 1488. On his return, he saw the cape, which he named Cabo das Tormentas_{Cabo das Tormentas (Cape of Storms)}^Portuguese. King John II of Portugal renamed the point Cabo da Boa Esperança_{Cabo da Boa Esperança (Cape of Good Hope)}^Portuguese, or Cape of Good Hope, as it led to the riches of the East Indies. Dias's feat of navigation was immortalized in Luís de Camões's 1572 epic poem Os Lusíadas.

With Portugal's declining maritime power in the early 17th century, English and Dutch merchants competed to dislodge Portugal's lucrative monopoly on the spice trade. British East India Company representatives sporadically called at the Cape in search of provisions as early as 1601 but later came to favour Ascension Island and Saint Helena as ports of refuge. Dutch interest was aroused after 1647, when two employees of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) were shipwrecked at the Cape for several months. The sailors were able to survive by obtaining fresh water and meat from the natives and also sowed vegetables in the fertile soil. Upon their return to Holland, they reported favourably on the Cape's potential as a "warehouse and garden" for provisions to stock passing ships for long voyages.

In 1652, a century and a half after the discovery of the Cape sea route, Jan van Riebeeck established a victualling station at the Cape of Good Hope, at what would become Cape Town, on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. In time, the Cape became home to a large population of vrijlieden_{Vrylieden (free people)}^Dutch, also known as vrijburgers_{Vryburgers (free citizens)}^Dutch, former company employees who stayed in Dutch overseas territories after serving their contracts. Dutch traders also brought thousands of enslaved people to the fledgling colony from present-day Indonesia, Madagascar, and eastern Africa. Some of the earliest mixed-race communities in the country were formed between vrijburgers, enslaved people, and indigenous peoples. This led to the development of a new ethnic group, the Cape Coloureds, most of whom adopted the Dutch language and Christian faith.

Conflicts over resources between South Africa's indigenous Khoisan people and Dutch settlers began in the 17th century and continued for centuries. Dutch colonists' eastward expansion caused wars with the southwesterly migrating Xhosa tribe, known as the Xhosa Wars, as both sides competed for the pastureland near the Great Fish River, which the colonists desired for grazing cattle. Vrijburgers who became independent farmers on the frontier were known as Boers, with some adopting semi-nomadic lifestyles being denoted as trekboeren_Trekboeren^Dutch. The Boers formed loose militias, which they termed commandos, and forged alliances with Khoisan peoples to repel Xhosa raids. Both sides launched bloody but inconclusive offensives, and sporadic violence, often accompanied by livestock theft, remained common for several decades.

3.3. British Colonization, Mfecane, and the Great Trek

Great Britain occupied Cape Town between 1795 and 1803 to prevent it from falling under the control of the French First Republic, which had invaded the Low Countries. After briefly returning to Dutch rule under the Batavian Republic in 1803, the Cape was occupied again by the British in 1806. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it was formally ceded to Great Britain and became an integral part of the British Empire. British emigration to South Africa began around 1818, subsequently culminating in the arrival of the 1820 Settlers. The new colonists were induced to settle for a variety of reasons, namely to increase the size of the European workforce and to bolster frontier regions against Xhosa incursions.

In the early 1800s, the Mfecane (literally 'crushing' or 'scattering') was a period of widespread chaos and warfare among indigenous ethnic communities in southern Africa. This period saw heightened conflict, migration, and state formation among native groups, caused by the complex interplay of international trade, environmental instability, and European colonization. Chiefdoms grew wealthier and competed over trade routes and grazing land, leading to the formation of the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa Paramountcies in the east. The Ndwandwe defeated the Mthethwa, which split into different groups, one of which was led by Shaka of the Zulu. The 1810s saw the fourth and fifth Xhosa Wars as British colonization expanded. The Ndwandwe splintered amid costly raids, and Shaka's Zulu Kingdom rose to fill the power vacuum. The Gaza Kingdom also formed. The Zulu totally defeated the Ndwandwe but were repelled by Gaza.

During the early 19th century, many Dutch settlers departed from the Cape Colony, where they had been subjected to British control, in a series of migrant groups who came to be known as Voortrekkers_{Voortrekkers (Pioneers)}^Dutch. This migration is known as the Great Trek. They migrated to the future Natal, Free State, and Transvaal regions. The Boers founded the Boer republics: the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic), the Natalia Republic, and the Orange Free State. In the interior, the Cape Colony expanded at the expense of the Batswana and Griqua, and Boer expansion caused great instability in the Middle Orange River region. The Matabele Kingdom came to dominate the eastern interior and raided the Venda kingdom.

The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1884 in the interior started the Mineral Revolution and increased economic growth and immigration. This intensified British subjugation of the indigenous people. The struggle to control these important economic resources was a factor in relations between Europeans and the indigenous population and also between the Boers and the British.

On 16 May 1876, President Thomas François Burgers of the South African Republic declared war against the Pedi. King Sekhukhune managed to defeat the Boer army on 1 August 1876. Another attack by the Lydenburg Volunteer Corps was also repulsed. On 16 February 1877, the two parties signed a peace treaty at Botshabelo. The Boers' inability to subdue the Pedi led to the departure of Burgers in favour of Paul Kruger and the British annexation of the South African Republic. In 1878 and 1879, three British attacks were successfully repelled until Sir Garnet Wolseley defeated Sekhukhune in November 1879 with an army of 2,000 British soldiers, Boers, and 10,000 Swazis.

The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British and the Zulu Kingdom. Following Lord Carnarvon's successful introduction of federation in Canada, it was thought that similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas, and Boer republics in South Africa. In 1874, Sir Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as the British High Commissioner for Southern Africa to bring such plans into being. Among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the Boers and the army of Zululand. The Zulu nation famously defeated the British at the Battle of Isandlwana. Eventually, Zululand lost the war, resulting in the termination of the Zulu nation's independence.

3.4. Boer Wars

The Boer republics successfully resisted British encroachments during the First Boer War (1880-1881), using guerrilla warfare tactics that were well-suited to local conditions. The British returned with greater numbers, more experience, and new strategy in the Second Boer War (1899-1902). Although suffering heavy casualties due to Boer attrition warfare, the British were ultimately successful. This victory was partly due to their use of scorched earth tactics and the establishment of concentration camps for Boer civilians. Tragically, an estimated 27,000 Boer civilians, mostly women and children, died in these camps due to disease, malnutrition, and neglect, a deeply scarring episode which fueled Afrikaner nationalism and anti-British sentiment for generations. The war also saw the use of concentration camps for black Africans, where conditions were also dire, though this aspect has often received less historical attention. The discovery of vast gold and diamond deposits was a primary driver of these conflicts, as British imperial interests clashed with the Boers' desire for independence and control over these resources.

South Africa's urban population grew rapidly from the end of the 19th century onward. After the devastation of the wars, many Boer farmers, dispossessed of their lands or ruined by the conflict, fled into Transvaal and Orange Free State cities, constituting a new class of white urban poor. This migration contributed to the complex social and economic fabric of the burgeoning urban centers.

3.5. Union of South Africa and Path to Independence

Eight years after the end of the Second Boer War and after four years of negotiation, the South Africa Act 1909 granted nominal independence while creating the Union of South Africa on 31 May 1910. The Union was a dominion of the British Empire and included the former territories of the Cape, Transvaal, and Natal colonies, as well as the Orange Free State republic. Anti-British policies among white South Africans focused on achieving greater independence. During the Dutch and British colonial years, racial segregation was mostly informal, though some legislation was enacted to control the settlement and movement of indigenous people, including the Native Location Act of 1879 and the system of pass laws.

The Natives' Land Act, 1913 severely restricted the ownership of land by black Africans, allocating only about 7% of the country's land for them, a figure that was later marginally increased. This act was a cornerstone of territorial segregation and dispossession, profoundly impacting black communities by limiting their access to arable land and forcing many into wage labor in mines and white-owned farms.

In 1931, the Union became fully sovereign from the United Kingdom with the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, which abolished the last powers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom to legislate for the country. Only three other African countries-Liberia, Ethiopia, and Egypt-had been independent prior to that point. In 1934, the South African Party and National Party merged to form the United Party, seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking whites. However, in 1939, the party split over the entry of the Union into World War II as an ally of the United Kingdom, a move which National Party followers, many of whom harbored pro-German or anti-British sentiments, opposed. South Africa, under Prime Minister Jan Smuts, ultimately contributed significantly to the Allied war effort.

3.6. Apartheid Era

In 1948, the National Party, representing Afrikaner nationalism, was elected to power. It began to implement and strengthen the policies of racial segregation that had existed under Dutch and British colonial rule, institutionalizing them into a comprehensive system known as apartheid (meaning "apartness" or "separateness" in Afrikaans). Taking Canada's Indian Act as a framework for some of its policies, the nationalist government classified all peoples into defined racial groups: "Whites," "Blacks (Africans)," "Coloureds" (people of mixed race), and "Indians (Asians)," and developed distinct rights and limitations for each. The white minority, constituting less than 20% of the population, controlled the vastly larger black majority.

Apartheid legislation permeated every aspect of life, mandating segregation in housing, education, employment, public amenities, and political participation. Key laws included the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949), the Population Registration Act (1950) which formalized racial classification, the Group Areas Act (1950) which assigned different racial groups to separate residential and business sections in urban areas, and the Bantu Education Act (1953) which provided inferior education for black children designed to prepare them for manual labor. "Grand Apartheid" policies also led to the creation of nominally independent "homelands" or Bantustans for different black ethnic groups, a move aimed at stripping black South Africans of their citizenship and justifying white minority rule. These Bantustans were economically unviable and internationally unrecognized.

While whites enjoyed the highest standard of living in all of Africa, comparable to First World Western nations, the black majority remained severely disadvantaged by almost every standard, including income, education, housing, and life expectancy. The Freedom Charter, adopted in 1955 by the Congress Alliance (a multi-racial coalition including the ANC), demanded a non-racial society and an end to discrimination, becoming a seminal document for the anti-apartheid struggle.

On 31 May 1961, following a whites-only referendum which narrowly passed, the country became a republic and withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations due to widespread condemnation of its apartheid policies. Elizabeth II ceased to be Queen of South Africa, and the last Governor-General, Charles Robberts Swart, became the first State President of South Africa. The presidency was initially a ceremonial post, but P. W. Botha's Constitution Act of 1983 eliminated the office of Prime Minister of South Africa and established a "strong presidency" responsible to a tricameral parliament (with separate houses for Whites, Coloureds, and Indians, but excluding Blacks).

Despite growing opposition to apartheid both within and outside the country, the government legislated for a continuation of the system. Security forces cracked down brutally on internal dissent, and violence became widespread. Anti-apartheid organizations such as the African National Congress (ANC), the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), and later the Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) and the United Democratic Front (UDF) engaged in various forms of resistance, including civil disobedience, strikes, armed struggle (guerrilla warfare by the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe, and the PAC's Poqo/APLA), and urban sabotage. The three rival resistance movements also engaged in occasional inter-factional clashes as they jockeyed for domestic influence. Apartheid became increasingly controversial internationally, leading to boycotts, international sanctions, and the divestment of holdings by foreign investors, which severely impacted the South African economy. The human cost of apartheid was immense, with countless individuals imprisoned, tortured, exiled, or killed in the pursuit of a non-racial, democratic South Africa.

3.7. Transition to Democracy and Post-Apartheid Era

The journey towards a democratic South Africa was marked by both internal resistance and increasing international pressure. The Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith, signed by Mangosuthu Buthelezi of the Inkatha Freedom Party and Harry Schwarz of the Progressive Party in 1974, enshrined the principles of peaceful transition of power and equality for all, representing an early, though limited, agreement between black and white political leaders.

The late 1980s saw an escalation of internal unrest and international sanctions. In 1989, F. W. de Klerk became president and, recognizing the untenability of apartheid, initiated reforms. In February 1990, the National Party government took the decisive step of unbanning the African National Congress (ANC), the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), the South African Communist Party (SACP), and other political organizations. Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27 years of incarceration, a momentous event that signaled the beginning of the end for apartheid.

A complex and often fraught negotiation process followed, involving the government, the ANC, and other political parties. These negotiations, known as the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), aimed to draft an interim constitution and pave the way for the country's first non-racial democratic elections. Despite outbreaks of political violence, the process continued. With approval from the white electorate in a referendum in 1992, the government moved forward.

South Africa held its first universal elections on 27 April 1994, a day now celebrated as Freedom Day. The ANC won by an overwhelming majority, and Nelson Mandela became the country's first black president, heading a Government of National Unity that included the National Party and the Inkatha Freedom Party. South Africa rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations and became a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). A new, progressive constitution was adopted in 1996, enshrining human rights, equality, and a multi-party democracy.

In post-apartheid ANC-governed South Africa, significant progress was made in dismantling discriminatory laws and establishing democratic institutions. However, the nation faced immense challenges. Unemployment skyrocketed to over 30% and income inequality, already severe under apartheid, actually increased. While many black South Africans have risen to the middle or upper classes, the overall unemployment rate for black people worsened between 1994 and 2003 by official metrics, though it declined using expanded definitions. Poverty among white South Africans, previously rare, increased. The government struggled to achieve the monetary and fiscal discipline to ensure both redistribution of wealth and sustainable economic growth. The United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) rose steadily until the mid-1990s, then fell from 1995 to 2005 before recovering its 1995 peak in 2013. This decline was largely attributable to the devastating HIV/AIDS pandemic, which saw South African life expectancy fall from a high point of 62 years in 1992 to a low of 53 in 2005, and the government's initial controversial and ineffective response to the crisis.

In May 2008, riots targeting foreign nationals left over 60 people dead. The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE) estimated that over 100,000 people were driven from their homes. The targets were mainly legal and illegal migrants, and refugees seeking asylum, but a third of the victims were South African citizens. A 2006 survey by the South African Migration Project concluded that South Africans are more opposed to immigration than many other national groups. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reported in 2008 that over 200,000 refugees applied for asylum in South Africa, almost four times as many as the year before, mainly from Zimbabwe, but also from Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Competition over jobs, business opportunities, public services, and housing has led to tension between refugees and host communities. While xenophobia in South Africa remains a problem, the UNHCR reported in 2011 that recent violence had not been as widespread as initially feared. Nevertheless, as South Africa continues to grapple with racial issues, one of the proposed solutions has been to pass legislation, such as the pending Hate Crimes and Hate Speech Bill, to uphold South Africa's ban on racism and commitment to equality.

On 14 February 2018, Jacob Zuma resigned from the presidency amid mounting pressure over corruption allegations. Since 15 February 2018, ANC president Cyril Ramaphosa has been President of South Africa. On 16 March 2018, National Director of Public Prosecutions Shaun Abrahams announced that Zuma would again face prosecution on 16 criminal charges, including fraud, corruption, racketeering, and money laundering, similar to a 2006 indictment. A warrant was issued for his arrest in February 2020 after he failed to appear in court. In 2021, he was found guilty of contempt of court and sentenced to 15 months' imprisonment. In response, supporters of Zuma engaged in protests which led to the July 2021 riots, involving widespread looting, vandalism, and violence, leaving 354 people dead.

The Zondo Commission, established in 2018 to investigate allegations of corruption and state capture during the Zuma presidency, released its findings in 2022. It found rampant corruption at every level of government, including state-owned enterprises like Transnet, Eskom, and Denel, as well as law enforcement, intelligence agencies, and the civil service. The commission documented evidence of systemic corruption, fraud, racketeering, bribery, money laundering, and state capture. It investigated the ANC party and Jacob Zuma, whom it concluded were complicit in state capture through their direct assistance to the Gupta family. The Commission estimated the total amount of money spent by the state that was "tainted" by state capture to be around 57.00 B ZAR. More than 97% of this 57.00 B ZAR came from Transnet and Eskom. Out of these funds, the Gupta enterprise received at least 15.00 B ZAR. The total loss to the state is difficult to quantify but would far exceed that 15.00 B ZAR.

South Africa has maintained a position of neutrality regarding the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and the ongoing war. On 29 December 2023, South Africa formally submitted its case to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) regarding Israel's conduct in the Gaza Strip as part of the Israel-Hamas war, alleging that Israel had committed and was committing genocide against Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. South Africa has repeatedly hosted senior leaders of Hamas, the group responsible for the 7 October attack in Israel.

Following the 2024 general elections, the African National Congress saw its share of the national vote fall below 50% for the first time since the end of apartheid, though it remained the single largest party in the South African Parliament. President Ramaphosa announced a government of national unity, the first since the cabinet of Nelson Mandela, and entered a deal with the Democratic Alliance, the previous main opposition party, and other minor parties. Ramaphosa was reelected for a second term in office by the National Assembly of South Africa.

South Africa has been undergoing a period of intense political and economic crisis since approximately 2020, with growing numbers of international institutions, businesses, and political figures warning that the country risks collapsing into a failed state due to high unemployment, low economic growth, low business investment, rising levels of violent crime, disorder, political corruption, and state capture. The country has been undergoing an energy crisis since 2007, resulting in routine rolling electricity blackouts due to load shedding. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), South Africa is suffering from "massive corruption" and state capture. However, by mid-2024, improvements in energy supply were noted, with no planned power cuts since late March 2024, attributed to better management at Eskom and high-level political support.

4.1. Climate

South Africa has a generally temperate climate due to its location surrounded by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans on three sides, its position in the climatically milder Southern Hemisphere, and an average elevation that rises steadily towards the north and inland. This varied topography and oceanic influence result in a great variety of climatic zones. These zones range from the extreme desert of the southern Namib in the farthest northwest to the lush subtropical climate in the east along the border with Mozambique and the Indian Ocean. Winters in South Africa occur between June and August.

The extreme southwest has a climate similar to that of the Mediterranean, with wet winters and hot, dry summers, hosting the famous fynbos biome of shrubland and thicket. This area produces much of South Africa's wine and is known for its wind, which blows intermittently almost all year. Further east on the south coast, rainfall is distributed more evenly throughout the year, producing a green landscape. The annual rainfall increases south of the Lowveld, especially near the coast, which is subtropical. The Free State is particularly flat as it lies centrally on the high plateau. North of the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not experience subtropical extremes of heat. Johannesburg, in the centre of the Highveld, is at 5.7 K ft ^{(1.74 K m)} above sea level and receives an annual rainfall of 30 in ^{(760 mm)}. Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.

The coldest place on mainland South Africa is Buffelsfontein in the Eastern Cape, where a temperature of -4.18 °F ^{(-20.1 °C)} was recorded in 2013. The Prince Edward Islands have colder average annual temperatures, but Buffelsfontein experiences colder extremes. The deep interior of mainland South Africa has the hottest temperatures: a temperature of 125.06 °F ^{(51.7 °C)} was recorded in 1948 in the Northern Cape Kalahari near Upington, though this temperature is unofficial. The official highest temperature is 119.84 °F ^{(48.8 °C)} at Vioolsdrif in January 1993.

Climate change in South Africa is leading to increased temperatures and rainfall variability. Extreme weather events are becoming more prominent. This is a critical concern for South Africans as climate change will affect the overall status and wellbeing of the country, for example, with regards to water resources. Rapid environmental changes are resulting in clear effects on community and environmental levels, impacting air quality, temperature and weather patterns, food security, and disease burden. According to computer-generated climate modelling produced by the South African National Biodiversity Institute, parts of southern Africa will see an increase in temperature by about 1.8 °F ^{(1 °C)} along the coast to more than 7.2 °F ^{(4 °C)} in the already hot hinterland such as the Northern Cape in late spring and summertime by 2050. The Cape Floristic Region is predicted to be hit very hard by climate change. Drought, increased intensity and frequency of fire, and climbing temperatures are expected to push many rare species towards extinction. South Africa has published two national climate change reports, in 2011 and 2016. The country contributes considerable greenhouse gas emissions, being the 14th largest emitter of carbon dioxide, primarily from its heavy reliance on coal and oil for energy production. As part of its international commitments, South Africa has pledged to peak emissions between 2020 and 2025.

4.2. Biodiversity

South Africa signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 4 June 1994 and became a party to the convention on 2 November 1995. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. The country is ranked sixth out of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries. Ecotourism in South Africa has become more prevalent in recent years as a method of maintaining and improving biodiversity.

Numerous mammals are found in the Bushveld, including lions, African leopards, South African cheetahs, southern white rhinos, blue wildebeest, kudus, impalas, hyenas, hippopotamuses, and South African giraffes. A significant extent of the Bushveld exists in the northeast, including Kruger National Park and the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, as well as in the far north in the Waterberg Biosphere. South Africa houses many endemic species, among them the critically endangered riverine rabbit (Bunolagus monticularis) in the Karoo.

Up to 1945, more than 4,900 species of fungi (including lichen-forming species) had been recorded. In 2006, the number of fungi in South Africa was estimated at 200,000 species but did not take into account fungi associated with insects. If correct, then the number of South African fungi dwarfs that of its plants. In at least some major South African ecosystems, an exceptionally high percentage of fungi are highly specific in terms of the plants with which they occur.

With more than 22,000 different vascular plants, or about 9% of all the known species of plants on Earth, South Africa is particularly rich in plant diversity. The most prevalent biome is the grassland, particularly on the Highveld, where the plant cover is dominated by different grasses, low shrubs, and acacia, mainly camel-thorn (Vachellia erioloba). Vegetation is sparse towards the northwest because of low rainfall. There are numerous species of water-storing succulents, like aloes and euphorbias, in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. According to the World Wildlife Fund, South Africa is home to around a third of all succulent species. The grass and thorn savanna turns slowly into a bush savanna towards the northeast of the country, with denser growth. There are significant numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park.

The fynbos biome, which makes up the majority of the area and plant life in the Cape Floristic Region, is located in a small region of the Western Cape and contains more than 9,000 of those species, making it among the richest regions on Earth in terms of plant diversity. Most of the plants are evergreen hard-leaf plants with fine, needle-like leaves, such as the sclerophyllous plants. Another uniquely South African flowering plant group is the genus Protea, with around 130 different species. While South Africa has a great wealth of flowering plants, only 1% of the land is forest, almost exclusively in the humid coastal plain of KwaZulu-Natal, where there are also areas of Southern Africa mangroves in river mouths. Even smaller reserves of forests are out of the reach of fire, known as montane forests. Plantations of imported tree species are predominant, particularly the non-native eucalyptus and pine.

South Africa has lost a large area of natural habitat in the last four decades, primarily because of overpopulation, sprawling development patterns, and deforestation during the 19th century. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.94/10, ranking it 112th globally out of 172 countries. South Africa is one of the worst affected countries in the world when it comes to invasion by alien species, with many (e.g., black wattle, Port Jackson willow, Hakea, Lantana and Jacaranda) posing a significant threat to the native biodiversity and the already scarce water resources. Also, woody plant encroachment of native plants in grasslands poses a threat to biodiversity and related ecosystem services, affecting over 7 million hectares. The original temperate forest found by the first European settlers was exploited until only small patches remained. Currently, South African hardwood trees like real yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), and South African black ironwood (Olea capensis) are under strict government protection. Poaching, particularly of rhinos, is a significant conservation challenge. Statistics from the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries showed a record 1,215 rhinos were killed in 2014. Since South Africa is home to a third of all succulent species (many endemic to the Karoo), it is a hotspot for plant poaching, leading many species to be threatened with extinction.

5.1. Government Structure

The South African government operates under a parliamentary system with three distinct branches:

• Legislative Branch: The Parliament of South Africa is bicameral, consisting of:
  • The National Assembly: This is the lower house, composed of 400 members elected every five years through a system of party-list proportional representation. The National Assembly elects the President, can pass motions of no confidence, and is the primary body for drafting and passing national legislation.
  • The National Council of Provinces (NCOP): This is the upper house, consisting of 90 members. Each of the nine provincial legislatures elects ten members to represent provincial interests at the national level. The NCOP plays a role in ensuring that provincial concerns are integrated into the national legislative process.
  • Executive Branch: The executive authority is vested in the President of South Africa, who is both the head of state and head of government.
    • The President is elected by the National Assembly from among its members for a term concurrent with the Assembly (normally five years) and is limited to two terms. The President appoints a Deputy President and Ministers, who form the Cabinet. The Cabinet is responsible for implementing laws, developing policy, and managing government departments. The current President is Cyril Ramaphosa and the Deputy President is Paul Mashatile. The Speaker of the National Assembly is Thoko Didiza, and the Chairperson of the National Council of Provinces is Refilwe Mtsweni-Tsipane.
    • Judicial Branch: The judiciary is independent and subject only to the Constitution and the law.
      • The court system consists of Magistrates' Courts (for lesser criminal and civil cases), the High Court (with divisions serving as courts of general jurisdiction), the Supreme Court of Appeal (the highest court for non-constitutional matters), and the Constitutional Court of South Africa. The Constitutional Court is the highest court in all constitutional matters and has the power to declare laws or conduct unconstitutional. The Chief Justice, currently Mandisa Maya, heads the judiciary.

5.2. Constitution

The Constitution of South Africa is the supreme law of the Republic of South Africa. It provides the legal foundation for the existence of the republic, sets out the rights and duties of its citizens, and defines the structure of the Government. The current constitution, the country's fifth, was drawn up by the Parliament elected in 1994 in the first non-racial election. It was promulgated by President Nelson Mandela on 18 December 1996 and came into effect on 4 February 1997, replacing the Interim Constitution of 1993.

The constitution is founded on core values including human dignity, the achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights and freedoms, non-racialism and non-sexism, the supremacy of the constitution and the rule of law, and universal adult suffrage on a national common voters roll. It contains an extensive Bill of Rights, which protects a wide range of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. These include rights to equality, freedom of expression, assembly, and association, as well as rights to housing, healthcare, food, water, and social security.

The Constitutional Court of South Africa, located in Johannesburg, is the highest court in constitutional matters. It has the final say on the interpretation of the Constitution and whether laws or conduct are consistent with it. Its establishment marked a significant departure from the parliamentary sovereignty that characterized the apartheid era, ensuring that all state actions are subject to constitutional review. The constitution has been lauded internationally for its progressive stance on human rights and its robust mechanisms for democratic governance.

5.3. Major Political Parties

South Africa has a multi-party political system. Since the end of apartheid in 1994, the African National Congress (ANC) has been the dominant political party.

• African National Congress (ANC): Founded in 1912, the ANC was the leading anti-apartheid liberation movement. It has been the governing party since 1994. Its ideology is generally described as social democratic, though it encompasses a broad range of views. Its support base has historically been among the black African majority. Nelson Mandela, Thabo Mbeki, Jacob Zuma, and Cyril Ramaphosa have all served as presidents under the ANC banner. In the 2024 general election, the ANC lost its outright majority for the first time, securing 40.18% of the vote and 159 seats in the National Assembly, leading to the formation of a government of national unity.
• Democratic Alliance (DA): The DA is the official opposition party. It traces its origins to liberal anti-apartheid parties. Its ideology is generally considered centrist to centre-right, advocating for liberal democracy and free-market principles. Its support base is diverse but traditionally stronger among white, Coloured, and Indian voters, as well as a growing number of black middle-class voters. In the 2024 election, the DA won 21.81% of the vote and 87 seats, subsequently joining the government of national unity with the ANC.
• uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK): A new party founded in late 2023 and led by former President Jacob Zuma. It draws its name from the ANC's former armed wing. In its first national election in 2024, the MK party made a significant impact, particularly in KwaZulu-Natal, winning 14.58% of the national vote and 58 seats, becoming the third-largest party.
• Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF): Founded in 2013 by former ANC Youth League leader Julius Malema, the EFF is a pan-Africanist, Marxist-Leninist party. It advocates for radical economic transformation, including land expropriation without compensation and nationalization of key industries. It secured 9.52% of the vote and 39 seats in the 2024 election.
• Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP): Primarily based in KwaZulu-Natal, the IFP was founded by Mangosuthu Buthelezi. It has a strong Zulu nationalist identity and advocates for federalism and traditional leadership. It won 3.85% of the vote and 17 seats in 2024 and also joined the government of national unity.

Other smaller parties also hold seats in Parliament, contributing to the diversity of political discourse in South Africa. Voter turnout and shifts in party support reflect the evolving political landscape and the ongoing challenges of governance, economic development, and social cohesion.

5.4. Human Rights

Since the end of apartheid in 1994, South Africa has made significant strides in establishing a framework for human rights, anchored by one of the world's most progressive constitutions. The Constitution includes an extensive Bill of Rights that guarantees a wide array of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. This includes rights to equality (prohibiting discrimination on grounds such as race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language, and birth), human dignity, life, freedom and security of the person, privacy, freedom of religion, expression, assembly, and association.

Institutions such as the South African Human Rights Commission and the Public Protector were established to promote and protect human rights and to investigate abuses. The judiciary, particularly the Constitutional Court, has played a vital role in upholding these rights. South Africa was a pioneer in areas such as the legal recognition of same-sex marriage, which was legalized in 2006.

Despite these legal and institutional advancements, significant human rights challenges remain. Pervasive socio-economic inequality, high levels of poverty, and unemployment disproportionately affect black South Africans and undermine the full realization of economic and social rights, such as the rights to housing, healthcare, food, water, and education. High rates of violent crime, including gender-based violence and sexual violence, are a major concern. Issues of xenophobia and violence against foreign nationals have also periodically flared up. Corruption and failures in governance can impede the delivery of services and the protection of rights.

Civil society organizations in South Africa are vibrant and play a crucial role in advocating for human rights, monitoring government actions, providing legal assistance, and raising awareness about ongoing abuses and challenges. The struggle to ensure that the constitutional promise of human rights is a reality for all South Africans continues to be a central theme in the country's public life.

5.5. Law Enforcement and Crime

Law enforcement in South Africa is primarily the responsibility of the South African Police Service (SAPS), the national police force. SAPS is tasked with preventing, combating, and investigating crime, maintaining public order, and protecting and securing the inhabitants of South Africa and their property. The SAPS has over 1,154 police stations across the country and, as of recent reports, a personnel strength of over 150,000 officers. The Special Task Force, an elite unit of SAPS, has gained international recognition, placing 9th at an international SWAT competition in 2023.

South Africa has one of the world's largest private security industries, with over 10,380 registered companies and approximately 2.5 million registered private security personnel, of whom over 556,000 are actively employed. The number of active private security officers exceeds the combined strength of the SAPS and the military. These private security companies primarily provide services to protect private property and individuals, often supplementing the efforts of SAPS.

Despite these efforts, South Africa faces exceptionally high rates of crime. As of February 2023, it was reported to have the sixth-highest crime rate globally. Violent crime is a particular concern. Statistics for 2017-2018 indicated an average of 57 murders committed each day. In the year ending March 2017, there were 20,336 murders, translating to a murder rate of 35.9 per 100,000 people, significantly higher than the global average. It was estimated that over 526,000 South Africans were murdered between 1994 and 2019.

South Africa also has a high rate of rape and other sexual assaults. In 2014/15, 43,195 rapes were reported, with many more incidents believed to go unreported. Surveys have indicated alarmingly high rates of rape perpetration and victimization. Child and infant rape is also a severe problem, partly fueled by harmful myths such as virgin cleansing.

Xenophobic attacks against foreigners have occurred periodically, notably in May 2008 and during the 2019 Johannesburg riots. These incidents often target immigrants and refugees from other African countries and are driven by socio-economic frustrations and competition for resources.

Efforts to combat crime include police operations, community policing forums, and legislative measures. However, challenges such as corruption within law enforcement, resource constraints, and deep-seated socio-economic factors contributing to crime (poverty, unemployment, inequality) continue to hinder progress in improving public safety. The high crime rates remain a significant concern for citizens, impact the economy, and are a major focus of public and political discourse.

6.1. Provinces

The nine provinces of South Africa are:

6.2. Major Cities

South Africa has several major urban centers that are hubs of economic, political, and cultural activity.

• Johannesburg: Located in Gauteng province, Johannesburg is the largest city in South Africa by population and a major global financial center. It originated as a 19th-century gold mining settlement and has grown into the economic powerhouse of sub-Saharan Africa. The city is characterized by a stark contrast of wealth and poverty, with modern skyscrapers and affluent suburbs existing alongside sprawling townships like Soweto. It is home to the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE), the largest stock exchange in Africa.
• Cape Town: The legislative capital of South Africa and the provincial capital of the Western Cape. Cape Town is renowned for its natural beauty, including Table Mountain, the Cape Peninsula, and diverse beaches. It is the oldest European settlement in South Africa, founded by the Dutch East India Company in 1652. Key economic sectors include tourism, finance, IT, and logistics (due to its major port). It is a multicultural city with a significant Cape Coloured population and a rich, though often painful, history.
• Durban (eThekwini): Located in KwaZulu-Natal province on the east coast, Durban is the third-largest city and home to the busiest port in sub-Saharan Africa. It has a subtropical climate and is a popular tourist destination, known for its beaches and surfing. Durban has a large Indian population, the largest outside of India, which has significantly influenced its culture and cuisine.
• Pretoria (Tshwane): The administrative capital of South Africa, located in Gauteng province. Pretoria is home to the executive branch of government, including the Union Buildings (offices of the President), and numerous foreign embassies. It is an important academic and research center, with several universities, including the University of Pretoria and the University of South Africa (UNISA). Historically, it was the capital of the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic).
• Gqeberha (formerly Port Elizabeth): A major port city in the Eastern Cape province, Gqeberha is an important center for the automotive industry in South Africa. It is known for its beaches and is a gateway to the Garden Route.
• Bloemfontein (Mangaung): The judicial capital of South Africa and the provincial capital of the Free State. Historically, it was the capital of the Orange Free State. It serves as the seat of the Supreme Court of Appeal.

These cities, along with others, reflect the diverse urban landscape of South Africa, each with its unique history, economic profile, and cultural characteristics, while also sharing common challenges of post-apartheid transformation, urban development, and social integration.

8.1. Nuclear Weapons Program

South Africa is the only country in Africa to have successfully developed nuclear weapons and subsequently the first country in the world to voluntarily renounce and dismantle its nuclear arsenal. The country undertook a clandestine nuclear weapons program in the 1970s during the apartheid era, motivated by regional security concerns and international isolation.

By the late 1980s, South Africa had produced six gun-type nuclear devices and had a seventh under construction. There are allegations that South Africa, possibly in cooperation with Israel, conducted a nuclear test over the South Atlantic Ocean in 1979, known as the Vela incident, although this has never been officially confirmed by South Africa. Former President F. W. de Klerk maintained that South Africa had "never conducted a clandestine nuclear test."

With the impending transition to majority rule and the end of the Cold War, the South African government under President de Klerk made the decision to dismantle its nuclear weapons program. The six completed devices were dismantled between 1989 and 1991. In 1991, South Africa acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) as a non-nuclear weapon state and subsequently subjected its nuclear facilities to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards. The decision to disarm was driven by a desire to improve international relations, prevent a future majority-rule government from inheriting nuclear weapons, and contribute to regional and global non-proliferation efforts. In 2017, South Africa signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

8.2. Private Military and Security Companies

South Africa has a significant presence of private military and security companies (PMSCs), many of which emerged or gained prominence after the end of apartheid and the subsequent downsizing of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF). Many personnel from the former SADF and liberation movement armed wings found employment in this sector.

These companies offer a range of services, from armed guarding and close protection for individuals and corporations within South Africa (where private security is a very large industry due to high crime rates) to more controversial military and security support services internationally. South African-based or staffed PMSCs have been involved in various conflicts and high-risk environments across Africa and other parts of the world, including Iraq and Afghanistan.

The activities of these companies have sometimes been controversial, raising questions about accountability, regulation, and their impact on conflicts and human rights. South Africa has legislation, such as the Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act of 1998, aimed at controlling the involvement of its citizens in foreign military activities and the operations of PMSCs. However, the effectiveness and enforcement of such regulations remain subjects of debate. The rise of PMSCs reflects a global trend but also has specific roots in South Africa's unique history of conflict and military expertise.

9.1. Major Industries

South Africa's economy is diverse, with several key sectors contributing significantly to its GDP and employment.

• Mining: Historically the backbone of the South African economy, mining remains a crucial sector. Until 2006, South Africa was the world's largest gold producer for almost a century. While gold production has declined (145 metric tonnes in 2015 compared to 1,000 metric tonnes in 1970), the country still possesses significant gold reserves (around 6,000 tonnes) and ranks among the top global producers. South Africa is the world's largest producer of platinum group metals (platinum, palladium), chrome, manganese, vanadium, and vermiculite. It is also a major producer of ilmenite, rutile, zirconium, and coal (being a top global coal exporter). In 2012, it became the third-biggest iron ore supplier to China. The Mponeng Gold Mine is the world's deepest gold mine, reaching nearly 13 K ft ^{(4.00 K m)} in depth.
• Manufacturing: This sector is well-developed and diversified, encompassing automotive manufacturing (a major export industry with plants for BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, Toyota, and Ford), chemicals, food processing, textiles, metals and engineering products. The automotive industry, in particular, is a significant employer and contributor to exports, benefiting from government support programs.
• Agriculture: Agriculture in South Africa contributes about 2.6% to GDP and around 10% to formal employment. Key products include maize (corn), wheat, sugarcane, fruits (citrus, grapes, deciduous fruits), vegetables, beef, poultry, mutton, and wool. South Africa is a major wine producer, with renowned vineyards in the Western Cape. Despite challenges like aridity and land reform issues, the sector is a significant exporter.
• Finance and Business Services: This is a highly sophisticated sector and a major contributor to GDP. The Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) is the largest in Africa. The country has a well-regulated banking system, a developed insurance industry, and a robust financial services sector. Major South African banks have a significant presence across the African continent.
• Services (other than finance): This broad category includes retail, wholesale trade, communications, real estate, and government services. The services sector as a whole is the largest contributor to South Africa's GDP.
• Tourism: Tourism in South Africa is a vital industry, contributing significantly to employment and foreign exchange earnings, as detailed in the next section.

Challenges facing these industries include skills shortages, infrastructure constraints (particularly energy), labor relations issues, and global economic volatility. The government's industrial policy aims to promote diversification, value addition, and job creation.

9.2. Tourism

Tourism in South Africa is a significant and growing sector of the economy, contributing substantially to GDP and employment. The country offers a diverse range of attractions that appeal to various types of travelers, from adventure seekers and wildlife enthusiasts to cultural tourists and those seeking luxury experiences.

Major Tourist Attractions and Destinations:

• Wildlife and Nature:** South Africa is renowned for its wildlife and national parks. Kruger National Park is one of Africa's largest game reserves and a premier destination for safaris, offering opportunities to see the "Big Five" (lion, leopard, rhinoceros, elephant, and Cape buffalo). Other notable parks include Addo Elephant National Park, Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park, and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. The country's diverse landscapes, from the Drakensberg mountains to the Blyde River Canyon (one of the largest canyons on Earth), and the arid beauty of the Karoo, attract nature lovers and hikers.
• Coastal and Marine Tourism:** With over 1.6 K mile ^{(2.50 K km)} of coastline, South Africa offers numerous beaches, particularly along the Garden Route and in KwaZulu-Natal. Activities include surfing, diving (especially shark cage diving), whale watching (notably in Hermanus), and coastal drives like Chapman's Peak Drive.
• Cultural and Historical Tourism:** South Africa's rich and complex history provides numerous attractions. These include Robben Island (where Nelson Mandela was imprisoned), the Apartheid Museum in Johannesburg, the District Six Museum in Cape Town, and various Cradle of Humankind sites (UNESCO World Heritage) showcasing early human fossils. Cultural villages offer insights into traditional lifestyles of different ethnic groups.
• Urban Tourism:** Cities like Cape Town (with Table Mountain, V&A Waterfront), Johannesburg (a vibrant cultural and economic hub), and Durban (known for its beaches and Indian culture) are major urban destinations.
• Adventure Tourism:** Activities such as bungee jumping (e.g., Bloukrans Bridge), hiking, mountain biking, rock climbing, and paragliding are popular.
• Wine Tourism:** The Cape Winelands, including towns like Stellenbosch, Franschhoek, and Paarl, are famous for their scenic vineyards, historic wine estates, and wine tasting tours.

Current State and Economic Impact:
The tourism industry experienced significant disruption due to the COVID-19 pandemic but has been in a recovery phase. Before the pandemic, tourism contributed a significant percentage to the GDP (around 8-9% directly and indirectly) and supported millions of jobs. The government views tourism as a key sector for economic growth and job creation. Efforts are focused on promoting domestic tourism, attracting international visitors (especially from key markets in Europe, North America, Asia, and other African countries), and developing niche tourism segments like ecotourism and cultural tourism. Challenges include ensuring safety and security for tourists, infrastructure development, skills training in the hospitality sector, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.

9.3. Energy

South Africa has a large and developed energy sector, but it has faced significant challenges in recent years, most notably a chronic energy crisis.

Primary Energy Sources:

• Coal:** South Africa is heavily reliant on coal, which accounts for the vast majority (around 77%) of its primary energy needs and approximately 90% of its electricity generation. The country has abundant coal reserves and is the world's 7th largest coal producer and a major exporter. This reliance on coal makes South Africa one of the world's top greenhouse gas emitters (14th largest CO2 emitter).
• Nuclear:** South Africa is the only country in Africa with an operational nuclear power plant, the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station near Cape Town, which contributes about 5% of the country's electricity.
• Renewable Energy:** There has been a growing focus on developing renewable energy sources, including solar (photovoltaic and concentrated solar power), wind, and hydro (mostly small-scale, with some larger pumped storage schemes). The Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP) has been instrumental in attracting private investment in this sector.
• Natural Gas and Oil:** South Africa has limited domestic oil and natural gas reserves, relying heavily on imports for crude oil. There are some offshore gas discoveries (e.g., Mossgas project for gas-to-liquids) and ongoing exploration efforts.

Electricity Generation and Consumption:

• Eskom, the state-owned utility, is the primary electricity generator, producing about 95% of South Africa's electricity and over 40% of Africa's electricity. It operates a large fleet of coal-fired power stations, the Koeberg nuclear plant, and some hydro and pumped storage schemes. In 2001, Eskom was named the best electricity utility in the world.
• Electricity consumption is high due to the industrialized nature of the economy, particularly the mining sector.

National Energy Policy and Challenges:

• National energy policy aims to ensure a secure and sustainable energy supply, diversify the energy mix, increase access to electricity, and mitigate environmental impacts.
• The main challenge has been the energy crisis, characterized by frequent load shedding (rolling blackouts) since 2007. This is due to a combination of factors: aging coal-fired power plants, insufficient investment in new generation capacity for many years, maintenance backlogs, operational issues at Eskom, corruption, and delays in bringing new power stations (like Medupi and Kusile) fully online.
• The energy crisis has had severe negative impacts on the economy, businesses, and daily life.
• Efforts towards renewable energy are driven by the need to reduce carbon emissions, diversify supply, and take advantage of South Africa's excellent solar and wind resources.
• The government is also exploring options like increased gas utilization and further nuclear development, though these are subjects of ongoing debate.

9.3.1. Energy Crisis

The South African energy crisis refers to a period of chronic and widespread electricity shortages that has significantly impacted the country since 2007. The most visible manifestation of this crisis is "load shedding," a system of planned, rotational power outages implemented by the state-owned utility Eskom to prevent a total collapse of the national power grid when demand exceeds available supply.

Causes:

• Insufficient Generation Capacity:** For many years, there was underinvestment in new power generation capacity, while demand continued to grow.
• Aging Infrastructure:** A significant portion of Eskom's fleet of coal-fired power stations is old and prone to breakdowns, requiring extensive and often delayed maintenance.
• Poor Maintenance:** A historical lack of consistent and effective maintenance has exacerbated the unreliability of existing plants.
• Delays in New Power Plants:** The construction of new large coal-fired power stations, Medupi and Kusile, has been plagued by massive cost overruns, significant delays, and design flaws, preventing them from contributing their full capacity to the grid as planned.
• Coal Supply Issues:** Problems with coal quality and consistent supply to power stations have sometimes occurred.
• Operational Inefficiencies and Mismanagement at Eskom:** The utility has faced criticism for operational inefficiencies, lack of skilled personnel, and governance issues.
• Corruption and State Capture:** Allegations and findings of widespread corruption and "state capture" involving Eskom, particularly during the Zuma administration, have diverted funds, undermined decision-making, and contributed to the utility's financial and operational woes. Eskom accumulated significant debt (R392 billion, or 22.00 B USD, as of early 2023).
• Sabotage and Theft:** Incidents of sabotage at power stations and theft of infrastructure (e.g., copper cables) have also contributed to disruptions.

Socio-Economic Impacts:

• Economic Disruption:** Loadshedding severely disrupts economic activity, affecting businesses of all sizes, particularly in manufacturing, mining, and retail. It leads to lost productivity, reduced output, and increased operating costs (e.g., for diesel generators).
• Impact on Daily Life:** Frequent power outages affect households, disrupting daily routines, education, healthcare services, and public safety (e.g., traffic lights, security systems).
• Investment Deterrent:** The unreliable power supply deters both domestic and foreign investment, hindering economic growth.
• Social Unrest:** Public frustration over loadshedding has contributed to social discontent and protests.

Resolution Efforts:
The government and Eskom have undertaken various measures to address the crisis:

• Improving Eskom's Performance:** Efforts to improve maintenance at existing plants, address operational issues, and combat corruption within Eskom.
• Procuring New Capacity:** Accelerating the procurement of new generation capacity from Independent Power Producers (IPPs), particularly in renewable energy (solar and wind) through programs like the REIPPPP.
• Energy Mix Diversification:** Plans to increase the share of renewables, gas, and potentially new nuclear power in the energy mix to reduce reliance on coal.
• Unbundling Eskom:** A process to unbundle Eskom into three separate entities (generation, transmission, and distribution) to improve efficiency and competition.
• Encouraging Private Generation:** Policy changes to allow businesses and individuals to generate their own electricity and feed surplus power into the grid.
• Addressing Debt:** Developing plans to manage Eskom's massive debt burden.

By mid-2024, there were reports of significant improvements in energy supply, with a marked reduction in loadshedding since late March 2024. This was attributed to better management and maintenance at Eskom, increased contributions from renewable IPPs, and high-level political support for resolving the crisis. However, the long-term stability of the power system remains a key focus.

9.4. Science and Technology

South Africa has a notable history of scientific and technological achievements and continues to invest in research and development across various fields. The country was ranked 69th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

Key Achievements and Developments:

• Medicine and Biology:**
  • The world's first successful human-to-human heart transplantation was performed by cardiac surgeon Dr. Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town in December 1967.
  • Dr. Max Theiler, a South African-born virologist, developed a vaccine against yellow fever, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1951.
  • Sir Allan MacLeod Cormack pioneered X-ray computed tomography (CT scan) and shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1979 for this work.
  • Sir Aaron Klug, a South African-born British biophysicist, developed crystallographic electron microscopy techniques and won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1982.
  • Dr. Sydney Brenner made pioneering contributions to molecular biology, including work on the genetic code, and shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2002.
• Astronomy and Space Science:**
  • South Africa plays a significant role in international astronomy. It hosts the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) in Sutherland, the largest single optical telescope in the Southern Hemisphere.
  • The country is a key partner in the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) project, a global initiative to build the world's largest radio telescope. South Africa is co-hosting the SKA with Australia. The MeerKAT radio telescope, located in the Karoo region, is a precursor to the SKA and is already a powerful scientific instrument in its own right.
  • Mark Shuttleworth, an entrepreneur, became the first African in space in 2002 as a civilian spaceflight participant.
• Technology and Innovation:**
  • Mark Shuttleworth also founded Thawte, an early internet security company specializing in digital certificates, which was later acquired by VeriSign.
  • South Africa has developed expertise in areas such as coal-to-liquid (CTL) fuel technology (Sasol) and certain defense technologies.

  Research Institutions and Policies:
  South Africa has a number of significant research institutions, including universities like the University of Cape Town, University of the Witwatersrand, Stellenbosch University, and University of Pretoria, as well as dedicated research councils such as the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the National Research Foundation (NRF). National innovation policies aim to foster research and development, promote technological innovation, and link scientific advancements to economic and social development. The Department of Science and Innovation (formerly Department of Science and Technology) plays a key role in coordinating these efforts. Challenges include funding constraints, brain drain, and the need to translate research into commercial applications more effectively.

9.5. Transport and Infrastructure

South Africa possesses relatively well-developed transport and general infrastructure compared to many other African nations, though challenges related to maintenance, expansion, and equitable access remain.

• Road Network:** South Africa has an extensive road network, totaling approximately 466 K mile ^{(750.00 K km)}, the largest in Africa and 12th largest globally. This includes national roads managed by the South African National Roads Agency (SANRAL), provincial roads, and municipal roads. While major national routes and urban roads are generally paved and of good quality, many rural and provincial roads are unpaved and in poorer condition. The country has over 12 million registered motor vehicles.
• Railway System:** Rail transport in South Africa is an important element, particularly for freight. Transnet Freight Rail operates the bulk of freight services, transporting commodities like coal and iron ore. The railway network is the most developed in Africa, with approximately 19 K mile ^{(31.00 K km)} of track, though only about 13 K mile ^{(20.90 K km)} are currently in use. The Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa (PRASA) operates commuter rail services (Metrorail) in major urban areas and long-distance passenger services. The Gautrain, a modern higher-speed commuter rail system, connects Johannesburg, Pretoria, and O.R. Tambo International Airport. The rail system faces challenges from vandalism, theft of infrastructure, underinvestment, and operational inefficiencies.
• Airports:** South Africa has a network of airports, including several international gateways. The busiest is O. R. Tambo International Airport (Johannesburg), a major hub for a. Cape Town International Airport and King Shaka International Airport (Durban) are other key international airports. Airports Company South Africa (ACSA) manages most of the major airports. The national airline is South African Airways (SAA).
• Ports:** The country has several major commercial ports, crucial for its international trade. The largest and busiest is the Port of Durban. Other significant ports include Port of Richards Bay (mainly for bulk commodities like coal), Port of Cape Town, Port of Port Elizabeth (Gqeberha), Port of East London, and Port of Saldanha Bay (primarily for iron ore export). Transnet National Ports Authority manages these ports.
• Water Supply and Sanitation:** Water supply and sanitation in South Africa has seen improvements since 1994, with increased access to both. However, challenges persist, particularly in rural areas and informal settlements. Water scarcity is a growing concern, highlighted by the Cape Town water crisis in 2017-2018. The policy of free basic water and the role of water boards (bulk water suppliers) are distinctive features. Issues include aging infrastructure, maintenance backlogs, water pollution, and the financial sustainability of water service providers.
• Telecommunications:** South Africa has a relatively developed telecommunications sector. Mobile penetration is high, with multiple network operators (e.g., Vodacom, MTN, Cell C, Telkom Mobile). Fixed-line services are provided primarily by Telkom. Internet access has been expanding, with growing fiber optic networks and mobile broadband. However, the cost of data and disparities in access between urban and rural areas remain challenges.

Overall, while South Africa's core infrastructure is a strength, ongoing investment, maintenance, and efforts to address historical inequalities in access are crucial for its continued economic and social development.

10.1. Languages

South Africa is a multilingual nation with 12 official languages recognized by its constitution. These are: Zulu, Xhosa, Afrikaans, English, Pedi (also referred to as Sepedi or Northern Sotho), Tswana, Southern Sotho (Sesotho), Tsonga (Xitsonga), Swazi (siSwati), Venda (Tshivenḓa), Southern Ndebele (isiNdebele), and, as of 2023, South African Sign Language. This makes South Africa one of the countries with the highest number of official languages.

According to the 2022 census, the most spoken first languages (home languages) are:

• Zulu: 24.4%
• Xhosa: 16.6%
• Afrikaans: 10.6%
• Pedi: 10.0%
• Tswana: 8.9%
• Southern Sotho: 8.5%
• English: 8.7%
• Tsonga: 4.2%
• Swazi: 2.6%
• Venda: 2.5%
• Southern Ndebele: 1.7%

Although English is only the seventh most common home language, it functions as a primary language of government, business, commerce, and public life, and serves as a lingua franca among South Africans of different linguistic backgrounds. Many South Africans are multilingual, often speaking English in addition to their home language(s).

Afrikaans, derived from Dutch, is spoken by a large portion of the White and Coloured populations and also by some Black Africans. The nine official African languages belong to the Bantu language family. These are often grouped into larger families; for example, Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, and Ndebele are part of the Nguni group and are largely mutually intelligible. Similarly, Pedi, Sotho, and Tswana form the Sotho-Tswana group.

The Constitution also mandates the promotion and development of historically marginalized indigenous languages, such as the Khoe, Nama, and San languages, as well as South African Sign Language (prior to its officialization). Languages used by immigrant communities, such as German, Greek, Gujarati, Hindi, Portuguese, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu, are also acknowledged.

The official language policy promotes multilingualism and aims to ensure that no language is privileged over others, though in practice, English often dominates in many official and commercial spheres. Public signs, government documents, and broadcasting often reflect this linguistic diversity to varying degrees.

10.2. Religion

South Africa is a secular state with a constitution that guarantees freedom of religion. The population adheres to a wide variety of faiths.

According to the 2001 census (more recent comprehensive national data on religious affiliation is less consistently available, though a 2016 Community Survey and other estimates exist), the religious landscape was approximately as follows:

• Christianity**: 79.8% of the population. This is the predominant religion.
  • A majority of Christians belong to various Protestant denominations, including a large number of African-initiated churches (AICs), which often blend Christian beliefs with African traditional practices. The Zion Christian Church (ZCC) is the largest of these, with millions of followers.
  • Other significant Protestant denominations include Pentecostal/Charismatic churches (8.2% in 2001), Methodist (6.8%), Dutch Reformed Church (NGK) (6.7%), and the Anglican Church (3.8%).
  • The Roman Catholic Church accounted for 7.1% in 2001.
• No Religion/Unspecified**: 15.1% had no religious affiliation, 0.6% were "other," and 1.4% were "unspecified." It's believed that some who claim no affiliation may adhere to traditional African beliefs.
• Islam**: 1.5% of the population. The Muslim community is diverse, comprising Cape Malays (descendants of slaves and exiles from Southeast Asia), South Africans of Indian descent, and converts from other groups, as well as immigrants from other African countries.
• Hinduism**: 1.2% of the population, primarily among South Africans of Indian descent.
• Traditional African religions**: Officially 0.3% in 2001, but its influence is wider, often coexisting or syncretizing with Christianity or Islam. These religions involve beliefs in a supreme being, ancestral spirits, and the importance of rituals and traditional healers. An estimated 200,000 traditional healers (sangomas and inyangas) operate in the country, and a large percentage of South Africans consult them.
• Judaism**: 0.2% of the population. The South African Jewish community is well-established, though its numbers have declined due to emigration. It remains one of the larger Jewish communities in the diaspora.

Religion plays a significant role in the lives of many South Africans, and religious institutions were influential in both upholding and challenging apartheid. Post-apartheid, religious bodies continue to be active in social welfare, education, and public discourse. Interfaith relations are generally positive.

12.1. HIV/AIDS

South Africa has one of the largest HIV/AIDS epidemics in the world, which has had a profound socio-economic impact on the country.

Prevalence and Trends:

• According to the 2015 UNAIDS report, South Africa had an estimated seven million people living with HIV, more than any other country.
• In 2018, HIV prevalence among adults (15-49 years) was 20.4%. In the same year, 71,000 people died from an AIDS-related illness.
• A 2008 study indicated a significant racial disparity in infection rates: 13.6% of black South Africans were HIV-positive, compared to 0.3% of white South Africans.
• The epidemic has disproportionately affected young women and economically active individuals.

Socio-Economic Impact:

• Mortality and Life Expectancy:** HIV/AIDS led to a dramatic decrease in life expectancy, falling from a high of 62 years in 1992 to a low of around 53 years in 2005.
• AIDS Orphans:** The high number of deaths among adults resulted in a large number of children being orphaned. It was estimated that there were 1.2 million orphans in South Africa due to AIDS. These children often depend on the state or extended family for care and support.
• Economic Burden:** The epidemic has placed a huge strain on the healthcare system and has had significant economic consequences due to loss of productivity, increased healthcare costs, and the impact on households.

Government and International Response:

• Initial Denialism:** The early response to the HIV/AIDS crisis under President Thabo Mbeki and Health Minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang was highly controversial. They questioned the link between HIV and AIDS and promoted unproven remedies, which hampered effective prevention and treatment efforts.
• Shift in Policy:** In 2007, in response to domestic and international pressure, the government began to make more concerted efforts to fight AIDS.
• Expansion of Treatment:** After the 2009 general elections, President Jacob Zuma appointed Dr. Aaron Motsoaledi as Health Minister. The government significantly increased funding for HIV programs and vastly expanded access to antiretroviral therapy (ART). South Africa now has one of the largest ART programs in the world.
• Progress:** The widespread availability of ART has led to a significant increase in life expectancy (recovering to 62.5 years by 2015 and continuing to improve) and a reduction in mother-to-child transmission of HIV.
• Ongoing Efforts:** Current strategies focus on prevention (including education, condom distribution, and pre-exposure prophylaxis - PrEP), widespread testing, continued rollout of ART, and addressing the social and economic drivers of the epidemic.

Despite the progress made, HIV/AIDS remains a major public health challenge in South Africa, requiring sustained commitment and resources for prevention, treatment, and care.

14.1. Arts

South African art encompasses a vast spectrum of forms, from some of the world's oldest art objects to vibrant contemporary expressions. Archaeological discoveries in South African caves have unearthed art objects, such as engraved ochre, dated to roughly 75,000 years ago, making them among the earliest known examples of human artistic endeavor.

The indigenous San (Bushmen) and Khoikhoi peoples, who inhabited Southern Africa for millennia, left a rich legacy of rock art found in caves and rock shelters across the country. These intricate paintings and engravings depict animals, human figures, and symbolic scenes, offering insights into their beliefs and way of life.

Bantu-speaking peoples, who migrated into the region, brought their own artistic traditions, including pottery, beadwork, wood carving, and weaving. The diverse ethnic groups, such as the Zulu, Xhosa, Ndebele, and Sotho, each developed distinct styles and motifs in their crafts and decorative arts. Ndebele house painting, characterized by its bold geometric patterns and vibrant colors, is particularly well-known.

During the colonial and apartheid eras, European art forms were introduced, and white South African artists often followed Western traditions. However, a uniquely South African art scene began to emerge, with artists responding to the local landscape, social conditions, and political realities.

The struggle against apartheid profoundly influenced South African art, with many artists, both black and white, using their work to protest injustice and document the realities of life under segregation. "Township art" emerged as a dynamic form of expression, often characterized by its resourcefulness and social commentary, using materials ranging from traditional media to found objects.

Contemporary South African art is diverse and internationally recognized. Artists explore a wide range of themes, including identity, history, memory, social justice, and globalization, using various media such as painting, sculpture, photography, installation, and performance art. Prominent South African artists who have gained international acclaim include Irma Stern, Jacobus Hendrik Pierneef, Gerard Sekoto, William Kentridge, Marlene Dumas, Esther Mahlangu, and Zanele Muholi, among many others. Galleries, museums, and art festivals across the country showcase the richness and dynamism of South African artistic expression.

14.2. Literature

South African literature is rich and diverse, reflecting the country's complex social, political, and cultural history. It encompasses works in many of the nation's languages, though literature in English and Afrikaans has historically had greater international visibility.

Early notable works include Olive Schreiner's The Story of an African Farm (1883), considered a landmark in South African and feminist literature. One of the first well-known novels written by a black author in an African language (Setswana, though published in English) was Sol Plaatje's Mhudi (written in 1919, published in 1930), an important historical novel. Thomas Mofolo's Sotho novel Chaka (published 1925) is another seminal work.

During the apartheid era, literature became a powerful tool for social commentary and resistance. Alan Paton's Cry, the Beloved Country (1948) brought international attention to the injustices of racial segregation. Alex La Guma and Peter Abrahams were among the prominent black and Coloured writers whose works often depicted the harsh realities of life under apartheid; many were forced into exile. Afrikaans writers, known as the "Sestigers" (Writers of the Sixties), such as André Brink and Breyten Breytenbach, challenged the apartheid regime from within Afrikaner society. Brink's novel A Dry White Season was banned by the government. Breytenbach was jailed for his anti-apartheid activities.



Two South African authors have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature:

• Nadine Gordimer (Nobel Laureate, 1991): Her novels and short stories powerfully explore the moral and psychological tensions of life in a racially divided society. Many of her works, such as Burger's Daughter and July's People, were banned during apartheid.
• J. M. Coetzee (Nobel Laureate, 2003): Known for his allegorical and often unsettling novels that examine themes of colonialism, power, and the human condition. His works include Waiting for the Barbarians, Life & Times of Michael K (Booker Prize winner), and Disgrace (Booker Prize winner). The Swedish Academy stated that Coetzee "in innumerable guises portrays the surprising involvement of the outsider."

Playwright Athol Fugard gained international acclaim for his plays, such as "Master Harold"...and the Boys and The Blood Knot, which exposed the human cost of apartheid. His plays were regularly premiered in fringe theatres in South Africa, London, and New York.

Post-apartheid literature continues to grapple with the legacies of the past while exploring new themes of identity, reconciliation, and the challenges of a democratic South Africa. Contemporary writers include Zakes Mda, Achmat Dangor, Zoë Wicomb, and Damon Galgut, among many others. Drum magazine in the 1950s was a significant platform for black urban culture, publishing political satire, fiction, and essays. Archibald Campbell Jordan was another important Xhosa writer and academic.

The historical and thematic features of South African literature often revolve around race, power, identity, land, and the struggle for justice and humanity in a deeply divided and changing society.

14.3. Music

The music of South Africa is exceptionally diverse, reflecting its multicultural society. It ranges from traditional folk music to modern genres that have gained international recognition.

• Traditional Folk Music:** Various indigenous groups have rich traditions of folk music, characterized by intricate vocal harmonies, call-and-response patterns, and the use of traditional instruments like drums, mbira (thumb piano), and musical bows. Zulu Isicathamiya (a cappella singing) and Xhosa overtone singing are notable examples.
• Afro-jazz**: A fusion of American jazz with traditional African rhythms and melodies, developing from the 1950s onwards. Key figures include Hugh Masekela, Abdullah Ibrahim (Dollar Brand), Miriam Makeba, Kippie Moeketsi, and Sathima Bea Benjamin.
• Marabi and Kwela:** Early urban black musical styles that emerged in the townships, often played on pennywhistles and guitars.
• Gospel**: Extremely popular across all communities, with numerous choirs and solo artists achieving widespread fame. South African gospel often incorporates traditional African musical elements.
• Kwaito**: A uniquely South African genre that emerged in the 1990s, blending elements of house music, hip hop, and traditional African sounds. It became the sound of post-apartheid youth.
• Amapiano**: A subgenre of house music that originated in South Africa in the mid-2010s. It is characterized by its use of deep house, jazz, and lounge music elements, often featuring piano melodies, Kwaito basslines, and percussive rhythms. Amapiano has gained significant popularity both locally and internationally.
• Afrikaans Music:** This encompasses a wide range of styles, from traditional "boeremusiek" (folk music) to contemporary pop, rock (like the band Fokofpolisiekar), and gospel. Artists like Steve Hofmeyr and singer-songwriter Jeremy Loops (who sings in English but is popular in this market) are well-known.
• Pop, Rock, and Hip Hop:** South Africa has a vibrant contemporary music scene with artists in various genres. The rap-rave group Die Antwoord gained international notoriety. Rock band Seether has had international success. Rappers such as AKA, Nasty C, and Cassper Nyovest have also gained significant recognition. Tyla is a recent artist who has achieved international chart success.
• Classical Music:** The Soweto String Quartet is known for performing classical music with an African flavour.
• Bubblegum Pop**: A synth-heavy pop genre popular in the 1980s, with artists like Brenda Fassie (whose song "Weekend Special" launched her to fame) and Yvonne Chaka Chaka.
• Internationally Recognized Musicians:** Beyond those already mentioned, Ladysmith Black Mambazo gained global fame, particularly after collaborating with Paul Simon on his "Graceland" album. Johnny Clegg, with his bands Juluka and Savuka, blended Zulu music with Western rock and pop, often with anti-apartheid themes. Manfred Mann was a South African-born musician who found success in the UK.

South African music continues to evolve, with artists drawing on diverse influences to create innovative and dynamic sounds that reflect the country's cultural richness.

14.4. Film

The South African film industry has a long history, though it has often been overshadowed by larger international film centers. Its development reflects the country's social and political trajectory, including the impact of apartheid and the subsequent transition to democracy.

Early filmmaking often focused on documentaries or films that catered to segregated audiences under apartheid. However, even during this period, some filmmakers began to critique the system. The industry has grown significantly since 1994, with increased government support and international co-productions.

Several South African films and directors have gained international recognition:

• The Gods Must Be Crazy (1980), directed by Jamie Uys, was an unexpected international comedy hit, though its portrayal of the San people was also controversial.
• Mapantsula (1988), directed by Oliver Schmitz, was a powerful anti-apartheid film that gained international attention.
• Sarafina! (1992), starring Whoopi Goldberg and Leleti Khumalo, based on Mbongeni Ngema's stage musical, depicted the Soweto Uprising.
• Tsotsi (2005), directed by Gavin Hood, won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 78th Academy Awards. This was a landmark achievement for South African cinema.
• U-Carmen eKhayelitsha (2005), a Xhosa-language adaptation of Bizet's opera Carmen, directed by Mark Dornford-May, won the Golden Bear at the 2005 Berlin International Film Festival.
• District 9 (2009), directed by Neill Blomkamp (a South African-Canadian), was a science fiction allegory for apartheid and xenophobia, produced by Peter Jackson. It received multiple Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture. Blomkamp also directed Chappie (2015), set in Johannesburg.
• The Endless River (2015), directed by Oliver Hermanus, became the first South African film to be selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. Hermanus has since directed other acclaimed films like Moffie (2019) and Living (2022).
• Inxeba (The Wound) (2017), directed by John Trengove, explored themes of tradition and homosexuality within the Xhosa initiation ritual, sparking controversy in South Africa but winning awards internationally.
• My Octopus Teacher (2020), a South African Netflix Original documentary, won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.

The characteristics of South African cinema often include engagement with social and political issues, exploration of identity and reconciliation, diverse linguistic representation, and depiction of the country's unique landscapes and urban environments. The industry faces challenges such as funding, distribution, and competition from Hollywood, but it continues to produce compelling and internationally relevant films. Film festivals like the Durban International Film Festival play an important role in showcasing local talent.

14.5. Cuisine

South African cuisine is a vibrant reflection of the country's diverse cultural heritage, blending indigenous African food traditions with influences from European (Dutch, British, French, Portuguese), Asian (Indian, Malay), and other immigrant cultures over centuries.

Key Traditional Foods and Dishes:

• Braai**: More than just a barbecue, a braai is a significant social custom in South Africa. It involves grilling meat (such as boerewors, steaks, lamb chops, chicken) over an open wood or charcoal fire.
• Boerewors**: A traditional thick, coiled sausage, usually made from beef (often mixed with pork or lamb) and spiced with ingredients like coriander, nutmeg, cloves, and black pepper. It's a staple at any braai.
• Bobotie**: Often considered a national dish, bobotie is made with spiced minced meat (usually lamb or beef) baked with an egg-based custard topping. It has Cape Malay origins and incorporates fruit (like raisins or apricots) and curry powder.
• Biltong and Droëwors**: Types of cured meat. Biltong is similar to jerky but is typically thicker and air-dried after being marinated in vinegar and spices. Droëwors is a dried version of boerewors.
• Potjiekos**: Literally "small pot food," this is a stew prepared slowly in a round, cast-iron, three-legged pot (a potjie), traditionally over an open fire. Ingredients vary widely but often include meat, vegetables, starches like potatoes or rice, and are layered rather than stirred.
• Mieliepap (Pap)**: A traditional porridge made from maize (corn) meal, a staple food for many South Africans. It can be eaten with savoury sauces (like sheba, a tomato and onion relish), meat, or with milk and sugar.
• Bunny chow**: Originating in the Indian community of Durban, it consists of a hollowed-out loaf of white bread filled with curry (meat or vegetable).
• Sosatie**: Skewered meat (often lamb) marinated in a curried apricot sauce, another dish with Cape Malay influences.
• Chakalaka**: A spicy vegetable relish, often served with pap, bread, or stews.
• Melktert (Milk Tart)**: A popular Afrikaans dessert with a sweet pastry crust and a creamy filling made from milk, flour, sugar, and eggs, often dusted with cinnamon.
• Koeksisters**: Two variations exist: the Afrikaner version is a twisted or braided doughnut, deep-fried and then soaked in a cold sugar syrup. The Cape Malay version (koe'sister) is often spiced, oval-shaped, and coated in syrup and desiccated coconut.
• Umqombothi**: A traditional Xhosa beer made from maize, maize malt, sorghum malt, yeast, and water.

The cuisine also features a wide variety of seafood along the coast, game meats (like kudu, springbok, ostrich), and tropical fruits. South African wine is internationally acclaimed, with the Cape Winelands being a major culinary tourism destination. The diverse culinary culture showcases a fusion of flavors and techniques, from indigenous ingredients and cooking methods to the aromatic spices of the Cape Malays, the hearty fare of the Afrikaners, and the rich curries of the Indian community.

14.6. Sports

Sport plays a significant role in South African culture and national identity, often serving as a unifying force in a historically divided society. The country has a strong tradition in several sports and has hosted major international events.

Popular Sports:

• Rugby Union**: Extremely popular, particularly among Afrikaners and increasingly across all communities. The national team, the Springboks, is one of the most successful in the world, having won the Rugby World Cup a record four times (1995, 2007, 2019, and 2023). The 1995 victory, on home soil and shortly after the end of apartheid, was a particularly iconic moment of national unity, famously supported by President Nelson Mandela.
• Football (Soccer)**: The most popular sport by participation and viewership, especially among black South Africans. The national team is known as Bafana Bafana. South Africa hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the first African nation to do so. The women's national team (Banyana Banyana) won the Women's Africa Cup of Nations in 2022. The domestic league is the Premier Soccer League (PSL).
• Cricket**: Widely followed, with a strong tradition particularly among English-speaking white South Africans and the Indian community, and growing popularity among black South Africans. The national team, the Proteas, is a major international side. South Africa co-hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup and hosted the inaugural 2007 ICC World Twenty20. The women's team reached the final of the 2023 ICC Women's T20 World Cup, which was hosted in South Africa. The men's team were runners-up in the 2024 ICC Men's T20 World Cup. The national blind cricket team won the inaugural Blind Cricket World Cup in 1998.

Other Notable Sports and Athletes:

• Athletics**: South Africa has produced world-class athletes, including Wayde van Niekerk (world record holder in the 400 metres), Caster Semenya (Olympic gold medalist in the 800 metres), and Oscar Pistorius, who became the first double amputee sprinter to compete at the Olympic Games (London 2012).
• Swimming**: Olympic gold medalists include Penny Heyns, Chad le Clos, and Tatjana Smith (née Schoenmaker). The men's 4x100m freestyle relay team won gold at the 2004 Athens Olympics.
• Golf**: South Africa has a rich golfing heritage, producing numerous major champions like Gary Player (one of five golfers to win the Career Grand Slam), Ernie Els, Retief Goosen, and Charl Schwartzel.
• Boxing**: The country has a strong boxing tradition, with world champions such as Baby Jake Matlala, Vuyani Bungu, Welcome Ncita, Dingaan Thobela, Corrie Sanders, and Gerrie Coetzee. More recently, Dricus du Plessis has achieved success in mixed martial arts.
• Netball**: Very popular among women, with a competitive national team.
• Surfing**: Jordy Smith is an internationally ranked professional surfer.
• Motorsport**: Jody Scheckter won the Formula One World Championship in 1979. Brad Binder and Darryn Binder are active in Grand Prix motorcycle racing.

Domestic leagues are well-supported, and national teams often evoke strong patriotic fervor. The hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup was a moment of immense national pride and showcased South Africa's organizational capabilities to the world.

14.7. World Heritage Sites

South Africa is home to a remarkable number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, reflecting its rich natural and cultural heritage. As of 2023, South Africa is tied with Ethiopia for the most World Heritage Sites in Africa. These sites are:

Cultural Heritage Sites:
1. **Fossil Hominid Sites of South Africa** (formerly Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai, and Environs; also known as the Cradle of Humankind): Inscribed in 1999, with an extension in 2005. This site contains a wealth of fossils that provide crucial evidence about early human evolution over several million years. Key locations include Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai, and the Makapan Valley.
2. **Robben Island**: Inscribed in 1999. Located off the coast of Cape Town, Robben Island was primarily used as a political prison, most notably for Nelson Mandela and other anti-apartheid leaders. It symbolizes the triumph of the human spirit, democracy, and freedom over oppression.
3. **Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape**: Inscribed in 2003. Located at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers, Mapungubwe was the center of a powerful indigenous kingdom that flourished between the 9th and 14th centuries CE, trading gold and ivory with other parts of Africa, Arabia, and India.
4. **Richtersveld Cultural and Botanical Landscape**: Inscribed in 2007. This mountainous desert landscape in the Northern Cape is communally owned and managed by the Nama people. It sustains their semi-nomadic pastoral lifestyle, which has evolved over two millennia, and showcases their traditional ecological knowledge and unique biodiversity.
5. **Humanity's Recent Prehistoric Past: The Pleistocene and Holocene Occupation Sites of South Africa** (formerly ǂKhomani Cultural Landscape): Inscribed in 2017, expanded and renamed in 2024. These sites bear testimony to the way of life of the historically nomadic ǂKhomani San people and their relationship with this harsh desert environment.
6. **The Emergence of Modern Human Behaviour: The Pleistocene Occupation Sites of South Africa** (formerly Barberton Makhonjwa Mountains): Inscribed in 2018, expanded and renamed in 2024. Representing some of the oldest and best-preserved sequences of volcanic and sedimentary rocks on Earth, dating back 3.6 to 3.25 billion years, these mountains provide insights into early Earth conditions and the development of life.

Natural Heritage Sites:
7. **iSimangaliso Wetland Park** (formerly Greater St Lucia Wetland Park): Inscribed in 1999. Located on the coast of KwaZulu-Natal, this park is one of Africa's outstanding natural wetland and coastal sites, featuring a variety of ecosystems including coral reefs, coastal dunes, lake systems, swamps, and reed and papyrus wetlands, supporting exceptional biodiversity.
8. **Cape Floristic Region Protected Areas**: Inscribed in 2004, extended in 2015. This site comprises eight protected areas covering different parts of the Cape Floristic Region, one of the world's richest areas for plant diversity. It is home to the unique fynbos vegetation and a high number of endemic species.
9. **Vredefort Dome**: Inscribed in 2005. Located in the Free State, the Vredefort Dome is the world's oldest and largest known meteorite impact structure, formed an estimated 2.02 billion years ago. It provides crucial evidence of a major global catastrophic event.

Mixed (Natural and Cultural) Heritage Site:
10. **Maloti-Drakensberg Park**: Inscribed in 2000, extended in 2013. This is a transnational site shared with Lesotho. It is renowned for its dramatic natural beauty with soaring basaltic buttresses, incisive dramatic cutbacks, and golden sandstone ramparts, as well as its rich biodiversity and a large number of San rock art sites, representing the spiritual life of the San people.

These World Heritage Sites underscore South Africa's global importance in terms of both human evolutionary history, cultural diversity, and natural biodiversity.

14.8. Public Holidays

Public holidays in South Africa reflect the country's history, diverse cultures, and its transition to democracy. If a public holiday falls on a Sunday, the following Monday is observed as a public holiday. The major public holidays and their significance are:

• New Year's Day**: 1 January
• Human Rights Day**: 21 March. Commemorates the Sharpeville massacre of 21 March 1960, when police killed 69 people protesting against pass laws. It highlights the importance of human rights in democratic South Africa.
• Good Friday**: Date varies (Friday before Easter Sunday). A Christian religious holiday.
• Family Day** (formerly Easter Monday): Date varies (Monday after Easter Sunday). A day for families to spend time together.
• Freedom Day**: 27 April. Celebrates the first non-racial democratic elections held on this day in 1994, marking the end of apartheid.
• Workers' Day**: 1 May. International Workers' Day, recognizing the contribution of workers.
• Youth Day**: 16 June. Commemorates the start of the Soweto uprising on 16 June 1976, when students protested against the Bantu Education system. It honors the role of youth in the struggle for liberation.
• National Women's Day**: 9 August. Commemorates the 1956 march of approximately 20,000 women to the Union Buildings in Pretoria to protest against the extension of Pass Laws to women. It celebrates the role of women in society and their struggle for equality.
• Heritage Day**: 24 September. A day to celebrate South Africa's diverse cultural heritage and a call to recognize, affirm, and promote the unity and diversity of the nation. It is also informally known as "National Braai Day."
• Day of Reconciliation**: 16 December. This day has a dual significance. Historically, it was known as the Day of the Vow, commemorating the Boer victory over the Zulus at the Battle of Blood River in 1838. It is also the anniversary of the founding of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the ANC, in 1961. In the post-apartheid era, it was repurposed as a day to foster national unity and reconciliation.
• Christmas Day**: 25 December. A Christian religious holiday, widely celebrated.
• Day of Goodwill** (formerly Boxing Day): 26 December. A day for charitable activities and goodwill.

These holidays provide opportunities for South Africans to reflect on their past, celebrate their present diversity, and look towards a shared future.

14.9. Mass Media

The mass media landscape in South Africa is one of the most developed on the African continent, characterized by a mix of public and private ownership, and a constitutionally guaranteed freedom of the press.

• Newspapers:** South Africa has a vibrant newspaper industry with numerous national and regional titles. Major English-language dailies include The Star (Johannesburg), Cape Times, The Citizen, and Sowetan. Afrikaans-language dailies include Beeld and Die Burger. There are also influential weekly papers like the Mail & Guardian and Sunday Times. Many newspapers have online presences. The industry faces challenges similar to those in other countries, such as declining print circulation and the shift to digital platforms.
• Broadcasting (Television and Radio):**
  • Television:** The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) is the public broadcaster, operating several television channels (SABC 1, SABC 2, SABC 3, SABC News, SABC Education) that broadcast in various official languages. e.tv is a privately owned free-to-air commercial channel. Subscription television is dominated by MultiChoice, which operates DStv, offering a wide range of local and international channels.
  • Radio:** Radio remains a very influential medium, particularly in rural areas. The SABC operates numerous public radio stations in all official languages, catering to diverse audiences (e.g., Ukhozi FM in Zulu, Umhlobo Wenene FM in Xhosa, SAFM in English, Radio Sonder Grense in Afrikaans). There are also many commercial and community radio stations across the country.
• Internet and Digital Media:** Internet penetration has been growing steadily, driven by increased smartphone adoption and expanding mobile broadband coverage. Online news platforms, blogs, and social media are increasingly important sources of information and platforms for public discourse. However, the cost of data remains a barrier to access for some segments of the population.
• Magazines:** A wide variety of consumer and trade magazines cater to different interests.
• Freedom of the Press:** Freedom of expression and the press are protected under the South African Constitution. The media generally operates freely and plays a crucial role in holding power accountable, often exposing corruption and government shortcomings. However, there have been debates and concerns regarding issues such as media ownership concentration, the proposed Protection of State Information Bill (the "Secrecy Bill"), and occasional political pressure on journalists.
• Role and Impact:** The media in South Africa plays a significant role in shaping public opinion, facilitating debate on national issues, and providing a platform for diverse voices. It was instrumental in the struggle against apartheid and continues to be a vital component of the country's democracy. The diversity of languages and cultures is reflected in the media offerings, though English often dominates in national news and commercial broadcasting.

The South African media landscape is dynamic, reflecting the country's social, political, and technological changes.