Ghana

3.1. Medieval Kingdoms

The earliest known settlements in present-day Ghana include those of the Kintampo culture, a late Neolithic culture dating back to the 2nd millennium BCE, known for its distinctive pottery and early farming practices in the forest-savanna ecotone. Ironworking sites, such as Hani, indicate technological advancements from around the 2nd century CE.
By the 11th century, organized states began to emerge. Among the earliest was Bonoman, located in what is now the Brong-Ahafo region. Bonoman was an Akan state that thrived on trade, particularly in gold, connecting the forest regions with the trans-Saharan trade routes. Bono Manso was a significant urban center of this state.
In the north, the Kingdom of Dagbon was established by migrating groups from the Lake Chad area around the 15th century, becoming a major power in the savanna region. Its traditional capital was at Yendi, and it developed a complex political and social structure. Other early states in the north included the Mamprusi and Gonja kingdoms.
Further south, various Akan states, believed to have emerged from the Bonoman area, began to consolidate from the 17th century, largely based on gold trading. These included Denkyira, Akwamu, and Akyem. The Ga-Dangme and Ewe peoples migrated westward from southwestern Nigeria, with the Ewe settling in the Volta Region and the Ga-Dangme in the Greater Accra Region.

3.2. European Contact and Colonialism

European contact with the region began in 1471 when Portuguese explorers arrived on the coast. Attracted by the availability of gold, they named the area "Mina" (mine) and established the Portuguese Gold Coast. In 1482, under the commission of King John II of Portugal, Diogo de Azambuja constructed Elmina Castle (São Jorge da Mina) at a coastal settlement called Anomansah. This became the first permanent European structure in sub-Saharan Africa and a major hub for trade. Initially focused on gold and ivory, the trade soon tragically expanded to include enslaved Africans.
By the late 16th and early 17th centuries, other European powers, including the Dutch, English, Danes, Swedes, and Germans (Brandenburgers), arrived to compete for trading rights. The Dutch, establishing the Dutch Gold Coast, captured Elmina Castle from the Portuguese in 1637 and Axim in 1642. Numerous forts and castles were built along the coastline by these European powers, serving as trading posts and, horrifically, as holding centers for captives destined for the transatlantic slave trade. More than 30 such structures, including Cape Coast Castle, Fort Komenda, and Fort St Anthony, bear witness to this brutal period, standing as somber monuments to the millions of Africans forcibly removed from their homelands. The intense European rivalry eventually led to British dominance. By 1872, after the Dutch sold their remaining forts to the British, Britain became the preeminent colonial power along what became known as the Gold Coast.

3.3. Ashanti Empire

The Ashanti Empire (also Asante Kingdom) emerged as a dominant Akan power in the late 17th century. Founded by Osei Kofi Tutu I with the counsel of the priest Okomfo Anokye, the empire was a federation of Akan states united by the symbolic Golden Stool, said to have descended from the heavens and to embody the soul of the Ashanti nation. Its capital was Kumasi.
The Ashanti Empire expanded rapidly, conquering neighboring states and controlling key trade routes, particularly for gold and kola nuts. It developed a sophisticated political and military structure, with a centralized bureaucracy and a formidable army. The empire's wealth was largely derived from gold mining and its participation in the transatlantic slave trade, initially by selling captives from its wars of expansion to European traders on the coast.
The Ashanti engaged in a series of conflicts with European powers, most notably the British. The Anglo-Ashanti wars, fought intermittently from the early 19th century, were primarily over trade, coastal influence, and Ashanti sovereignty. Despite strong resistance and some notable victories, the Ashanti were gradually pushed back. The War of the Golden Stool in 1900, sparked by the British governor's demand for the Golden Stool, was the final major conflict. Though the Ashanti fought fiercely to protect their sacred symbol, they were ultimately defeated, and the Ashanti territory was formally annexed as a British Crown Colony in 1901. The human cost of these wars and the subsequent loss of sovereignty were significant, deeply affecting Ashanti society.

3.4. British Gold Coast

Following the annexation of the Ashanti territory and the Northern Territories, the British consolidated their control over the entire region, which became collectively known as the British Gold Coast. The colonial administration was structured to facilitate economic exploitation and maintain political control. The British implemented a system of indirect rule in some areas, utilizing traditional chiefs, but ultimate authority rested with the British governor.
The economy of the Gold Coast was heavily focused on the export of raw materials. Gold mining continued to be important, but cocoa cultivation, introduced by Tetteh Quarshie around 1879, rapidly became the cornerstone of the colonial economy. By 1911, the Gold Coast was the world's largest cocoa producer. While cocoa brought wealth to some Ghanaian farmers and traders, the benefits were often unevenly distributed, and the economy remained dependent on fluctuating world market prices. The British invested in infrastructure such as railways and harbors (like Sekondi-Takoradi) primarily to support the export economy.
Colonial rule brought significant societal changes. Western education was introduced, largely through missionary efforts, creating a small educated elite. However, access to education and healthcare was limited, particularly outside urban centers. Colonial policies often disrupted traditional social structures and imposed new legal and administrative systems, leading to growing discontent and the seeds of nationalist resistance. The impact on local industries and self-sufficiency was often negative, as the colony was geared towards serving British economic interests.

3.5. Transition to Independence

The early 20th century saw the rise of nationalist sentiments in the Gold Coast, fueled by the educated elite, ex-servicemen from World Wars I and II, and cocoa farmers discontented with colonial economic policies. Organizations like the Aborigines' Rights Protection Society had earlier protested colonial land policies.
After World War II, the movement for self-governance gained momentum. In 1947, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) was formed by nationalist leaders including J. B. Danquah, with the aim of achieving "self-government within the shortest possible time." They invited Kwame Nkrumah to be their general secretary. However, Nkrumah, advocating for more radical and immediate independence ("Self-Government Now!"), broke away in 1949 to form the Convention People's Party (CPP).
The CPP, with its mass appeal and grassroots organization, initiated a "Positive Action" campaign of non-violent protests, strikes, and non-cooperation with British authorities. Nkrumah was arrested and imprisoned for his role in these activities. Despite his imprisonment, the CPP won a landslide victory in the 1951 general election, the first major election under a new constitution that allowed for greater African participation. Nkrumah was released from prison and became Leader of Government Business, and later Prime Minister in 1952.
Under Nkrumah's leadership, the Gold Coast moved steadily towards independence. In May 1956, a plebiscite in British Togoland (a UN Trust Territory administered by Britain) resulted in its decision to integrate with the Gold Coast upon independence. On March 6, 1957, the Gold Coast, Ashanti, the Northern Territories, and British Togoland unified to become the independent Dominion of Ghana within the Commonwealth of Nations. This event marked a pivotal moment, as Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African colony to achieve sovereignty, inspiring independence movements across the continent. The current flag of Ghana, with its red, gold, and green stripes and a central black star, was adopted at this time.

3.6. Nkrumah Era and Pan-Africanism

Following independence, Kwame Nkrumah became Ghana's first Prime Minister and, after the country became a republic on July 1, 1960, its first President. His government embarked on ambitious development projects, including the construction of the Akosombo Dam for hydroelectric power, expansion of education and healthcare, and industrialization efforts aimed at economic self-sufficiency. Nkrumah pursued a socialist-oriented development path, with significant state involvement in the economy.
A fervent advocate of Pan-Africanism, Nkrumah envisioned a united Africa, free from colonial and neo-colonial influences. He played a key role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 and actively supported independence movements across the continent. Ghana became a hub for African liberation fighters and intellectuals. Nkrumah was also a prominent figure in the Non-Aligned Movement, seeking to navigate a path independent of the Cold War superpowers.
Nkrumah's leadership brought significant social progress in areas like education and health. However, his government also became increasingly authoritarian. To consolidate power and suppress opposition, Nkrumah's regime passed laws like the Preventive Detention Act, allowing for imprisonment without trial. In 1964, a constitutional amendment made Ghana a one-party state with Nkrumah as president for life. This move, along with growing economic difficulties partly due to falling cocoa prices and ambitious spending, led to increased dissent. While his contributions to Ghana's independence and his Pan-African vision were monumental, the erosion of democratic institutions and human rights under his rule drew criticism and ultimately contributed to his downfall.

3.7. Operation Cold Chop and Aftermath

On February 24, 1966, while President Nkrumah was on a state visit to North Vietnam and China, a military coup d'état codenamed "Operation Cold Chop" overthrew his government. The coup was led by senior military officers, including Colonel Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka and Brigadier Akwasi Afrifa, with police involvement. The National Liberation Council (NLC), chaired by Lieutenant General Joseph Arthur Ankrah, took control of the country. The coup plotters cited Nkrumah's increasingly authoritarian rule, economic mismanagement, and alleged communist ties as reasons for their actions. The coup had a significant impact on Ghana's political trajectory, marking the beginning of a long period of political instability characterized by alternating military and civilian governments.
The NLC governed until 1969 when it handed over power to a civilian government led by Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia of the Progress Party, following elections. However, Busia's government struggled with economic problems and was itself overthrown in a military coup led by Lieutenant Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong in January 1972. Acheampong established the National Redemption Council (NRC), later the Supreme Military Council (SMC). His rule was marked by economic decline and corruption.
In 1978, Acheampong was removed in a palace coup by his deputy, Lieutenant General Fred Akuffo, who promised a return to civilian rule. However, before elections could be fully realized, another coup occurred on June 4, 1979, led by Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings and a group of junior officers, forming the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC). The AFRC conducted a "house-cleaning" exercise, targeting corruption, and executed several former military leaders, including Acheampong and Akuffo. After a brief period, the AFRC handed over power to a democratically elected government led by President Hilla Limann of the People's National Party in September 1979.
Limann's government, however, failed to resolve Ghana's deep-seated economic problems. On December 31, 1981, Jerry Rawlings led a second coup, ousting Limann and establishing the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) with himself as chairman. The PNDC suspended the constitution and banned political parties. Rawlings' PNDC regime implemented stringent Economic Recovery Programs (ERPs) and Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) prescribed by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. While these programs achieved some macroeconomic stability and growth, they also led to significant social costs, including job losses and cuts in social services, impacting civil liberties and democratic participation. Amidst growing domestic and international pressure, the PNDC initiated a transition back to democratic rule in the early 1990s.
During this period of instability, a notable tribal war occurred in Northern Ghana in 1994 between the Konkomba and other ethnic groups like the Nanumba, Dagomba, and Gonja, resulting in between 1,000 and 2,000 deaths and the displacement of 150,000 people.

3.8. The Fourth Republic (1993-present)

The transition to multi-party democracy culminated in the adoption of a new constitution in April 1992, establishing the Fourth Republic of Ghana. Presidential and parliamentary elections were held in late 1992. Jerry Rawlings, having retired from the military, contested and won the presidency as the candidate for the newly formed National Democratic Congress (NDC). He was re-elected in 1996. Rawlings' two terms laid the foundation for a more stable democratic system, though concerns about human rights and political freedoms persisted from his military rule.
In the 2000 general election, John Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) defeated Rawlings' successor, John Atta Mills, marking a significant milestone: the first peaceful transfer of power from one elected leader to another from a different political party in Ghana's history. Kufuor was re-elected in 2004. His administration focused on economic growth, good governance, and social initiatives like the National Health Insurance Scheme and free basic education.
The 2008 election saw John Atta Mills of the NDC narrowly defeat the NPP's Nana Akufo-Addo. Mills died in office in July 2012 and was succeeded by his Vice President, John Dramani Mahama. Mahama subsequently won the 2012 presidential election. In the 2016 general election, Nana Akufo-Addo of the NPP defeated incumbent Mahama. Akufo-Addo was re-elected in a tightly contested election in 2020.
Since the establishment of the Fourth Republic, Ghana has been recognized as one of Africa's most stable democracies, with regular elections and peaceful transfers of power. However, the country continues to face challenges, including economic management (highlighted by a debt default in 2022), corruption, unemployment, and regional disparities. Efforts continue towards strengthening democratic institutions, promoting social equity, improving human rights, and achieving sustainable development. An initiative to combat deforestation, Green Ghana Day, was inaugurated on June 11, 2021, aiming to plant millions of trees to preserve the country's forest cover.

4.1. Topography and Hydrography

Ghana's topography is diverse. The coastal zone consists of low-lying plains, sandy beaches, and lagoons, interspersed with some rocky headlands. Inland from the coast, the terrain rises to the Ashanti uplands, a dissected plateau region rich in forests and minerals. Further north lies the expansive Volta Basin, which covers a significant portion of the country. This basin is characterized by relatively flat or gently rolling terrain. To the north and northwest of the Volta Basin are higher plains and plateaus, such as the Wa and Gambaga scarps. The highest point in Ghana is Mount Afadja (also known as Afadjato) in the Volta Region, reaching an elevation of 2904 ft ^{(885 m)}.
Ghana is drained by several river systems. The most significant is the Volta River system, which includes the White Volta, Black Volta, and Oti River. These rivers converge to form Lake Volta, the world's largest artificial reservoir by surface area, created by the construction of the Akosombo Dam in 1965. Lake Volta is crucial for hydroelectric power generation, transportation, and fishing. Other important rivers include the Pra, Ankobra, and Tano rivers in the southwest, which flow directly into the Gulf of Guinea.

4.2. Climate

Ghana has a tropical climate, characterized by warm temperatures year-round. There are distinct wet and dry seasons, with variations across the country. The southern part of Ghana, particularly the southwest, experiences a tropical monsoon climate with two rainy seasons: a major one from April to July and a minor one from September to November. Annual rainfall in this region can exceed 0.1 K in ^{(2.00 K mm)}. The coastal belt around Accra is comparatively drier, known as the Accra Plains, with annual rainfall around 30 in ^{(750 mm)} to 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)}.
The northern part of Ghana has a tropical savanna climate with a single rainy season, typically from May to October, followed by a long dry season influenced by the dry, dusty Harmattan wind from the Sahara Desert, which blows from December to March. Annual rainfall in the north ranges from about 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} to 0.0 K in ^{(1.20 K mm)}. Temperatures are generally high throughout the country, with average annual temperatures ranging from 78.8 °F ^{(26 °C)} to 84.2 °F ^{(29 °C)}. The hottest months are usually February and March, just before the main rainy season, while the coolest are often in August, especially in the south. Changes in rainfall patterns, weather conditions, and rising sea levels are expected to negatively impact farming and fisheries.

4.3. Biodiversity and Conservation

Ghana boasts a rich biodiversity spread across various ecosystems. These include coastal savannas, mangroves, tropical rainforests in the southwest, and Guinea savanna woodlands in the north. The country is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Guinean forests, Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, West Sudanian savanna, Central African mangroves, and Guinean mangroves.
The tropical rainforests, though significantly reduced by deforestation, still harbor a wealth of plant and animal species, including numerous primate species (such as monkeys and olive colobus), forest elephants, bongo antelopes, and diverse birdlife. The savanna regions support animals like antelopes, hartebeest, warthogs, and various species of birds and reptiles.
Ghana faces significant environmental challenges, including deforestation due to agriculture, logging, mining (especially illegal gold mining or "galamsey"), and fuelwood collection. Other issues include land degradation, soil erosion, water pollution, and the impacts of climate change, such as increased frequency of droughts and floods.
To address these issues, Ghana has established a network of protected areas, including national parks, wildlife reserves, and forest reserves. Notable protected areas include Kakum National Park, known for its canopy walkway; Mole National Park, the largest wildlife refuge in Ghana; Bia National Park; and various coastal wetlands designated as Ramsar sites for their importance to migratory birds. Conservation efforts involve government agencies, local communities, and non-governmental organizations, focusing on sustainable forest management, anti-poaching activities, reforestation (such as the "Green Ghana Day" initiative), and promoting community-based natural resource management. Ghana signed the Paris Agreement in 2016 and has submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution to address climate change.

5.1. Governance

Ghana is a presidential republic and a unitary state based on the 1992 constitution. The government is structured around the principle of separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
The Executive branch is headed by the President of Ghana, who is both the head of state and head of government, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces. The president is directly elected by popular vote for a four-year term and is limited to a maximum of two terms. The president appoints the Vice President and, with the approval of Parliament, members of the Cabinet (Council of Ministers) who head various ministries. There is also a Council of State, an advisory body to the president.
The Legislative branch is unicameral, consisting of the Parliament of Ghana. Parliament has 275 members (as of the 2020 election), elected for four-year terms from single-member constituencies using a first-past-the-post system. Parliament's primary functions are to make laws, approve the national budget, and oversee the executive branch.
The Judicial branch is independent of the executive and legislative branches. The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice and comprises the Supreme Court (the highest court), the Court of Appeal, the High Court, and lower courts such as Circuit Courts and District Courts. The constitution guarantees judicial independence and the rule of law.

5.2. Political Parties and Elections

Ghana has a multi-party system, but since the establishment of the Fourth Republic in 1993, politics has been dominated by two major parties:

• The National Democratic Congress (NDC): Generally considered a centre-left party, with roots in the PNDC era led by Jerry Rawlings. Its platform often emphasizes social democracy and development for the masses.
• The New Patriotic Party (NPP): Generally considered a centre-right party, advocating for liberal democracy and free-market economic policies.

Other smaller political parties exist and participate in elections, but the NDC and NPP have consistently alternated in power.
Elections are held every four years for the president and members of Parliament. The Electoral Commission of Ghana is an independent body responsible for organizing and overseeing elections. Ghana has a history of competitive elections and peaceful transfers of power, which has contributed to its reputation as a stable democracy in West Africa. Voter turnout is typically high. The 2012 Fragile States Index ranked Ghana as the 67th-least fragile state globally and the fifth-least fragile in Africa. It has consistently ranked relatively well on indices measuring governance and political stability, such as the Ibrahim Index of African Governance. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices, Ghana is ranked 67th electoral democracy worldwide and 10th in Africa.

5.3. Foreign Relations

Since independence, Ghana has pursued a foreign policy based on principles of non-alignment and Pan-Africanism. It is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union (AU). Ghana actively participates in international and regional diplomacy.
Key aspects of Ghana's foreign relations include:

• Regional Cooperation:** Ghana is an influential member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), promoting regional economic integration, peace, and security. It has contributed troops to ECOWAS peacekeeping missions.
• Relations with African Nations:** Ghana maintains strong ties with its neighboring countries (Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Togo) and other African nations, often playing a mediatory role in regional conflicts.
• Relations with Former Colonial Powers and Western Nations:** Ghana has maintained close relationships with the United Kingdom, its former colonial ruler, as a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. It also has strong diplomatic and economic ties with the United States, which has seen visits from several U.S. presidents and a Vice President. Other European nations are also important partners.
• Relations with Other Key Partners:** China has become a significant economic partner for Ghana, involved in infrastructure development, trade, and investment. Concerns about the sustainability of Chinese-financed projects and transparency have been raised. Ghana also engages with other emerging economies and international organizations. It has historical ties with countries like Iran, with leaders from both nations having engaged in bilateral discussions.
• International Organizations:** Ghana is an active member of the United Nations and its various agencies. Ghanaian nationals have held prominent positions in international bodies, most notably Kofi Annan as UN Secretary-General, and Akua Kuenyehia as a judge at the International Criminal Court. Former Presidents Jerry Rawlings and John Kufuor have also served as UN diplomats.
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):** Ghana has integrated the SDGs into its national development agenda and budget, emphasizing a decentralized planning approach involving various stakeholders, including UN agencies, traditional leaders, and civil society. The country aims to be an example in achieving these global goals.

Ghana's foreign policy generally reflects a commitment to multilateralism, peace, international law, and addressing global challenges such as poverty and climate change.

5.4. Military

The Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) are responsible for defending Ghana's sovereignty and territorial integrity, contributing to international peacekeeping operations, and providing assistance to civil authorities in times of emergency. The GAF consists of three main branches:

• The Ghana Army: The largest branch, responsible for land-based operations.
• The Ghana Navy: Tasked with maritime security, protecting Ghana's coastline and offshore assets, including oil and gas installations in the Gulf of Guinea.
• The Ghana Air Force: Provides air support, surveillance, and transport capabilities.

The President of Ghana is the Commander-in-Chief of the GAF. The Ministry of Defence oversees the GAF, and its operations are guided by the constitution and national defense policy.
Since its formation in 1957, the GAF has undergone significant development. President Nkrumah initially aimed to expand the GAF rapidly. The GAF has a strong tradition of professionalism and has made substantial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping missions in various conflict zones around the world, including in Africa, the Middle East, and the Balkans. The Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in Accra is a leading institution for training military, police, and civilian personnel in peacekeeping and peace support operations.
While Ghana is considered relatively peaceful, it has experienced periods of political violence in its past, particularly military coups. In recent years, there have been concerns about localized conflicts and the potential for spillover from instability in neighboring Sahelian countries. Defense policy focuses on maintaining internal security, border protection, and contributing to regional stability.

5.5. Law Enforcement and Crime

Law enforcement in Ghana is primarily the responsibility of the Ghana Police Service (GPS). The GPS is tasked with maintaining law and order, preventing and detecting crime, apprehending offenders, and ensuring internal peace and security. The Criminal Investigation Department (CID) is a specialized branch within the GPS responsible for investigating serious crimes. The GPS operates through regional commands and specialized units, including a Rapid Deployment Force and a Marine Police Unit, which handles issues related to the country's offshore oil and gas industry.
Other law enforcement agencies include the Ghana Immigration Service, responsible for border control and immigration matters, and the Customs Division of the Ghana Revenue Authority, which deals with customs and excise duties.
The judicial system handles the prosecution and adjudication of criminal cases. Crime in Ghana includes various types such as petty theft, robbery, fraud (including cybercrime and advance-fee fraud, locally known as "sakawa"), and drug trafficking. Ghana has been identified as a transit point for narcotics, particularly cocaine from South America destined for Europe, though efforts have been made to combat this.
The Ghana Prisons Service is responsible for the administration of correctional facilities. Prisons often face challenges such as overcrowding and inadequate resources, which impact the human rights of inmates.
Social impacts of crime include fear and insecurity within communities, economic losses, and a burden on the justice system. Efforts to combat crime involve police operations, community policing initiatives, and legal reforms. Corruption within law enforcement agencies remains a concern and an area for ongoing reform efforts aimed at enhancing accountability and public trust. Ghana retains the death penalty for serious crimes such as treason, murder, and armed robbery, though executions have not been carried out for many years, with a de facto moratorium in place.

5.6. Human Rights

The 1992 Constitution guarantees fundamental human rights and freedoms. Ghana has made progress in establishing democratic institutions and the rule of law, but human rights challenges persist.

• Freedoms of Speech, Press, and Assembly:** Ghana generally enjoys a vibrant media landscape and respect for freedom of speech and assembly. However, concerns are sometimes raised about intimidation of journalists and restrictions on protests.
• LGBTQ+ Rights**: Homosexual acts between consenting adult males are criminalized under Ghanaian law, specifically "unnatural carnal knowledge." Societal discrimination and stigmatization against LGBTQ+ individuals are widespread, and there is strong political and public opposition to LGBTQ+ rights. Activism for LGBTQ+ rights faces significant challenges, and recent legislative proposals have sought to further criminalize LGBTQ+ identities and advocacy, drawing criticism from human rights organizations for their potential to exacerbate discrimination and violate fundamental freedoms. The prevailing social conservatism often leads to a hostile environment for LGBTQ+ individuals.
• Women's Rights**: While the constitution guarantees equality for women, gender discrimination and violence against women remain serious issues. Domestic violence, sexual assault, and harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation (though less prevalent in Ghana than in some neighboring countries) occur. Witch camps, primarily in northern Ghana, house women (often elderly and widowed) accused of witchcraft and banished from their communities. These camps represent a severe violation of human rights, stemming from deeply rooted superstitions. The government has expressed intent to close these camps and reintegrate the women, but progress has been slow. Efforts are ongoing to improve women's political participation, economic empowerment, and access to justice.
• Children's Rights**: Child labor, particularly in agriculture (cocoa sector), fishing, and mining, is a significant problem. Child trafficking, both internal and transnational, also occurs. While laws exist to protect children, enforcement can be weak. Efforts are being made to combat child labor and trafficking and to improve access to education for all children.
• Access to Justice and Prison Conditions:** Challenges exist in ensuring timely access to justice for all citizens. Prison conditions are often poor, with overcrowding, inadequate sanitation, and limited healthcare, raising concerns about the treatment of detainees.
• Corruption:** Corruption in public office is a persistent issue that impacts the delivery of services and can undermine human rights by diverting resources.

Governmental bodies like the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) and numerous non-governmental organizations (NGOs) work to promote and protect human rights, advocate for legal reforms, and provide support to victims of abuses. The commitment to social justice requires continuous efforts to address these systemic issues and ensure that the rights of all Ghanaians, especially vulnerable groups, are upheld.

6.1. Regions and Districts

Ghana is divided into sixteen regions for administrative purposes. Prior to a referendum in December 2018 which approved the creation of six new regions, there were ten regions. The current sixteen regions are:

• Ahafo
• Ashanti
• Bono
• Bono East
• Central
• Eastern
• Greater Accra
• North East
• Northern
• Oti
• Savannah
• Upper East
• Upper West
• Volta
• Western
• Western North

Each region is headed by a Regional Minister, appointed by the President and approved by Parliament. The regions are further subdivided into Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs). As of 2021, there were 261 MMDAs. These local government authorities are responsible for the day-to-day administration and development of their respective areas. District Chief Executives (DCEs) or Metropolitan/Municipal Chief Executives (MCEs) are appointed by the President and approved by the respective assemblies. There are ongoing discussions and calls for the direct election of MCEs/DCEs to enhance local accountability and democratic participation. Local government functions include providing basic services, promoting local economic development, and implementing national policies at the local level.

6.2. Major Cities

Ghana has several major urban centers that serve as hubs for administration, commerce, culture, and population.

• Accra: The capital and largest city, located in the Greater Accra Region. Accra is the political, economic, and administrative center of Ghana. It is home to major government institutions, international organizations, businesses, and Kotoka International Airport. Its population is over 2.5 million in the city proper and over 5 million in the metropolitan area.
• Kumasi: The capital of the Ashanti Region and the historical capital of the Ashanti Empire. Kumasi is the second-largest city in Ghana, with a population of over 2 million. It is a major commercial, industrial, and cultural center, known for its large central market (Kejetia Market) and rich Ashanti heritage.
• Tamale: The capital of the Northern Region and the largest city in northern Ghana. Tamale serves as an administrative and commercial hub for the northern part of the country. It has a significant Muslim population and is a center for Dagomba culture.
• Sekondi-Takoradi: A twin city and the capital of the Western Region. It is an important industrial and commercial center, with a major port (Takoradi Harbour) and a significant role in Ghana's oil and gas industry. The city also has historical significance from the colonial era.
• Tema: Located in the Greater Accra Region, Tema is Ghana's primary port city and a major industrial hub. It was planned and built in the 1960s to provide a modern harbor and industrial estate.
• Cape Coast: The capital of the Central Region and a historic city. Cape Coast was a major center during the transatlantic slave trade and is home to Cape Coast Castle, a UNESCO World Heritage site. It is also an important educational center, hosting the University of Cape Coast.
• Sunyani: The capital of the Bono Region (formerly Brong-Ahafo Region). Sunyani is a growing commercial and administrative center in the middle belt of Ghana.
• Obuasi: Located in the Ashanti Region, Obuasi is a major gold mining town, home to one of the world's largest gold mines.
• Koforidua: The capital of the Eastern Region, serving as a commercial center for the surrounding agricultural areas.

Other significant towns include Wa (Upper West Region), Bolgatanga (Upper East Region), Ho (Volta Region), and Techiman (Bono East Region). Urbanization is an ongoing trend in Ghana, with a growing percentage of the population living in these and other urban areas.

7.1. Overview and Economic Policy

Ghana is classified as a lower-middle-income country with a mixed economy. Its economic indicators include Gross Domestic Product (GDP), growth rates, inflation, and debt levels. The country has pursued various development plans, including "Ghana Vision 2020," which aimed to achieve middle-income status (a goal largely met) and further transform Ghana into a developed country between 2020 and 2029, and a newly industrialized country between 2030 and 2039.
Economic policy has historically fluctuated between state-led development (notably under Nkrumah) and market-oriented reforms (particularly since the Structural Adjustment Programs of the 1980s). Recent economic trends have been marked by growth fueled by commodities (cocoa, gold, and oil), but also by challenges such as high public debt, inflation, and currency depreciation. In 2022, Ghana faced a severe economic crisis, leading to a default on most of its external debt and an IMF bailout package.

Policies related to economic management focus on fiscal consolidation, revenue mobilization, and debt sustainability. Poverty reduction and social equity remain key objectives, with programs aimed at improving access to education, healthcare, and social protection. However, regional disparities persist, with poverty rates significantly higher in rural areas and northern Ghana compared to urban and southern areas. The services sector accounts for the largest share of GDP (around 50%), followed by industry (manufacturing and extractive industries) and agriculture. Ghana's economy has ties to the Chinese yuan renminbi, and in 2013, the Bank of Ghana began circulating the renminbi as a trade currency. The Ghana Stock Exchange is one of the larger stock markets in sub-Saharan Africa.

7.2. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Agriculture has traditionally been the backbone of Ghana's economy, employing a significant portion of the labor force (around 53.6% in 2013, though this share has been declining) and contributing substantially to GDP and export earnings.

• Cocoa: Ghana is the world's second-largest producer of cocoa beans, after Ivory Coast. Cocoa is a major export crop, primarily grown by smallholder farmers in the forest regions. The Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD) regulates the industry. Challenges include price volatility, aging trees, diseases, and the impact of illegal gold mining ("galamsey") on cocoa farms. Child labor in the cocoa sector remains a serious concern, impacting human rights and social development.
• Staple Crops: Key food crops include cassava, yam, plantain, maize, rice, sorghum, and millet. While Ghana aims for food self-sufficiency, it still imports some food items, particularly rice.
• Other Cash Crops: Besides cocoa, Ghana produces and exports cashew nuts, palm oil, rubber, and horticultural products like pineapples and mangoes.
• Forestry: Timber is another significant export. However, deforestation due to logging (both legal and illegal) and agricultural expansion is a major environmental concern, impacting biodiversity and livelihoods.
• Fishing: The fishing sector (marine, inland, and aquaculture) provides employment and is an important source of protein. Challenges include overfishing, illegal fishing practices, and the impact of pollution on fish stocks.

Labor conditions in parts of the agricultural sector, particularly for migrant workers and in relation to child labor, raise human rights concerns that require ongoing attention and reform.

7.3. Mining, Petroleum, and Energy

Ghana is rich in natural resources, and the extractive sector plays a vital role in its economy.

• Gold: Gold has been a major export for centuries. Ghana is one of Africa's largest gold producers, and in 2019, it surpassed South Africa to become the continent's top producer. Large-scale mining companies and artisanal/small-scale miners are involved in gold extraction. Illegal mining ("galamsey") poses severe environmental problems (deforestation, water pollution with mercury and cyanide) and social issues, including child labor and conflicts.
• Diamonds, Bauxite, Manganese: Ghana also exports diamonds, bauxite (the raw material for aluminum), and manganese. These minerals contribute to export revenues but also face challenges related to sustainable extraction and community benefit.
• Oil and Natural Gas: Significant offshore oil and natural gas reserves were discovered in the late 2000s, with commercial production starting from the Jubilee Oil Field in 2010. Other fields like TEN (Tweneboa, Enyenra, Ntomme) and Sankofa have since come onstream. The Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) is the state-owned entity involved in exploration and production. While oil has boosted government revenues, managing these resources transparently and ensuring equitable benefits for the population remain key challenges (the "resource curse").
• Energy Sector: Hydroelectric power from the Akosombo Dam and Bui Dam on the Volta River has historically been the main source of electricity. However, demand has outstripped supply, leading to periods of power shortages ("dumsor"). Thermal power plants (using natural gas and crude oil) now contribute significantly to the generation mix. There is growing interest in renewable energy, particularly solar power, to diversify the energy supply and address climate change concerns. Access to reliable electricity, especially in rural areas, remains a challenge. The Volta River Authority and the GNPC are the two major state-owned electricity producers. Ghana also has plans for nuclear power.

7.4. Manufacturing and Services

• Manufacturing: Ghana's manufacturing sector is relatively small but diverse. It includes food processing, beverages, textiles and garments, cement production, pharmaceuticals, metal fabrication, and vehicle assembly. Kantanka Automobile, a Ghanaian company, assembles vehicles locally. Challenges for the sector include competition from imports, infrastructure deficits (power, transport), and access to finance. Policies aim to promote industrialization and value addition to local raw materials.
• Services: The services sector is the largest contributor to Ghana's GDP and has been a key driver of recent economic growth. Key sub-sectors include:
  • Wholesale and Retail Trade:** A major source of employment.
  • Finance and Insurance:** The banking sector has seen significant reforms and growth. Mobile money services have expanded financial inclusion.
  • Telecommunications and Information Technology (IT):** Ghana has a relatively well-developed telecommunications infrastructure with high mobile phone penetration. The IT and Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) sectors are growing. Ghana's state digital technology corporation, Rlg Communications, has manufactured tablet computers and smartphones.
  • Transport and Storage:** Essential for domestic and international trade.
  • Real Estate and Construction:** Driven by urbanization and infrastructure development.
  • Education and Health Services:** Both public and private provision.

7.5. Tourism

Tourism is an important and growing sector of the Ghanaian economy, contributing to foreign exchange earnings and employment. Ghana offers a variety of attractions:

• Historical and Cultural Sites:** The castles and forts along the coast (e.g., Cape Coast Castle, Elmina Castle), recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, are powerful reminders of the transatlantic slave trade and attract many visitors, particularly from the African diaspora ("heritage tourism"). Asante Traditional Buildings are another World Heritage site.
• Nature and Wildlife:** National parks like Kakum National Park (with its canopy walkway) and Mole National Park (for wildlife viewing) are popular. Waterfalls such as Kintampo and Wli, Lake Bosumtwi (a meteorite crater lake), and the vast Lake Volta also draw tourists.
• Beaches and Coastal Areas:** Ghana has extensive sandy beaches along the Gulf of Guinea, offering opportunities for relaxation and water sports like surfing at spots like Busua Beach.
• Cultural Experiences:** Festivals, traditional music and dance, artisan villages (e.g., for Kente cloth weaving), and local cuisine provide rich cultural experiences.

The government has implemented strategies to develop the tourism industry, focusing on marketing, infrastructure improvement, and product diversification. In 2011, Ghana received 1,087,000 tourists. Forbes magazine ranked Ghana as the 11th most friendly country in the world in 2011. Tourism is the fourth highest earner of foreign exchange. However, LGBTQ+ tourism faces challenges due to legal prohibitions and social attitudes, with Ghana scoring low on LGBTQ+ safety indices.

7.6. Science and Technology

Ghana has recognized the importance of science, technology, and innovation (STI) for national development and has formulated policies to promote these areas.

• Policy and Institutions:** The Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI) is responsible for STI policy. Research institutions include the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and various universities.
• Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC):** Established to harness space science and technology for socio-economic development. The GSSTC was involved in the launch of Ghana's first satellite, GhanaSat-1, in 2017, primarily for educational and monitoring purposes. Ghana has a joint effort in space exploration with the South African National Space Agency.
• Information and Communications Technology (ICT):** Ghana launched its first cellular mobile network in 1992 and was later connected to the internet, introducing ADSL broadband services. The ICT sector has seen significant growth, with increasing mobile phone and internet penetration. Efforts are underway to develop a digital economy, promote e-governance, and foster tech entrepreneurship through initiatives like tech hubs and incubators.
• Innovation:** Ghana was ranked 99th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. Investments are being made in research and development (R&D), though funding levels remain relatively low.

Challenges in the S&T sector include inadequate funding, brain drain, and a gap between research output and industrial application. Strengthening STI capacity is seen as crucial for Ghana's long-term economic transformation and competitiveness.

8.1. Roads, Railways, and Ports

• Roads:** The road network is the most extensive and widely used mode of transport in Ghana, carrying the vast majority of passenger and freight traffic. The network comprises trunk roads, urban roads, and feeder roads. Major highways connect Accra with regional capitals like Kumasi, Takoradi, and Tamale, and also link Ghana to neighboring countries. While significant investments have been made in road construction and rehabilitation, challenges remain, including road maintenance, traffic congestion in urban areas, and road safety.
• Railways:** Ghana's railway system primarily connects Accra, Kumasi, and Sekondi-Takoradi. Originally built during the colonial era to transport minerals and agricultural products to the ports, the railway network has suffered from decades of neglect and underinvestment. Efforts are underway to rehabilitate and modernize the existing lines and develop new ones, including standard gauge lines, to improve freight and passenger services.
• Ports:** Ghana has two major seaports:
  • Port of Tema**: Located east of Accra, Tema is Ghana's largest port and a major container hub for West Africa. It handles a significant portion of the country's international trade. Recent expansion projects have increased its capacity.
  • Port of Takoradi**: Located in the Western Region, Takoradi Harbour is important for the export of commodities like cocoa, timber, manganese, and bauxite, and increasingly serves the offshore oil and gas industry.

  Inland water transport on Lake Volta is also utilized, primarily for passengers and cargo, connecting communities along the lake.

8.2. Air Transport

• Airports:** Kotoka International Airport (KIA) in Accra is Ghana's principal international airport and the main gateway to the country. It handles most international passenger and cargo flights and serves as a hub for domestic flights.
• Domestic and International Services:** Several international airlines operate flights to and from KIA, connecting Ghana to major cities in Africa, Europe, North America, and the Middle East. Domestic air services link Accra to other regional capitals such as Kumasi, Tamale, Takoradi, and Sunyani, providing a faster alternative to road travel. The Ghana Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) regulates the aviation industry.

9.1. Population Statistics

As of 2024, the United Nations reported Ghana's population at 34,581,288. The country has a relatively high population growth rate. According to 2018 estimates, around 29% of the population was under the age of 15, while persons aged 15-64 made up 57.8%. The median age of Ghanaian citizens was 21 years as of 2024, indicating a youthful population. Ghana contributes approximately 0.42% to the total world population.
Urbanization is an ongoing trend, with a significant portion of the population residing in cities and towns. The population density varies across the country, being higher in urban areas and more fertile agricultural regions in the south.
Ghana has experienced both emigration and immigration. Many Ghanaians live abroad, contributing remittances to the economy. There is also a population of immigrants and economic migrants from neighboring West African countries (predominantly Nigerians, Burkinabe citizens, Togolese, and Malian citizens), as well as smaller communities of Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, Middle Eastern, and European nationals, many of whom are skilled workers. Historically, Ghana has had instances of mass deportations, such as the "Ghana Aliens Compliance Order" in 1969 and deportations of illegal miners in 2013, including thousands of Chinese nationals.

9.2. Ethnic Groups

Ghana is a multi-ethnic country with a diverse array of ethnic groups, each with its own distinct culture, language, and traditions. According to the 2010 census, the major ethnic groups are:

• Akan** (47.3%): The largest ethnic group, comprising several sub-groups such as the Ashanti (Asante), Fante, Akyem, Kwahu, Akuapem, Nzema, Bono, Akwamu, and Ahanta. The Akan are predominantly located in the southern and central parts of Ghana.
• Mole-Dagbani** (18.5%): The second-largest group, primarily found in the northern regions. Sub-groups include the Moré, Dagomba, Dagaaba, Mamprusi, and Frafra.
• Ewe** (13.9%): Concentrated mainly in the Volta Region in southeastern Ghana.
• Ga-Dangme** (7.4%): Comprising the Ga and Adangme (including Ada and Krobo). They are primarily located in the Greater Accra Region and parts of the Eastern Region.
• Gurma** (5.7%): Found in the northeastern part of Ghana.
• Guan** (3.7%): Believed to be among the earliest inhabitants, scattered in various parts of Ghana, including the Gonja in the north.
• Grusi** (2.5%): Located in the Upper East Region.
• Mande** (1.1%): Including groups like the Busanga.

Despite this diversity, Ghana has generally maintained peaceful inter-ethnic relations.

9.3. Languages

The official language of Ghana is English, a legacy of its colonial past. English is used in government, business, education, and the media.
In addition to English, Ghana is home to a multitude of indigenous languages. The government sponsors eleven of these languages for use in education and official contexts at the regional level:

• Akan**: This includes several mutually intelligible dialects such as Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi, and Fante, as well as the Bono and the less intelligible Nzema. Akan (particularly Twi) is the most widely spoken indigenous language group in Ghana.
• Ewe**: Spoken predominantly in the Volta Region.
• Dagbani** (Dagbanli) and **Dagaare**: Part of the Mole-Dagbani languages group, spoken in the northern regions.
• Dangme** and **Ga**: Spoken in the Greater Accra Region and surrounding areas.
• Guan**: Spoken by various Guan groups.
• Kasem**: Spoken in the Upper East Region.

There are over 70 distinct languages and dialects spoken in Ghana, belonging mostly to the Niger-Congo language family. French is also taught in schools and used in some commercial and international contexts, as Ghana is surrounded by Francophone countries. Since 2005, Ghana has been an associate member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.
Ghanaian Pidgin English, also known as Kru English (or kroo brofo in Akan), is a variety of West African Pidgin English spoken in Accra and southern towns, particularly in informal settings.

9.4. Religion

Ghana is a religiously diverse country with a high degree of religious tolerance. The constitution guarantees freedom of religion.

• Christianity**: The largest religion in Ghana. According to the 2021 census, 71.3% of the population identify as Christian. This includes various denominations:
  • Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians form the largest Christian subgroup (31.6%).
  • Protestant denominations (e.g., Methodist, Presbyterian, Anglican, Baptist) constitute 17.4%.
  • Roman Catholics make up 10.0%.
  • Other Christian groups account for 12.3%.
• Islam**: The second-largest religion, practiced by 19.9% of the population (2021 census). Islam is predominant in northern Ghana and has a significant presence in urban centers throughout the country. The majority of Ghanaian Muslims are Sunni, following the Maliki school of jurisprudence, with smaller Ahmadiyya and Shia communities.
• Traditional African Religions**: Practiced by 3.2% of the population (2021 census). These indigenous belief systems involve reverence for ancestors, nature spirits, and a supreme being. Many Ghanaians, including some Christians and Muslims, may integrate elements of traditional beliefs and practices into their lives.
• No Religion/Other**: 5.3% of the population reported having no religion or belonging to other faiths in the 2010 census. There are small communities of Hindus, Buddhists, and followers of other religions.

Religious festivals, both Christian (e.g., Christmas, Easter) and Muslim (e.g., Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha), are widely celebrated and are often public holidays. There is generally peaceful coexistence and interfaith dialogue among the different religious communities in Ghana.

10.1. System and Access

The education system in Ghana is broadly divided into three parts: Basic Education, Secondary Cycle, and Tertiary Education.

• Basic Education**: This level lasts 11 years and is compulsory and free in public schools. It comprises:
  • Kindergarten (2 years): For ages 4-5.
  • Primary School (6 years): For ages 6-11, divided into two modules of three years.
  • Junior High School (JHS) (3 years): For ages 12-15. Basic education culminates in the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE), which determines eligibility for secondary education.
• Secondary Cycle**: After successfully completing the BECE, students can proceed to:
  • Senior High School (SHS): A 3-year program offering general education, technical, vocational, or agricultural tracks. It leads to the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE), which is required for university admission. In 2017, the government implemented a Free SHS policy to remove financial barriers to secondary education, significantly increasing enrollment.
  • Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Institutes: Offer specialized skills training.
• Tertiary Education**: This includes universities, polytechnics (now often technical universities), and specialized colleges of education.

The Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Service (GES) are responsible for policy formulation and implementation. Government policies have focused on expanding access, particularly through the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) program and the Free SHS policy. The government largely funds basic education and subsidizes public tertiary education. Textbooks and other educational supplies are provided in public basic and senior high schools.
Literacy rates have improved over the years. The youth literacy rate (ages 15-24) was 81% in 2010 (82% for males, 80% for females). However, challenges remain, including regional disparities in access and quality, inadequate infrastructure and resources in some schools, teacher shortages in certain subjects and areas, and the need to improve learning outcomes.

10.2. Higher Education

Ghana has a number of public and private universities and tertiary institutions. Major public universities include:

• University of Ghana** (UG), Legon, Accra: The oldest and largest university, established in 1948 as the University College of the Gold Coast.
• Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology** (KNUST), Kumasi: A leading institution for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education.
• University of Cape Coast** (UCC), Cape Coast: Known for its programs in education and social sciences.
• University for Development Studies** (UDS), Tamale: Focuses on development-oriented programs, particularly for northern Ghana.
• University of Education, Winneba** (UEW), Winneba: Specializes in teacher education.
• University of Mines and Technology** (UMaT), Tarkwa: Focuses on mining and related engineering disciplines.

Technical universities (formerly polytechnics) offer higher national diplomas and, increasingly, bachelor's degrees in technical and vocational fields. There are also numerous private universities and colleges of education. Higher education plays a crucial role in national development by producing skilled human resources and conducting research. The system attracts a number of international students, particularly from other African countries.

11.1. Healthcare System

Ghana operates a universal health care system through the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS), established in 2003. The NHIS aims to provide equitable access to healthcare services for all Ghanaian nationals by removing direct out-of-pocket payments at the point of service for a defined package of benefits. As of 2012, over 12 million Ghanaians were covered by the NHIS.
Healthcare services are delivered through a network of public, private, and faith-based facilities. This includes teaching hospitals, regional and district hospitals, health centers, clinics, and Community-based Health Planning and Services (CHPS) compounds, which focus on primary healthcare in rural areas. Urban centers are generally better served with healthcare facilities and personnel than rural areas. Ghana has over 200 hospitals and is a destination for some medical tourism within the West African sub-region.
The Ministry of Health and the Ghana Health Service are responsible for health policy and service delivery. Challenges in the healthcare system include inadequate funding, shortages of healthcare professionals (especially in rural areas), infrastructure deficits, and logistical issues with medical supplies. In 2010, Ghana spent 5.2% of its GDP on health. In 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) recognized Ghana's medicines regulatory system as having attained "maturity level 3," indicating a stable, well-functioning, and integrated regulatory system.

11.2. Health Indicators and Challenges

Ghana has seen improvements in some health indicators, but progress is needed in others.

• Life expectancy at birth**: In 2021, life expectancy was estimated at 68.6 years for females and 63.7 years for males. The WHO estimated an average of 62 years for men and 64 years for women born in 2016.
• Infant mortality rate**: In 2013, the infant mortality rate was 39 per 1,000 live births. This has seen a decline over the decades.
• Fertility rate**: The total fertility rate has declined from 6.95 births per woman in 1970 to 3.93 in 2017, with urban rates lower than rural rates.

Prevalent diseases and health challenges include:

• Malaria**: A leading cause of morbidity and mortality, especially among children under five.
• HIV/AIDS**: The prevalence rate was estimated at 1.40% among adults aged 15-49 in 2012. Ghana has implemented programs for prevention, treatment, and support.
• Communicable diseases**: Tuberculosis, diarrheal diseases, and respiratory infections are common.
• Non-communicable diseases (NCDs)**: Conditions like hypertension, diabetes, and cancers are increasingly prevalent.

Public health initiatives focus on maternal and child health, immunization programs, disease surveillance and control, health education, and improving sanitation and hygiene. Access to clean water and sanitation, while improving, remains a challenge in some areas, contributing to waterborne diseases. Addressing health disparities between urban and rural areas and among different socio-economic groups is a key priority.

12.1. Cuisine

Ghanaian cuisine is known for its flavorful and diverse dishes, often centered around starchy staples accompanied by soups or stews. Common ingredients include yams, cassava, plantains, maize, rice, beans, and a variety of vegetables, meats, poultry, and seafood. Fish is particularly important, with tilapia, fried whitebait (chinam), smoked fish, and crayfish being popular.
Signature dishes include:

• Banku** and **Kenkey** (komi): Fermented corn dough (banku sometimes mixed with cassava dough) cooked and served with grilled tilapia, fried fish, or stews, often accompanied by a spicy pepper sauce (shito).
• Fufu**: Pounded cassava, plantain, or yam, served with various soups such as light soup, groundnut (peanut) soup, or palm nut soup. Fufu is a staple across many parts of West Africa and the diaspora.
• Jollof rice**: A popular one-pot rice dish cooked with tomatoes, onions, spices, and often meat or fish. It is a subject of friendly culinary rivalry with other West African nations.
• Waakye**: Rice and beans cooked together, typically served with stew, shito, gari (cassava grits), spaghetti, and fried plantains.
• Red Red**: Stewed black-eyed peas served with fried ripe plantains.
• Kontomire stew**: Made from cocoyam leaves (taro leaves), often with melon seeds (egusi) and smoked fish or meat.

Local drinks include palm wine, asaana (fermented corn drink), and sobolo (hibiscus tea).

12.2. Clothing

Traditional Ghanaian clothing is colorful and symbolic.

• Kente**: The most famous Ghanaian textile, Kente is a hand-woven cloth made of silk and cotton. Originating from the Akan people (particularly the Ashanti and Ewe), Kente features intricate geometric patterns and vibrant colors, each with specific meanings. It is traditionally worn for important social and ceremonial occasions. The term "kente" has roots in the Akan word kɛntɛn, meaning basket, reflecting the basket-like appearance of early Kente weaves.
• Adinkra**: These are visual symbols, originally created by the Akan (specifically the Gyaaman people of Bono), that represent concepts or aphorisms. Adinkra symbols are traditionally printed on cloth (Adinkra cloth) worn for funerals and other important events, but are now used in various contexts, including architecture, pottery, and logos. Each symbol has a unique name and meaning, often conveying traditional wisdom, aspects of life, or environmental elements.
• Fugu (Smock)**: A traditional plaid-like shirt worn by men in northern Ghana, often hand-woven and sometimes embroidered.
• African Wax Prints (Ankara)**: Though originating from Dutch wax textiles inspired by Indonesian batik, these colorful, machine-made fabrics have become a staple in Ghanaian and West African fashion. They feature a wide array of local and traditional designs and are used to make various styles of clothing for both everyday wear and special occasions.

Contemporary Ghanaian fashion often blends traditional elements with modern styles, gaining recognition on the African and global fashion scene. Designers like Ozwald Boateng have incorporated African prints and aesthetics into high fashion.

12.3. Literature

Ghanaian literature encompasses both oral and written traditions.

• Oral Tradition**: Oral storytelling, proverbs, and poetry have long been important forms of cultural expression and transmission of knowledge, history, and values among Ghana's ethnic groups.
• Written Literature**: Ghanaian authors have made significant contributions to African literature. Early prominent writers include Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford (Ethiopia Unbound, 1911) and R. E. G. Armattoe. Post-independence writers like Ayi Kwei Armah (The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born), Ama Ata Aidoo (Changes: A Love Story), Kofi Awoonor, and Efua Sutherland gained international acclaim for their works exploring themes of colonialism, post-colonial identity, social change, and tradition versus modernity. Contemporary Ghanaian writers continue to explore diverse themes and genres.

12.4. Music and Dance

Ghanaian music is diverse, reflecting its ethnic variety.

• Traditional Music**: Features a wide array of instruments, including various drums (such as the atumpan or talking drum of the Akan), xylophones (gyil), lutes (koloko), and fiddles (goje). Traditional music is integral to ceremonies, festivals, and storytelling. Court music, like that of the Akan Seperewa (harp-lute), also exists.
• Highlife**: A popular music genre that originated in Ghana in the early 20th century, blending traditional Akan rhythms and melodies with Western instruments and influences (like jazz and calypso). Highlife became a pan-West African phenomenon and has evolved over time. Key figures include E. T. Mensah.
• Hiplife**: A genre that emerged in the 1990s, fusing Highlife with hip hop, dancehall, and Afro-reggae. It is very popular among Ghanaian youth. Artists like Reggie Rockstone are considered pioneers of Hiplife.
• Afrobeats**: Contemporary Ghanaian artists are also prominent in the global Afrobeats scene.
• Gospel Music**: Has a large following in Ghana.

Ghanaian dance forms are equally varied and expressive, often linked to specific ethnic groups or occasions. Examples include:

• Adowa**: An Akan dance, often performed at funerals and social gatherings.
• Kpanlogo**: A Ga dance, popular in Accra, often associated with youth and courtship.
• Agbadza**: An Ewe war dance, now performed at various social events.
• Bamaya**: A Dagomba dance from northern Ghana.
• Azonto**: A more recent popular dance and music genre that gained international attention.

The Nana Otafrija Pallbearing Services, also known as the Dancing Pallbearers, gained international fame for their elaborate coffin-carrying dances at funerals, originating from the coastal town of Prampram.

12.5. Media

Ghana has a relatively free and diverse media landscape. The 1992 Constitution guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media.

• Print Media**: Numerous daily and weekly newspapers are published in English and some local languages.
• Broadcast Media**: Radio is the most widespread medium, with many public, commercial, and community radio stations broadcasting across the country. Television also has a wide reach, with several public and private channels.
• Film Industry (Ghallywood)**: Ghana has a local film industry, often referred to as "Ghallywood," producing movies primarily in English and local languages. These films are popular domestically and in other African countries, though the industry faces challenges from international competition and funding. The Gold Coast Film Unit was established in 1948.
• Internet and New Media**: Internet penetration and social media usage are growing, providing alternative platforms for news, information, and expression.

While media freedom is generally respected, journalists sometimes face challenges, including intimidation and legal pressures. Issues of media ethics, professionalism, and sustainability are also subjects of ongoing discussion.

12.6. Architecture

Ghanaian architecture reflects its history, climate, and cultural diversity.

• Traditional Architecture**: Varies by region and ethnic group. In southern Ghana, traditional Akan architecture often features rectangular courtyard houses made of wattle-and-daub or earth, sometimes decorated with symbolic reliefs. Asante Traditional Buildings, a UNESCO World Heritage site, exemplify this style. In northern Ghana, round huts with grass roofs, often clustered in compounds, are common, reflecting the savanna environment. The Nzulezo stilt village in the Western Region is another unique example of traditional architecture adapted to its environment.
• Colonial Architecture**: The numerous forts and castles built by Europeans along the coast are significant examples of colonial military architecture. Other colonial-era buildings, such as administrative offices, bungalows, and churches, can be found in older towns.
• Modern and Contemporary Architecture**: Post-independence Ghana saw the development of modern architectural styles, influenced by international trends but also seeking to incorporate local elements. Accra and other major cities feature a mix of modern high-rise buildings, commercial complexes, and residential developments. There is a growing interest in sustainable and culturally relevant architectural design.

Ghana has several museums, including the National Museum of Ghana in Accra, the Military Museum in Kumasi, and museums located within historical sites like Cape Coast Castle and Elmina Castle, which preserve and interpret the country's heritage. The Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology also has a Museum of Science and Technology.

12.7. Sports

Sports in Ghana are a popular form of recreation and national pride.

• Football (Soccer)**: By far the most popular sport. The Ghana national football team, known as the "Black Stars," has achieved significant success, winning the Africa Cup of Nations four times (1963, 1965, 1978, 1982). They have participated in four FIFA World Cup tournaments (2006, 2010, 2014, 2022), reaching the quarter-finals in 2010, a feat achieved by only two other African nations. The youth national teams have also excelled, with the U-20 team (Black Satellites) winning the FIFA U-20 World Cup in 2009, and the U-17 team (Black Starlets) winning the FIFA U-17 World Cup twice (1991, 1995). The domestic league is the Ghana Premier League, with prominent clubs like Asante Kotoko and Hearts of Oak.
• Boxing**: Ghana has a strong tradition in professional boxing and has produced several world champions, including Azumah Nelson (a three-time world champion), Nana Konadu (also a three-time world champion), Ike Quartey, and Joshua Clottey.
• Athletics**: Ghanaians have also competed and won medals in athletics at international events like the Commonwealth Games.
• Other Sports**: Other sports played in Ghana include basketball, field hockey, and various traditional sports. Ghana has participated in the Olympic Games and the Commonwealth Games, sending athletes in various disciplines. Ghana first participated in the Winter Olympics in 2010.

12.8. Festivals and Public Holidays

Ghana has numerous public holidays and traditional festivals celebrated throughout the year, reflecting its cultural and religious diversity.

• National Public Holidays**:
  • New Year's Day (January 1)
  • Constitution Day (January 7): Marks the advent of the Fourth Republic in 1993.
  • Independence Day (March 6): Commemorates Ghana's independence from Britain in 1957.
  • Good Friday and Easter Monday
  • May Day (Workers' Day) (May 1)
  • Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha (dates vary according to the Islamic calendar)
  • Founders' Day (August 4): Commemorates the pioneering leaders of Ghana's independence movement, "The Big Six."
  • Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Day (September 21): Marks the birthday of Kwame Nkrumah.
  • Farmers' Day (First Friday in December): Honors farmers and fishers.
  • Christmas Day (December 25)
  • Boxing Day (December 26)
• Traditional Festivals**: Many ethnic groups celebrate annual traditional festivals, which are important cultural events often involving durbars of chiefs, drumming, dancing, feasting, and purification rites. Some well-known festivals include:
  • Homowo**: Celebrated by the Ga people in the Greater Accra Region, marking the end of a hunger period with feasting ("hooting at hunger").
  • Hogbetsotso**: Celebrated by the Anlo Ewe people in the Volta Region, commemorating their migration from Notsie in Togo.
  • Aboakyer**: A deer-hunting festival celebrated by the Effutu people of Winneba.
  • Fetu Afahye**: Celebrated by the Oguaa people of Cape Coast.
  • Damba**: Celebrated by the peoples of Dagbon, Gonja, Mamprusi, and Wala in northern Ghana.

  These festivals play a vital role in preserving cultural heritage, promoting community cohesion, and attracting tourism.

12.9. World Heritage Sites

Ghana is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding universal value:
1. **Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions**: Inscribed in 1979, this site includes a series of fortified trading posts, castles, and forts built by European powers (Portuguese, Dutch, English, Danish, Swedish, German) along Ghana's coast between 1482 and 1786. These structures, such as Elmina Castle, Cape Coast Castle, and Fort St. Jago, are poignant reminders of the gold trade and, tragically, the transatlantic slave trade. They stand as a significant and emotive symbol of European-African encounters and the starting point of the African Diaspora, serving as sites of remembrance and education about this dark chapter in human history.
2. **Asante Traditional Buildings**: Inscribed in 1980, this site consists of a collection of 10 traditionally built Asante houses, primarily shrines, located near Kumasi. These buildings are rare surviving examples of traditional Asante architecture, characterized by their wattle-and-daub construction, steep thatched roofs, and elaborate symbolic relief decorations on their walls. They represent the cultural and architectural heritage of the Ashanti Empire and provide insights into their beliefs, social structures, and artistic traditions. Many were destroyed during the Anglo-Ashanti wars, making the surviving examples particularly valuable.