São Tomé and Príncipe

2.1. Early History and European Arrival

The islands comprising São Tomé and Príncipe were formed approximately 30 million years ago due to volcanic activity in deep water along the Cameroon Line. Over time, interactions with seawater and periods of eruption have engendered a wide variety of igneous rocks and volcanic rocks on the islands with complex assemblages of minerals.

The islands of São Tomé and Príncipe were uninhabited when Portuguese explorers João de Santarém and Pêro Escobar arrived around 1470. Portuguese navigators explored the islands and decided they would be good locations for bases to trade with the mainland. The dates of European arrival are sometimes given as 21 December (St Thomas's Day) 1471, for São Tomé; and 17 January (St Antony's Day) 1472, for Príncipe, though other sources cite different years around that time. Príncipe was initially named Santo Antão_{Saint Anthony}^Portuguese, changing its name in 1502 to Ilha do Príncipe_{Prince's Island}^Portuguese, in reference to the Prince of Portugal to whom duties on the island's sugar crop were paid.

The first successful settlement of São Tomé was established in 1493 by Álvaro Caminha, who received the land as a grant from the crown. Príncipe was settled in 1500 under a similar arrangement. Attracting settlers proved difficult, however, and most of the earliest inhabitants were "undesirables" sent from Portugal, mostly Sephardic Jews. Reportedly, 2,000 Jewish children, eight years old and under, were taken from the Iberian Peninsula and forcibly brought to the islands to work on the sugar plantations, a stark early example of the human cost of colonization. In time, these settlers and the enslaved people they brought found the rich volcanic soil of the region suitable for agriculture, especially the growing of sugar.

2.2. Portuguese Colonial Era

The Portuguese colonial era transformed the islands into a significant economic asset for Portugal, primarily through the brutal exploitation of enslaved Africans on sugar, coffee, and cocoa plantations. This period was characterized by profound social and political changes, economic dependence on cash crops, and resistance from the enslaved population.

2.2.1. Sugar and the Slave Trade (16th Century)

By 1515, São Tomé and Príncipe had become slave depots for the coastal slave trade centered at Elmina. The cultivation of sugar was a labor-intensive process, and the Portuguese began to enslave large numbers of Africans from the continent. São Tomé became economically noteworthy with the introduction of a water-powered sugar mill in 1515, which soon led to the mass cultivation of sugar. An early 16th-century Portuguese observer noted, "The fields are expanding and the sugar mills, too. At this time, only two sugar mills are here and another three are being built... And the [sugar] canes are the biggest I have ever seen in my life." Sugar plantations were organized with enslaved labor, and by the mid-16th century, the Portuguese settlers had turned the islands into Africa's foremost exporter of sugar.

Enslaved people in São Tomé were brought from the Slave Coast of West Africa, the Niger Delta, the island of Fernando Po (now Bioko), and later from the Kongo and Angola. In the 16th century, the enslaved were imported from and exported to Portugal, Elmina, the Kingdom of Kongo, Angola, and the Spanish Americas. In 1510, reportedly 10,000 to 12,000 enslaved people were imported by Portugal for its various colonial enterprises. In 1516, São Tomé received 4,072 enslaved individuals for re-exportation. From 1519 to 1540, the island was the center of the slave trade between Elmina and the Niger Delta. Throughout the early to mid-16th century, São Tomé traded in enslaved people intermittently with Angola and the Kingdom of Kongo. In 1525, São Tomé began trafficking enslaved people to the Spanish Americas, mainly to the Caribbean and Brazil. From 1532 to 1536, São Tomé sent an annual average of 342 enslaved individuals to the Antilles. Prior to 1580, the island accounted for 75 percent of Brazil's imports, mainly enslaved people. The slave trade remained a cornerstone of São Tomé's economy until after 1600.


The power dynamics of São Tomé in the 16th century were surprisingly diverse, with the participation of free mulattos and black citizens in governance. Voluntary colonists shunned São Tomé for its disease and food shortages, so the Portuguese crown deported convicts to the island and encouraged interracial relationships to secure the colony. Slavery was also not always permanent, as demonstrated through the 1515 royal decree granting manumission to African wives of white settlers and their mixed-race children. In 1517, another decree freed the male slaves who had originally arrived on the island with the first colonists. After 1520, a royal charter allowed property-owning, married, free mulattos to hold public offices. This was followed by a decree in 1546 establishing civil equality between these qualified mulattos and the white settlers, allowing free mulattos and black citizens opportunities for upward mobility and participation in local politics and business. However, social divisions led to frequent disputes within the colony's town councils and with the governor and bishop, resulting in constant political instability.

Initially, slavery in São Tomé was reportedly less strict. In the mid-16th century, an anonymous Portuguese pilot noted that the enslaved were employed as couples, built their own accommodations, and worked autonomously once a week on the cultivation of their own food supply. However, this more relaxed system did not last long following the introduction of plantations and the intensification of labor demands.

2.2.3. Transition Period (18th-20th Centuries)

Eventually, competition from sugar-producing colonies in the Western Hemisphere began to hurt the islands' sugar industry. The large enslaved population also proved difficult to control, with Portugal unable to invest many resources in the effort. Sugar cultivation thus declined over the next 100 years, and by the mid-17th century, São Tomé had become primarily a transit point for ships engaged in the Atlantic slave trade between continental Africa and the Americas. In 1641, the Dutch West India Company captured São Tomé, holding it until 1648, further disrupting the Portuguese colonial economy.

In the early 19th century, two new cash crops, coffee and cocoa, were introduced. These crops thrived in the volcanic soil and tropical climate. By 1908, São Tomé had become the world's largest producer of cocoa, which remains the country's most important crop. This shift, however, did not alleviate the harsh conditions for laborers. The roças_{large agricultural estates}^Portuguese system, large agricultural estates, gave plantation managers a high degree of authority, leading to continued abuses against the African farm workers. Although Portugal officially abolished slavery in 1876, the practice of forced paid labor, often under brutal conditions, continued. Scientific American documented in words and pictures the continued use of de facto slave labor in São Tomé in its 13 March 1897 issue.

In the early 20th century, an internationally publicized controversy arose over charges that Angolan contract workers (serviçais_{contract workers}^Portuguese) were being subjected to forced labor and unsatisfactory working conditions, little different from slavery. Sporadic labor unrest and dissatisfaction continued well into the 20th century, culminating in an outbreak of riots in 1953 known as the Batepá Massacre. During this event, several hundred African laborers were killed in a clash with their Portuguese rulers and local landowners who accused them of plotting a rebellion. The Batepá Massacre became a pivotal moment in galvanizing anti-colonial sentiment and is officially observed by the government today as Liberation Martyrs' Day.

A notable scientific event occurred on Príncipe in 1919 when observations of the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 by Sir Arthur Eddington provided one of the first successful tests of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.

2.3. Path to Independence

By the late 1950s, as other emerging nations across the African continent demanded their independence, a small group of São Toméans formed the Committee for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (CLSTP), which eventually established its base in nearby Gabon. In 1972, this group evolved into the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP), led by Manuel Pinto da Costa. Picking up momentum in the 1960s, events moved quickly after the overthrow of the Caetano dictatorship in Portugal during the Carnation Revolution in April 1974.

The new Portuguese regime was committed to the dissolution of its overseas colonies. In November 1974, its representatives met with the MLSTP in Algiers and worked out an agreement for the transfer of sovereignty. After a period of transitional government, São Tomé and Príncipe achieved independence on 12 July 1975, choosing as its first president the MLSTP Secretary General Manuel Pinto da Costa. The early post-independence period saw the MLSTP establish a one-party state with close ties to socialist bloc countries like Angola and Cuba.

2.4. 21st Century Developments

São Tomé and Príncipe embarked on a path of democratic reform in 1990. Changes to the constitution, including the legalization of opposition political parties, led to non-violent, free, and transparent elections in 1991. Miguel Trovoada, a former prime minister who had been in exile since 1986, returned as an independent candidate and was elected president. Trovoada was re-elected in São Tomé's second multiparty presidential election in 1996. The Party of Democratic Convergence (PCD-GR) initially won a majority in the National Assembly, with the MLSTP becoming an important minority party. The MLSTP later regained a plurality in 1994 and an outright majority in 1998.

In the 2001 presidential elections, Fradique de Menezes, backed by the Independent Democratic Action (ADI) party, was elected in the first round and inaugurated on 3 September. Parliamentary elections were held in March 2002. For the next four years, a series of short-lived opposition-led governments was formed. In July 2003, the army seized power for one week, complaining of corruption and that forthcoming oil revenues would not be divided fairly. An accord was negotiated under which President de Menezes was returned to office. In March 2006, a pro-presidential coalition won enough seats in National Assembly elections to form a new government, ending a period of cohabitation.

Fradique de Menezes easily won a second five-year term in the presidential election of 30 July 2006, defeating Patrice Trovoada (son of former president Miguel Trovoada) and independent Nilo Guimarães. Local elections in August 2006 were dominated by members of the ruling coalition. On 12 February 2009, a coup d'état attempt to overthrow President Fradique de Menezes was thwarted. The plotters were imprisoned but later received a pardon from President de Menezes.

Evaristo Carvalho of the ADI became president in the 2016 elections, defeating the incumbent Manuel Pinto da Costa, who had returned to the presidency in 2011. Patrice Emery Trovoada (ADI) became prime minister in 2014. In December 2018, Jorge Bom Jesus, leader of the MLSTP/PSD, was sworn in as prime minister following legislative elections.

In September 2021, Carlos Vila Nova of the centre-right opposition ADI won the presidential election. In September 2022, the ADI, led by former prime minister Patrice Trovoada, won the legislative election over the ruling MLSTP/PSD of Prime Minister Jorge Bom Jesus. Subsequently, Patrice Trovoada was appointed Prime Minister by President Carlos Vila Nova in November 2022. Later that month, the government and military thwarted an attempted coup d'état. These events highlight ongoing democratic processes and challenges related to political stability and governance, particularly concerning the anticipated oil revenues and their management.

3.1. Topography and Geology

The islands of São Tomé and Príncipe were formed approximately 30 million years ago during the Oligocene era, due to volcanic activity beneath deep water along the Cameroon Line. This volcanic origin has resulted in rich soils, primarily composed of basalts and phonolites dating back about 3 million years, which have been extensively used for plantation crops since colonial times.

São Tomé, the larger and more mountainous of the two main islands, is approximately 50 -1 long and 30 -1 wide. Its highest point is Pico de São Tomé, an extinct volcano, reaching an elevation of 2.02 K 0. Príncipe island is about 30 -1 long and 6 0 wide, and is less mountainous than São Tomé. Its highest peak is Pico de Príncipe, at 948 0. The islands feature numerous swift streams that radiate down the mountains through lush forests and croplands to the sea.

A prominent landmark in southern São Tomé is the Pico Cão Grande (Great Dog Peak), a striking needle-shaped volcanic plug. It rises dramatically over 300 -2 above the surrounding terrain, with its summit at 663 0 above sea level. The equator lies just south of São Tomé Island, passing through the islet of Ilhéu das Rolas.

3.2. Climate

The climate of São Tomé and Príncipe is tropical, characterized by hot and humid conditions year-round. It is primarily influenced by its equatorial location, the seasonal shift of low equatorial pressures, monsoon winds from the south, the warm Guinea Current, and the islands' topography.

At sea level, average yearly temperatures are around 26 1, with little daily variation. Temperatures rarely exceed 32 1. In the interior highlands, the average yearly temperature is cooler, around 20 1, and nights are generally cool. Annual rainfall varies significantly, from 800 1 in the northern lowlands to as much as 7.00 K 1 in the highland cloud forests of the southwest. The country experiences two main rainy seasons, from October to May, and two shorter dry seasons, known locally as gravana_{main dry season}^Portuguese (June to September) and gravanita_{short dry season}^Portuguese (December to February).

3.3. Biodiversity

São Tomé and Príncipe is part of the São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón moist lowland forests ecoregion and is recognized for its high levels of endemism, a result of its long isolation. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.64/10, ranking it 68th globally out of 172 countries.

The islands do not have a large number of native mammals, though the São Tomé shrew and several bat species are endemic. However, they are home to a significant number of endemic birds and plants. Notable endemic bird species include the world's smallest ibis (the São Tomé ibis), the world's largest sunbird (the giant sunbird), the rare São Tomé fiscal, the São Tomé olive pigeon, and the São Tomé oriole. Several giant species of Begonia are also unique to the islands. The rich tropical rainforests cover substantial parts of the islands, particularly in the mountainous interiors, and are crucial for maintaining this biodiversity. Parque Natural Obô de São Tomé and Parque Natural Obô do Príncipe were established to protect these rich ecosystems.

São Tomé and Príncipe is an important marine turtle nesting site, with species such as the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), green turtle, and leatherback turtle frequenting its beaches. Environmental conservation efforts are ongoing, supported by international organizations, to protect this unique natural heritage from threats such as habitat loss, invasive species, and climate change.

4.1. Government Structure

The government structure is defined by the constitution adopted in 1990 and subsequently amended. It blends elements of both presidential and parliamentary systems.

The Executive Branch is headed by the President, who is the head of state and is elected by direct universal suffrage for a five-year term, with a limit of two consecutive terms. The President appoints the Prime Minister, who is the head of government. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the National Assembly. The Council of Ministers (cabinet) is chosen by the Prime Minister and appointed by the President.

The Legislative Branch is unicameral, consisting of the National Assembly (Assembleia Nacional_{National Assembly}^Portuguese). It has 55 members, elected for a four-year term through proportional representation in multi-seat constituencies. The National Assembly is the supreme organ of the state and the highest legislative body.

The Judicial Branch is headed by the Supreme Court (Supremo Tribunal de Justiça_{Supreme Court of Justice}^Portuguese). The judiciary is independent under the current constitution, a crucial element for upholding the rule of law and human rights.

4.2. Major Political Parties and Elections

São Tomé and Príncipe has a multi-party political landscape. The main political parties that have historically dominated the political scene include:

• Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe/Social Democratic Party (MLSTP/PSD)**: The former sole legal party that led the country to independence. It remains a major political force with a generally centre-left orientation.
• Independent Democratic Action (ADI)**: A significant centre-right party that has often been the main rival to the MLSTP/PSD, frequently forming governments.
• Democratic Convergence Party (PCD-GR)**: Another party that has played a role in coalition governments.

Elections are held regularly for the presidency and the National Assembly. Power has often alternated between the MLSTP/PSD and the ADI, sometimes resulting in periods of cohabitation where the President and the Prime Minister (and parliamentary majority) come from different parties. This has occasionally led to political tensions but also demonstrates the functioning of democratic checks and balances.

4.3. Human Rights and Democracy

São Tomé and Príncipe is generally considered a country with a good record on human rights and democratic freedoms compared to many other nations in the region. The constitution guarantees fundamental rights, including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and the freedom to form opposition political parties.

The country has consistently ranked relatively well on indices such as the Ibrahim Index of African Governance and V-Dem Democracy Indices, which assess governance, political participation, and human rights. In the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices, it was ranked 56th among electoral democracies worldwide and 5th in Africa, indicating a relatively strong democratic performance. Freedom of the press is generally respected, and media outlets operate with a degree of independence.

However, challenges remain. Corruption is a concern, although Transparency International has noted some fluctuations in its perceived levels. The management of potential oil revenues is a critical area for transparency and good governance to prevent corruption and ensure that benefits reach the broader population. Ensuring the continued independence of the judiciary and strengthening state institutions are ongoing tasks for democratic development. The impact of economic conditions on social rights, such as access to adequate healthcare and education, also remains a key focus for human rights advocates.

4.4. Foreign Relations

São Tomé and Príncipe pursues a foreign policy of non-alignment and seeks friendly relations with all countries. It emphasizes cooperation with other Portuguese-speaking countries and African nations. Key aspects of its foreign policy include:

• Membership in International Organizations**: São Tomé and Príncipe is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) - of which it is a founding member - and the International Organisation of La Francophonie (as an associate member).
• Diplomatic Presence**: The country has embassies in Angola, Belgium, Gabon, Portugal, and the United States. It also maintains a permanent mission to the UN in New York City.

4.4.1. Relations with Portugal

Portugal, the former colonial power, maintains strong historical, economic, and cultural ties with São Tomé and Príncipe. Portugal is a major development partner and one of the largest investors in the country. Cooperation spans various sectors, including defense, education, and economy. Portugal provides military assistance, including patrolling São Tomé and Príncipe's coastal waters with vessels like the NRP Zaire. The economy of São Tomé and Príncipe is closely linked to Portugal, which accounts for a significant portion of its imports and exports. Portugal has also supported the development of the University of São Tomé and Príncipe. High-level visits between officials of both countries are frequent, reaffirming these close ties. In September 2022, a new cooperation agreement for defense was signed, bolstering training and maritime security.

4.4.3. Relations with the United States

The United States has maintained diplomatic relations with São Tomé and Príncipe since its independence in 1975. The U.S. has provided financial aid packages aimed at developing infrastructure and improving fiscal, tax, and customs administration. U.S. Coast Guard vessels have visited the islands to provide medical and military training. A significant aspect of the relationship is the Voice of America (VOA) relay broadcasting station located in São Tomé, which transmits to much of Africa. In the early 2000s, there were discussions about establishing a small U.S. military base on São Tomé, which the Santomean government accepted, but the plan was later canceled.

4.5. Military

The Armed Forces of São Tomé and Príncipe (Forças Armadas de São Tomé e Príncipe_{Armed Forces of São Tomé and Príncipe}^Portuguese - FASTP) are small and primarily responsible for national security, maritime surveillance, and ceremonial duties. The military consists of four branches:

• Army** (Exército_Army^Portuguese)
• Coast Guard** (Guarda Costeira_{Coast Guard}^Portuguese, also referred to as "Navy")
• Presidential Guard** (Guarda Presidencial_{Presidential Guard}^Portuguese)
• National Guard**

Given its limited resources, São Tomé and Príncipe relies on international partnerships, particularly with Portugal and the United States, for training and equipment. The military's role in ensuring maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea, a region prone to piracy and illicit trafficking, is increasingly important. In 2017, São Tomé and Príncipe signed the United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, reflecting its commitment to international peace and disarmament. The military has occasionally been involved in domestic politics, notably in coup attempts, but democratic institutions have generally prevailed.

4.6. Administrative Divisions

São Tomé and Príncipe is divided into two provinces:

• São Tomé Province** (which includes the capital city, São Tomé)
• Príncipe Province**, which has had self-government status since 29 April 1995. Its capital is Santo António.

These two provinces are further subdivided into a total of seven districts. São Tomé Island is divided into six districts, while Príncipe Island constitutes a single district (which is also the autonomous region):

São Tomé Island

• Água Grande (capital: São Tomé)
• Cantagalo (capital: Santana)
• Caué (capital: São João dos Angolares)
• Lembá (capital: Neves)
• Lobata (capital: Guadalupe)
• Mé-Zóchi (capital: Trindade)

Príncipe Island

• Pagué (capital: Santo António)

Each district has its own local administration, responsible for managing local affairs and implementing development projects.

5.1. Economic Structure and Major Industries

Traditionally, the economy has been based on plantation agriculture. Since independence, the state played a significant role, but reforms have led to increased private sector participation. Besides agriculture, the main economic activities include fishing, a small industrial sector engaged in processing local agricultural products and producing basic consumer goods, and a growing services sector, particularly tourism. The government sector also accounts for a significant portion of employment.

5.2. Agriculture

Since the 19th century, plantation agriculture has dominated São Tomé and Príncipe's economy. At the time of independence, Portuguese-owned plantations occupied 90% of the cultivated area. After independence, control of these plantations passed to various state-owned agricultural enterprises, though many have since been privatized.

Cocoa is the main crop, historically representing the vast majority of agricultural exports (around 54% in recent years, down from over 90% historically). In the early 1900s, São Tomé and Príncipe was the world's largest exporter of cocoa and was popularly known as the "Chocolate Islands." The quality of Santomean cocoa is highly regarded. However, production declined significantly after independence due to mismanagement and lack of investment, though efforts are being made to revitalize the sector with a focus on high-quality, organic, and fair-trade cocoa.

Other export crops include copra, palm kernels, and coffee. Domestic food crop production (such as bananas, taro, breadfruit, and cassava) is inadequate to meet local consumption, so the country imports most of its food. This dependency on food imports poses a challenge to food security. The legacy of the plantation system and forced labor practices has had a lasting impact on land distribution, labor relations, and social structures, which current agricultural policies aim to address by promoting smallholder farming and food self-sufficiency.

5.3. Petroleum Exploration and Development

Significant potential for offshore oil reserves in the Gulf of Guinea has generated considerable optimism for São Tomé and Príncipe's economic future. In 2001, São Tomé and Nigeria reached an agreement on joint exploration for petroleum in waters claimed by the two countries within the Niger Delta geologic province. This led to the establishment of a Joint Development Zone (JDZ).

The JDZ was opened for bids by international oil firms in April 2003 and divided into nine blocks. Winning bids for Block One, involving companies like ChevronTexaco (now Chevron), ExxonMobil, and Dangote Group (or formerly Equity Energy), were announced in April 2004. Under the agreement, São Tomé and Príncipe was to receive 40% of the revenues from the JDZ, with Nigeria receiving 60%. The country has received some signature bonuses and other funds for petroleum sector development.

However, commercially viable oil production has yet to commence on a large scale, and the anticipated economic boom has been slow to materialize. There are significant concerns about revenue management, transparency, and the potential for the "resource curse", where oil wealth could exacerbate corruption and inequality if not managed responsibly. Ensuring that potential oil revenues contribute to sustainable development and benefit the entire population is a major policy challenge.

5.4. Tourism

The tourism industry is seen as a key sector for economic diversification, leveraging the country's natural beauty, including pristine beaches, lush rainforests, unique biodiversity, and rich cultural heritage. The government is attempting to improve its rudimentary tourist industry infrastructure and promote ecotourism and high-value tourism. Several resorts have been built, and there is growing international interest. Challenges include limited air access, infrastructure gaps, and the need to ensure that tourism development is sustainable and benefits local communities while preserving the environment.

5.5. Economic Policies and Reforms

Following independence, São Tomé and Príncipe initially adopted a centrally directed economy. However, economic difficulties in the 1980s and 1990s, including stagnating growth and declining cocoa exports, led to a series of far-reaching economic reforms. In 1987, the government implemented an International Monetary Fund (IMF) structural adjustment program. This involved inviting greater private participation in the management of state-owned enterprises (parastatals) and liberalizing the agricultural, commercial, banking, and tourism sectors. Widespread privatization, especially of state-run agricultural and industrial sectors, has been a key focus since the early 1990s.

The government has traditionally obtained foreign assistance from various donors, including the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank, the European Union, Portugal, and the African Development Bank. In April 2000, the IMF approved a poverty-reduction and growth facility. São Tomé and Príncipe also qualified for significant debt reduction under the IMF-World Bank's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative.

5.6. Foreign Trade and Investment

São Tomé and Príncipe relies heavily on foreign trade and investment.

• Exports**: Primarily cocoa, coffee, copra, and palm oil. In 2018, exports totaled around 24.00 M EUR. Main export destinations include the Netherlands, Portugal, Poland, France, and Germany.
• Imports**: Foodstuffs, machinery, fuel, and consumer goods. In 2018, imports totaled around 161.00 M USD. Main import sources are Portugal, Angola, China, and the United States.

The country runs a persistent trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and loans. Attracting foreign direct investment, particularly in oil, tourism, and agriculture, is a government priority.

5.7. Transport and Communications

q=São Tomé International Airport|position=right
Infrastructure development is crucial for economic growth.

• Ports**: The main ports are in the city of São Tomé and in Neves, both on São Tomé island. These have undergone some modernization.
• Airports**: São Tomé International Airport serves international flights and connections to Príncipe. Príncipe Airport serves domestic flights.
• Roads**: The road network is considered reasonable by African standards in some areas but requires further development and maintenance, especially in rural areas.
• Telecommunications**: The telephone system and mobile phone coverage are widespread. Internet service is available, particularly in urban areas, but bandwidth and reliability can be issues. São Tomé also hosts a broadcasting station for the American Voice of America.

5.8. Banking

The Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe (Banco Central de São Tomé e Príncipe_{Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe}^Portuguese) is responsible for monetary policy and bank supervision. Several commercial banks operate in the country. The largest and oldest is Banco Internacional de São Tomé e Príncipe (BISTP), a subsidiary of Portugal's state-owned Caixa Geral de Depósitos. The banking law was changed in 2003, allowing for the entry of other banks.

5.9. Economic Challenges and Prospects

São Tomé and Príncipe faces significant economic challenges:

• Limited Workforce and Small Domestic Market**: The small population restricts the labor pool and market size.
• Geographic Isolation**: Being an archipelago increases transportation costs and logistical complexities.
• Vulnerability to External Shocks**: Dependence on a few commodities makes it susceptible to price fluctuations. Climate change also poses a significant threat through sea-level rise, extreme weather events, and impacts on agriculture and fisheries.
• Poverty and Inequality**: Despite progress on some social indicators, poverty remains a challenge.
• Debt Burden**: Although it has benefited from debt relief, managing public debt remains important.

Prospects for future development are tied to the successful and equitable management of potential oil revenues, sustainable development of tourism, revitalization of agriculture with a focus on high-value products, and continued good governance and institutional strengthening. Ensuring that economic growth is inclusive and translates into improved living standards for all citizens is a central aim of development policy, aligned with a social liberal perspective that prioritizes social justice and broad-based prosperity. The country has shown positive aspects, outperforming the Sub-Saharan Africa average on the Human Development Index with significant progress in education enrollment, life expectancy, and access to basic services like piped water and electricity.

6.1. Population Statistics

The total population was estimated at 201,800 in May 2018 by the national statistics agency. The overwhelming majority, about 193,380 people, live on São Tomé Island, while approximately 8,420 live on Príncipe. The country has a relatively high population density for its land area. The natural population increase is estimated at about 4,000 people per year, driven by a birth rate that is higher than the death rate, though emigration also plays a role in demographic trends. Urbanization is increasing, with a significant portion of the population residing in and around the capital city, São Tomé.

6.2. Ethnic Groups

The people of São Tomé and Príncipe are largely of mixed African and European descent. Distinct ethnic groups include:

• Mestiços_Mestizos^Portuguese**: Descendants of Portuguese colonists and enslaved Africans brought to the islands primarily from Benin, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola. They are also known as filhos da terra_{children of the land}^Portuguese and form a significant portion of the population.
• Angolares_Angolars^Portuguese**: Reputedly descendants of Angolan slaves who survived a 1540 shipwreck off the coast of São Tomé. They historically lived in isolated communities in the south of São Tomé Island and traditionally earn their livelihood from fishing. Their distinct cultural identity and history of resistance are important aspects of the national narrative.
• Forros_Forros^Portuguese**: Descendants of enslaved Africans who were freed when slavery was abolished or prior to that. The term originally referred to those who were manumitted and formed an early Creole elite.
• Serviçais_{Contract laborers}^Portuguese**: Contract laborers from other Portuguese colonies, mainly Angola, Mozambique, and Cape Verde, or their descendants, who were brought to the islands to work on plantations after the official abolition of slavery.
• Tongas_Tongas^Portuguese**: Children of serviçais_{contract laborers}^Portuguese born on the islands.
• Europeans**: A small population, primarily of Portuguese descent.
• Asians**: A very small minority, mostly Chinese, including some Macanese people of mixed Portuguese and Chinese descent from Macau.

The historical interactions and intermingling of these groups have created a complex social structure and a rich Creole culture, where issues of identity, heritage, and social stratification continue to evolve.

6.3. Languages

The official language of São Tomé and Príncipe is Portuguese. It is spoken by about 98.4% of the population and is used in government, education, media, and business. Standard Portuguese has been spoken on the islands since the end of the 15th century.

In addition to standard Portuguese, several Portuguese-based creole languages are widely spoken as mother tongues:

• Forro** (also known as Sãotomense): Spoken by about 36.2% of the population, it is the most widely spoken creole, primarily on São Tomé Island.
• Angolar** (Ngola_Angolar^Portuguese): Spoken by about 6.6% of the population, predominantly by the Angolar community in the southern part of São Tomé Island. It has a stronger Bantu substrate.
• Principense** (Lunguyê_Principense^Portuguese): Spoken by about 1% of the population on Príncipe Island. It is considered endangered.
• Cape Verdean Creole** (Kriolu_{Cape Verdean Creole}^Chuvash): Spoken by about 8.5% of the population, mainly by descendants of Cape Verdean immigrants.

French (spoken by 6.8%) and English (spoken by 4.9%) are taught as foreign languages in schools, reflecting the country's engagement with both Francophone Africa and Anglophone Africa and the wider world. São Tomé and Príncipe is a member of the International Organisation of La Francophonie.

6.4. Religion

The majority of the population in São Tomé and Príncipe is Christian. According to estimates:

• Roman Catholicism** is the largest denomination, with about 55.7% to 71.9% of the population identifying as Catholic. The Catholic Church has a long history in the country, dating back to the Portuguese colonial era, and maintains close ties with the church in Portugal.
• Other Christians** constitute a significant minority, including Seventh-day Adventists (around 4.1%), various Evangelical Protestants (around 3.4%), New Apostolic Church (2.9%), and Jehovah's Witnesses (1.2%).

6.5. Education

São Tomé and Príncipe has made notable progress in education, boasting one of the highest literacy rates in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to 2018 estimates, 92.8% of the population aged 15 and over can read and write (96.2% for males and 89.5% for females).

Education is compulsory for six years. However, the Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) found in 2022 that São Tomé and Príncipe was fulfilling 83.8% of what should be possible for the right to education based on its income level. Specifically, it achieved 90.4% for primary education but only 77.2% for secondary education.

The education system faces several challenges:

• A shortage of classrooms and adequate school infrastructure.
• Insufficiently trained and often underpaid teachers.
• Inadequate textbooks and learning materials.
• High rates of grade repetition.
• Weaknesses in educational planning and management.
• Limited community involvement in school management.
• Heavy dependence on foreign financing due to insufficient domestic funding.

Tertiary education institutions include the National Lyceum (for secondary and pre-university education) and the University of São Tomé and Príncipe (USTP), established to provide higher education opportunities within the country. Efforts are ongoing to improve the quality and accessibility of education at all levels, recognizing its critical role in national development and social progress.

6.6. Health and Welfare

São Tomé and Príncipe has made significant strides in health indicators compared to many other Sub-Saharan African countries. Life expectancy has increased, and infant mortality rates have decreased. The majority of the population has access to piped water and electricity, which are crucial for public health.

However, the health care system faces challenges common to developing nations, including limited resources, a shortage of medical personnel and specialized equipment, and difficulties in ensuring equitable access to services, particularly in rural and remote areas. Major health concerns include malaria (though control programs have had some success), respiratory infections, diarrheal diseases, and emerging non-communicable diseases. HIV/AIDS prevalence is relatively low.

The social welfare system is still developing. The government provides some social safety nets, but coverage and adequacy can be limited. Vulnerable groups, such as the elderly, people with disabilities, and impoverished families, often rely on community support and assistance from non-governmental organizations. Strengthening the health and welfare systems to ensure universal access and improve the quality of life for all citizens is a key priority for the government, often supported by international partners.

7.1. Music and Dance

Music and dance are integral to Santomean cultural expression. Traditional rhythms include:

• Ússua_Ússua^Portuguese**: A slow, stately couple dance, often compared to a minuet, reflecting European ballroom influences.
• Socopé_Socopé^Portuguese**: A more energetic rhythm and dance, popular in São Tomé.
• Dêxa_Dêxa^Portuguese beat**: A distinct rhythm found on Príncipe Island.

Portuguese ballroom dances are thought to have played a role in the development of these rhythms and their associated dances.

A highly significant cultural performance is the **Tchiloli_Tchiloli^Portuguese**. It is a form of musical dance-drama that tells elaborate stories, often based on medieval European tales of chivalry and conflict (like the story of Charlemagne and the Marquis of Mantua), but performed with African rhythms, costumes, and theatricality. These performances can last for many hours and involve entire communities. The **Danço-Congo_Danço-Congo^Portuguese** is a similar combination of music, dance, and theatre, often with more overtly African themes and aesthetics. Morna, a melancholic song and dance form most famously associated with Cape Verde, also has a presence on the islands.

7.2. Literature

São Tomé and Príncipe has a rich literary tradition, particularly in Portuguese. Its Portuguese-language literature and poetry are considered among the most significant in Lusophone Africa. Some literature has also been written in Forro Creole, English, and Caué Creole.

Francisco José Tenreiro (1921-1963) is considered one of the country's most influential writers and poets, a key figure in the Négritude movement and an early voice for Santomean identity. Other notable literary figures include:

• Manuela Margarido
• Alda Espírito Santo (also a politician and national figure)
• Olinda Beja
• Conceição Lima (a prominent contemporary poet)

Their works often explore themes of colonialism, identity, social justice, and the beauty and challenges of island life.

7.3. Cuisine

The cuisine of São Tomé and Príncipe reflects its tropical environment and historical influences. Staple foods include:

• Fish and seafood, which are abundant.
• Beans, maize, and rice.
• Cooked bananas (plantains), breadfruit, and taro.

Tropical fruits such as pineapple, avocado, papaya, and various types of bananas are significant components of the diet. The use of hot spices is prominent. Coffee is sometimes used in various dishes as a spice or seasoning. Breakfast dishes are often reheated leftovers from the previous evening's meal, and omelettes are popular. A common national dish is calulu_calulu^Portuguese, a stew made with dried fish or meat, okra, palm oil, and various vegetables and spices.

7.4. Sports

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in São Tomé and Príncipe. The São Tomé and Príncipe national football team represents the country in international competitions and is controlled by the São Toméan Football Federation. The federation is a member of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) and FIFA. While the national team has had limited success on the international stage, football is passionately followed and played throughout the islands.

São Tomé and Príncipe first participated in the Olympic Games in 1996 and has sent athletes to every Summer Olympics since, primarily competing in athletics (track and field) and canoeing. The country has not yet won an Olympic medal and has not participated in the Winter Olympics.

7.5. Mass Media

The media landscape in São Tomé and Príncipe includes state-run and private outlets.

• Radio**: Radio is the most widespread medium, with both state-owned Rádio Nacional and private stations.
• Television**: Televisão Santomense (TVS) is the state-run television broadcaster. Some foreign channels are also accessible.
• Print**: Several newspapers and periodicals are published, though circulation can be limited.
• Internet**: Internet access is growing, particularly in urban areas, with online news portals and social media becoming increasingly important sources of information.

Freedom of the press is generally respected, though media outlets may face economic challenges.

7.6. Public Holidays

Major national public holidays in São Tomé and Príncipe include:

• January 1**: New Year's Day
• February 3**: Liberation Martyrs' Day (commemorating the Batepá Massacre of 1953)
• May 1**: Labour Day
• July 12**: Independence Day (from Portugal in 1975)
• September 6**: Armed Forces Day
• September 30**: Agricultural Reform Day (Nationalizations Day)
• November 1 or 2**: All Saints' Day / All Souls' Day
• December 21**: São Tomé Day (Discovery of São Tomé Island) / Day of Reconciliation (Acordo de Argel)
• December 25**: Christmas Day

Other holidays include Carnival (variable date before Lent) and Easter. These holidays reflect the country's historical, religious, and political milestones.