Cape Verde

3.1. Early History and European Arrival

The archipelago of modern-day Cape Verde was formed approximately 40-50 million years ago during the Eocene era. Before the arrival of Europeans in the 15th century, the Cape Verde Islands were uninhabited. While some folkloric accounts suggest possible earlier visits by Phoenicians, Moors, or African fishermen from the mainland (such as Serer, Wolof, and Lebou people), there is no conclusive archaeological or historical evidence to support these claims.
Portuguese and Genoese navigators are credited with the discovery of the islands around 1456. According to official Portuguese records, the initial discoveries were made by the Genoa-born explorer António de Noli, who was subsequently appointed as the first governor of Cape Verde by King Afonso V of Portugal. Other navigators mentioned as contributing to the exploration of the archipelago include Diogo Dias, Diogo Afonso, the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto, and Diogo Gomes. Gomes, who accompanied de Noli, claimed to have been the first to land on the island of Santiago and to have named it.
In 1462, Portuguese settlers arrived on Santiago and founded Ribeira Grande (now known as Cidade Velha, meaning "Old City," to distinguish it from another town of the same name on Santo Antão island). Ribeira Grande became the first permanent European settlement in the tropics and served as the early administrative and economic center of the archipelago.

3.2. Portuguese Colonial Era

Under Portuguese colonial rule, Cape Verde's society, economy, and political landscape were profoundly shaped by its strategic location and its integration into the broader Portuguese imperial system. This era saw the islands transform from uninhabited land into a key node in Atlantic commerce, particularly the slave trade, which had lasting consequences for its demographic makeup and cultural development.

3.2.1. Slave Trade Hub

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Cape Verde archipelago prospered due to its central role in the transatlantic slave trade. Its strategic location made it an ideal transit point for ships carrying enslaved Africans from the West African coast to the Americas. This trade brought considerable wealth to the islands but at an immense human cost, leading to the forced migration and suffering of countless Africans. The islands became a place where enslaved people were aggregated, sold, and transshipped. This dark period also attracted merchants, privateers, and pirates.
The Portuguese settlements, particularly Ribeira Grande, were occasionally attacked. The English privateer Francis Drake sacked Ribeira Grande twice, in 1585 and 1586, during the period when Portugal was part of the Iberian Union with Spain. Following a devastating French attack in 1712, Ribeira Grande's importance declined. Praia, located nearby, gradually rose in prominence and officially became the capital in 1770. The legacy of the slave trade is deeply embedded in Cape Verdean society, contributing to its unique Creole (Kriolu_Kriolu^kea) culture and mixed-race population, born from the interactions between European settlers and enslaved Africans. This period had profound socio-economic, demographic, and human rights consequences for the islands and the enslaved people.

3.3. Independence Movement

The desire for self-determination in Cape Verde grew throughout the 20th century, fueled by economic hardship, social inequalities, and the broader wave of decolonization movements across Africa. The nationalist movement aimed to achieve independence from Portugal, with key figures and organizations emerging to articulate the social and political aspirations of the Cape Verdean people.

3.4. Post-Independence Era

The nation-building process since achieving independence on July 5, 1975, has been characterized by significant political, social, and economic transformations, including an initial period of one-party rule followed by a successful transition to a multi-party democracy.
In December 1974, the PAIGC and Portugal signed an agreement providing for a transitional government composed of Portuguese and Cape Verdeans. On June 30, 1975, Cape Verdeans elected a National Assembly, which received the instruments of independence from Portugal on July 5, 1975. Aristides Pereira became the first President of Cape Verde.

3.4.2. Democratization and Multi-Party System

By the late 1980s, responding to growing internal and international pressure for greater political pluralism, the PAICV began to consider reforms. In February 1990, the PAICV called an emergency congress to discuss proposed constitutional changes to end one-party rule. Opposition groups, which had been forming clandestinely, came together to form the Movement for Democracy (Movimento para a Democracia_{Movement for Democracy}^Portuguese, MpD) in Praia in April 1990, led by figures like Carlos Veiga.
The one-party state was officially abolished on September 28, 1990. The first multi-party parliamentary elections were held in January 1991. The MpD won a decisive majority in the National Assembly, and in the subsequent presidential election in February 1991, MpD candidate António Mascarenhas Monteiro defeated the PAICV's incumbent, Aristides Pereira, with 73.5% of the vote. This peaceful transition marked a significant step in Cape Verde's democratic development.
The MpD government, under Prime Minister Carlos Veiga, implemented liberal economic reforms and further entrenched democratic institutions. A new constitution was adopted in 1992. Legislative elections in December 1995 saw the MpD increase its majority, and President Monteiro was re-elected unopposed in February 1996.
In the January 2001 legislative elections, the PAICV, now reformed, returned to power. In a very close presidential election in February 2001, the PAICV-supported candidate Pedro Pires defeated the MpD's Carlos Veiga by only 13 votes. President Pires was narrowly re-elected in the 2006 elections.

The MpD returned to power after the 2011 presidential election, with Jorge Carlos Fonseca becoming president. He was re-elected in the 2016 election. The MpD also won the 2016 parliamentary elections, with Ulisses Correia e Silva becoming Prime Minister. In the April 2021 parliamentary election, the MpD retained its majority.
In October 2021, former prime minister José Maria Neves of the PAICV won the presidential election and was sworn into office on November 9, 2021. These regular and peaceful transfers of power have solidified Cape Verde's reputation as a stable democracy, with positive impacts on civil liberties, human rights, and political participation.
On February 2, 2024, the World Health Organization certified Cape Verde as malaria-free, a significant public health achievement.

4.1. Topography and Geology

The Cape Verde islands are of volcanic origin. Geologically, they lie on a bathymetric swell known as the Cape Verde Rise. The formation of the islands dates back to the Miocene epoch, with the oldest exposed rocks, found on Maio and the northern peninsula of Santiago, being 128-131 million-year-old pillow lavas. The islands themselves are younger, ranging from 8 million years old in the west to 20 million years old in the east.
The combined land area is about 1.6 K mile^{2 (4.03 K km2)}. The islands are principally composed of igneous rocks, with volcanic structures and pyroclastic rock debris. The volcanic and plutonic rocks are distinctly basic, forming a soda-alkaline petrographic province.

The topography varies significantly across the archipelago. Three islands - Sal, Boa Vista, and Maio - are relatively flat, sandy, and dry, characterized by arid landscapes and salt flats (salinas). The other islands, such as Santo Antão, Santiago, Fogo, and São Nicolau, are generally rockier, more mountainous, and feature more vegetation, especially in valleys and at higher altitudes where moisture is more abundant. These mountainous islands exhibit rugged terrain with deep ravines (ribeiras) and towering peaks. Ocean cliffs, formed by catastrophic debris avalanches, are also a feature.
The highest point in Cape Verde is Pico do Fogo on Fogo island, an active stratovolcano reaching 9.3 K ft ^{(2.83 K m)} above sea level. It last erupted in 2014-2015. The volcano has a caldera with a diameter of 5.0 mile ^{(8 km)}, the rim of which is at an elevation of 5.2 K ft ^{(1.60 K m)}.

4.2. Main Islands

The Cape Verde archipelago is divided into two main island groups based on the prevailing northeast trade winds:

4.2.1. Barlavento Islands

The Barlavento (Windward) group comprises the northern islands:

• Santo Antão: The second-largest island, known for its dramatic mountainous landscapes, deep valleys, and hiking trails. Agriculture, particularly sugarcane, yams, and bananas, is important here.
• São Vicente: Home to Mindelo, the country's cultural capital and second-largest city, with a major port (Porto Grande). The island has a relatively dry climate but a vibrant cultural scene.
• Santa Luzia: Currently uninhabited, it is a nature reserve.
• São Nicolau: A mountainous island with agricultural potential in its valleys. It is known for its traditional culture and relatively untouched landscapes.
• Sal: One of the flatter, drier islands, Sal is a major tourist destination due to its sandy beaches and international airport (Amílcar Cabral International Airport). It is named for its historical salt production.
• Boa Vista: The easternmost island, also flat and arid, known for its extensive beaches, dunes (including the Deserto de Viana), and as a nesting site for loggerhead turtles. Tourism is rapidly developing here.

4.3. Climate

Cape Verde has a generally mild, dry tropical climate (arid and semi-arid) with two main seasons: a temperate period from December to June and a warmer period from July to November. Average monthly air temperatures range from around 71.6 °F ^{(22 °C)} in January/February to 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)} in September. Sea temperatures are also mild, typically ranging from 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)} to 80.6 °F ^{(27 °C)}.
The islands are part of the Sahelian semi-arid belt. Rainfall is scarce and irregular, occurring mainly between August and October, often in brief, heavy downpours. Average annual rainfall is low, generally between 3.9 in ^{(100 mm)} and 12 in ^{(300 mm)} in most coastal areas. Some islands, particularly the flatter eastern islands of Sal, Boa Vista, and Maio, are extremely arid, qualifying as desert or semi-desert environments. For example, Sal receives an average of only 5.7 in ^{(145 mm)} of rain annually.

The more mountainous islands, such as Santo Antão, Santiago, Fogo, and São Nicolau, experience higher rainfall, especially on their windward (northeastern) slopes due to orographic lift. In these areas, annual rainfall can exceed 0.0 K in ^{(1.00 K mm)} in the highest mountains, allowing for more extensive vegetation and agriculture. Condensation from ocean mist also contributes to moisture in these higher areas. There can be significant microclimatic variations even within a single island; for example, on Santiago, the interior and eastern slopes are generally wetter than the southern and southwestern coasts where the capital, Praia, is located.
Prevailing winds are the northeast trade winds. During January and February, the Harmattan wind, carrying dust from the Sahara Desert, can affect the islands, reducing visibility.
Cape Verde is located in the path of some Atlantic hurricanes, particularly those known as Cape Verde-type hurricanes, which often form near the archipelago during the late summer and early autumn. While these storms typically move westward and intensify over the open ocean, the islands themselves have rarely been directly hit by hurricanes. Notable exceptions include an unnamed hurricane in 1892 and Hurricane Fred in 2015, which was the easternmost hurricane to form in the Atlantic and make landfall in Cape Verde.
The country is highly susceptible to drought, which can have severe impacts on agriculture and water availability.

4.4. Environment and Biodiversity

Cape Verde's geographic isolation has resulted in a unique biodiversity with a number of endemic species, particularly birds and reptiles, many of which are considered endangered due to human development, habitat loss, and invasive species.
Endemic birds include Alexander's swift (Apus alexandri), Bourne's heron (Ardea purpurea bournei), the critically endangered Raso lark (Alauda razae, found only on Raso islet), the Cape Verde warbler (Acrocephalus brevipennis), and the Iago sparrow (Passer iagoensis). The islands are also an important breeding area for seabirds, including the Cape Verde shearwater (Calonectris edwardsii) and Fea's petrel.
Endemic reptiles include the Cape Verde giant gecko (Tarentola gigas) and several other species of geckos and skinks. Cape Verde is one of the world's most important nesting sites for the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), particularly on Boa Vista, Sal, and Maio. Green sea turtles also nest on the islands.
The native flora is adapted to arid and semi-arid conditions and includes several endemic species, such as the Cape Verde dragon tree (Dracaena draco subsp. caboverdeana) and various species of Echium. However, much of the original vegetation has been altered by human activity, including agriculture and the introduction of non-native plants. Desertification, water scarcity, and soil erosion are significant environmental challenges, exacerbated by climate change and historical land use practices.
Forest cover in Cape Verde is around 11% of the total land area, equivalent to 113 K acre ^{(45.72 K ha)} in 2020. This represents an increase from 38 K acre ^{(15.38 K ha)} in 1990, largely due to afforestation efforts. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 34 K acre ^{(13.68 K ha)}, while planted forest covered 79 K acre ^{(32.04 K ha)}. As of 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.
Conservation initiatives are underway, including the establishment of protected areas (national parks and nature reserves) to safeguard critical habitats and endemic species. These efforts aim to balance development needs with environmental protection and address the social impacts of environmental degradation, particularly on rural communities reliant on natural resources. The country is part of the Cape Verde Islands dry forests ecoregion.

5.1. Government Structure

The political system is defined by the constitution adopted in 1980 and significantly revised in 1992, with further amendments in 1995 and 1999. The structure of government is based on the principle of separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

5.2. Judiciary

The judicial system of Cape Verde is independent of the executive and legislative branches. It is headed by the Supreme Court of Justice (Supremo Tribunal de Justiça_{Supreme Court of Justice}^Portuguese), whose members are appointed by the President, the National Assembly, and a Board of the Judiciary. There are also lower courts, including regional courts (tribunais de comarca_{regional courts}^Portuguese). Separate courts exist to hear civil, constitutional (the Supreme Court often acts as the constitutional court), and criminal cases. The judiciary is responsible for upholding the rule of law, ensuring judicial independence, administering justice, and protecting human rights. Appeals from lower courts are typically made to the Supreme Court.

5.3. Major Political Parties

Since the introduction of a multi-party system in 1990, Cape Verdean politics has been dominated by two major political parties:

• The African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV): Originally the sole legal party from independence in 1975 until 1990, the PAICV (descended from the PAIGC) has a social-democratic orientation. It has been in power for several periods since the democratic transition.
• The Movement for Democracy (MpD): Formed in 1990, the MpD is a centre-right liberal party. It was the first opposition party to win elections in 1991 and has also governed for multiple terms.

Other smaller parties exist, such as the Democratic and Independent Cape Verdean Union (UCID), but the PAICV and MpD have consistently held the vast majority of seats in the National Assembly and alternated in government, contributing to the country's political stability and democratic consolidation.

5.4. Administrative Divisions

Cape Verde is divided into 22 municipalities (concelhos_{municipalities}^Portuguese), which are the primary units of local government. These municipalities are further subdivided into 32 parishes (freguesias_parishes^Portuguese), which are largely based on the historical ecclesiastical parishes established during the colonial period but now serve as administrative subdivisions. Each municipality has an elected assembly and executive body responsible for local governance, public services, and development.

5.5. Human Rights

Cape Verde has a generally positive human rights record and is considered one of the freest countries in Africa. Its constitution guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms, and the country has acceded to major international human rights treaties.
Several international indices reflect Cape Verde's strong performance in governance and human rights:

• The Human Development Index (HDI) was 0.654 in 2017, placing it 10th in Africa among countries listed that year.
• The Ibrahim Index of African Governance (IIAG) scored Cape Verde at 71.1 in 2018, ranking it 3rd in Africa.
• Freedom House consistently rates Cape Verde as "Free," with high scores for political rights and civil liberties. In 2016, it received a score of 1/1 (the highest possible rating) for both political rights and civil liberties, making it the only African country at the time to achieve this maximum rating.
• Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index ranked Cape Verde 27th in the world in 2017 (3rd in Africa), indicating a relatively free media environment.
• The Democracy Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit classified Cape Verde as a "Flawed democracy" with a score of 7.88 in 2018, ranking 2nd in Africa and 26th worldwide.
• The Corruption Perceptions Index by Transparency International gave Cape Verde a score of 59 in 2016 (where higher scores indicate less corruption), ranking it 2nd in Africa and 38th globally.

Despite this positive picture, challenges remain. These include issues related to the judicial system's efficiency, prison conditions, occasional reports of police misconduct, and social issues such as domestic violence and child labor, although the government actively works to address these. Labor rights are generally respected, and efforts are made to promote social equity. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society play an active role in advocating for human rights and monitoring the situation. The government has shown a willingness to cooperate with international human rights bodies.

7.1. Relations with Key Partner Countries

Cape Verde maintains strong bilateral relationships with several key partners:

• Portugal: As the former colonial power, Portugal shares deep historical, cultural, and linguistic ties with Cape Verde. Relations are extensive, covering political, economic, educational, and cultural cooperation. Portugal is a significant development partner and host to a large Cape Verdean diaspora.
• European Union: Cape Verde has a "Special Partnership" status with the EU, established in 2007 under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement. This partnership involves enhanced political dialogue, development cooperation, and trade relations. The Cape Verdean escudo is pegged to the euro, further strengthening economic ties. There has been discussion about potential deeper integration or even special membership status with the EU.
• Lusophone countries: Cape Verde is a founding member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) and maintains close ties with other Portuguese-speaking nations, particularly Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, and São Tomé and Príncipe. These relationships span cultural exchange, economic cooperation, and political coordination.
• African Nations: Cape Verde is an active member of the African Union (AU) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). It promotes regional integration, peace, and security in West Africa.
• United States: The U.S. is a significant partner, particularly in areas of security cooperation (e.g., maritime security, combating transnational crime), development aid, and trade. The U.S. also hosts the largest Cape Verdean diaspora community.
• China: Relations with China have grown, primarily focused on economic cooperation and infrastructure development projects.

These relationships impact Cape Verdean society through development assistance, investment, educational opportunities, and cultural exchange, while also influencing its stance on international human rights and development issues.

7.2. Membership in International Organizations

Cape Verde is an active member of numerous international and regional organizations, reflecting its commitment to multilateralism and global cooperation. Key memberships include:

• United Nations (UN): Cape Verde joined the UN shortly after independence in 1975 and participates actively in various UN agencies and programs, advocating for SIDS issues and global development goals. In 2017, Cape Verde signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
• African Union (AU): As a member of the AU, Cape Verde contributes to continental efforts towards peace, security, democracy, and economic integration.
• Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP): A founding member, Cape Verde plays a significant role in promoting the Portuguese language and culture, and fostering cooperation among Lusophone nations.
• Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): Cape Verde is a member of ECOWAS, participating in regional economic integration, free movement of people, and political stability initiatives in West Africa. It hosts the ECOWAS Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (ECREEE).
• World Trade Organization (WTO): Cape Verde became a member of the WTO in 2008.
• International Criminal Court (ICC): Cape Verde ratified the Rome Statute in 2011, demonstrating its commitment to international justice.

Through these memberships, Cape Verde engages in global and regional governance, advocates for the interests of small island developing states, and contributes to international norms and development efforts.

8.1. Economic Structure and Performance

The Cape Verdean escudo (CVE) is the national currency, and it has been pegged to the euro since 1999 (previously to the Portuguese escudo), providing monetary stability. The service sector accounts for the vast majority of GDP (over 70%), driven by tourism, commerce, transport, and public services. Industry, including light manufacturing and construction, contributes a smaller portion, while agriculture and fisheries represent about 9% of GDP, despite a significant portion of the population living in rural areas.
Economic performance saw strong growth in the 2000s, averaging over 7% real GDP increase per year. While growth has moderated at times due to global economic conditions and local challenges like drought, the country has generally maintained positive economic momentum. Key economic indicators include a relatively stable inflation rate, though unemployment, particularly among youth, remains a challenge. The national budget relies on domestic revenue, international aid, and borrowing. Remittances from Cape Verdeans living abroad are a crucial source of foreign exchange and income, estimated to contribute around 20% of GDP.
In January 2018, the minimum wage was raised to 13.00 K CVE per month.

8.2. Major Sectors

The primary sectors contributing to Cape Verde's economy are tourism, services, and, to a lesser extent, fisheries and agriculture, each with varying impacts on employment, social equity, and environmental sustainability.

8.2.1. Tourism

Tourism is a cornerstone of the Cape Verdean economy and a primary driver of foreign exchange earnings and employment. The sector has experienced rapid growth, attracting international hotel chains and tourists primarily from Europe. Key attractions include the sunny climate, sandy beaches (especially on Sal and Boa Vista islands), water sports (windsurfing, kitesurfing, diving), unique volcanic landscapes, and vibrant Creole culture, particularly its music.
Infrastructure development, including international airports on Sal, Boa Vista, Santiago, and São Vicente, and improved port facilities, has supported tourism growth. However, the sector faces challenges related to sustainability, ensuring that economic benefits reach local communities, protecting the environment, and upholding labor rights within the industry. Efforts are being made to diversify tourism offerings beyond beach holidays to include eco-tourism, cultural tourism, and hiking.

8.3. Science and Technology

Cape Verde has been working to advance its science and technology (S&T) capacity and integrate ICT into its development. In 2011, the country devoted a small percentage of its GDP (0.07%) to research and development (R&D). The Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Culture has plans to strengthen the research and academic sectors through increased mobility, exchange programs, and international cooperation. Cape Verde has participated in initiatives like the Ibero-American academic mobility program. In 2011, there were 25 researchers in the country, primarily in the government sector, with a notable proportion of women (36%).
A significant initiative is the TechPark Cabo Verde project, slated for completion in 2022 and funded by the African Development Bank and the Cape Verdean government. This technology park aims to attract international tech companies and foster local innovation, helping domestic companies and startups become more competitive.
The country has a relatively high rate of internet penetration and a growing mobile phone market. The government has invested in improving ICT infrastructure and has launched several initiatives to promote the development of the digital economy, recognizing its potential to create jobs, boost economic growth, and improve the quality of life. As of early 2023, approximately 70% of the population had access to the internet. Cape Verde was ranked 90th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

8.4. Development, Aid, and Challenges

Cape Verde faces several development challenges inherent to its status as a small island developing state. These include:

• Resource Scarcity: Limited arable land, fresh water shortages (exacerbated by drought), and a lack of significant mineral resources.
• Reliance on Imports: High dependence on imported food, fuel, and manufactured goods, making the economy vulnerable to external price shocks.
• Climate Vulnerability: Susceptibility to drought, desertification, sea-level rise, and extreme weather events, which threaten agriculture, infrastructure, and coastal communities.
• Social Inequalities: Despite progress, disparities in income and access to services persist, particularly between urban and rural areas and across different islands. Unemployment, especially among youth, is a concern.
• Economic Diversification: While tourism has been a success, there is a need to diversify the economy further to build resilience.

National development plans, such as the Strategic Plan for Sustainable Development, guide efforts towards addressing these challenges. Foreign aid and investment play a crucial role in financing development projects, particularly in infrastructure, education, health, and environmental protection. The European Commission, for example, allocated substantial funds for poverty reduction and good governance.
Cape Verde has made significant strides in renewable energy, with a 2011 wind farm on four islands supplying about 30% of the country's electricity at the time, and a national goal to become entirely reliant on renewable energy sources. The country hosts the ECOWAS Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency. Policies like the Transformational Agenda to 2030, National Renewable Energy Plan, and Low Carbon and Climate-resilient Development Strategy underscore the commitment to sustainable and inclusive economic growth. The 2023 debt-for-nature swap with Portugal is another example of innovative strategies to finance sustainable development.

9.1. Demographics

As of the 2021 census, the resident population of Cape Verde was 483,628. The population in 2022 was estimated to be around 593,149. A significant proportion of the population (269,370 in 2021) lives on the main island of Santiago, where the capital, Praia, is located. Other populous islands include São Vicente (74,016), Santo Antão (36,632), Fogo (33,519), and Sal (33,347).
The largest cities according to the 2021 census data are Praia (137,868), Mindelo (69,013), Espargos (24,500 on Sal island), and Assomada (21,297 on Santiago island).
The country has experienced significant emigration, resulting in a large diaspora population that outnumbers the resident population. Demographic indicators show a youthful population, though like many developing nations, it is gradually aging. Urbanization is ongoing, with a considerable portion of the population residing in urban centers like Praia and Mindelo. Historically, Cape Verdean society has seen the formation of social classes, with a numerically significant "petty bourgeoisie" and a majority composed of peasantry and a smaller working class, though a distinct "bourgeoisie" in the classical sense was largely absent.

9.2. Ethnic Groups and National Identity

The overwhelming majority of Cape Verdeans are of Creole (Mestiço_Mestizo^Portuguese) descent, resulting from centuries of intermarriage between European (primarily Portuguese) settlers and Africans who were brought to the islands, largely as enslaved people. This mixing has created a unique ethno-cultural identity. A smaller percentage of the population is of primarily African or European ancestry.
The European genetic contribution includes Portuguese settlers, Spanish and Italian sailors granted land by the Portuguese Empire, Portuguese exiles, as well as Portuguese Muslims and Portuguese Jews (especially on Boa Vista, Santiago, and Santo Antão). Over time, immigrants from other parts of the world, including the Netherlands, France, Britain, Arab countries (Lebanon, Morocco), China (especially from Macau), India, Indonesia, South America, and North America, have also been absorbed into the Creole population.
National identity is strongly tied to the Creole language (Kriolu_Kriolu^kea), shared cultural expressions like music and dance, and a collective history marked by resilience in the face of hardship (drought, famine, emigration). There is a strong sense of Cape Verdean nationhood and cultural pride, both within the islands and among the diaspora.

9.3. Languages

The official language of Cape Verde is Portuguese, which is used in government, education, official documentation, and the media. However, the de facto national language and the mother tongue of virtually all Cape Verdeans is Cape Verdean Creole (Kriolu_Kriolu^kea).
Kriolu_Kriolu^kea is a Portuguese-based creole language with significant lexical and grammatical contributions from West African languages. It exists as a dialect continuum, with variations (variantes_variants^Portuguese) across the different islands. The two main dialect groups are the Barlavento (Windward) Creoles and the Sotavento (Leeward) Creoles. The Santiago Creole and the São Vicente Creole are among the most widely spoken and have substantial bodies of literature.
Since independence, Kriolu_Kriolu^kea has been gaining prestige and recognition. The national constitution calls for measures to give Kriolu_Kriolu^kea parity with Portuguese and eventually official status. Efforts towards the standardization of Kriolu_Kriolu^kea have been ongoing, led by linguists and cultural figures like Manuel Veiga. However, the dialectal diversity has posed challenges to establishing a single unified standard. Some have advocated for the development of two standards: a Northern (Barlavento) standard, centered on the São Vicente Creole, and a Southern (Sotavento) standard, centered on the Santiago Creole.

9.4. Religion

The vast majority of Cape Verdeans are Christian. Roman Catholicism is the largest denomination, reflecting centuries of Portuguese colonial influence. According to 2010 data, approximately 78.7% of the population identified as Catholic, a slight decrease from 85% in 2007.
Protestantism constitutes the second-largest religious group (around 10.4% in 2010). The most significant Protestant denominations include the evangelical Church of the Nazarene (which is the largest Protestant church), the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Assemblies of God, the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Islam is the largest minority religion, practiced by a small but growing community. There was a historical presence of Judaism during the colonial era, particularly with the arrival of Sephardic Jews. Atheists and those with no religious affiliation constitute a small percentage of the population (around 10.9% combined with "Other" in 2010).
Many Cape Verdeans practice a form of religious syncretism, blending Christian beliefs and practices with elements of traditional African beliefs and customs. Freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed and generally respected in practice. Religion plays an important role in the social and cultural life of the country.

9.5. Education

Cape Verde's education system has made significant progress and is considered one of the better systems in Africa, ranked 8th by the World Education Forum in 2023. The system shares similarities with the Portuguese model, though universities have increasingly adopted aspects of the American system, such as four-year bachelor's degree programs (replacing earlier five-year programs around 2010).
Primary school education, for children aged 6 to 14, is mandatory and free. In 2011, the net enrollment ratio for primary school was 85%. The literacy rate for the population aged 15 and over was approximately 91% as of 2021 (91.7% for males, 82% for females, according to 2015 estimates). A notable portion of the population holds college degrees, with some possessing doctorates. In 2015, about 23% of the population had either attended or graduated from secondary school. The overall tertiary education participation rate (college graduates and undergraduate students) among the college-age population was around 24%.
Textbooks have been made available to a large percentage of schoolchildren (90%), and a high proportion of teachers (98%) have received in-service training. Despite these achievements, challenges remain, including insufficient spending on school materials, lunches, and books, as well as issues related to the language of instruction (Portuguese) versus the commonly spoken Kriolu_Kriolu^kea at home, which can affect learning outcomes.
As of October 2016, there were 69 secondary schools (19 private) and at least ten universities, primarily located on the islands of Santiago and São Vicente. Government expenditure on education was 5.6% of GDP in 2010 and 5.4% in 2016. The mean years of schooling for adults over 25 is 12 years.
Cape Verde is recognized for the quality and inclusiveness of its higher education system within West Africa. As of 2017, about one in four young people attended university, and a third of students opted for fields in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). Women represented about one-third of students but two-thirds of graduates in 2018, indicating strong female participation and success in higher education. These efforts aim to foster human development and social mobility.

9.6. Health

Cape Verde's population is among the healthiest in Africa, and the country has made significant improvements in health indicators since independence. It was promoted from the Least Developed Countries category in 2007, partly due to its social development progress. As of 2020, it ranked 11th best in Africa on the Human Development Index.
Key public health indicators (as of 2017 data from the National Statistics Bureau, unless otherwise stated):

• Infant mortality rate (0-5 years): 15 per 1,000 live births.
• Maternal mortality rate: 42 deaths per 100,000 live births.
• Life expectancy at birth: 76.2 years (72.2 years for males, 80.2 years for females).
• HIV/AIDS prevalence rate (15-49 years): 0.8%.

The healthcare system includes six main hospitals: two central hospitals (Hospital Agostinho Neto in Praia and Hospital Baptista de Sousa in Mindelo) and four regional hospitals (one in Santa Catarina on Santiago, one on Santo Antão, one on Fogo, and one on Sal). Additionally, there are numerous health centers (28), sanitation centers (35), and various private clinics throughout the archipelago. Access to medical services has improved, though disparities may exist between urban and rural areas or across islands.
While community healthcare is largely free, challenges include the availability of specialized equipment and personnel, particularly in more remote areas. Access to clean water has improved, but it is not universal, especially in some rural regions.
Total expenditure on health was 7.1% of GDP in 2015. Cape Verde achieved a Global Hunger Index score of 9.2 in 2024, indicating a low level of hunger, ranking 48th out of 127 countries with sufficient data. The country was certified malaria-free in 2024. Government policies aim to continuously improve population health outcomes and address any disparities affecting vulnerable groups.

9.7. Emigration and Diaspora

Cape Verde has a long and significant history of emigration, resulting in a Cape Verdean diaspora that is estimated to be almost twice as large (nearly one million people) as the resident population of the country itself. Cape Verdeans are highly dispersed worldwide, with communities found from Macau to Haiti and Argentina to Sweden. Until independence in 1975, Cape Verdean emigrants often traveled with Portuguese passports, which can make precise historical numbers for the diaspora difficult to ascertain.
The majority of Cape Verdeans abroad reside in the United States and Western Europe.

• The United States hosts the largest overseas Cape Verdean population, estimated at 500,000. Most are concentrated in New England, particularly in cities like Boston, New Bedford, and Brockton in Massachusetts, and Providence in Rhode Island. Brockton has one of the largest Cape Verdean communities of any American city (18,832). Cape Verdean immigration to Massachusetts began in the 1840s, initially driven by opportunities in the whaling industry. Subsequent waves arrived, particularly after Cape Verde's independence in 1975. Immigrants found work in maritime jobs, seasonal agriculture (like cranberry harvesting), factory work, and later, the service industry. The community has also developed a vibrant small business sector. Cape Verdeans have a long history of enlistment in the U.S. military.
• Portugal hosts the second-largest diaspora community (around 150,000) due to centuries of colonial ties.
• Other significant communities exist in former Portuguese colonies like Angola (45,000) and São Tomé and Príncipe (25,000).
• In Europe, there are notable populations in France (25,000), Spain (65,500), Italy (20,000), the United Kingdom (35,500), and the Netherlands (20,000, with 15,000 concentrated in Rotterdam). Smaller communities are found in Luxembourg and Scandinavia (7,000).
• Outside the U.S. and Europe, populations exist in Mexico (5,000) and Argentina (8,000).

Remittances sent home by the diaspora are a vital component of the Cape Verdean economy, contributing significantly to household incomes and national foreign exchange reserves. The diaspora also maintains strong cultural and political connections with the homeland. The experience of emigration and sodade_sodade^kea (a feeling of longing and nostalgia characteristic of Cape Verdean culture) is a prominent theme in Cape Verdean music, literature, and art, famously expressed in the song "Sodade" by Cesária Évora.
In recent decades, Cape Verde has increasingly become a net recipient of migrants, attracted by its relative political and social stability, civil freedoms, and higher per capita income compared to some neighboring regions. Immigrants include Chinese (forming a notable segment), West Africans, and a smaller number of Europeans and Latin Americans (professionals, entrepreneurs, retirees). Over 22,000 foreign-born residents have been naturalized, hailing from over 90 countries.

9.8. Public Safety and Crime

Cape Verde is generally considered a safe country with a relatively low crime rate compared to many other African nations and enjoys good overall public safety. However, like any country, it experiences certain types of crime. Petty crimes such as pickpocketing, theft, and burglary can occur, especially in crowded urban areas, marketplaces, festivals, and tourist spots. Perpetrators of such crimes are sometimes reported to be gangs of street children or youth.
More serious crimes, including assaults and murders, while not widespread, are more concentrated in the major population centers of Praia and Mindelo. There have been instances of gang-related violence in some urban neighborhoods.
Law enforcement efforts are undertaken by the national police forces (Judicial Police and National Police). The justice system handles criminal cases, though it can face challenges related to efficiency and resources. The government and civil society organizations work on crime prevention and public safety initiatives. While organized crime related to international drug trafficking has been a concern due to Cape Verde's geographical location, direct impacts on daily public safety for most citizens are limited, though it poses a broader challenge that authorities actively combat. Tourists are generally advised to take standard precautions against petty crime. Access to justice for all citizens remains an ongoing focus for improvement.

10.1. Music

Music is perhaps the most celebrated expression of Cape Verdean culture. The islands are renowned for their musicality, which incorporates African, Portuguese, and Brazilian influences.

• Morna: The quintessential national music genre, Morna is a slow, melancholic, and lyrical song form, often expressing sodade_sodade^kea - a sense of longing, nostalgia, and yearning. It is typically sung in Kriolu_Kriolu^kea and accompanied by instruments like the guitar, cavaquinho, violin, and piano. Cesária Évora, known as the "Barefoot Diva" and the "Queen of Morna," brought this genre to international fame. Her uncle, Bana, was known as the "King of Morna."
• Coladeira: A more upbeat and rhythmic genre than Morna, Coladeira is often danced to and features satirical or joyful lyrics.
• Funaná: A fast-paced, accordion-based genre with strong African rhythms, traditionally associated with the island of Santiago. It was once suppressed during the colonial era but has experienced a revival.
• Batuque: A traditional music and dance form, also originating from Santiago, predominantly performed by women. It involves call-and-response singing, hand clapping, and a cloth bundle beaten rhythmically between the legs (tchabeta_tchabeta^kea).

Other notable musicians who have contributed to Cape Verdean music include Antonio Vicente Lopes (Travadinha), Ildo Lobo (in whose honor the House of Culture in Praia is named), Sara Tavares, Lura, and Mayra Andrade. The success of Cesária Évora helped pave the way for other Cape Verdean artists on the international stage. Diaspora musicians like jazz pianist Horace Silver and saxophonist Paul Gonsalves (of Duke Ellington's orchestra) also had Cape Verdean heritage.

10.2. Dance

Dance is integral to Cape Verdean music and social life, often blending West and Central African influences with European styles.

• Funaná dance is energetic, performed solo or in pairs with fast hip movements, accompanying the lively music.
• Coladeira dance is slower and more sensual than Funaná.
• Batuque involves rhythmic hip movements and is traditionally performed by women in a circle.
• Morna is also danced, typically as a slow, graceful partner dance.

Newer dance styles like Zouk and Kizomba, which share some rhythmic similarities with Cape Verdean music, are also popular.

10.3. Literature

Cape Verdean literature is considered one of the richest in Lusophone Africa. Common themes include national identity, the Creole experience, emigration, sodade_sodade^kea, drought, and social issues. Oral traditions have played a significant role, and much of the literature is written in Portuguese, though there is a growing body of work in Kriolu_Kriolu^kea.
Prominent writers include:

• Poets: Paulino Vieira, Manuel de Novas, Sergio Frusoni, Eugénio Tavares, and B. Léza.
• Authors (novelists and short story writers): Baltasar Lopes da Silva (author of Chiquinho, a foundational work), António Aurélio Gonçalves, Manuel Lopes, Orlanda Amarílis, Henrique Teixeira de Sousa, Arménio Vieira (winner of the Camões Prize in 2009), Kaoberdiano Dambará, Dr. Azágua, and Germano Almeida.

The first novel written by a woman from Cape Verde was A Louca de Serrano by Dina Salústio; its English translation, The Madwoman of Serrano, was the first translation of any Cape Verdean novel into English.

10.4. Cuisine

Cape Verdean cuisine is based on fish, corn (maize), and rice, reflecting the islands' maritime location and agricultural staples.

• Cachupa: Considered the national dish, Cachupa is a rich, slow-cooked stew made with hominy (corn kernels), beans, cassava, sweet potatoes, vegetables, and typically fish or meat (such as pork, beef, or chicken). Cachupa Rica is the version with meat, while Cachupa Pobre is simpler. Leftover Cachupa fried with an egg on top is called Cachupa refogada or Cachupa guisada and is a popular breakfast.
• Seafood: Fresh fish, lobster, and octopus are widely available and feature prominently in many dishes, often grilled or stewed.
• Pastel: A common appetizer or snack, this is a deep-fried pastry shell filled with spicy fish (often tuna) or meat.
• Grogue: A strong rum distilled from sugarcane, it is the national alcoholic beverage. Pontche_Pontche^kea (a sweetened grogue, often with molasses or honey and sometimes fruit) is also popular.

Vegetables available during most of the year include potatoes, onions, tomatoes, cassava, cabbage, and kale. Fruits such as bananas and papayas are available year-round, while mangoes and avocados are seasonal.

10.5. Media

The media landscape in Cape Verde includes television, radio, newspapers, and online platforms. Freedom of the press is generally respected.

• Television: In towns with electricity, television is available. There is one state-owned channel, RTC (Radiotelevisão Caboverdiana_{Cape Verdean Radio-Television}^Portuguese - TCV), and several foreign-owned or private channels, including RTI Cabo Verde (Portuguese-based), Record Cabo Verde (Brazilian-based), and TV CPLP. Premium cable and satellite channels are also available, particularly in urban areas and hotels.
• Radio: Radio is a very popular medium. There are national stations like RCV (Rádio de Cabo Verde), RCV+, and Rádio Kriola, as well as local stations such as Rádio Praia, Praia FM, Rádio Barlavento, Rádio Clube do Mindelo, and Radio Morabeza. Religious stations like Rádio Nova also operate.
• Print and Online: Several newspapers are published, such as Expresso das Ilhas and A Nação. Online news portals are increasingly important sources of information. The national news agency is Inforpress.

As of early 2023, Cape Verde had high mobile phone ownership (around 99%), significant internet access (70%), and lower rates for landline telephones (11%) and local cable TV subscriptions (2%).

10.6. Cinema

The film industry in Cape Verde is emerging. The Cape Verde International Film Festival (CVIFF), held annually in Sal since 2010, and the Praia International Film Festival (PIFF), since 2014, support local and international filmmaking. CVIFF has partnered with organizations like the African-American Film Critics Association.
The Carnival of Mindelo and the island of São Vicente were featured in the 2015 documentary Tchindas, which was nominated at the 12th Africa Movie Academy Awards. Cape Verde was also a location for the 2023 French film Ama Gloria.

10.7. Sports

Several sports are popular in Cape Verde, with football (soccer) being the most followed.

• Football: The Cape Verde national football team, nicknamed the Tubarões Azuis_{Blue Sharks}^Portuguese (Blue Sharks), has achieved notable success, qualifying for the Africa Cup of Nations (AFCON) four times (2013, 2015, 2021, and 2023). In their debut in 2013, they reached the quarter-finals. The national football league is the Cape Verdean Football Championship. Many Cape Verdean players or those of Cape Verdean descent play professionally in Europe, such as Nani (played for Portugal) and Henrik Larsson (Swedish international with Cape Verdean father).
• Basketball: The Cape Verde national basketball team is one of the country's most successful teams, winning the bronze medal at the 2007 FIBA Africa Championship. They made their first appearance at the FIBA Basketball World Cup in 2023, finishing 28th. Walter Tavares is a well-known Cape Verdean basketball player who has played in the NBA and for Real Madrid.
• Water Sports: Cape Verde is renowned for "wave sailing" (a type of windsurfing) and kitesurfing, with ideal conditions on islands like Sal and Boa Vista. Josh Angulo, a Hawaiian and 2009 PWA Wave World Champion, helped promote the archipelago as a windsurfing destination. Mitu Monteiro, a local kitesurfer, was the 2008 Kite Surfing World Champion in the wave discipline.
• Olympics and Paralympics: Cape Verde has competed at every Summer Olympics since 1996. Boxer Daniel Varela de Pina became the first Cape Verdean to win an Olympic medal, securing bronze at the 2024 Summer Olympics. In 2016, Gracelino Barbosa became the first Cape Verdean to win a medal at the Paralympic Games.

Other sports like futsal, golf, tennis, and cricket are also played.

10.8. World Heritage Sites

Cape Verde has one site inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List:

• Cidade Velha, Historic Centre of Ribeira Grande: Inscribed in 2009, Cidade Velha was the first European colonial outpost in the tropics. Its remains include a royal fortress, two churches, and a 16th-century town square, testifying to its historical importance as a maritime hub and a center of Creole culture.

10.9. Public Holidays

Major national and public holidays in Cape Verde include:

11.1. Ports and Maritime Transport

Cape Verde has several international ports. The main ones are:

• Porto Grande (Mindelo, São Vicente): This is the country's primary port for cruise ships and a major hub for cargo. It also serves as the terminus for the important ferry service to Santo Antão.
• Port of Praia (Praia, Santiago): This is a key hub for inter-island ferry services connecting to most other inhabited islands and also handles international cargo.
• Port of Palmeira (Sal): Supplies fuel for Amílcar Cabral International Airport and is important for the tourism-related construction and supply on Sal island.
• Port of Sal Rei (Boa Vista): Serves the tourism industry and local needs on Boa Vista.

Porto Novo on Santo Antão is vital for the import and export of produce from the island, as well as passenger traffic, especially since the closure of the airstrip at Ponta do Sol.
Smaller harbours and jetties exist on other islands like São Nicolau (Tarrafal), Maio (Porto Inglês/Vila do Maio), Fogo (São Filipe), and Brava (Furna), acting as terminals for inter-island ferry services carrying both freight and passengers. The pier at Santa Maria on Sal, used by fishing and dive boats, has been rehabilitated. Maritime transport is essential for the movement of goods and people between the islands.

11.2. Airports and Air Transport

Cape Verde has seven operational airports, four of which are international, facilitating tourism and diaspora travel. These are:

• Amílcar Cabral International Airport (SID) on Sal Island: The oldest and historically busiest international airport, a major gateway for tourists.
• Nelson Mandela International Airport (RAI) in Praia, Santiago Island: Serves the capital and is a key hub.
• Aristides Pereira International Airport (BVC) on Boa Vista Island: Opened in 2007 to support the island's rapidly growing tourism sector.
• Cesária Évora Airport (VXE) on São Vicente Island: Serves Mindelo and the northern islands, opened in 2009.

The three domestic airports serve the islands of São Nicolau (Preguiça Airport), Maio (Maio Airport), and Fogo (São Filipe Airport). Airports on Brava (Esperadinha Airport) and Santo Antão (Agostinho Neto Airport at Ponta do Sol) are currently non-operational, primarily due to safety concerns related to terrain and wind conditions.
Due to its geographical location, Cape Verde is often on transatlantic air routes, particularly between Europe and South America, serving as a stopover or for air traffic control purposes. Air transport is crucial for international tourism and connecting the widespread Cape Verdean diaspora. Cabo Verde Airlines is the national flag carrier, though other international airlines also serve the country.

11.3. Road Network and Land Transport

The road network in Cape Verde totals approximately 1.9 K mile ^{(3.05 K km)}, of which about 0.6 K mile ^{(1.01 K km)} are paved, often using traditional cobblestones, particularly in towns and on steeper gradients. Road infrastructure varies by island, with more developed networks on Santiago, Sal, and São Vicente.
Public transport within islands primarily consists of shared taxis (minibuses known as aluguer_aluguer^Portuguese or "hiace") which operate on fixed or semi-fixed routes, and regular taxis. In major cities like Praia and Mindelo, municipal bus services also operate. Maintaining and developing the road network can be challenging due to the mountainous terrain on many islands and the cost of construction and upkeep.

11.4. Aerial Drones

The use of small unmanned aerial drones is an emerging technology in Cape Verde. In 2021, experimental programs were underway using drones capable of carrying up to 11 lb ^{(5 kg)} for tasks such as delivering medical supplies between islands or to remote areas. This technology holds potential for improving logistics and access to essential services, particularly given the archipelago's geography.