Brazil

3.1. Pre-Cabraline era

Before the arrival of Europeans, the territory now known as Brazil was inhabited by numerous indigenous groups for thousands of years. Some of the earliest human remains found in the Americas, known as Luzia Woman, were discovered in the area of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais, providing evidence of human habitation dating back at least 11,000 years. The earliest pottery found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil and radiocarbon-dated to over 8,000 years ago (6000 BC), near Santarém, indicating the presence of complex prehistoric cultures.

The indigenous population at the time of European contact in 1500 is estimated to have been around 7 million people. These peoples were diverse, comprising several large ethnic groups such as the Tupis, Guaranis, Gês, and Arawaks. The Tupi people were further subdivided into groups like the Tupiniquim and Tupinambás. Most of these societies were semi-nomadic, relying on a combination of hunting, fishing, gathering, and migratory agriculture. They lived in complex social formations, sometimes organized into chiefdoms, such as the Marajoara culture which flourished on Marajó island in the Amazon delta from AD 400 to 1400. The Marajoara developed sophisticated pottery, social stratification, large populations, and mound building.

Relations between indigenous groups were not always peaceful; wars were common, arising from cultural, linguistic, and moral differences. These conflicts sometimes involved large-scale military actions on land and water, and reportedly included cannibalistic rituals on prisoners of war. Leadership within these societies was often earned over time rather than strictly inherited. Slavery existed among indigenous groups but differed in meaning and socioeconomic organization from European concepts, often being integrated into kinship relations.

3.2. Portuguese colonization

Following the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain, the land now called Brazil was claimed for the Portuguese Empire on April 22, 1500, with the arrival of a Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered indigenous peoples divided into several ethnic societies, most of whom spoke languages of the Tupi-Guarani family and often fought among themselves.

Although the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization effectively began in 1534 when King John III of Portugal divided the territory into fifteen private and autonomous captaincies. This decentralized system proved problematic, and in 1549, the Portuguese king restructured them into the Governorate General of Brazil, with Salvador as its capital, centralizing Portuguese colonial administration in South America.

The first two centuries of colonization were marked by constant warfare between indigenous groups and Europeans, as well as among European powers vying for control. The French attempted to establish colonies in Rio (France Antarctique_{French Antarctic}^French) in the 1560s and Maranhão (France Équinoxiale_{Equinoctial France}^French) in the 1610s. The Dutch also invaded and controlled parts of the northeast, particularly Bahia and Pernambuco, during the Dutch-Portuguese War (1601-1661), following the end of the Iberian Union. Opportunistic alliances were formed between European and indigenous groups to gain advantages. However, the impact on indigenous populations was devastating. Many were decimated by European diseases to which they had no immunity, forced into labor, or killed in conflicts.

By the mid-16th century, sugarcane cultivation became Brazil's most important export. To work the vast sugar plantations (engenhos), the Portuguese forcibly imported millions of enslaved Africans, primarily from West Africa and Angola and Mozambique. Brazil received more enslaved Africans than any other country in the Americas, with estimates of over 2.8 million individuals imported between 1500 and 1800, and nearly 5 million in total during the entire Atlantic slave trade. This established a brutal slave-based society and economy, profoundly shaping Brazil's social structure, culture, and demographics. Resistance by enslaved Africans was common, leading to the formation of runaway slave communities known as quilombos, the most famous being the Quilombo of Palmares, led by figures like Zumbi. The colonial administration worked to suppress these rebellions and any movements for autonomy.

By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline. The discovery of gold by bandeirantes (explorers and fortune hunters) in the 1690s, particularly in Minas Gerais, triggered a gold rush. This attracted thousands of new settlers from Portugal and its colonies, shifting the economic center of Brazil southward. This influx of immigrants also led to conflicts, such as the War of the Emboabas, between newcomers and established settlers. Portuguese expeditions, known as bandeiras, gradually expanded Brazil's colonial frontiers beyond the Tordesillas line, approximating its current borders. Movements for independence, such as the Inconfidência Mineira (Minas Gerais Conspiracy) in 1789, were harshly repressed, with figures like Tiradentes becoming martyrs for the cause of Brazilian independence.

3.3. Elevation to kingdom

In late 1807, as Napoleonic forces under Jean-Andoche Junot threatened continental Portugal, Prince Regent John (later King John VI), acting in the name of his mother, Queen Maria I, made the monumental decision to transfer the entire Portuguese royal court from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. This move effectively made Rio de Janeiro the capital of the Portuguese Empire and had profound consequences for Brazil's development. Upon arrival, the Portuguese court established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as local stock exchanges and the Banco do Brasil (Bank of Brazil). A significant step was the ending of the Portuguese monopoly on Brazilian trade, opening Brazil's ports to other nations, primarily Great Britain. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, Prince Regent John ordered the Portuguese conquest of French Guiana, which was held until 1817.

With the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, European courts pressured Queen Maria I and Prince Regent John to return to Portugal, as it was considered improper for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a colony. To legitimize his continued stay in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for six years, the Crown elevated Brazil to the status of a kingdom in 1815, establishing the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. This created a pluricontinental transatlantic monarchic state, with Brazil no longer a mere colony but an equal partner with Portugal.

However, the political leadership in Portugal, resentful of the new status of its larger former colony, continued to demand the return of the court to Lisbon. This tension was a key factor in the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Portugal, which took the city of Porto. Acceding to the demands of the revolutionaries, John VI departed for Lisbon in 1821. He swore an oath to the new constitution there, leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara, as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil. This period marked a significant shift in Brazil's status and laid the groundwork for its eventual independence.

3.4. Independent empire

Tensions between Portuguese and Brazilians escalated as the Portuguese Cortes (parliament), guided by the new political regime imposed by the Liberal Revolution of 1820, attempted to re-establish Brazil as a colony, stripping it of the autonomy gained since 1808. Brazilians, particularly the elites who had benefited from the open ports and increased status, refused to yield. Prince Pedro sided with the Brazilians and, on September 7, 1822, famously declared the country's independence from Portugal in an event known as the "Cry of Ipiranga" (Grito do Ipiranga_{GREE-too doo ee-pee-RAHN-gah}^Portuguese). A month later, on October 12, Prince Pedro was acclaimed the first Emperor of Brazil, taking the royal title Dom Pedro I, thus founding the Empire of Brazil.

The Brazilian War of Independence had already begun and spread through the northern, northeastern regions, and in the Cisplatina province (present-day Uruguay). The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on March 8, 1824. Portugal officially recognized Brazilian independence on August 29, 1825, through the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, mediated by Great Britain.

Pedro I's reign was marked by political turmoil. He promulgated the Constitution of 1824, which established a centralized constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature (the General Assembly, precursor to the National Congress). However, his authoritarian tendencies and involvement in the Cisplatine War (1825-1828), which resulted in Uruguay's independence, eroded his popularity. On April 7, 1831, worn down by administrative turmoil, political dissent, and issues related to the Portuguese royal succession, Pedro I abdicated the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son, Dom Pedro II, and returned to Portugal.

As Pedro II was a minor, a regency was established by the National Assembly to govern the country. This period (1831-1840) was characterized by intense political instability and numerous regional revolts, such as the Cabanagem in Grão-Pará, the Malê Revolt in Salvador, the Balaiada in Maranhão, the Sabinada in Bahia, and the Ragamuffin War in Rio Grande do Sul. These uprisings stemmed from provincial dissatisfaction with central power, coupled with existing social tensions in a vast, slaveholding, and newly independent nation-state. To restore order, Pedro II was declared of age prematurely and crowned emperor in 1841.

Pedro II's long reign (1840-1889) is often considered a period of significant progress and stability for Brazil. The empire engaged in several international conflicts, including the Platine War, the Uruguayan War, and the devastating Paraguayan War (1864-1870), which was Brazil's largest war effort and reshaped the balance of power in South America. Internally, political debate increasingly centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was effectively abolished in 1850 due to British pressure (the Aberdeen Act) and Brazilian law (the Eusébio de Queirós Law). The institution of slavery itself was gradually dismantled through a series of laws, culminating in the Lei Áurea (Golden Law) of May 13, 1888, which formally abolished slavery without compensation to slave owners. This act, signed by Princess Isabel while Pedro II was in Europe, alienated the powerful planter oligarchy, a key pillar of support for the monarchy.

The abolition of slavery, combined with growing republican sentiment influenced by positivism among military officers and intellectuals, weakened the empire. On November 15, 1889, a military coup d'état led by Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca overthrew the monarchy, establishing the First Brazilian Republic. Pedro II was exiled, and the imperial era came to an end. The coup faced little popular resistance, though there was no widespread desire among the majority of Brazilians to change the country's form of government at the time.

3.5. Early republic

The establishment of the republic in 1889, known as the "Old Republic" (Primeira República_{pree-MAY-rah heh-POO-blee-kah}^Portuguese) or First Brazilian Republic, initially saw a military dictatorship dominate affairs. Freedom of the press diminished, and elections were often controlled by those in power. It was not until 1894, following an economic crisis (the Encilhamento) and a military one (the Naval Revolt), that civilian rule was consolidated. This period was characterized by the political dominance of the coffee-growing oligarchies of São Paulo and the dairy-producing state of Minas Gerais, a system known as "coffee with milk" politics (política do café com leite_{po-LEE-chee-kah doo kah-FEH kom LAY-chee}^Portuguese), where the presidency often alternated between candidates from these two powerful states.

The economy remained heavily reliant on coffee exports. Immigration policies continued to encourage European and, later, Asian (particularly Japanese) laborers to work on coffee plantations and in burgeoning urban centers. This era was marked by significant social issues, including widespread poverty, land concentration, and regional revolts like the War of Canudos (1896-1897) in Bahia and the Contestado War (1912-1916) in the south, which highlighted deep-seated social grievances and messianic movements.

In foreign policy, Brazil successfully resolved most of its border disputes with neighboring countries, often through the diplomatic efforts of figures like the Baron of Rio Branco. An exception was the Acre War (1899-1902) with Bolivia, which resulted in Brazil annexing the Acre territory. Brazil participated in World War I on the side of the Allies, primarily through naval contributions and supplying raw materials, but its involvement was limited. Post-war, Brazil made a failed attempt to exert a prominent role in the League of Nations.

Internally, a prolonged cycle of financial, political, and social instability plagued the 1920s. Various rebellions, both civilian (like the Vaccine Revolt of 1904) and military (such as the Tenente (lieutenant) revolts of the 1920s), challenged the oligarchic regime. These crises undermined the Old Republic, culminating in the Revolution of 1930. Sparked by the global Great Depression which devastated coffee prices, and political discontent over the presidential succession, the revolution was led by Getúlio Vargas, the defeated opposition presidential candidate, with strong military backing. Vargas seized power, ending the Old Republic.

3.6. Vargas Era

The period from 1930 to 1945 is known as the Vargas Era, dominated by Getúlio Vargas. Initially, Vargas was supposed to assume power temporarily, but he quickly consolidated his authority by closing Congress, extinguishing the 1891 Constitution, ruling with emergency powers, and replacing state governors with his own supporters (known as interventores).

His early years were marked by attempts to crush opposition. The Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932, led by São Paulo's oligarchy seeking a return to constitutional rule and regional autonomy, was suppressed by federal forces. In 1935, a Communist uprising was also quashed, leading to increased political repression. In May 1938, an attempted putsch by local fascists, the Integralists, also failed.

Capitalizing on the perceived threat of communism and internal instability, Vargas staged a self-coup in 1937, cancelling the scheduled 1938 presidential election and establishing a full-fledged dictatorship known as the Estado Novo (New State). This regime was characterized by authoritarianism, nationalism, populism, and corporatism, heavily influenced by European fascist models, particularly Mussolini's Italy and Salazar's Portugal. During the Estado Novo, censorship of the press was severe, political opponents were persecuted, and state propaganda was widespread.

Despite its authoritarian nature, the Vargas government implemented significant social and economic changes. Labor laws were introduced, granting workers rights such as a minimum wage, an eight-hour workday, and paid vacations, which garnered him considerable support among the urban working class. Industrialization efforts were intensified, with a focus on import substitution and state-led development, particularly in heavy industries like steel. Nationalist policies aimed to reduce foreign economic influence.

During World War II, Brazil initially maintained neutrality. However, after German U-boats repeatedly attacked Brazilian merchant ships, Brazil declared war on the Axis powers in August 1942 and joined the Allied side. Brazil contributed by allowing Allied airbases in its territory, participating in the Battle of the Atlantic, and sending the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (FEB) to fight in the Italian campaign. The participation in a war against fascism abroad, while maintaining a dictatorship at home, created an untenable contradiction. With the Allied victory in 1945 and the fall of fascist regimes in Europe, pressure for democratization mounted in Brazil. Vargas was overthrown in another military coup in October 1945, and democracy was ostensibly reinstated.

3.7. Second Republic and Populist Era

Following the ousting of Getúlio Vargas in 1945, Brazil entered a period known as the Second Brazilian Republic (1946-1964), or the Populist Era. A new constitution was promulgated in 1946, re-establishing democratic governance, civil liberties, and a multi-party system. Eurico Gaspar Dutra, a general who had served under Vargas, was elected president. His term was marked by conservative policies and alignment with the United States in the burgeoning Cold War.

In 1950, Getúlio Vargas made a political comeback, winning the presidential election through popular vote. His second presidency (1951-1954) was characterized by nationalist economic policies, including the creation of the state oil company Petrobras, and populist rhetoric. However, he faced intense political opposition from conservatives, the military, and media figures like Carlos Lacerda. Amid a severe political crisis, fueled by accusations of corruption and an assassination attempt on Lacerda (implicated Vargas's bodyguard), Vargas committed suicide in August 1954, leaving a dramatic note blaming "dark forces" and foreign interests for his downfall.

Vargas's death led to a series of brief interim governments. In 1956, Juscelino Kubitschek (known as JK) became president. His administration adopted the slogan "Fifty years of progress in five" and embarked on an ambitious program of economic development and industrialization. Kubitschek's most iconic achievement was the construction of a new, modernist capital city, Brasília, in the interior of the country, inaugurated in 1960. This project aimed to promote national integration and develop the vast hinterlands. While the economy grew rapidly during this period, known as the "Golden Years," it also led to high inflation and increased foreign debt.

Kubitschek's successor, Jânio Quadros, elected in 1960, resigned abruptly in August 1961, less than a year after taking office, citing "terrible forces" against him. His resignation plunged the country into a political crisis. Vice President João Goulart (known as "Jango"), a leftist and Vargas's political heir, assumed the presidency. Goulart's presidency (1961-1964) was marked by increasing political polarization and social tensions. He proposed "Basic Reforms" (Reformas de Base^Portuguese), including land reform and nationalization of certain industries, which alarmed conservatives, business elites, and the military, who feared a shift towards communism. The period was characterized by high inflation, labor unrest, and political instability, setting the stage for another military intervention.

3.8. Military dictatorship

On March 31, 1964, a military coup d'état, with backing from the United States government concerned about Goulart's leftist leanings during the Cold War, overthrew President João Goulart. This marked the beginning of a military dictatorship that lasted for 21 years (1964-1985). The military justified the coup as necessary to prevent a communist takeover and restore order and economic stability.

The regime was initially intended to be transitory, but it gradually consolidated its power and became more authoritarian. General Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco was the first of five military presidents. The dictatorship suspended direct presidential elections, restricted political freedoms, and dissolved existing political parties, replacing them with a controlled two-party system: the pro-government National Renewal Alliance (ARENA) and the token opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB).

The regime's grip tightened significantly with the promulgation of Institutional Act Number Five (AI-5) in December 1968. This decree suspended habeas corpus for political crimes, closed Congress indefinitely, and granted the president sweeping powers to legislate by decree and strip citizens of their political rights. Oppression intensified, targeting not only armed leftist guerrilla groups that emerged to fight the regime, but also institutional opponents, artists, intellectuals, journalists, students, and other members of civil society. Censorship was widespread, and systematic human rights violations, including arbitrary arrests, torture, and extrajudicial killings, became common. Brazil also participated in Operation Condor, a U.S.-backed campaign of political repression and state terror involving intelligence sharing and assassination of opponents by right-wing dictatorships in the Southern Cone.

Economically, the period from the late 1960s to the early 1970s saw rapid growth, known as the "Economic Miracle" (Milagre Econômico^Portuguese). This growth was fueled by state investment, foreign loans, and industrial expansion. However, the benefits of this growth were not evenly distributed, and social inequality often worsened. The "miracle" ended with the 1973 oil crisis, leading to increased foreign debt and economic stagnation in the later years of the dictatorship.

Slowly, from the mid-1970s, under President Ernesto Geisel, a process of political opening (abertura política_{ah-behr-TOO-rah po-LEE-chee-kah}^Portuguese) began. This gradual liberalization was continued by his successor, President João Figueiredo. The regime faced growing popular pressure for a return to democracy, fueled by economic difficulties, labor strikes, and the activities of human rights organizations and social movements. An Amnesty Law was passed in 1979, allowing many exiled political figures to return, though it also controversially granted amnesty to those involved in state repression.

3.9. Contemporary era

The process of re-democratization in Brazil began in the early 1980s and culminated in the transition to civilian rule in 1985. Although direct presidential elections were not immediately restored, an electoral college chose Tancredo Neves as president. However, Neves fell ill and died before taking office, and his vice-presidential running mate, José Sarney, assumed the presidency. Sarney's tenure (1985-1990) was marked by the drafting of a new, democratic Constitution, promulgated in 1988. This constitution significantly expanded civil liberties, human rights protections, and social welfare provisions. However, his government struggled with severe economic challenges, particularly hyperinflation and foreign debt inherited from the military regime, making him unpopular.

In 1989, Brazil held its first direct presidential elections since 1960. Fernando Collor de Mello, a young, charismatic candidate, won but was impeached by the National Congress in 1992 on corruption charges. His vice president, Itamar Franco, took over and appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Minister of Finance. Cardoso implemented the Plano Real in 1994, a highly successful economic stabilization plan that curbed hyperinflation and stabilized the Brazilian currency. This success propelled Cardoso to victory in the 1994 presidential election, and he was re-elected in 1998. Cardoso's administration focused on neoliberal reforms, privatization, and maintaining economic stability, but also faced criticism for rising unemployment and persistent social inequality.

The 2002 election marked a significant political shift with the victory of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva ("Lula") of the left-leaning Workers' Party (PT). Lula, a former union leader, was re-elected in 2006. His presidency benefited from a global commodities boom, leading to strong economic growth and enabling significant expansions in social welfare programs, such as Bolsa Família, which lifted millions out of poverty and reduced inequality. Brazil's international standing also grew during this period. However, his government was also plagued by corruption scandals, such as the Mensalão scandal.

Lula's handpicked successor, Dilma Rousseff, also from the PT, became Brazil's first female president after winning the 2010 election. She was re-elected in 2014 by a narrow margin. Her presidency faced increasing challenges, including an economic downturn, rising inflation, and massive street protests in 2013 sparked by grievances over public services, corruption, and the cost of hosting the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2016 Summer Olympics. The massive Operation Car Wash (Operação Lava Jato^Portuguese) corruption investigation, which began in 2014, implicated numerous politicians across parties, including many from the PT and its allies, further fueling political instability. Rousseff was impeached and removed from office in August 2016 for allegedly breaking fiscal responsibility laws. Her vice president, Michel Temer of the centrist PMDB, assumed the presidency and implemented austerity measures.

The 2018 election saw the rise of Jair Bolsonaro, a far-right populist candidate, who won the presidency. His term was marked by conservative social policies, environmental deregulation leading to increased deforestation in the Amazon, a controversial handling of the COVID-19 pandemic (which hit Brazil particularly hard), and heightened political polarization.

In the 2022 election, Lula da Silva defeated Bolsonaro and returned for a third presidential term, which began on January 1, 2023. Just a week after Lula's inauguration, on January 8, 2023, supporters of Bolsonaro, refusing to accept the election results, stormed and vandalized the National Congress building, the Supreme Federal Court, and the presidential palace in Brasília, an event widely condemned as an attack on Brazilian democracy. Contemporary Brazil continues to grapple with challenges of democratic consolidation, advancing human rights, combating persistent social inequalities, and navigating a complex political landscape.

4.1. Topography and hydrography

Brazilian topography is diverse, featuring hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 656 ft ^{(200 m)} and 2625 ft ^{(800 m)} in elevation. The main upland area, the Brazilian Highlands (also known as the Brazilian Plateau), occupies most of the southern half of the country. The northwestern parts of this plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.

The southeastern section of the Brazilian Highlands is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 3.9 K ft ^{(1.20 K m)}. These ranges include the Mantiqueira Mountains, Espinhaço Mountains, and the Serra do Mar. In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system in Venezuela to the north. The highest point in Brazil is Pico da Neblina, at 9.8 K ft ^{(2.99 K m)}, located in the Guiana Highlands near the Venezuelan border. The lowest point is the Atlantic Ocean.

Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon River is the world's second-longest river (though sometimes considered the longest) and the largest by volume of water. Its vast basin, the Amazon Basin, covers a significant portion of northern Brazil. Other major rivers include the Paraná River and its major tributary the Iguaçu River (which includes the famous Iguazu Falls); the Negro River, a major tributary of the Amazon; the São Francisco River, the longest river entirely within Brazil; and the Xingu River, Madeira River, and Tapajós River, all significant tributaries of the Amazon. These extensive river systems are crucial for transportation, hydroelectric power generation, and sustaining the country's rich ecosystems.

4.2. Climate

The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across its large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical. According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts six major climatic subtypes: desert (in very small areas of the Northeast), equatorial, tropical (savanna and monsoon), semi-arid, oceanic, and subtropical. These different climatic conditions produce diverse environments, ranging from equatorial rainforests in the North and semi-arid deserts in the Northeast, to temperate coniferous forests (Araucaria moist forests) in the South and tropical savannas (like the Cerrado) in central Brazil. Many regions have starkly different microclimates.

An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls. Temperatures average 77 °F ^{(25 °C)}, with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons. Over central Brazil, rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate. This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south and at a higher altitude. In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semi-arid climatic region generally receives less than 31 in ^{(800 mm)} of rain, most of which usually falls in a period of three to five months, occasionally less, creating long periods of drought. Brazil's 1877-78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the worst in its history, caused approximately half a million deaths. A similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915. More recently, in 2024, a severe drought covered almost 60% of the country's territory, linked to deforestation and climate change.

South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly through most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year. The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 64.4 °F ^{(18 °C)}; winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the highest areas.

Climate change in Brazil is causing higher temperatures, longer-lasting heatwaves, changing precipitation patterns, more intense wildfires, and heightened fire risk. This poses significant threats to Brazil's hydropower, agriculture, urban water supplies, and its unique ecosystems. The Amazon rainforest is particularly at risk, with scenarios suggesting large areas could turn into savanna, with severe consequences for global climate and local livelihoods. Extreme weather events like droughts and flash floods are already causing annual losses estimated at 2.60 B USD (equivalent to 0.1% of the country's 2022 GDP), potentially exacerbating poverty, especially among vulnerable communities. Brazil's greenhouse gas emissions per person are higher than the global average, placing it among the top 10 highest emitting countries. In 2024, Brazil revised its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), aiming to cut emissions by 59% to 67% compared to 2005 levels by 2035, with an indicative target of reaching carbon neutrality by 2060, contingent on receiving substantial international financial support.

4.3. Biodiversity and conservation

The wildlife of Brazil comprises all naturally occurring animals, plants, and fungi in the South American country. Home to 60% of the Amazon Rainforest, which accounts for approximately one-tenth of all species in the world, Brazil is considered to have the greatest biodiversity of any country on the planet, containing over 70% of all animal and plant species catalogued. It has the most known species of plants (estimated at 55,000), freshwater fish (around 3,000), and mammals (over 689). It also ranks third on the list of countries with the most bird species (1,832) and second with the most reptile species (744). The number of fungal species is unknown but is believed to be very large. Brazil is second only to Indonesia as the country with the most endemic species.

Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world, the Atlantic Forest (Mata Atlântica^Portuguese), and the Cerrado (a vast tropical savanna), which also sustain immense biodiversity. In the south, the Araucaria moist forests grow under temperate conditions. The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects this variety of natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million, mostly invertebrates. Larger mammals include carnivores such as pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes, and herbivores like peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rainforests.

This rich natural heritage is under significant threat. Deforestation, particularly in the Amazon, has been a major issue since the 1970s due to rapid economic and demographic expansion. More than one-fifth of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil has been completely destroyed. Extensive legal and illegal logging destroy forests the size of a small country each year, leading to habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation, which endangers countless species. Since 1970, over NaN Q mile^{2 (NaN Q km2)} of the Amazon rainforest have been cleared. The Atlantic Forest is even more critically endangered, with nearly 93% of its original area cleared. Of the 202 endangered animals in Brazil listed in some studies, 171 are in the Atlantic Forest. Poaching also contributes to the threat of extinction for many species.

Environmental degradation in Brazil directly affects global issues such as climate change and biodiversity loss. Forest cover in Brazil was around 59% of the total land area in 2020, equivalent to 496,619,600 hectares, a decrease from 588,898,000 hectares in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 485,396,000 hectares and planted forest covered 11,223,600 hectares. Of the naturally regenerating forest, 44% was reported to be primary forest. Around 30% of the forest area was within protected areas. For 2015, 56% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 44% under private ownership.

Conservation efforts are underway, driven by both national interest - as Brazil's agricultural sector depends on its forests - and international pressure. These efforts include the establishment of protected areas, monitoring deforestation using satellite imagery, and promoting sustainable practices. However, the challenges are immense, involving complex social and economic factors, particularly regarding land use conflicts and the rights of indigenous communities whose livelihoods are often intertwined with the preservation of these ecosystems.

5.1. Government

The Brazilian federal government operates under a presidential system. The President is both the head of state and head of government of the Union. The President and the Vice President are elected concurrently for a four-year term, with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The President appoints the Ministers of State, who head various government ministries and assist in governance. The current president is Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, who began his term on January 1, 2023. The official workplace of the President is the Palácio do Planalto in Brasília.

The legislative branch at the federal level is the National Congress of Brazil (Congresso Nacional_{kong-GREH-soo nah-see-oo-NAHL}^Portuguese), which is bicameral. It consists of:
1. The Federal Senate (Senado Federal_{se-NAH-doo feh-deh-RAHL}^Portuguese), with 81 members. Each of the 26 states and the Federal District elects three senators for an eight-year term. Elections are staggered, with one-third of the Senate elected after a four-year period, and the other two-thirds elected after the next four-year period.
2. The Chamber of Deputies (Câmara dos Deputados_{KA-mah-rah dooz deh-poo-TAH-dooz}^Portuguese), with 513 members elected by proportional representation for a four-year term. Seats are allocated to states based on population, but with a minimum of 8 and a maximum of 70 deputies per state.

The judicial branch is independent. The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal_{soo-PREH-moo tree-boo-NAHL feh-deh-RAHL}^Portuguese), which serves primarily as the country's Constitutional Court. There are also superior courts for specific areas of law, such as the Superior Court of Justice (for non-constitutional federal law), and federal regional courts. States also have their own judicial systems.

Voting in Brazil is compulsory for literate citizens between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates, those aged 16 to 18, and those over 70. Brazil has a multi-party system, with around 30 registered political parties. It is common for politicians to switch parties, which can lead to fluid alliances and a complex legislative environment. The Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index in 2021 categorized Brazil as a "flawed democracy," while Freedom House classified it as a "free country" in its Freedom in the World report, though challenges to democratic institutions and human rights persist.

5.2. Law

Brazilian law is based on the civil law (or Romano-Germanic) legal system, where legal principles are primarily derived from codified statutes rather than judicial precedents (as in common law systems). Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also play a significant role. Court decisions, while not strictly binding in the sense of stare decisis, provide important interpretive guidelines and can influence future rulings, particularly decisions from higher courts. Doctrinal works and the writings of academic jurists also hold considerable influence in the creation and interpretation of law.

The cornerstone of the Brazilian legal system is the Federal Constitution, promulgated on October 5, 1988. It is the supreme law of the land, and all other legislation, court decisions, and governmental actions must conform to its provisions. The 1988 Constitution is known for its extensive catalogue of fundamental rights and guarantees, as well as detailed provisions on social, economic, and political organization. It has been amended numerous times since its adoption; as of July 2022, there have been 124 amendments.

The judiciary is organized at the federal and state levels. The Supreme Federal Court (STF) is the highest court, acting as the guardian of the Constitution and dealing with constitutional matters. Below the STF are other federal courts, including the Superior Court of Justice (STJ), which is the highest court for non-constitutional federal matters, and specialized courts for labor, electoral, and military law. Each state has its own court system, typically headed by a Court of Justice (Tribunal de Justiça^Portuguese), which handles most civil and criminal cases under state and federal law.

States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution. Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" (leis orgânicas_{LAYZ or-GA-nee-kahs}^Portuguese), which function similarly to constitutions at the local level, outlining their administrative structure and responsibilities. Judges and other judicial officials are typically appointed after passing rigorous public examinations, ensuring a degree of meritocracy and independence.

5.3. Military

The Brazilian Armed Forces (Forças Armadas Brasileiras_{FOR-sahs ahr-MAH-dahs brah-zee-LAY-rahs}^Portuguese) are the largest in Latin America by active personnel and military equipment. They consist of three branches: the Brazilian Army (Exército Brasileiro^Portuguese), the Brazilian Navy (Marinha do Brasil^Portuguese), and the Brazilian Air Force (Força Aérea Brasileira^Portuguese). The President of Brazil is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.

Brazil's conscription policy requires male citizens to serve for 12 months (18 months in the air force, 24 months in the navy) upon reaching the age of 18, though numerous exemptions exist, and many are dismissed without serving due to a surplus of recruits. This policy contributes to a large reserve force, estimated at over 1.6 million reservists annually. As of recent estimates, the active personnel number close to 360,000. The Brazilian Army has the largest number of armored vehicles in South America. The Air Force is the largest in Latin America, with approximately 700 crewed aircraft and around 67,000 personnel. The Navy operates a range of vessels, including frigates, corvettes, submarines, and, notably, the PHM Atlântico, a multi-purpose helicopter carrier, making it one of the few navies in the world with such a capability. Brazil is also developing nuclear-powered submarines, with the first, the Álvaro Alberto, expected to be launched in the coming years.

The primary roles of the Brazilian Armed Forces are national defense, guaranteeing constitutional powers, and, by presidential request, law and order. They also participate in international peacekeeping missions under the United Nations (e.g., in Haiti) and engage in civic action programs, particularly in remote areas like the Amazon. Military expenditure as a percentage of GDP has been relatively modest compared to global powers, but there have been ongoing efforts to modernize equipment and capabilities.

Historically, the Brazilian military has played a significant role in the country's politics, including direct rule during the military dictatorship (1964-1985). Since the return to democracy, the military's formal political influence has diminished, but it remains an important institution. Its impact on civil society has been multifaceted; while sometimes seen as a guarantor of stability, its past involvement in authoritarian rule and human rights violations remains a sensitive topic in Brazilian society. The states' Military Police and Military Firefighters Corps are described as ancillary forces of the Army by the constitution but are under the control of each state's governor and are primarily responsible for public order and law enforcement at the state level.

5.4. Foreign policy

Brazil's foreign policy is guided by Article 4 of the Federal Constitution, which establishes principles such as national independence, prevalence of human rights, self-determination, non-interventionism, equality among states, peaceful settlement of conflicts, repudiation of terrorism and racism, and cooperation among peoples for the progress of humanity. The President of Brazil has ultimate authority over foreign policy, assisted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (often referred to as Itamaraty, after its headquarters, the Itamaraty Palace). The National Congress of Brazil reviews and considers all diplomatic nominations and international treaties.

Brazil's foreign policy objectives traditionally focus on promoting its interests as a major regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging global power. Key elements of its foreign policy include:

• Regional Leadership and Integration:** Brazil is a key player in South American integration efforts, being a founding member of Mercosur (Southern Common Market) and the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR). It seeks to foster stability, cooperation, and economic development within the region.
• Multilateralism:** Brazil actively participates in international organizations such as the United Nations, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the G20. It has long advocated for reforms in global governance institutions, including a permanent seat on the UN Security Council as part of the G4 (Brazil, Germany, India, Japan).
• South-South Cooperation:** Brazil places significant emphasis on strengthening ties with other developing countries in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. It is a founding member of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa), a bloc of major emerging economies.
• Relations with Key Partners:** Brazil maintains complex relationships with major global powers. While it has historically had close ties with the United States, it also pursues an independent foreign policy. Relations with European countries are also important, particularly with Portugal due to historical and linguistic ties. China has become Brazil's largest trading partner.
• International Human Rights and Peace:** Brazil's foreign policy often incorporates a discourse on human rights, sustainable development, and environmental protection. It has contributed to UN peacekeeping missions. However, its stance on specific international human rights issues can vary, sometimes prioritizing non-intervention or reflecting domestic political considerations. The perspectives of various domestic actors, including civil society organizations, can also influence its foreign policy discourse.
• Economic Diplomacy:** Promoting trade, attracting foreign investment, and opening markets for Brazilian products are central to its foreign policy.

Brazil is a founding member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) and an observer state of the Arab League. It is also designated as a major non-NATO ally by the United States, a status that facilitates closer military cooperation.

5.5. Administrative divisions

q=Brazil|position=center
Brazil is a federation composed of 26 states (estados^Portuguese) and one Federal District (Distrito Federal^Portuguese), which contains the capital city, Brasília. The states are autonomous entities with their own constitutions and governments. Each state has a directly elected Governor, who serves as the head of the executive branch, and a unicameral Legislative Assembly (Assembleia Legislativa^Portuguese) elected by the voters of that state. States have their own Courts of Justice for common law matters. They have the authority to collect state taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the federal government. Despite this autonomy, certain areas of law, such as criminal and civil law, are legislated by the federal Congress and are uniform throughout the country.

The states are further divided into municipalities (municípios^Portuguese), of which there are 5,570. Municipalities also have autonomous administrations, with an elected Mayor (prefeito^Portuguese) and a unicameral Municipal Chamber (Câmara Municipal^Portuguese) or city council. They collect their own taxes and receive shares of federal and state taxes. Municipalities do not have their own courts of law; instead, judicial matters are typically handled by state-level courts organized into judicial districts called comarcas, which may encompass one or more municipalities.

The Federal District is a unique federative unit. While it has characteristics of both a state (e.g., it has representatives in both houses of the National Congress like a state) and a municipality, it is not divided into municipalities itself. Brasília, the federal capital, is located within the Federal District. The Federal District is governed by a directly elected Governor.

The Brazilian constitution also provides for the creation of federal territories, which would be administrative divisions directly controlled by the federal government. However, there are currently no federal territories in Brazil. The last three federal territories - Amapá, Roraima, and Fernando de Noronha - were either elevated to statehood (Amapá and Roraima) or incorporated into a state (Fernando de Noronha became a state district of Pernambuco) with the 1988 Constitution.

The states of Brazil are often grouped into five large geopolitical regions for statistical and administrative purposes by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE): North, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast, and South. These regions do not have their own political autonomy but are useful for understanding regional diversity and disparities.

5.6. Law enforcement and crime

Law enforcement in Brazil is complex, with responsibilities divided among federal and state agencies. The Federal Constitution establishes several police forces:

• Federal Police Department (DPF):** Investigates federal crimes, including drug trafficking, smuggling, and white-collar crime; serves as border and maritime police; and issues passports.
• Federal Highway Police (PRF):** Patrols federal highways.
• Federal Railroad Police (PFF):** Patrols federal railways (largely inactive).
• Penal Police (Federal, District, and State):** Responsible for security within the prison system (formally recognized by a 2019 constitutional amendment).
• State-level forces:**
  • Military Police (PM):** Uniformed preventive police responsible for maintaining public order and patrolling. Despite the name, they are not part of the Armed Forces but are considered an ancillary force. They are under the command of state governors.
  • Civil Police (PC):** Plainclothes investigative police responsible for investigating crimes after they occur.

  The National Public Security Force (FNSP) can be deployed by the federal government to act in public disorder situations anywhere in the country, usually at the request of a state governor.
  
  Brazil faces significant challenges related to crime and public security. High levels of violent crime, including homicides, armed robbery, and drug-related crime, are a persistent problem, particularly in urban areas and certain regions. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated Brazil's homicide rate at 32 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest in the world. In 2018, Brazil recorded 63,880 murders. Crime rates vary significantly between states; for example, in 2013, São Paulo state had a homicide rate of 10.8 deaths per 100,000, while Alagoas had a rate of 64.7.
  
  Urban violence is often linked to organized crime groups involved in drug trafficking, particularly in large cities like Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, where these groups often control favelas (informal settlements). Police violence and corruption within law enforcement agencies are also serious concerns, disproportionately affecting marginalized communities, particularly young Black men in impoverished areas.
  
  Brazil has one of the largest prison populations in the world, with approximately 700,000 inmates as of June 2014, ranking third globally at that time. Prisons are often severely overcrowded, with poor conditions, leading to riots, gang violence, and a failure to rehabilitate offenders. This crisis in the penitentiary system is a major human rights concern and contributes to the cycle of crime. Government responses to crime have included various security operations, attempts at police reform, and social programs aimed at addressing the root causes of violence, but the challenges remain substantial. The social impact of crime and policing strategies on different communities, especially those already vulnerable due to poverty and discrimination, is a critical aspect of Brazil's ongoing struggle for public safety and justice.

5.7. Human rights

Human rights in Brazil are constitutionally guaranteed, but their practical implementation faces significant challenges. The country has made progress since the end of the military dictatorship in 1985, particularly with the 1988 Constitution which enshrined a broad range of civil, political, social, and economic rights. However, various human rights issues persist, affecting different segments of the population.

Key human rights concerns include:

• Police Violence and Impunity:** Extrajudicial killings, torture, and excessive force by police, particularly military police, are widespread, especially in urban peripheries and during operations in favelas. Victims are disproportionately young, Black, and poor men. Impunity for these abuses remains a major problem.
• Prison Conditions:** The Brazilian prison system is severely overcrowded, with inhumane conditions, lack of access to healthcare and legal aid, and systemic violence often controlled by prison gangs. This constitutes a massive human rights crisis.
• Land Conflicts and Rural Violence:** Disputes over land ownership and use are common, particularly in rural areas and the Amazon region, often leading to violence against indigenous peoples, small farmers, landless workers, and environmental activists by loggers, miners, and large landowners.
• Rights of Indigenous Peoples:** Indigenous communities face threats to their ancestral lands from illegal mining, logging, agricultural expansion, and infrastructure projects. They also suffer from inadequate access to healthcare and education, violence, and discrimination. While the constitution recognizes indigenous rights to their traditional lands, demarcation processes are often slow and contested.
• Racial Discrimination:** Afro-Brazilians and Pardos (mixed-race) continue to face systemic discrimination in access to education, employment, healthcare, and the justice system. They are overrepresented among victims of violence and poverty.
• Gender-Based Violence:** Violence against women, including domestic violence and femicide, remains a serious issue. Access to justice and support services for victims can be limited.
• LGBTQ+ Rights:** While Brazil has made some legal advances, including the recognition of same-sex marriage nationwide since May 2013, LGBTQ+ individuals face high levels of violence and discrimination. Brazil has one of the highest rates of transgender homicides in the world.
• Rights of Children and Adolescents:** Child labor, sexual exploitation, and violence against children, particularly those living in poverty or on the streets, are ongoing concerns.
• Freedom of Expression and Press:** While generally protected, journalists and human rights defenders sometimes face threats and violence, particularly when reporting on corruption, organized crime, or environmental issues.

Numerous Brazilian and international civil society organizations are active in monitoring human rights, advocating for victims, and promoting reforms. The Brazilian government has established various policies and institutions aimed at addressing these issues, such as the National Human Rights Secretariat. However, effective implementation and accountability remain significant challenges. The defense and promotion of human rights are crucial for Brazil's democratic consolidation and its efforts to build a more just and equitable society.

6.1. Sectors

Brazil's economy is highly diversified, with significant contributions from agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and services.

• Agriculture:** Brazil is a global agricultural powerhouse and one of the largest producers and exporters of various agricultural commodities. It has been the world's largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years. Other major products include soybeans, sugarcane (for sugar and ethanol), oranges (and orange juice), maize, cotton, tobacco, beef, and poultry. The agricultural sector contributes significantly to Brazil's GDP and export earnings. The large cooperative sector provides about 50% of the food in the country. Discussions around this sector often involve issues of land reform, sustainability (especially concerning deforestation in the Amazon for cattle ranching and soy cultivation), labor rights for agricultural workers, and the impact of global commodity prices.
• Mining:** Brazil is rich in mineral resources. It is among the largest producers of iron ore, copper, gold, bauxite, manganese, tin, niobium (of which it holds the vast majority of world reserves), and nickel. In terms of precious stones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethyst, topaz, and agate, and a main producer of tourmaline, emerald, aquamarine, garnet, and opal. The mining sector is a vital export earner but also faces scrutiny regarding environmental impact and the rights of communities, including indigenous peoples, affected by mining activities.
• Manufacturing:** The industrial sector includes the production of automobiles, aircraft (Embraer is a leading global manufacturer of regional jets), machinery, steel, petrochemicals, electronics, textiles, and footwear. The automotive industry is the eighth-largest in the world. In the food industry, Brazil was the second-largest exporter of processed foods in 2019. It was the second-largest producer of pulp and the eighth-largest producer of paper in 2016. In the footwear industry, Brazil was the fourth-largest producer in 2019. It was also the ninth-largest producer of steel in the world. In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the eighth-largest in the world. Brazil's textile industry, while among the five largest world producers in 2013, is not highly integrated into world trade. Manufacturing is concentrated primarily in the Southeast and South regions. Challenges include international competition, infrastructure bottlenecks, and the need for technological upgrading. Labor rights within manufacturing, particularly in sectors like textiles and footwear, are also an important social consideration.
• Services:** The services sector is the largest component of Brazil's GDP, accounting for about 72.7% (trade and services combined represented 75.8% in 2018). It encompasses a wide range of activities, including retail and wholesale trade, financial services, telecommunications, tourism, healthcare, education, and information technology. São Paulo is a major financial center. Micro and small businesses represent 30% of the country's GDP; in the commercial sector, for example, they represent 53% of the GDP within the activities of the sector. The growth of the service sector has been crucial for job creation, but issues of informality and varying labor conditions persist.

Ensuring that development across these sectors is socially inclusive and environmentally sustainable is a key challenge for Brazil.

6.2. Tourism

Tourism is a significant and growing sector of the Brazilian economy, contributing to employment and foreign exchange earnings. The country's vast natural beauty, diverse culture, and iconic landmarks attract both domestic and international visitors. Brazil had 6.36 million international visitors in 2015, ranking as the main destination in South America and second in Latin America after Mexico at that time. Revenues from international tourists reached 6.00 B USD in 2010, and historical records of 5.4 million visitors and 6.80 B USD in receipts were reached in 2011. In 2018, Brazil was the 48th most visited country, with 6.6 million tourists and revenues of 5.90 B USD.

Main tourist attractions include:

• Natural Wonders:** The Amazon Rainforest offers unique ecotourism experiences. The Iguazu Falls, located on the border with Argentina, are one of the world's largest and most spectacular waterfall systems. The Pantanal, the world's largest tropical wetland, is renowned for its wildlife. Beautiful beaches and dunes are found along the extensive coastline, particularly in the Northeast Region (e.g., Salvador, Recife, Fortaleza) and in states like Rio de Janeiro (e.g., Copacabana, Ipanema) and Santa Catarina. The Lençóis Maranhenses National Park, with its vast white sand dunes and seasonal lagoons, is another unique natural attraction.
• Cultural and Historical Tourism:** Brazil's rich history is reflected in its colonial towns like Ouro Preto in Minas Gerais (a UNESCO World Heritage site famous for its Baroque architecture), Olinda in Pernambuco, and Salvador, the first colonial capital. Major cities like Rio de Janeiro, with landmarks such as Christ the Redeemer and Sugarloaf Mountain, and São Paulo, a vibrant cultural and business hub, also attract many tourists.
• Events:** The Rio Carnival is world-famous, drawing millions for its elaborate parades, samba music, and vibrant street parties. Other regional festivals and cultural events also contribute to tourism.
• Business Tourism:** São Paulo is a major center for international business travel, conferences, and trade fairs.

Domestic tourism is a crucial market segment, with Brazilians themselves undertaking significantly more trips and spending more within the country than international tourists. In 2005, visiting friends and family, sun and beach tourism, and cultural tourism were the main purposes for domestic travel. The main destination states for domestic tourism in 2023 were São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Rio Grande do Sul, with São Paulo and Bahia being top earners in tourism revenue.

The tourism industry has a significant economic and social impact, creating jobs and stimulating local economies. However, it also faces challenges, including the need for infrastructure development (airports, roads, accommodation), ensuring tourist safety, promoting sustainability to protect natural and cultural heritage, and addressing social impacts, such as the effects on local communities and the informal labor often associated with tourism. The COVID-19 pandemic severely impacted the sector, highlighting its vulnerability and the need for resilience.

In terms of the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) in 2015, Brazil ranked 28th globally and third in the Americas, indicating its potential but also areas needing improvement to fully capitalize on its tourism assets.

6.3. Science and technology

Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes, with the majority of funding for basic research coming from various government agencies. Brazil's most esteemed technological hubs include the Oswaldo Cruz Institute (biomedical sciences), the Butantan Institute (biological research, vaccine and antivenom production), the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center (CTA), the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa) (agricultural research), and the National Institute for Space Research (INPE).

The Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with capabilities for launching vehicles and manufacturing artificial satellites. The Alcântara Launch Center (CLA) in Maranhão is a key facility. Brazil has also been involved in international space collaborations, including participation in the International Space Station (ISS) program.

Brazil is a pioneer in deep-water oil exploration and extraction, where much of its oil reserves are located. Petrobras, the state-controlled oil company, is a world leader in deep-sea drilling technology. The country also has a nuclear program; uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory, primarily for research purposes and to fuel its nuclear power plants (Angra I and II), as Brazil obtains most of its electricity from hydroelectricity. The country's first nuclear-powered submarine, the Álvaro Alberto, is under development and expected to be launched in the coming years.

Brazil is one of the few countries in Latin America with an operational synchrotron laboratory, the National Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNLS) in Campinas, which houses Sirius, one of the world's most advanced synchrotron light sources. This facility supports research in physics, chemistry, material science, and life sciences. Brazil also has a semiconductor company with its own fabrication plant, CEITEC.

According to the Global Information Technology Report 2009-2010 of the World Economic Forum, Brazil was the world's 61st largest developer of information technology. In the Global Innovation Index, Brazil was ranked 50th in 2024, an improvement from 66th in 2019, indicating progress but also ongoing challenges in fostering a more innovative economy.

Notable Brazilian inventors and scientists include priests Bartolomeu de Gusmão (early aviation experiments), Landell de Moura (pioneer in radio transmission), and Francisco João de Azevedo; Alberto Santos-Dumont (aviation pioneer); Evaristo Conrado Engelberg; Manuel Dias de Abreu (inventor of abreugraphy for mass tuberculosis screening); Andreas Pavel (inventor of the portable stereo player); and Nélio José Nicolai. Renowned Brazilian scientists include César Lattes (co-discoverer of the pi meson), Mário Schenberg (theoretical physicist), José Leite Lopes (physicist, UNESCO Science Prize winner), Artur Avila (first Latin American winner of the Fields Medal for mathematics), and Fritz Müller (naturalist who provided factual support for Darwin's theory of evolution).

Challenges in Brazilian science and technology include securing consistent and adequate funding, improving the quality and relevance of research, bridging the gap between academic research and industrial application (innovation), and ensuring equitable access to scientific education and technological advancements for all segments of society. The social impact of technological advancements, such as automation on employment or biotechnology on agriculture and health, is also an important consideration.

6.4. Energy

Brazil is the world's ninth-largest energy consumer and has a diverse energy matrix characterized by a high share of renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and biofuels like ethanol. This makes Brazil's energy matrix one of the cleanest in the world compared to the global average. In 2019, while the world's energy matrix was only 14% renewable, Brazil's was 45%.

• Renewable Energy:**
  • Hydroelectricity:** Brazil is a world leader in hydroelectric power. The Itaipu Dam, a bi-national project with Paraguay on the Paraná River, was for a long time the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation and remains one of the largest. Other major hydroelectric plants include Belo Monte Dam and Tucuruí Dam. At the end of 2021, Brazil was the 2nd country in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (109.4 GW). Hydraulic energy comprised 64.9% of Brazil's electric matrix in 2019.
  • Biofuels (Ethanol and Biodiesel):** Brazil is a global pioneer and leader in ethanol production from sugarcane. The first car with an ethanol engine was produced in Brazil in 1978, and the first airplane engine running on ethanol in 2005. Most cars sold in Brazil are flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on ethanol, gasoline, or any mixture of the two. Sugarcane derivatives made up 18% of Brazil's total energy matrix in 2019. Biodiesel production is also growing.
  • Wind and Solar Power:** Brazil has been rapidly expanding its wind and solar power capacity. At the end of 2021, it was the 7th country in the world for installed wind power (21.1 GW) and the 14th for installed solar power (13.0 GW), and was on track to become a top 10 solar energy producer. In 2021, Brazil was the 4th largest producer of wind energy (72 TWh). Wind energy comprised 8.6% and solar energy 1% of the electric matrix in 2019, but these shares are growing.
  • Biomass:** Besides sugarcane ethanol, other forms of biomass (e.g., firewood, charcoal, and residues from agriculture) contribute to Brazil's energy supply, accounting for 15.8 GW of installed capacity in 2021 and 8.4% of the electric matrix in 2019.
  • Non-Renewable Energy:**
    • Oil and Natural Gas:** Brazil has significant oil reserves, particularly in deep pre-salt offshore fields. The government has worked to reduce dependence on imported oil, and Brazil became self-sufficient in oil around 2006-2007. In 2021, it was the 7th largest oil producer in the world, with an average output close to three million barrels per day, making it an oil exporter. Petroleum and oil products made up 34.3% of the total energy matrix in 2019, and 2% of the electric matrix. Natural gas accounted for 12.2% of the total energy matrix and 9.3% of the electric matrix.
    • Nuclear Energy:** Brazil has two operational nuclear power plants (Angra I and Angra II) and a third (Angra III) under construction. Nuclear energy comprised 1.4% of the total energy matrix and 2.5% of the electric matrix in 2019.
    • Coal:** Mineral coal made up 5.3% of the total energy matrix and 3.3% of the electric matrix in 2019.

    Brazil's total installed electricity capacity at the end of 2021 was 181,532 MW. The country's energy policies aim to further diversify the energy mix, increase energy efficiency, and expand the use of renewable sources, while also developing its oil and gas reserves. Environmental and social considerations, such as the impact of large hydroelectric dams on indigenous communities and ecosystems, and the sustainability of biofuel production (e.g., land use competition with food crops), are important aspects of Brazil's energy policy debates.

6.5. Transport

Brazil's transportation system is diverse, reflecting the country's vast territory and varied geography. It relies on a mix of road, rail, air, and maritime/inland waterway transport.

• Roads:** The road network is the primary mode for freight and passenger traffic. In 2019, the road system totaled approximately 1.1 M mile ^{(1.72 M km)}. The length of paved roads increased from about 22 K mile ^{(35.50 K km)} in 1967 to 134 K mile ^{(215.00 K km)} in 2018. Major federal highways, like the BR-116 (the country's longest, 2.8 K mile ^{(4.54 K km)}) and the BR-101, are crucial arteries, but the quality and maintenance of roads vary significantly, particularly in more remote regions. Investment in road infrastructure is ongoing but faces challenges.
• Railways:** Brazil's railway system, with about 19 K mile ^{(30.58 K km)} of track in 2015 (ranking ninth largest globally), has historically been underutilized for passenger transport and is primarily focused on freight, especially for agricultural products and iron ore. The system has been declining since the mid-20th century due to a shift in emphasis to highway construction. Most of the railway system was privatized in 2007 from the former Federal Railroad Network Corporation (RFFSA). There are plans for high-speed rail projects, such as between Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, but these have faced delays. Urban rail transport, including metro systems, exists in major cities like São Paulo (the first, opened in 1974), Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, and others.
• Aviation:** With about 2,500 airports and landing fields (the second-largest number globally after the United States), air transport is vital for covering Brazil's long distances. São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport is the largest and busiest, handling a significant portion of the country's international and domestic commercial traffic, with nearly 43 million passengers annually in pre-pandemic years. Other major airports are located in Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, and other key cities.
• Maritime and Inland Waterways:** Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Brazil has 31 K mile ^{(50.00 K km)} of navigable waterways. The Amazon River and its tributaries form an extensive inland waterway system, crucial for transport in the North region, particularly for reaching industrial zones like the Free Economic Zone of Manaus (accessible via the Solimões-Amazonas waterway, 2.0 K mile ^{(3.25 K km)} long with a minimum depth of 20 ft ^{(6 m)}). Major deep-water ports include Santos (the busiest in Latin America), Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Suape, and Manaus. Port efficiency and logistics are areas targeted for improvement. Bolivia and Paraguay have been granted free ports at Santos.

The development of Brazil's transportation infrastructure is critical for its economic growth and regional integration. Challenges include high logistics costs, infrastructure deficits (particularly in rail and ports), and the need for sustainable transport solutions that minimize environmental impact, especially in sensitive areas like the Amazon. Social impacts, such as displacement due to infrastructure projects and ensuring equitable access to transport for all communities, are also important considerations.

7.1. Race and ethnicity

Brazil has a remarkably diverse racial and ethnic composition, a result of centuries of intermingling between indigenous peoples, European colonizers (primarily Portuguese), enslaved Africans, and various waves of immigrants from Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) uses a classification system based on self-identification, with the main categories being:

• White (Branco):** In the 2022 census, 43.5% of the population (88.2 million) identified as White. This group primarily includes descendants of European immigrants, mainly Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, Polish, and Ukrainian, among others.
• Pardo (Brown/Multiracial):** This is the largest group, with 45.3% (92.1 million) identifying as Pardo in 2022. The term Pardo encompasses people of mixed ancestry, including mestizos or caboclos (descendants of White Europeans and Indigenous peoples), mulatos (descendants of White Europeans and Afro-Brazilians), and cafuzos (descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Indigenous peoples). The fluidity of this category reflects Brazil's long history of miscegenation.
• Black (Preto):** In 2022, 10.2% of the population (20.7 million) identified as Black. This group largely consists of descendants of enslaved Africans.
• Asian (Amarela - Yellow):** This group, primarily comprising descendants of Japanese, Chinese, and Korean immigrants, made up 0.4% (850,000) of the population in 2022. Brazil has the largest Japanese diaspora outside of Japan.
• Indigenous (Indígena):** 0.6% of the population (1.2 million) identified as Indigenous in 2022. There are numerous distinct ethnic groups and languages among the indigenous population, who primarily inhabit remote areas, particularly in the Amazon region. The National Indian Foundation (FUNAI) estimated in 2007 that Brazil had 67 different uncontacted tribes, believed to be the largest number in the world.

Genetic studies indicate that European ancestry is dominant in the average genetic makeup of Brazilians (60-65%), followed by African ancestry (20-25%), and significant Indigenous ancestry (15-20%) present in all regions.

Despite the narrative of Brazil as a "racial democracy," significant social and economic inequalities persist along racial lines. Afro-Brazilians and Pardos, on average, have lower levels of income, education, and access to healthcare compared to White Brazilians. They are also disproportionately affected by violence and overrepresented in the prison population. Racial discrimination, though often subtle and denied, remains a pervasive issue. Issues of identity are complex, with ongoing debates about affirmative action policies, racial quotas, and the meaning of racial categories in a society with such extensive mixing. The growing awareness of these issues has led to increased activism and a greater emphasis on valuing Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous cultures and histories.

Immigration has played a crucial role in shaping Brazil's ethnic landscape. Between 1808 and 1972, about five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil. Besides Europeans, significant Arab (primarily Lebanese and Syrian) immigration also occurred. Brazil has the largest Arab population outside the Arab world (estimated 15-20 million) and a Lebanese diaspora of 7-10 million, surpassing the population of Lebanon itself. There is also a notable Jewish community, the second largest in Latin America.

The distribution of ethnic groups varies regionally. The Northeast has a high concentration of Afro-Brazilians and Pardos. The South has a higher proportion of White Brazilians of European descent (German, Italian, Polish, Ukrainian). The Southeast is highly diverse due to various waves of immigration. The North and Central-West regions have a higher proportion of people with Indigenous ancestry.

7.2. Language

The official language of Brazil is Portuguese, as stipulated in Article 13 of the Federal Constitution. It is spoken by almost the entire population and is virtually the only language used in government, education, media, and business. Brazil is unique as the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language a cornerstone of Brazilian national identity and distinguishing its culture from its Spanish-speaking neighbors.

Brazilian Portuguese has evolved somewhat differently from European Portuguese, primarily in phonology and with some vocabulary influences from Amerindian and African languages (especially West African and Bantu languages). These differences are often compared to those between American English and British English. Despite these variations, speakers of different Portuguese dialects can generally understand each other. In 2008, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) reached an agreement on an orthographic reform to standardize the written form of Portuguese across member countries.

While Portuguese is dominant, Brazil is home to a number of minority languages. Approximately 180 Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas, though many are endangered. In the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira in Amazonas, for example, Nheengatu (an Amazonian lingua franca based on Old Tupi), Baniwa, and Tucano have been granted co-official status alongside Portuguese.

Immigrant languages are also present. Significant communities of German-speakers (particularly those speaking Riograndenser Hunsrückisch, a High German dialect) and Italian-speakers (especially Talian, a Venetian dialect) exist in the Southern and Southeastern regions. These languages, brought by ancestors, are still spoken and have been influenced by Portuguese. Talian is an official historical patrimony of Rio Grande do Sul, and some German dialects have co-official status in a few municipalities. East Pomeranian, another German dialect, is spoken in areas like Pomerode, Santa Catarina. Italian is recognized as an ethnic language in Santa Teresa and Vila Velha in Espírito Santo, where it is taught as a mandatory second language in schools.

Brazilian Sign Language (Língua Brasileira de Sinais_{LEENG-gwah brah-zee-LAY-rah jee see-NAH-ees}^Portuguese - LIBRAS) was officially recognized by law in 2002. A 2005 presidential decree mandated its teaching as part of education and speech pathology curricula and requires public services to be accessible to deaf people.

7.3. Religion

Brazil is a religiously diverse country with a strong tradition of freedom of religion, which is guaranteed by the constitution. Christianity is the predominant faith, with Roman Catholicism being its largest denomination. Brazil has the world's largest Catholic population.

According to the 2010 demographic census by the IBGE:

• Roman Catholicism**: 64.6% of the population identified as Roman Catholic.
• Protestantism**: 22.2% identified as Protestant. This group has grown significantly in recent decades, particularly Evangelical and Pentecostal denominations. Other Protestant branches include Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans, and Reformed traditions.
• No religion**: 8.0% of the population declared no religious affiliation. This group includes atheists and agnostics.
• Spiritism (Kardecist)**: 2.0% of the population followed Spiritism, making Brazil the country with the largest number of Spiritists.
• Other Religions**: 3.2% followed other religions. This category includes:
  • Afro-Brazilian religions**: Such as Candomblé and Umbanda, which blend African traditional beliefs with elements of Catholicism and Indigenous practices. These are particularly prevalent in the Northeast.
• Buddhism, Islam, Judaism, and other faiths, largely brought by immigrant communities.

More recent estimates suggest shifts in these proportions. A 2019 survey indicated that Roman Catholics comprised 50% of the population, Protestants 31%, the irreligious 11%, Spiritists 3%, and practitioners of Afro-Brazilian faiths 2%. A 2020 study by the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) reported Christians as 90.77% (with Roman Catholics at 70.57% and various Protestant groups making up most of the rest), Spiritists at 4.83%, and the irreligious at 3.03%. These varying figures highlight the dynamic nature of religious affiliation in Brazil.

Religious syncretism is a notable feature of Brazilian religious life, stemming from the historical interaction of Catholicism with African and Indigenous spiritual traditions. This is evident in many popular festivals and practices. The growth of Protestantism, especially evangelical churches, has had a significant social and political impact in recent decades, with evangelical groups becoming increasingly influential in politics.

The cities of Boa Vista, Salvador, and Porto Velho had the greatest proportion of irreligious residents in the 2010 census, while Teresina, Fortaleza, and Florianópolis were the most Roman Catholic. In October 2009, Brazil approved an agreement with the Holy See, recognizing the legal statute of the Catholic Church in Brazil.

7.4. Urbanization

Brazil has undergone a rapid urbanization process over the past century. In 2011, urban areas concentrated 84.35% of the population, a significant shift from earlier periods when the majority lived in rural settings. The Southeast region remains the most populated, with over 80 million inhabitants according to 2011 data.

The largest urban agglomerations in Brazil, as of 2017 estimates by the IBGE, are:

Other major metropolitan areas include Belém, Manaus, Campinas, Vitória, and Santos. Most state capitals are the largest cities in their respective states, with notable exceptions like Vitória (capital of Espírito Santo, where Vila Velha is larger) and Florianópolis (capital of Santa Catarina, where Joinville is larger).

This rapid urbanization has brought both opportunities and significant challenges:

• Favelas (Informal Settlements):** Many Brazilian cities are characterized by large favelas, which often lack adequate public services such as sanitation, healthcare, education, and security. These areas are frequently home to marginalized populations and can be sites of social exclusion and violence.

• Inequality:** Urban areas often exhibit stark contrasts between wealthy neighborhoods and impoverished favelas, reflecting broader societal inequalities in income, access to resources, and opportunities.
• Access to Services:** Ensuring universal access to quality public services (housing, transportation, water, sanitation, healthcare, education) for rapidly growing urban populations is a major ongoing challenge for municipal and state governments.
• Urban Sprawl and Environmental Issues:** Unplanned urban growth can lead to environmental degradation, traffic congestion, and increased pressure on infrastructure.

Addressing these urban challenges is crucial for improving the quality of life for millions of Brazilians and promoting more equitable and sustainable urban development.

10.1. Music

The music of Brazil is renowned worldwide for its diversity and rhythmic richness, formed primarily from the fusion of European (mainly Portuguese), African, and Indigenous musical traditions.

• Samba:** Perhaps the most iconic Brazilian musical genre and dance style, samba is considered a symbol of Brazilian national identity and is recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. It has roots in Afro-Brazilian communities in Rio de Janeiro in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Samba is central to Carnival celebrations.
• Bossa nova:** Developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Rio de Janeiro, bossa nova (meaning "new trend") is a lyrical fusion of samba rhythms and jazz harmonies. It gained international popularity with artists like Antônio Carlos Jobim, João Gilberto, and Vinícius de Moraes, and songs like "The Girl from Ipanema."
• Choro:** An instrumental popular music genre originating in 19th-century Rio de Janeiro, choro (meaning "cry" or "lament," though often cheerful in character) is characterized by virtuosity, improvisation, and complex harmonies. It is considered one of the earliest forms of Brazilian urban popular music.
• Música Popular Brasileira (MPB):** A broad term for Brazilian popular music that emerged in the mid-1960s, MPB encompasses a variety of styles that blend traditional Brazilian rhythms with international influences like pop, rock, and jazz. Notable MPB artists include Chico Buarque, Caetano Veloso, Gilberto Gil, and Elis Regina.
• Regional Genres:**
  • Forró:** A genre of music and dance from Northeastern Brazil, prominent during Festa Junina celebrations. It features accordion, zabumba (a type of bass drum), and triangle.
  • Frevo:** A fast-paced, vibrant music and dance style from Pernambuco, characteristic of the Recife and Olinda Carnival.
  • Maracatu:** An Afro-Brazilian performance genre from Pernambuco, featuring large percussion groups and elaborate costumes, often associated with Carnival.
  • Axé:** A popular music genre originating in Salvador, Bahia, in the 1980s, blending Afro-Caribbean, Afro-Brazilian, and pop-rock influences.
  • Sertanejo:** Brazilian country music, originating from the sertão (hinterlands) of Brazil, particularly the Center-West region. It is one of the most popular music genres in contemporary Brazil.
• Capoeira Music:** The Afro-Brazilian martial art of capoeira is always accompanied by its own distinctive music, featuring instruments like the berimbau, pandeiro, and atabaque, and call-and-response singing.

Other notable forms include samba-reggae, Afoxê, and contemporary styles like baile funk (funk carioca). Classical music also has a presence, with composers like Heitor Villa-Lobos gaining international acclaim for works that often incorporated Brazilian folk melodies. Renowned Brazilian musicians who have achieved international fame include Tom Jobim, João Gilberto, Sérgio Mendes, Eumir Deodato, Caetano Veloso, Gilberto Gil, Milton Nascimento, and rock bands like Sepultura and CSS.

10.2. Literature

Brazilian literature traces its origins to the 16th century, with the writings of the first Portuguese explorers, such as Pêro Vaz de Caminha's letter describing the newly discovered land.

• Colonial Period:** Early literature consisted mainly of chronicles, religious texts by Jesuit missionaries, and early poetry.
• Romanticism (19th century):** Following independence, Romanticism flourished, often focusing on nation-building themes. Indianism, which idealized the indigenous Brazilian as a national symbol, was prominent in the works of novelists like José de Alencar (O Guarani, Iracema) and poets like Gonçalves Dias. Other Romantic authors like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo wrote popular novels. Castro Alves was a notable poet of this era, known for his abolitionist and social justice themes.
• Realism/Naturalism (late 19th century):** This period saw a shift towards more objective portrayals of society. Machado de Assis is considered Brazil's greatest writer, producing masterpieces like Dom Casmurro and The Posthumous Memoirs of Brás Cubas, characterized by psychological depth, irony, and innovative narrative techniques. Aluísio Azevedo was a key figure of Naturalism, with works like O Cortiço (The Slum).
• Pre-Modernism (early 20th century):** Writers like Euclides da Cunha (Os Sertões - Rebellion in the Backlands) and Lima Barreto depicted regional realities and social critiques.
• Modernism (from 1922):** The Modern Art Week (Semana de Arte Moderna^Portuguese) in São Paulo in 1922 marked a definitive break with academic traditions and a search for a uniquely Brazilian artistic voice. Key figures included poets Mário de Andrade, Oswald de Andrade, and Manuel Bandeira, who experimented with language and incorporated Brazilian themes and popular culture. Oswald de Andrade's "Cannibalist Manifesto" (Manifesto Antropófago^Portuguese) proposed a "cultural cannibalism" - devouring foreign influences and transforming them into something authentically Brazilian.
• Post-Modernism/Contemporary (mid-20th century to present):** This period brought a generation of distinct poets such as Carlos Drummond de Andrade (often considered Brazil's greatest poet), João Cabral de Melo Neto, and Vinicius de Moraes. Novelists like Graciliano Ramos, Jorge Amado (known for his vibrant depictions of Bahian life), João Guimarães Rosa (whose masterpiece Grande Sertão: Veredas explored the sertão), Clarice Lispector (celebrated for her introspective and existentialist prose), and Rachel de Queiroz gained international recognition. Contemporary Brazilian literature continues to explore diverse themes and styles.

Brazil's most significant literary award is the Camões Prize, shared with the rest of the Portuguese-speaking world; Brazil has had eleven recipients as of 2016. The Brazilian Academy of Letters (Academia Brasileira de Letras^Portuguese), founded in 1897 with Machado de Assis as its first president, is dedicated to the cultivation of the national language and literature.

10.3. Visual arts

Brazilian visual arts have a rich history, evolving from indigenous traditions and colonial influences to vibrant modern and contemporary movements.

• Indigenous Art:** Pre-colonial indigenous peoples produced sophisticated pottery (e.g., Marajoara culture), rock art, featherwork, and body painting.
• Colonial Art (16th-18th centuries):** The Brazilian Baroque was the dominant style, heavily influenced by Portuguese religious art. Churches were lavishly decorated with intricate wood carvings (often gilded), sculptures, and paintings. Aleijadinho (Antônio Francisco Lisboa) is a celebrated sculptor and architect of this era, known for his work in Minas Gerais. Painters like Manuel da Costa Ataíde also contributed significantly to religious art.
• Academic Art (19th century):** The arrival of the French Artistic Mission in 1816, invited by Dom João VI, led to the establishment of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts (later the National School of Fine Arts) in Rio de Janeiro. This institution promoted Neoclassicism and later Romanticism and Realism. Key academic painters include Victor Meirelles (The First Mass in Brazil) and Pedro Américo (Independence or Death). Almeida Júnior depicted regional life with realist tendencies.
• Modernism (from 1922):** The Modern Art Week in São Paulo in 1922 was a watershed moment, breaking from academicism and seeking a modern Brazilian artistic identity. Early modernists like Anita Malfatti and Lasar Segall introduced European avant-garde influences. Tarsila do Amaral became a central figure, with her vibrant colors and Brazilian themes, associated with the Anthropophagic Movement. Emiliano di Cavalcanti depicted Brazilian popular life and Carnival. Candido Portinari is one of Brazil's most renowned painters, known for his murals and canvases addressing social themes and Brazilian identity (e.g., War and Peace murals at the UN headquarters, Coffee). Other notable modernists include Ismael Nery and Vicente do Rego Monteiro.
• Contemporary Art:** Post-World War II, Brazilian art saw developments in abstractionism (e.g., Concrete and Neo-Concrete movements with artists like Lygia Clark and Hélio Oiticica), conceptual art, and various other contemporary practices. Artists like Adriana Varejão, Beatriz Milhazes, and Vik Muniz have gained international recognition.

Brazilian sculpture, printmaking, photography, and folk art also have rich traditions.

10.4. Architecture

The architecture of Brazil reflects its historical and cultural evolution, from indigenous dwellings to colonial structures and iconic modernist designs.

• Indigenous Architecture:** Varied greatly depending on the region and tribe, ranging from communal longhouses (malocas) in the Amazon to simpler shelters.
• Portuguese Colonial Architecture (16th-18th centuries):** The earliest European constructions were primarily functional (forts, early settlements). As colonization progressed, religious architecture (churches, monasteries) became prominent, heavily influenced by the Portuguese Baroque and later Rococo styles. Examples can be found in cities like Salvador, Olinda, Ouro Preto, and São Luís. Domestic architecture included manor houses (casas grandes) on plantations and urban townhouses.
• Neoclassicism (19th century):** With the arrival of the Portuguese court in 1808 and the establishment of the Empire, Neoclassicism became fashionable, influenced by European trends. This style was used for public buildings, palaces, and residences of the elite. The French Artistic Mission played a role in popularizing this style.
• Eclecticism and Other 19th/Early 20th Century Styles:** The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a mix of styles, including Gothic Revival, Art Nouveau, and Art Deco, often adapted to Brazilian conditions and materials.
• Modernism (from 1930s):** Brazil became a significant center for modernist architecture. Early pioneers like Gregori Warchavchik introduced modernist ideas. Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer are the most celebrated figures. Costa developed the master plan for the new capital, Brasília (inaugurated 1960, a UNESCO World Heritage site), and Niemeyer designed most of its iconic public buildings, such as the National Congress Palace, the Cathedral of Brasília, and the Palácio da Alvorada. Niemeyer's style is characterized by its bold use of reinforced concrete, sweeping curves, and integration with the landscape. Other important modernist architects include Affonso Eduardo Reidy and Lina Bo Bardi.
• Contemporary Architecture:** Brazilian architecture continues to evolve, with contemporary architects addressing issues of sustainability, urban density, and social housing, while sometimes drawing on modernist legacies.

Brazilian architecture often emphasizes integration with the natural environment, the use of local materials, and solutions adapted to the tropical climate, such as open verandas, brise-soleils (sun-breakers), and courtyards.

10.5. Cinema

The cinema of Brazil has a history dating back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century, with the first film screening in Rio de Janeiro in 1896.

• Early Years (late 19th - early 20th century):** Early Brazilian film production consisted mainly of short documentaries and newsreels. American films like Rio the Magnificent were made to promote tourism. Adhemar Gonzaga's studio Cinédia was a prolific producer. Films like Mário Peixoto's Limite (1931) and Humberto Mauro's Ganga Bruta (1933), though poorly received at their release, are now considered classics of early Brazilian cinema. Orson Welles filmed parts of his unfinished It's All True in Brazil during the 1940s.
• Studio Era and Chanchadas (1930s-1950s):** Large studios like Cinédia and Atlântida Cinematográfica emerged. The chanchada - a popular genre of musical comedy often featuring elements of parody and social satire, and frequently set during Carnival - dominated this period.
• Cinema Novo (late 1950s-1970s):** This influential movement, inspired by Italian Neorealism and French New Wave, aimed to create a socially conscious and aesthetically innovative Brazilian cinema. Slogans like "an idea in the head and a camera in the hand" emphasized low-budget, independent filmmaking. Key directors included Glauber Rocha (Black God, White Devil, 1964; Entranced Earth, 1967), Nelson Pereira dos Santos (Barren Lives, 1963), Ruy Guerra, and Carlos Diegues. Cinema Novo films often depicted the realities of poverty, drought, and social injustice in the Brazilian Northeast (sertão) and urban settings.
• Embrafilme and Post-Cinema Novo (1970s-1980s):** The state-owned film company Embrafilme (1969-1990) played a major role in funding and distributing Brazilian films during the military dictatorship. This period saw a diversification of genres, including popular comedies (pornochanchadas) and socially critical films. Bruno Barreto's Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands (1976) was a massive box office success. Héctor Babenco (Argentine-born Brazilian director) gained international acclaim with Pixote (1981) and Kiss of the Spider Woman (1985).
• Retomada (The Resumption - 1990s-present):** After a crisis in the early 1990s due to the dismantling of state support, Brazilian cinema experienced a resurgence (the Retomada) from the mid-1990s onwards, with new funding mechanisms and a new generation of filmmakers. Films like O Quatrilho (Fábio Barreto, 1995), O Que É Isso, Companheiro? (Bruno Barreto, 1997), and Central Station (Walter Salles, 1998) received Academy Award nominations for Best Foreign Language Film. Fernando Meirelles's City of God (2002), a visceral depiction of life in a Rio favela, achieved global critical and commercial success, receiving four Academy Award nominations. Other notable contemporary directors include José Padilha (Elite Squad), Andrucha Waddington, and Karim Aïnouz.

Brazilian cinema continues to explore a wide range of themes, from social realism and historical dramas to comedies and genre films. Major film festivals in Brazil include the São Paulo International Film Festival, the Rio de Janeiro International Film Festival, and the Gramado Film Festival.

10.6. Theatre

Brazilian theatre has a history that began during the colonial period, influenced by European traditions but gradually developing its own unique characteristics.

• Colonial Origins (16th-18th centuries):** Theatre was introduced by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century as a tool for catechizing indigenous populations. These early plays often had religious themes. In the 17th and 18th centuries, theatrical performances were generally for court or private audiences, often imitating European styles.
• 19th Century:** With independence and the establishment of the Empire, theatre became more established. Playwrights like Martins Pena created popular comedies of manners depicting Brazilian society. Antônio Gonçalves Dias also wrote plays. Opera and orchestras gained popularity, with Brazilian conductor and composer Antônio Carlos Gomes achieving international fame with operas like Il Guarany. By the end of the century, musical theatre and popular reviews featuring music by artists like Chiquinha Gonzaga were common.
• Early 20th Century:** Theatrical companies and entrepreneurs became more professional. The Modern Art Week in 1922 also influenced theatre, encouraging experimentation and Brazilian themes.
• Mid-20th Century Renewal:** A significant renewal occurred in the 1940s and 1950s. Paschoal Carlos Magno's student theatre, groups like Os Comediantes, and the arrival of influential Italian directors like Adolfo Celi, Ruggero Jacobbi, and Aldo Calvo, who founded the Teatro Brasileiro de Comédia (TBC) in São Paulo, helped modernize Brazilian theatre, introducing new staging techniques and repertoires.
• Social and Political Theatre (1960s onwards):** The 1960s saw the rise of politically engaged theatre, reflecting the social turmoil and later the military dictatorship. Playwrights like Jorge Andrade and Ariano Suassuna (known for Auto da Compadecida - A Dog's Will) became prominent. Augusto Boal developed the influential Theatre of the Oppressed, a form of interactive theatre aimed at promoting social and political change, which gained international recognition. Other important playwrights of this era include Gianfrancesco Guarnieri and Plínio Marcos.
• Contemporary Theatre:** Brazilian theatre today encompasses a wide range of styles, from experimental and avant-garde productions to commercial successes, addressing diverse contemporary issues. Groups like Grupo Galpão and

Teatro da Vertigem are notable.

The social role of theatre in Brazil has often been significant, serving as a space for cultural expression, social critique, and political debate.

10.7. Cuisine

Brazilian cuisine is a vibrant and diverse fusion of Indigenous, European (primarily Portuguese), and African culinary traditions, with regional variations reflecting the country's vast size and diverse cultural influences.

• Staples:** Rice and beans (arroz com feijão_{ah-HOZ kom fay-ZHOWN}^Portuguese) are fundamental staples in most Brazilian meals. Cassava (manioc, mandioca_{man-jee-OH-kah}^Portuguese), in various forms like flour (farinha_fah-REEN-yah^Portuguese), tapioca, and boiled or fried, is also widely consumed.
• National Dish:** Feijoada, a rich stew of black beans with various cuts of pork (ears, feet, bacon, sausages) and beef, is often considered Brazil's national dish. It is typically served with rice, collard greens (couve_KOH-vee^Portuguese), farofa (toasted cassava flour), and orange slices.
• Regional Specialties:**
  • Northeast:** Bahian cuisine is particularly famous, with strong African influences. Dishes include vatapá (a creamy paste of bread, shrimp, coconut milk, palm oil, and herbs), acarajé (deep-fried balls of black-eyed pea dough, often stuffed), moqueca (a seafood stew with coconut milk, palm oil (dendê), peppers, and tomatoes), and caruru (okra stew). Cuscuz nordestino (steamed cornmeal) is also popular.
  • North (Amazon):** Cuisine here features river fish like pirarucu and tambaqui, exotic fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, and bacuri, and ingredients like tucupi (a yellow sauce extracted from wild cassava). Pato no tucupi (duck in tucupi sauce) is a well-known dish.
  • Southeast:** Minas Gerais is known for its hearty, rustic cuisine, including pão de queijo (cheese bread), tutu à mineira (bean paste with pork), and various pork dishes. São Paulo offers a cosmopolitan culinary scene. Rio de Janeiro is known for its feijoada and seafood.
  • South:** Influenced by European immigrants (German, Italian, Polish), the cuisine features dishes like churrasco (barbecue), polenta, and various sausages and cured meats. Chimarrão (a type of mate) is a traditional drink.
  • Central-West:** Cuisine here uses local fish from the Pantanal, beef, and fruits from the Cerrado like pequi. Arroz com pequi (rice with pequi fruit) is a typical dish.
• Barbecue (Churrasco_shoo-HAS-koo^Portuguese):** A very popular form of barbecue, especially in the South, featuring various cuts of meat (particularly beef) grilled on skewers, often served in rodízio style (all-you-can-eat) restaurants called churrascarias.
• Snacks (Salgados_{sahl-GAH-dooz}^Portuguese):** Popular savory snacks include coxinha (a deep-fried chicken croquette), pastel (a thin, deep-fried pastry envelope with various fillings), empada (a small pie), kibe (from Middle Eastern cuisine), and esfirra (another Middle Eastern-inspired pastry).
• Sweets and Desserts:** Brazilians have a strong sweet tooth. Popular desserts include brigadeiro (chocolate fudge balls), beijinho (coconut "kisses"), quindim (egg yolk and coconut custard), bolo de rolo (a thin roll cake with guava paste), and cocada (a coconut sweet). Romeu e Julieta (cheese with guava paste) is a simple classic. Peanuts are used to make paçoca (a sweet candy) and pé-de-moleque (peanut brittle).
• Fruits:** Brazil boasts an incredible variety of tropical fruits, including açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew (both nut and fruit), guava, orange, lime, passionfruit, pineapple, and hog plum (cajá). These are consumed fresh, as juices, or used in desserts, ice creams, and chocolates.
• Beverages:** Coffee is the national beverage. Cachaça, a spirit distilled from sugarcane, is Brazil's native liquor and the main ingredient in the famous national cocktail, the Caipirinha. Guaraná soft drinks are also very popular. Beer is widely consumed.

Brazilian food culture is syncretic, reflecting the historical mixing of peoples and ingredients, resulting in a rich and flavorful culinary landscape.

10.8. Sport

Sport in Brazil is a significant part of the national culture, with association football (futebol_{foo-chee-BOHL}^Portuguese) being by far the most popular sport and a source of immense national pride.

• Football (Soccer):** The Brazilian men's national team, known as the Seleção, is one of the most successful in the world, having won the FIFA World Cup a record five times (1958, 1962, 1970, 1994, 2002). Brazil is the only nation to have participated in every World Cup tournament. Legendary players like Pelé (often considered the greatest footballer of all time), Garrincha, Zico, Sócrates, Romário, Ronaldo Nazário, Ronaldinho, Kaká, and Neymar have achieved global stardom. Domestic football leagues, such as the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, are passionately followed. Brazil hosted the 1950 FIFA World Cup and the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
• Volleyball:** Both men's and women's volleyball are very popular. The Brazilian men's national team and women's national team have achieved numerous international titles, including Olympic gold medals and World Championships. Beach volleyball is also extremely popular.
• Martial Arts:** Brazil has developed its own unique martial arts:
  • Capoeira:** An Afro-Brazilian art form that combines elements of martial arts, dance, acrobatics, and music.
  • Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ):** A grappling-focused martial art that gained international prominence through its effectiveness in mixed martial arts (MMA) competitions.
  • Vale Tudo:** An earlier form of no-holds-barred fighting that was a precursor to modern MMA.
• Basketball:** Has a strong following, with the national teams achieving success in international competitions.
• Motorsport:** Brazil has produced several Formula One world champions, including Emerson Fittipaldi, Nelson Piquet, and the legendary Ayrton Senna. The Brazilian Grand Prix, held annually at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace (Interlagos) in São Paulo, is a major event.
• Other Sports:** Other popular sports include swimming, tennis, surfing, skateboarding, gymnastics, boxing, judo, and athletics. Futsal (indoor football) and footvolley (a hybrid of football and volleyball played on sand) are also widely played and originated in Brazil.

Brazil has hosted several major international sporting events, including the 2007 Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro, the 2014 FIFA World Cup, and the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro, the first Olympic Games held in South America. The country also hosted the 2019 Copa América and 2021 Copa América. These events have had a significant impact on infrastructure and national pride, but also sparked debates about public spending and social priorities.

10.9. Media

The media landscape in Brazil is extensive and influential, encompassing television, radio, print, and a rapidly growing digital sector.

• Television:** Television is the most dominant mass medium in Brazil. Rede Globo (Globo Network) is the largest commercial television network in Latin America and the second-largest in the world, with a vast reach and significant influence on popular culture and public opinion. Its telenovelas (soap operas) are particularly popular and are exported worldwide. Other major commercial networks include SBT, RecordTV, Bandeirantes, and RedeTV!. Public and educational television channels also exist, such as TV Cultura and TV Brasil. Cable and satellite television have expanded, offering a wider variety of channels.
• Radio:** Radio remains an important source of news and entertainment, especially in remote areas. There are thousands of radio stations across the country, both AM and FM, including commercial, public, and community broadcasters.
• Print Media:** Major national newspapers include Folha de S.Paulo, O Globo, and O Estado de S. Paulo. Regional newspapers also play a significant role. Magazines cover a wide range of topics, from news and current affairs to lifestyle and entertainment. However, the print media sector has faced challenges from the rise of digital media.
• Internet and Digital Media:** Internet penetration and social media usage are high in Brazil. Digital news outlets, blogs, and social media platforms have become increasingly important sources of information and platforms for public discourse. Brazil was the fifth largest user of mobile phones and the internet in the world by 2009. By the mid-1960s, Brazilian universities had installed mainframe computers. In the 1970s and 1980s, the government restricted foreign imports to protect local computer manufacturing, and by the 1980s, Brazil produced half of the computers sold in the country.
• Media Ownership:** Media ownership in Brazil is highly concentrated, with a few large conglomerates, like Grupo Globo, dominating significant portions of the market. This concentration has raised concerns about media pluralism and diversity of voices.
• Social Influence:** The media plays a powerful role in shaping public opinion, political debate, and cultural trends in Brazil. Telenovelas, for instance, often reflect and influence social norms and discussions. News coverage can significantly impact political events and public discourse on issues like corruption and crime.

The Brazilian press was officially born in Rio de Janeiro on May 13, 1808, with the creation of the Royal Printing National Press by Prince Regent Dom João. The Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper published in the country, began circulating on September 10, 1808. Radio broadcasting began on September 7, 1922, and was formalized on April 20, 1923. Television began officially on September 18, 1950, with the founding of TV Tupi. In May 2010, the Brazilian government launched TV Brasil Internacional, an international television station. Commercial channels like Globo Internacional, RecordTV Internacional, and Band Internacional also broadcast internationally.

10.10. Festivals and holidays

Brazil is known for its vibrant festivals and numerous public holidays, which reflect its rich cultural heritage and religious traditions.

• Carnival (Carnaval_{kahr-nah-VAHL}^Portuguese):** This is Brazil's most famous and largest festival, celebrated nationwide in the days leading up to Ash Wednesday (usually in February or early March). The Rio Carnival is world-renowned for its spectacular samba school parades (desfiles) in the Sambadrome, featuring elaborate costumes, massive floats, and thousands of dancers and musicians. Salvador, Bahia, hosts another massive Carnival, characterized by trios elétricos (trucks equipped with powerful sound systems and stages for musicians) and Axé music. Olinda and Recife in Pernambuco are famous for their street Carnival with Frevo and Maracatu. Carnival is a period of intense celebration, street parties (blocos de rua), and cultural expression.
• Festas Juninas (June Festivals):** Celebrated throughout June (and sometimes extending into July), these festivals honor saints popular in Catholicism - Saint Anthony, Saint John the Baptist, and Saint Peter. They are particularly popular in the Northeast and feature traditional clothing (country-style attire), typical foods (corn-based dishes, mulled wine, sweets like paçoca and pé-de-moleque), bonfires, fireworks, and folk dances, especially the quadrilha (a type of square dance).
• Religious Holidays:**
  • Easter (Páscoa_PAS-koo-ah^Portuguese):** Good Friday (Sexta-feira Santa^Portuguese) and Easter Sunday are important religious holidays.
  • Corpus Christi**: A Catholic feast celebrated with processions, often over streets decorated with intricate carpets made of flowers, sawdust, and other materials.
  • Our Lady of Aparecida (Nossa Senhora Aparecida_{NOH-sah sen-YOHR-ah ah-pah-reh-SEE-dah}^Portuguese):** October 12th is a national holiday honoring Brazil's patron saint. It also coincides with Children's Day.
  • All Souls' Day (Dia de Finados_{JEE-ah djeh fee-NAH-dooz}^Portuguese):** November 2nd, a day to remember and honor the deceased.
  • Christmas (Natal_nah-TAHL^Portuguese):** December 25th is a major family holiday.
• National Public Holidays:**
  • New Year's Day (Ano Novo_{AH-noo NOH-voo}^Portuguese):** January 1st.
  • Tiradentes Day**: April 21st, commemorating the execution of Tiradentes, a national hero of one of the early independence movements.
  • Labor Day (Dia do Trabalho_{JEE-ah doo trah-BAH-lyoo}^Portuguese):** May 1st.
  • Independence Day (Dia da Independência_{JEE-ah dah een-deh-pen-DEN-see-ah}^Portuguese):** September 7th, celebrating Brazil's independence from Portugal in 1822.
  • Republic Day (Proclamação da República_{proh-klah-mah-SOWN dah heh-POO-blee-kah}^Portuguese):** November 15th, marking the end of the monarchy and the establishment of the republic in 1889.
• Regional and Local Holidays:** Many states and municipalities have their own specific holidays, often related to local patron saints or historical events (e.g., São Paulo City Anniversary on January 25th; Saint Sebastian's Day in Rio de Janeiro on January 20th; Saint George's Day in Rio de Janeiro state on April 23rd; Black Consciousness Day on November 20th in several states).

These festivals and holidays are integral to Brazilian life, providing opportunities for community gathering, cultural expression, religious observance, and celebration.