Rwanda

2.1. Pre-colonial Era: Kingdom of Rwanda

Modern human settlement in what is now Rwanda dates from, at the latest, the last glacial period, either in the Neolithic period around 8000 BC or in the long humid period that followed, up to around 3000 BC. Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of sparse settlement by hunter-gatherers in the late Stone Age, followed by a larger population of early Iron Age settlers, who produced dimpled pottery and iron tools. These early inhabitants were the ancestors of the Twa, aboriginal pygmy hunter-gatherers who remain in Rwanda today. Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups migrated into Rwanda, clearing forest land for agriculture. The forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their habitat and moved to the mountain slopes.

Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations. One theory is that the first settlers were Hutu, while the Tutsi migrated later, possibly from Cushitic regions like Ethiopia, forming a distinct racial group. An alternative theory suggests the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into rather than conquering the existing society. Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was a class or social distinction rather than a racial one, with pastoralist Tutsis forming an elite over the agriculturalist Hutus.

The earliest form of social organization in the area was the clan (ubwoko_clan^kin). The clans were not limited to genealogical lineages or geographical areas, and most included Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa members. From the 15th century, the clans began to merge into kingdoms. One kingdom, under King Gihanga, managed to incorporate several of its close neighbor territories, establishing the Kingdom of Rwanda. By 1700, around eight kingdoms existed in present-day Rwanda. The Kingdom of Rwanda, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became increasingly dominant from the mid-eighteenth century.

The kingdom reached its greatest extent during the nineteenth century under the reign of King Kigeli IV Rwabugiri. Rwabugiri conquered several smaller states, expanded the kingdom west and north, and initiated administrative reforms. These included ubuhake_{ubuhake (patronage system)}^kin, a system of patronage in which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle, and therefore privileged status, to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service, and uburetwa_{uburetwa (corvée system)}^kin, a corvée system in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs. Rwabugiri's changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations. The Twa were somewhat better off than in pre-Kingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the royal court, but their numbers continued to decline.

2.2. Colonial Era

The colonial era in Rwanda began in the late 19th century, first under German rule and subsequently under Belgian administration, which profoundly reshaped Rwandan society, particularly by formalizing and entrenching ethnic divisions.

2.2.2. Belgian Colonization (1916-1962)

After World War I, Belgium formally took control of Rwanda and Burundi under a League of Nations mandate in 1922, administering them as the territory of Ruanda-Urundi. This marked the beginning of a period of more direct colonial rule. After World War II, in 1946, Ruanda-Urundi became a UN trust territory under Belgian administration, with a mandate to oversee eventual independence.

The Belgians simplified and centralized the power structure, often undermining traditional checks and balances. They introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public works, and agricultural supervision, including new crops and improved agricultural techniques aimed at reducing famine. However, both German and Belgian colonial administrations, influenced by scientific racism prevalent in Europe, promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and Tutsi as distinct races. The Belgians favored the Tutsi minority for administrative roles and educational opportunities, believing them to be racially superior and more natural rulers.

A critical development during Belgian rule was the introduction of ethnic identity cards in 1935. These cards formally labeled each individual as Tutsi, Hutu, Twa, or Naturalized. While it had previously been possible for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, or for intermarriage to blur lines, the identity cards rigidified these ethnic categories, making movement between them virtually impossible and solidifying ethnic identity as a primary social and political marker. This policy is widely seen as a major factor in the hardening of ethnic divisions and the subsequent conflicts that plagued Rwanda. The Roman Catholic Church, a key player in education, also contributed to emphasizing these ethnic distinctions.

2.3. Independence and Early Republic (1962-1973)

As Belgium continued to rule Ruanda-Urundi as a UN trust territory after World War II, tensions escalated between the Tutsi, who favored early independence under the existing monarchy, and a growing Hutu emancipation movement. This culminated in the 1959 Rwandan Revolution, often referred to as the "Social Revolution" or "wind of destruction" (muyaga_{muyaga (wind of destruction)}^kin). Hutu activists began attacking and killing Tutsi and destroying their homes, forcing more than 100,000 Tutsi to seek refuge in neighboring countries.

In 1961, the Belgian authorities, in a shift of policy, held a referendum in which the Rwandan population voted to abolish the monarchy. This move was supported by the increasingly empowered Hutu elite. Rwanda was officially separated from Burundi and gained independence on July 1, 1962. Grégoire Kayibanda, a Hutu leader and founder of the PARMEHUTU (Party of the Hutu Emancipation Movement), became the first president of the newly independent republic.

The early years of independence were characterized by cycles of violence. Exiled Tutsi groups launched attacks from neighboring countries, and the Hutu-dominated government retaliated with large-scale massacres and repression of the Tutsi population remaining in Rwanda. While some Tutsi individuals were part of Kayibanda's government, his administration largely pursued policies that excluded Tutsis from significant political power and reinforced Hutu dominance. The period laid the groundwork for further ethnic polarization and conflict.

2.4. Habyarimana Regime and Growing Tensions (1973-1990)

In 1973, Juvénal Habyarimana, a Hutu army general, seized power in a military coup, ousting Grégoire Kayibanda. Habyarimana established the National Revolutionary Movement for Development (MRND) as the sole legal party, effectively creating a one-party state. His regime, while initially bringing a period of relative economic prosperity and a reduction in overt violence against Tutsi compared to the Kayibanda era, continued pro-Hutu discrimination and maintained a tight grip on power. He implemented development projects but also consolidated authoritarian control, with limited space for political dissent.

During Habyarimana's rule, underlying ethnic tensions persisted and, in some ways, deepened. The Tutsi minority remained largely marginalized from political power, and many Tutsi refugees who had fled in earlier waves of violence were denied the right to return. The Twa people continued to be severely marginalized, and by 1990, many were almost entirely forced out of their forest habitats by the government, often becoming beggars.

Economic pressures also mounted. Rwanda's population had increased significantly, from 1.6 million in 1934 to 7.1 million in 1989, leading to intense competition for land in the densely populated country. A collapse in the price of coffee, a major export, in the late 1980s exacerbated economic hardship. These economic grievances, coupled with the lack of political freedoms and unresolved ethnic issues, created a volatile environment. Habyarimana's regime faced increasing criticism for its failure to democratize and address the problems facing Tutsi refugees. His later policies shifted from initial attempts at Tutsi reconciliation towards a more hardline anti-Tutsi stance, particularly as the threat from the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front grew. This period set the stage for the Rwandan Civil War.

2.5. Rwandan Civil War and Genocide (1990-1994)

The period from 1990 to 1994 was marked by the Rwandan Civil War, initiated by the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), and the subsequent 1994 Rwandan genocide, one of the most horrific events of the late 20th century. These events reshaped Rwanda and had profound regional consequences.

2.5.1. Rwandan Genocide

The Rwandan Civil War began in October 1990 when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel group composed mainly of Tutsi refugees who had been exiled for decades, invaded northern Rwanda from their base in Uganda. The RPF condemned Habyarimana's Hutu-dominated government for failing to democratize and address the plight of Tutsi refugees. Neither side was able to gain a decisive advantage in the war initially. However, by 1992, the conflict had weakened Habyarimana's authority, leading to mass demonstrations that forced him into a coalition with the domestic opposition and eventually to sign the Arusha Accords with the RPF in August 1993. The accords called for a power-sharing government, the return of refugees, and the integration of RPF forces into the national army.

The fragile cease-fire established by the Arusha Accords ended abruptly on April 6, 1994, when President Habyarimana's plane was shot down near Kigali Airport, killing him and President Cyprien Ntaryamira of Burundi, who was also on board. The assassination served as the immediate catalyst for the Rwandan genocide, which began within hours.

Over the course of approximately 100 days, from April to mid-July 1994, extremist Hutu elements within the government, military (including the presidential guard), and civilian population, notably the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi militias, orchestrated and carried out the systematic massacre of an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 Tutsi and politically moderate Hutu. The genocide was meticulously planned, with lists of targets prepared in advance and hate propaganda, particularly through Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM), used to incite violence. Ordinary citizens were coerced or encouraged to turn on their neighbors, friends, and even family members. The killings were brutal, often carried out with machetes, clubs, and other rudimentary weapons, in homes, churches, schools, and at roadblocks. Many Twa were also killed during the genocide, despite not being directly targeted as a group. The systematic nature of the violence, its scale, and the speed at which it unfolded were devastating, aiming to eliminate the Tutsi population entirely.

In response to the genocide and the collapse of the Arusha Accords, the RPF, led by Paul Kagame, relaunched its offensive. They advanced steadily from the north, fighting against the Hutu Power regime's forces. By mid-July 1994, the RPF had taken control of Kigali and most of the country, effectively ending the genocide.

2.6. Post-Genocide Rwanda and National Reconstruction (1994-present)

Following the RPF's military victory in July 1994, a new government of national unity was established, initially headed by President Pasteur Bizimungu (a Hutu) with Paul Kagame (a Tutsi and leader of the RPF) as Vice President and Minister of Defence. Kagame became President in 2000 after Bizimungu's resignation and has remained in power since. The immediate post-genocide period was characterized by immense challenges, including a devastated infrastructure, a traumatized population, and the urgent need for justice and reconciliation.

Efforts towards national reconstruction focused on restoring security, rebuilding institutions, and promoting economic recovery. Transitional justice mechanisms were established to address the crimes of the genocide. The United Nations set up the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) in Arusha, Tanzania, to prosecute high-level organizers of the genocide. Within Rwanda, the government reintroduced and adapted a traditional community justice system called Gacaca_{Gacaca (community justice)}^kin. These Gacaca courts were tasked with trying hundreds of thousands of individuals accused of participating in the genocide. While Gacaca courts processed a vast number of cases and were seen by some as contributing to reconciliation at a local level, they also faced criticism regarding due process and fairness standards.

Economically, Rwanda embarked on ambitious development programs, notably Vision 2020, launched in 2000, which aimed to transform Rwanda from a low-income agricultural economy into a knowledge-based middle-income country. This was later followed by Vision 2050. The government prioritized investment in education, healthcare (including a community-based health insurance scheme, mutuelles de santé_{community-based health insurance}^French), information and communication technology (ICT), and infrastructure. Rwanda has achieved significant economic growth, often referred to as an "African Miracle", with notable improvements in poverty reduction and human development indicators such as life expectancy. Tourism, particularly mountain gorilla tracking, became a major source of foreign exchange.

Politically, the RPF has dominated Rwanda since 1994. While the government emphasizes national unity and has officially banned ethnic identification, critics and human rights organizations have raised concerns about the restrictive political environment, limitations on freedom of expression and freedom of association, and the suppression of opposition voices. The government's record on democracy and human rights remains a subject of ongoing debate, with accusations of authoritarian tendencies and politically motivated trials. Constitutional amendments have allowed President Kagame to extend his term in office. Despite these concerns, the government is credited with maintaining stability, significantly reducing corruption compared to regional standards, and driving development. Rwanda also made significant strides in gender equality, becoming the country with the highest proportion of women in parliament globally. The nation joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 2009, despite not having historical ties to the British Empire.

3.1. Government Structure

The current constitution was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional constitution that had been in place since 1994. It establishes a government based on the separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

The President is the head of state and head of government, elected by popular vote for a seven-year term (changed to a five-year term from 2024, following a 2015 constitutional amendment, though President Kagame was eligible for a further seven-year term in 2017 and potentially two subsequent five-year terms). The President holds broad powers, including creating policy in conjunction with the Cabinet, commanding the armed forces, negotiating and ratifying treaties, signing presidential orders, and declaring war or a state of emergency. The President appoints the Prime Minister and other members of the Cabinet. Paul Kagame has been the President since 2000.

The Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. It is responsible for legislation and overseeing the activities of the President and the Cabinet.

• The Chamber of Deputies is the lower house, with 80 members serving five-year terms. Of these, 53 are directly elected by universal suffrage under a proportional representation system. A unique feature is the reservation of seats: 24 seats are reserved for women (elected by a joint assembly of local government officials), 2 for youth representatives, and 1 for a representative of persons with disabilities. This has resulted in Rwanda having one of the highest proportions of female parliamentarians globally.
• The Senate is the upper house, with 26 members serving eight-year terms. Twelve senators are elected by provincial and sector councils, eight are appointed by the President, four are selected by the Forum of Political Organizations, and two are elected by the staff of universities (one public, one private). Former presidents can also be members of the Senate. At least 30% of senators must be women.

The Judiciary is, in principle, independent of the executive and legislative branches. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Other courts include the High Court, regional courts, and military courts. A system of commercial courts was established in 2011. The traditional Gacaca courts, revived to process genocide-related cases, concluded their work in 2012. While progress has been made in judicial reform, including the abolition of the death penalty, human rights organizations have raised concerns about governmental interference in the judicial system.

Rwanda has notably low levels of corruption relative to many other African countries. The constitution provides for an Ombudsman tasked with preventing and fighting corruption.

3.2. Political Parties and Elections

Rwanda has a multi-party system, but the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) has been the dominant political force since 1994. The RPF, led by President Paul Kagame, typically wins elections by large margins. While the RPF is often described as Tutsi-dominated, it officially promotes national unity and receives support from various communities.

The constitution prohibits political organizations from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, sex, or religion, or any other division which may give rise to discrimination. Laws criminalizing "genocide ideology" and "divisionism" are in place, intended to prevent the recurrence of ethnic hatred. However, human rights groups and critics argue that these laws are vaguely defined and have been used to suppress legitimate dissent, restrict freedom of speech, and limit the activities of opposition parties.

Several opposition parties exist, such as the Social Democratic Party and the Liberal Party, some of which have participated in coalition governments with the RPF. However, the space for genuine political opposition is considered limited. Reports from organizations like Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have documented instances of intimidation, harassment, arrests, and restrictions on opposition figures and parties, particularly around election periods. Concerns about electoral fraud and the fairness of electoral processes have also been raised. The overall political climate is often described as tightly controlled, with significant limitations on political competition and civil liberties.

3.3. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Rwanda is complex, reflecting a tension between the government's efforts to maintain stability and promote development in a post-genocide context, and concerns raised by domestic and international observers regarding civil liberties and political freedoms.

4.1. Relations with Neighboring Countries

Rwanda maintains complex relationships with its neighbors:

• Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC): Relations have been historically fraught, marked by Rwanda's involvement in the First and Second Congo Wars, justified by the need to pursue Hutu extremists (genocidaires) who fled to eastern DRC after 1994. Rwanda has been accused of supporting rebel groups in eastern DRC, most notably the M23 Movement, leading to diplomatic tensions and, at times, severed ties. For instance, in January 2025, the DRC cut off diplomatic relations with Rwanda amid accusations of renewed Rwandan support for M23 rebels near Goma. These interventions have been criticized for exacerbating instability and human rights abuses in eastern DRC.
• Uganda: Relations have fluctuated. Uganda was a base for the RPF before 1990 and supported its rise to power. However, tensions arose, particularly during the Second Congo War when Ugandan and Rwandan forces clashed. Border closures and accusations of interference in each other's affairs have occurred, though there have also been periods of improved cooperation, particularly within the framework of the East African Community (EAC).
• Burundi: Sharing a similar ethnic composition and a history of inter-ethnic conflict, relations with Burundi have often been sensitive. Political instability in Burundi can have spillover effects in Rwanda, and vice-versa, with concerns about cross-border rebel movements and refugee flows.
• Tanzania: Relations are generally stable, with cooperation on trade and infrastructure projects, particularly concerning transport corridors to the sea, given Rwanda's landlocked status. Tanzania hosted a large number of Rwandan refugees and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.

Rwanda actively participates in regional security initiatives and economic integration efforts through the EAC.

4.2. Relations with Major Powers

• France: Relations have been historically complicated. France was a key ally of the Habyarimana regime prior to and during the genocide. The RPF-led government has accused France of complicity in the genocide, leading to a rupture in diplomatic relations from 2006 to 2009. While relations have since been restored and have seen some improvement, including acknowledgments from France regarding its role, underlying tensions and differing interpretations of history persist.
• Belgium: As the former colonial power, Belgium maintains significant ties with Rwanda, including development aid and diplomatic relations.
• United States: The U.S. is a major development partner and has provided significant aid to Rwanda, particularly in health, education, and economic development. It has also been a security partner, though it has at times voiced concerns about human rights and democracy in Rwanda.
• United Kingdom: Relations strengthened significantly after Rwanda joined the Commonwealth in 2009. The UK is an important development and trade partner.
• China: China has become a significant economic partner, heavily involved in infrastructure development in Rwanda, including roads, buildings, and telecommunications.
• Israel: Rwanda has cultivated strong ties with Israel, particularly in areas of technology, agriculture, and security cooperation. Israel opened an embassy in Kigali in 2019.

4.3. Membership in International Organizations

Rwanda is an active member of numerous international and regional organizations, reflecting its commitment to multilateralism and regional integration. These include:

• United Nations (UN)
• African Union (AU)
• Commonwealth of Nations (joined in 2009, one of the few members without direct historical ties to the British Empire)
• East African Community (EAC)
• Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF)
• Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)

Rwanda has often played a prominent role in these organizations, with President Kagame chairing the African Union in 2018 and championing initiatives like the African Continental Free Trade Area.

7.1. Topography and Hydrology

Rwanda covers an area of 10 K mile^{2 (26.34 K km2)}, making it one of the smallest countries on the African mainland. The entire country is at a high altitude, with its lowest point, the Rusizi River, at 3117 ft ^{(950 m)} above sea level. This high elevation gives Rwanda its famous sobriquet, the "Land of a Thousand Hills" (Pays des mille collines_{Land of a thousand hills}^French).

The terrain is dominated by mountains in the west and central regions, which are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains. This range flanks the Albertine branch of the East African Rift and runs along Rwanda's western border. The highest peaks are found in the Virunga Mountains volcanic chain in the northwest, including Mount Karisimbi, Rwanda's highest point at 15 K ft ^{(4.51 K m)}. This western section lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests ecoregion, with elevations generally ranging from 4.9 K ft ^{(1.50 K m)} to 8.2 K ft ^{(2.50 K m)}. The center of the country consists predominantly of rolling hills, while the eastern border region features savanna, plains, and swamps.

The watershed between the major Congo and Nile drainage basins runs north to south through Rwanda. Approximately 80% of the country's area drains into the Nile River, while 20% drains into the Congo River via the Rusizi River and Lake Tanganyika. Rwanda's longest river is the Nyabarongo, which rises in the southwest, flows north, east, and southeast before merging with the Ruvubu River to form the Kagera River. The Kagera then flows north along the eastern border with Tanzania and eventually drains into Lake Victoria. The source of the Nyabarongo in Nyungwe Forest is a contender for the overall source of the Nile.

Rwanda has numerous lakes, the largest and most prominent being Lake Kivu. It occupies the floor of the Albertine Rift along most of Rwanda's western border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo. With a maximum depth of 1575 ft ^{(480 m)}, Lake Kivu is one of the world's deepest lakes. Other significant lakes include Lake Burera and Ruhondo in the north, Lake Muhazi in the east-central region, Rweru, and Ihema, the latter being the largest of a series of lakes in the eastern plains of Akagera National Park.

7.2. Climate

Rwanda has a temperate tropical highland climate. Despite its equatorial location, the high altitude moderates temperatures, making them generally cooler than typical equatorial countries. Kigali, the capital, located in the center of the country, experiences a typical daily temperature range between 59 °F ^{(15 °C)} and 82.4 °F ^{(28 °C)}, with little variation throughout the year.

Temperature variations exist across the country: the mountainous west and north are generally cooler than the lower-lying east. Rwanda has two rainy seasons: the first from February to June and the second from September to December. These are separated by two dry seasons: a major one from June to September, often with no rain, and a shorter, less severe one from December to February. Annual rainfall varies geographically, with the west and northwest receiving more precipitation (often exceeding 33 in ^{(830 mm)}) than the east and southeast.

Global warming has reportedly affected Rwanda's climate patterns. Studies suggest a reduction in the number of rainy days per year but an increase in the frequency of torrential rains. The country has also experienced an increase in average temperature of between 1.3 °F ^{(0.7 °C)} and 1.6 °F ^{(0.9 °C)} over the past fifty years. These changes pose challenges for agriculture, a vital sector of the Rwandan economy.

7.3. Biodiversity and National Parks

In prehistoric times, montane forest covered about one-third of present-day Rwanda. Today, naturally occurring vegetation is largely restricted to three national parks: Volcanoes National Park in the northwest, Nyungwe National Park in the southwest, and Akagera National Park in the east. The rest of the country is dominated by terraced agriculture.

• Nyungwe National Park is the largest remaining tract of montane rainforest and is renowned for its biodiversity. It contains over 200 species of trees, numerous orchids, and begonias. It is home to 13 primate species, including common chimpanzees and large troops of Ruwenzori colobus monkeys, whose groups can number up to 400 individuals-the largest troop size of any primate in Africa. Nyungwe has 280 recorded bird species, of which 26 are endemic to the Albertine Rift, such as the Rwenzori turaco and handsome spurfowl.
• Volcanoes National Park, part of the Virunga Massif, is primarily characterized by bamboo and moorland, with smaller areas of forest. It is most famous for being home to an estimated one-third of the worldwide mountain gorilla population, making gorilla tracking a major tourist attraction.
• Akagera National Park has a savanna ecosystem, with acacia dominating the flora. It hosts typical savanna animals such as giraffes, elephants, zebras, and various antelope species. Lions were reintroduced to Akagera in 2015 after being wiped out in the aftermath of the 1994 genocide. Black rhinoceroses were reintroduced in 2017 and 2019, and white rhinoceroses were translocated to the park in 2021 to establish a secure breeding ground. Several rare or endangered plant species, including Markhamia lutea and Eulophia guineensis, are found in Akagera.

Rwanda has a total of 670 bird species recorded. Eastern Rwanda features savanna birds like the black-headed gonolek and various species associated with its swamps and lakes, including storks and cranes. Recent entomological work has revealed a rich diversity of praying mantises, including a new species, Dystacta tigrifrutex (bush tiger mantis).

The country contains three terrestrial ecoregions: Albertine Rift montane forests, Victoria Basin forest-savanna mosaic, and Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands. Conservation efforts are crucial for protecting Rwanda's rich biodiversity, which faces threats from habitat loss and human activities. Rwanda had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.85/10, ranking it 139th globally out of 172 countries.

8.1. Economic Overview and Development

The 1994 genocide devastated Rwanda's economy, leading to widespread loss of life, destruction of infrastructure, looting, and neglect of cash crops. This resulted in a massive drop in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and severely hampered the country's ability to attract investment. However, the economy has since strengthened considerably. Per-capita nominal GDP was estimated at 909.9 USD in 2022, a significant increase from 127 USD in 1994. Despite this growth, as of 2019/20, 48.8% of the population was affected by multidimensional poverty, with an additional 22.7% vulnerable to it.

Rwanda has few natural resources, and its economy was traditionally based on subsistence agriculture. Post-genocide, the government launched Vision 2020, a long-term development strategy aimed at transforming Rwanda into a knowledge-based, middle-income country by 2020. This has been succeeded by Vision 2050, which continues these development aspirations. Key factors contributing to Rwanda's economic growth, often termed the "African Miracle" or "African Singapore," include political stability (though under a system criticized for authoritarian tendencies), strong governance in terms of anti-corruption measures (relative to the region), strategic investments in ICT, tourism, and human capital, and significant foreign aid.

The Rwandan franc (RWF) is the national currency, managed by the National Bank of Rwanda. Rwanda joined the East African Community (EAC) in 2007 and is working towards greater regional economic integration, including plans for a monetary union. Major export markets include China, Germany, and the United States. The country was ranked 104th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

8.2. Major Sectors

Rwanda's economy is diversifying, but agriculture remains a significant component, alongside growing sectors like mining, tourism, and ICT.

8.2.1. Agriculture

Agriculture has historically been the backbone of the Rwandan economy, with an estimated 90% of the working population engaged in farming, primarily subsistence agriculture using basic tools. In 2014, agriculture constituted about 32.5% of GDP. Farming is characterized by small plots of land, often on steep slopes, making terracing a common practice.

Key subsistence crops include matoke (green bananas), which occupy over a third of the country's farmland, potatoes, beans, sweet potatoes, cassava, wheat, and maize. While Rwanda possesses a fertile ecosystem, food production has not always kept pace with population growth, necessitating food imports at times, although the situation has improved with agricultural growth in recent years.

The major cash crops for export are coffee and tea, for which Rwanda's high altitudes, steep slopes, and volcanic soils provide favorable conditions. Over 400,000 Rwandans are estimated to make their living from coffee plantations. Reliance on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to global price fluctuations.

Livestock raised include cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chicken, and rabbits. Production systems are mostly traditional, though a few intensive dairy farms exist around Kigali. Constraints on the livestock sector include shortages of land and water, insufficient and poor-quality feed, and disease epidemics. Fishing occurs on the country's lakes, but depleted stocks have led to efforts to revive the industry, including importing live fish. Labor conditions and sustainable land use are ongoing challenges in the agricultural sector.

8.2.3. Tourism

Tourism is one of Rwanda's fastest-growing economic sectors and became the country's leading foreign exchange earner in 2007. Despite the legacy of the genocide, Rwanda is increasingly perceived internationally as a safe and attractive destination. Tourist arrivals reached 864,000 in 2013, and revenue from tourism was 303.00 M USD in 2014, a substantial increase from 62.00 M USD in 2000.

The largest contributor to tourism revenue is mountain gorilla tracking in the Volcanoes National Park. Rwanda is one of only three countries where these endangered primates can be visited safely, attracting thousands of visitors annually who pay high prices for permits. Other attractions include Nyungwe National Park, home to chimpanzees, Ruwenzori colobus monkeys, and diverse birdlife; the resorts on Lake Kivu; and Akagera National Park, a savanna reserve in the east offering traditional wildlife viewing. The government has also invested in conference tourism, with facilities like the Kigali Convention Centre.

8.3. Infrastructure

Rwanda has been actively developing its national infrastructure to support economic activity, improve public services, and enhance the quality of life for its citizens. Key areas of focus include transport, energy, water and sanitation, and telecommunications.

8.3.1. Transport

Rwanda's transport system primarily relies on its road network. Paved roads connect the capital, Kigali, with most other major cities and towns. The country is linked by road to other East African Community nations (Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Kenya), as well as to eastern Congolese cities. The Northern Corridor, a road to the port of Mombasa via Kampala and Nairobi, is a crucial trade route.

Public transport is dominated by minibuses. Motorcycle taxis (moto-taxi_{motorcycle taxi}^kin) are a very common form of private hire, especially in urban areas. Coach services operate to various destinations in neighboring countries.

Kigali International Airport is the main international gateway, serving several international destinations. The national carrier is RwandAir. Construction of the new Bugesera International Airport, south of Kigali, began in 2017 and is expected to become the country's largest airport.

As of 2015, Rwanda had no railways, but projects to extend the Tanzanian Central Line into Rwanda, in conjunction with Tanzania and Burundi, have been under discussion. There is limited private water transport on Lake Kivu, and the government has programs to develop this further.

8.3.2. Energy

Until the early 2000s, Rwanda's electricity supply was almost entirely generated from hydroelectric sources, primarily from power stations on Lakes Burera and Ruhondo, which provided 90% of the country's electricity. However, factors like below-average rainfall and human activities (such as draining the Rugezi wetlands for agriculture) caused lake water levels to fall, leading to a sharp drop in hydropower output and an energy shortfall in 2004. As an emergency measure, costly diesel generators were installed.

To alleviate this, the government has focused on diversifying its energy sources. This includes rehabilitating the Rugezi wetlands and, significantly, investing in the extraction of methane gas from Lake Kivu. The KivuWatt project, for instance, aims to convert this dissolved methane into electricity, with its first phase expected to substantially increase the country's power generation capacity. Other sources being explored include peat, solar, and geothermal energy.

Access to electricity has been increasing: from 10.8% of the population in 2009 to 18% in 2012, with the government's Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy aiming for 70% household access by 2017 (later revised targets). Expanding the grid to rural areas remains a challenge.

8.3.3. Water Supply and Sanitation

The Rwandan government prioritized water supply development in the 2000s, leading to a rapid increase in access to safe water. In 2015, 74% of the population had access to safe water, up from about 55% in 2005, with a government commitment to reach 100%. Water infrastructure consists of urban and rural systems delivering water mainly through standpipes in rural areas and private connections in urban areas. Hand pumps and managed springs are used in unserved areas. Despite ample rainfall, rainwater harvesting is not widely utilized.

Access to improved sanitation has also seen progress. According to UNICEF data for 2022, 92% of the total population had access to improved sanitation (95% urban and 91% rural). This is a significant improvement from 2006 when the UN estimated 34% of urban and 20% of rural dwellers had access. Kigali is often cited as one of the cleanest cities in Africa, partly due to community work initiatives like Umuganda_{Umuganda (community service)}^kin. However, the majority of the population, particularly in rural areas, historically relied on public shared pit latrines, and government policies for improvement have often focused more on urban areas.

9.1. Demographics

As of 2022, Rwanda's population was projected to be approximately 13.25 million. The 2012 census recorded a population of 10.5 million. Rwanda is one of the most densely populated countries in mainland Africa, with an average density of around 445 persons per square kilometer in 2015. This high density has historically contributed to competition for land resources.

The population is predominantly young; in the 2012 census, 43.3% of the population was aged 15 and under. Life expectancy has seen significant improvement, rising to 67.67 years (CIA 2015 estimate). The population is largely rural, though urbanization is increasing. Dwellings are traditionally spread throughout the countryside, but there has been a government policy of "villagization" (imidugudu_{villages/villagization}^kin) to group populations. Kigali, the capital and largest city, has a population of around one million. Other major towns include Gisenyi (Rubavu), Butare (Huye), and Muhanga (Gitarama).

Largest cities in Rwanda

Rank	City	Province	Population	Image
1	Kigali	Kigali City	1,132,168
2	Gisenyi (Rubavu)	Western	136,830
3	Butare (Huye)	Southern	89,600
4	Muhanga (Gitarama)	Southern	87,163
5	Ruhengeri (Musanze)	Northern	86,685
6	Byumba	Northern	70,593
7	Cyangugu (Rusizi)	Western	63,883
8	Kibuye (Karongi)	Western	48,024
9	Rwamagana	Eastern	47,203
10	Nyanza	Southern	46,240

9.2. Ethnic Groups and Languages

Rwanda has historically been a unified state with a single cultural and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda. Within this group, three subgroups are traditionally identified: the Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa. CIA estimates from 2009 suggested Hutus comprised 84% of the population, Tutsis 15%, and Twa 1%. The Twa are a forest-dwelling pygmy people, often considered descendants of Rwanda's earliest inhabitants. The origins and nature of the Hutu-Tutsi distinction are complex and debated by scholars, with some theories pointing to racial differences and migration patterns, and others to socio-economic class distinctions that were later rigidified under colonial rule. Historically, Tutsis were predominantly pastoralists and formed the ruling aristocracy, while Hutus were primarily agriculturalists.

The current Rwandan government officially discourages ethnic distinctions and has removed ethnic classifications from national identity cards to promote national unity. The 2002 census was the first since 1933 not to categorize the population by these ethnic groups.

The principal and national language is Kinyarwanda, spoken by virtually the entire population (98%). Rwanda has four official languages: Kinyarwanda, English, French, and Swahili.

• Kinyarwanda is the mother tongue of most Rwandans.
• French was introduced during Belgian colonization and remained an official and widely spoken language after independence. However, its prominence has decreased.
• English gained official status after 1994, partly due to the return of Anglophone refugees and Rwanda's increasing ties with the East African Community and the Commonwealth. In 2008, English became the primary medium of instruction in secondary and tertiary education, replacing French.
• Swahili is a lingua franca in the African Great Lakes region and is spoken by some Rwandans, particularly those who were refugees in neighboring countries or live near the DRC border. It was introduced as a mandatory subject in secondary schools in 2015 and became an official language in 2017.

The inhabitants of Nkombo Island speak Mashi, a language closely related to Kinyarwanda.

9.3. Religion

Christianity is the largest religion in Rwanda. According to the 2012 census, Catholic Christians represented 43.7% of the population, Protestants (excluding Seventh-day Adventists) 37.7%, and Seventh-day Adventists 11.8%. Muslims constituted 2.0% of the population. A small percentage (0.2%) claimed no religious beliefs, and 1.3% did not state a religion.

Since the 1994 genocide, there have been significant changes in religious demographics, with many conversions to evangelical Christianity and, to a lesser extent, Islam. Traditional Rwandan religion, though officially followed by only 0.1% of the population, retains an influence. Many Rwandans view the Christian God as synonymous with the traditional Rwandan deity, Imana_{Imana (deity)}^kin. Freedom of religion is generally respected.

9.4. Education

The Rwandan government has prioritized education as a key component of its development strategy. Since 2012, the government provides free education for twelve years: six years of primary education and six years of secondary education (three years of common secondary program followed by three years of upper secondary). Prior to 2012, free education was provided for nine years.

Enrollment rates in primary schools are high, described as near-ubiquitous. However, challenges remain, including low completion rates and high repetition rates. While schooling is tuition-free, parents are often expected to contribute to costs such as school supplies, teacher development, and school construction, though this is not supposed to be a basis for exclusion. Many private schools, some church-run, operate across the country, generally following the national syllabus but charging fees.

From 1994 until 2009, secondary education was offered in either French or English. Due to Rwanda's increasing ties with the Anglophone East African Community and the Commonwealth of Nations, English became the sole medium of instruction in secondary and tertiary education from 2008 onwards, although French was later reintroduced as a subject in primary education.

Rwanda has several institutions of tertiary education. In 2013, the public University of Rwanda (UR) was created through a merger of the former National University of Rwanda and other public higher education institutions. The gross enrollment ratio for tertiary education was 7.9% in 2013, up from 3.6% in 2006.

The literacy rate for those aged 15 and over has significantly improved, recorded at 78.8% in 2022, up from 71% in 2009, 58% in 1991, and 38% in 1978. Efforts to integrate ICT into education, such as the One Laptop Per Child program, have been undertaken.

9.5. Health

Healthcare in Rwanda has seen dramatic improvements since the devastating impact of the 1994 genocide. Historically, health indicators were very poor, with high rates of child mortality; in 1998, more than one in five children died before their fifth birthday, often from preventable diseases like malaria.

President Kagame made healthcare a priority for the Vision 2020 development program. Government spending on healthcare increased to 6.5% of GDP in 2013, compared with 1.9% in 1996. A key innovation has been the nationwide implementation of community-based health insurance providers called mutuelles de santé_{community-based health insurance}^French. Piloted in 1999, this scheme was rolled out nationwide by the mid-2000s. Premiums initially started at around 2 USD per year and later became means-tested, with the poorest paying nothing and maximum premiums around 8 USD per adult. By 2014, over 90% of the population was covered by this scheme.

The government also established training institutes like the Kigali Health Institute (KHI), now part of the University of Rwanda, to address the shortage of medical professionals. Initiatives like "The Presidents' Malaria Initiative" (launched in 2005) aimed to distribute mosquito nets and medication.

These efforts have led to significant improvements:

• Life expectancy increased from 55.2 years in 2005 to 64.0 years in 2013 (and further to 67.67 years by some 2015 estimates).
• Under-5 mortality decreased from 106.4 per 1,000 live births in 2005 to 52.0 in 2013.
• Incidence of tuberculosis dropped from 101 to 69 per 100,000 people between 2005 and 2013.

Despite these gains, often cited as "Rwanda's Historic Health Recovery," significant challenges remain. The country's health profile is still dominated by communicable diseases. Maternal mortality rates, though improving, are considered high. HIV/AIDS remains an epidemic, with a prevalence of around 3% among adults. There is also a shortage of medical professionals, with only 0.84 physicians, nurses, and midwives per 1,000 residents as of 2013. Access to healthcare in rural areas and ensuring equity remain key focus areas.

9.6. Marriage and Family

Traditional Rwandan society had distinct marriage customs and family structures. Historically, marriage was often an alliance between families. Dowry, typically in the form of cattle, played a significant role. Polygyny was practiced by some, particularly among the elite. Family structures were generally patrilineal, with strong kinship ties.

Contemporary Rwandan society has seen changes in these customs. Christian marriage ceremonies are common. While traditional elements may still be incorporated, monogamy is the legal norm. The 2003 Constitution recognizes only civil monogamous marriage between a man and a woman. Family law has evolved, with legal reforms impacting inheritance and property rights, particularly for women.

An interesting aspect noted in some sources is the naming custom where surnames may differ within the same nuclear family. Children might receive surnames different from their parents or siblings, making the Western concept of a shared family surname less common. This reflects a tradition where personal names carry significant meaning. The emphasis on individualism in naming can contrast with collective family identity as expressed through shared surnames in other cultures.

9.7. Poverty and Social Equity

Despite significant economic growth and progress in human development indicators since the 1994 genocide, poverty remains a challenge in Rwanda. According to the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) for 2019/20, 48.8% of the Rwandan population was affected by multidimensional poverty, and an additional 22.7% were vulnerable to it. This indicates that a large portion of the population still lacks access to essential services in health, education, and living standards.

Food security and hunger are ongoing concerns. While agricultural production has improved, factors such as high population density, land scarcity, reliance on rain-fed agriculture, and climate change impacts can affect food availability and access, particularly for rural households. The government has implemented various programs aimed at poverty reduction, social protection (such as Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme - VUP), and improving agricultural productivity. Efforts by national and international actors focus on supporting vulnerable groups, including orphans, widows, and the disabled, and promoting social equity. However, disparities between urban and rural areas, and among different socio-economic groups, persist. Addressing these inequalities and ensuring that the benefits of economic growth are widely shared is a key objective for sustainable development.

10.1. Music, Dance, and Performing Arts

Music and dance are integral to Rwandan ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling. The most famous traditional dance is a highly choreographed routine consisting of three main components:

• The umushagiriro_{cow dance}^kin, or cow dance, performed by women, characterized by graceful movements that mimic the elegance of the Ankole-Watusi cattle.
• The intore_{dance of heroes}^kin, or dance of heroes, performed by men, is an energetic and martial dance that traditionally celebrated bravery and military prowess. Dancers often wear elaborate headdresses and carry spears.
• The drumming (on drums known as ingoma_drums^kin), also traditionally performed by men, is a powerful and rhythmic art form. Royal drummers held high status in the court of the Mwami (King). Drummers typically play in groups of seven to nine.

The National Ballet of Rwanda, also known as Urukerereza, established in 1974, is the country's leading traditional dance troupe and performs both nationally and internationally. Rwandan music was traditionally transmitted orally, with styles varying between social groups. In recent years, a popular music industry has been growing, influenced by African Great Lakes, Congolese, and American music, with genres like hip hop, dancehall, rap, and R&B gaining popularity.

10.2. Traditional Arts and Crafts

Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout Rwanda, often originating as functional items rather than purely decorative ones.

• Woven baskets and bowls are especially common, with the agaseke_{agaseke (lidded peace basket)}^kin basket, a lidded peace basket, being a particularly iconic Rwandan craft. These are known for their intricate designs and tight weaving.
• Imigongo_{Imigongo (cow dung art)}^kin is a unique and traditional art form originating from the southeast of Rwanda (formerly part of the Gisaka kingdom). It involves creating geometric patterns using cow dung mixed with natural soils of various colors, which is then applied in ridges to wooden boards.
• Other crafts include pottery, traditionally made by the Twa people, and wood carving.

Traditional housing styles, known as nyakatsi_{grass-thatched mud homes}^kin, typically utilized locally available materials, featuring circular or rectangular mud homes with grass-thatched roofs. The government has initiated programs to replace these with more modern materials like corrugated iron for durability and hygiene.

10.3. Literature and Oral Traditions

Rwanda does not have a long history of written literature but possesses a strong oral tradition encompassing poetry, proverbs, folk tales, and historical accounts. Many of the country's moral values and historical details were passed down through generations via these oral forms.

The most famous Rwandan literary figure who bridged oral and written traditions was Abbé Alexis Kagame (1912-1981), a philosopher, linguist, historian, and poet who conducted extensive research into Rwandan oral traditions and published his own poetry and historical works.

The Rwandan Genocide in 1994 led to the emergence of a significant body of literature, including witness accounts, memoirs, essays, and fiction by a new generation of writers such as Benjamin Sehene and Scholastique Mukasonga. These works often explore themes of trauma, memory, justice, and reconciliation. A number of international films have also been produced about the genocide, including Hotel Rwanda, Shake Hands with the Devil, Sometimes in April, and Shooting Dogs, some of which featured survivors as cast members.

10.4. Cuisine

Rwandan cuisine is based on local staple foods produced by subsistence agriculture. Common ingredients include bananas (especially plantains, known as ibitoke_plantains^kin), pulses (like beans), sweet potatoes, cassava (manioc), and maize. Many Rwandans do not eat meat frequently, perhaps only a few times a month. For those living near lakes, tilapia is a popular fish. Potatoes, thought to have been introduced by German and Belgian colonialists, are also very popular.

• Ugali_{Ugali (stiff porridge)}^kin (locally known as ubugari_{ubugari (stiff porridge)}^kin or umutsima_{umutsima (stiff porridge)}^kin) is a common dish, a stiff porridge made from cassava or maize flour and water, eaten throughout the African Great Lakes region.
• Isombe_{Isombe (mashed cassava leaves)}^kin is made from mashed cassava leaves and can be served with dried fish, rice, ugali, or potatoes.
• Lunch is often a buffet known as mélange, consisting of the above staples and sometimes meat.
• Brochettes (skewered meat, usually goat, but also tripe, beef, or fish) are the most popular food when eating out in the evening. In rural areas, many bars have a brochette seller who grills the meat, often served with grilled bananas.

Milk, particularly in a fermented yogurt form called ikivuguto_{fermented yogurt}^kin, is a common drink. Traditional beverages include Ikigage_{sorghum beer}^kin, a beer made from sorghum, and urwagwa_{banana beer}^kin, a banana beer, both featuring in traditional rituals and ceremonies. Umutobe_{banana juice}^kin is a banana juice. Commercial beers like Primus, Mützig, and Skol are also widely available, produced by breweries such as Bralirwa and Brasseries des Mille Collines.

10.5. Sports

The Rwandan government promotes sport as an avenue for development and peace-building. The most popular sports in Rwanda include association football (soccer), volleyball, basketball, and athletics. Paralympic sports also have a following.

• Football: This is the most popular sport. The Rwanda National Football League is the top domestic competition, with APR FC being a dominant club. The national team, known as the Amavubi (Wasps), appeared in the African Cup of Nations once, in the 2004 edition, but has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup. Rwanda has sponsored international football clubs like Arsenal F.C. and Paris Saint-Germain F.C. through "Visit Rwanda" tourism promotion deals, a move that has attracted both praise for marketing and criticism as "sportswashing."
• Cycling: Traditionally a mode of transport, cycling has grown in popularity as a competitive sport. Team Rwanda has gained international recognition, and their story has been featured in the book Land of Second Chances and the film Rising from Ashes. Adrien Niyonshuti is one of Rwanda's most famous cyclists.
• Basketball: The men's national basketball team has grown in prominence, qualifying for the AfroBasket (African Basketball Championship) multiple times. Rwanda has also hosted major basketball tournaments, including the inaugural season of the Basketball Africa League (BAL) in 2021.
• Cricket: Cricket has been growing in popularity, partly due to refugees returning from Kenya where they learned the game. The Gahanga International Cricket Stadium was opened in Kigali in 2017.

Rwandans have competed at the Olympic Games since 1984 and the Paralympic Games since 2004. The country has also participated in the Commonwealth Games since joining the Commonwealth in 2009.

10.6. Public Holidays and Social Customs

Rwanda observes several national and religious public holidays throughout the year. These include:

• New Year's Day (January 1)
• Day after New Year's Day (January 2)
• National Heroes Day (February 1)
• Good Friday (movable)
• Easter Monday (movable)
• Genocide against the Tutsi Memorial Day (April 7) - The week following this day is designated an official week of mourning.
• Labour Day (May 1)
• Independence Day (July 1)
• Liberation Day (July 4) - Commemorates the RPF's victory ending the genocide.
• Assumption Day (August 15)
• Christmas Day (December 25)
• Boxing Day (December 26)
• Eid al-Fitr (movable)
• Eid al-Adha (movable)

A unique and important social custom in Rwanda is Umuganda_{Umuganda (community service)}^kin. This is a national day of mandatory community service held on the last Saturday of each month, typically from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m. All able-bodied Rwandans aged 18 to 65 are expected to participate in community tasks such as cleaning streets, building schools or homes for vulnerable people, environmental protection activities, and other development projects. Most normal services close down during Umuganda, and public transportation is limited. This practice is rooted in Rwandan tradition and was revived and institutionalized by the government to promote national unity, development, and civic participation.

10.7. World Heritage Sites

As of 2023, Rwanda has two sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List:

• Memorial sites of the Genocide: Nyamata, Murambi, Gisozi and Bisesero (Cultural, inscribed 2023): These sites are memorials to the 1994 Rwandan genocide against the Tutsi. They preserve evidence of the atrocities and serve as places of remembrance, education, and reflection on the importance of preventing future genocides.
  • Nyamata and Murambi were sites of mass killings where thousands sought refuge in churches or technical schools but were slaughtered.
  • Gisozi in Kigali is the site of the Kigali Genocide Memorial, a major center for documentation and commemoration.
  • Bisesero is a site where Tutsi civilians organized resistance against their attackers for weeks.
• Nyungwe National Park (Natural, inscribed 2023): This park is one of Africa's oldest rainforests, rich in biodiversity, including numerous endemic species of flora and fauna. It is a critical habitat for chimpanzees and various monkey species, as well as a wide array of birds, orchids, and butterflies. Its inscription recognizes its ecological importance and natural beauty.