Botswana

3.1. Early History and Pre-colonial Societies

Archaeological findings indicate that hominids lived in Botswana during the Pleistocene. Stone tools and animal remains suggest that all areas of the country were inhabited at least 400,000 years ago. Some research has claimed that the region around modern Botswana was the birthplace of all modern humans approximately 200,000 years ago, with evidence of modern human activity, such as cave paintings at Tsodilo Hills (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), dating back about 73,000 years. The earliest known inhabitants of southern Africa are considered the forebears of the present-day San (also known as Bushmen or Basarwa) and Khoi peoples. Both groups speak click languages belonging to the Khoe-Kwadi, Kx'a, and Tuu language families. They were traditionally hunter-gatherers who also engaged in trade over long distances. Pastoralism became a significant economic feature about 2,000 years ago with the introduction of cattle to southern Africa, as the region offered large grasslands free of tsetse flies.

The timeline for the arrival of Bantu-speaking peoples from the north is not definitively established, though AD 600 is a commonly cited estimate. Around this period, the ancestors of the modern-day Kalanga moved into what is now northeastern Botswana. These proto-Kalanga groups were closely connected to states in present-day Zimbabwe, such as the Mapungubwe state. The Domboshaba ruins, a cultural and heritage site featuring stone walls averaging 5.9 ft ^{(1.8 m)} in height, are a notable remnant of this period, initially occupied towards the end of the Great Zimbabwe period (1250-1450). It is believed to have been a chief's residence. These states, located outside current Botswana's borders, appear to have maintained massive cattle herds in what is now the Central District. This large-scale cattle-raising complex prospered until around 1300, declining after the collapse of Mapungubwe. During this era, the first Tswana-speaking groups, the Bakgalagadi, moved into the southern areas of the Kalahari. These various peoples were connected to trade routes running via the Limpopo River to the Indian Ocean, with goods like Asian beads reaching Botswana, likely in exchange for ivory, gold, and rhinoceros horn.

The Toutswemogala Hill Iron Age settlement has radio-carbon dates ranging from the 7th to the late 19th century, indicating over a thousand years of occupation. The hill was part of early state formation in southern Africa, with cattle as a major economic source. The Toutswe settlement includes house-floors, large heaps of vitrified cow dung, burials, and a prominent stone wall. Around AD 1000, the Toutswe people are believed to have moved into Botswana. Agriculture also played a vital role, evidenced by numerous grain storage structures.

The precise dating of the arrival of Tswana speakers' ancestors who came to control the region is still unclear. Members of the Bakwena, a chieftaincy under a leader named Kgabo II, entered the southern Kalahari by AD 1500 at the latest, displacing the Bakgalagadi inhabitants westward into the desert. Over time, several offshoots of the Bakwena moved into adjoining territories. The Bangwaketse occupied areas to the west, while the Bangwato moved northeast into former Kalanga areas. Not long afterwards, a Bangwato offshoot known as the Batawana migrated into the Okavango Delta, likely in the 1790s.

3.2. Arrival of Europeans and 19th Century Developments

The first written records concerning modern-day Botswana appear in 1824. These records indicate that the Bangwaketse, under the rule of Makaba II, had become the predominant power in the region. They maintained vast cattle herds in well-protected desert areas and used their military strength to raid neighboring groups. Other chiefdoms in the area also had large capitals, with populations around 10,000, and were relatively prosperous. This equilibrium was disrupted during the Mfecane period (1823-1843), a time of widespread warfare and displacement in Southern Africa, when a succession of invading peoples from South Africa entered Botswana. Although the Bangwaketse defeated the invading Bakololo in 1826, all major chiefdoms in Botswana were eventually attacked, weakened, and impoverished. The Bakololo and AmaNdebele raided repeatedly, taking large numbers of cattle, women, and children from the Batswana, many of whom were driven into the desert or sought refuge in less accessible areas like hilltops and caves. This threat subsided only after 1843, when the AmaNdebele moved into western Zimbabwe.

During the 1840s and 1850s, trade with Cape Colony-based merchants opened up, enabling the Batswana chiefdoms to rebuild. The Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Bangwato, and Batawana cooperated to control the lucrative ivory trade. They used the proceeds to import horses and guns, which in turn allowed them to establish control over what is now Botswana. This process was largely complete by 1880, and the Batswana subsequently subjugated groups like the San, Kalanga, and Bakgalagadi.

Following the Great Trek, Afrikaners from the Cape Colony established themselves on Botswana's borders in the Transvaal. In 1852, a coalition of Tswana chiefdoms led by Sechele I defeated Afrikaner incursions at the Battle of Dimawe. After about eight years of intermittent tensions and hostilities, a peace agreement was reached in Potchefstroom in 1860. This agreement largely defined the modern-day border between South Africa and Botswana, and thereafter, Afrikaners and Batswana engaged in trade and coexisted with comparative peace. In 1884, the Batawana, a northern Tswana clan, under Kgosi Moremi, successfully repelled a Ndebele invasion of northern Botswana at the Battle of Khutiyabasadi. This event marked a significant point in the decline of the Ndebele Kingdom in Zimbabwe and helped consolidate Tswana authority in the region.

The peaceful conditions between 1860 and 1880 allowed trade to thrive. Christian missionaries also established a presence during this period. The Lutherans and the London Missionary Society were both established in the country by 1856. By 1880, every major village had a resident missionary, and their influence gradually grew. Khama III (reigned 1875-1923) was the first Tswana chief to make Christianity a state religion, leading to significant changes in Tswana customary law. Christianity became the de facto official religion in all chiefdoms by World War I.

3.3. Bechuanaland Protectorate

During the Scramble for Africa, both the German Empire and Britain coveted the territory of Botswana. At the Berlin Conference, Britain decided to annex Botswana to safeguard the "Road to the North" and connect the Cape Colony to its territories further north. In January 1885, Britain unilaterally annexed Tswana territories and dispatched the Warren Expedition, led by General Charles Warren, to consolidate control and persuade the chiefs to accept British overrule. Despite their misgivings, the Tswana chiefs eventually acquiesced. The formal declaration of the Bechuanaland Protectorate was made on March 31, 1885. The northern region remained under direct administration as the Protectorate, eventually becoming modern Botswana, while the southern region became part of the Cape Colony and is now part of South Africa.

In 1890, areas north of 22 degrees latitude were added to the Bechuanaland Protectorate. During the 1890s, the territory was divided into eight different reserves, with relatively small amounts of land designated as freehold for white settlers. In the early 1890s, the British government considered handing over the Bechuanaland Protectorate to the British South Africa Company, led by Cecil Rhodes. This plan, which was well advanced despite the protests of Tswana leaders including Khama III, Bathoen I, and Sebele I who toured England to voice their opposition, was ultimately foiled by the failure of the Jameson Raid in January 1896. As a compromise, a strip of land in the east was ceded to the company for railway construction.

When the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 from the main British colonies in the region, the High Commission Territories-the Bechuanaland Protectorate, Basutoland (now Lesotho), and Swaziland (now Eswatini)-were not included, though provision was made for their later incorporation. However, the UK began to consult with their inhabitants regarding their wishes. Although successive South African governments sought the transfer of these territories, the UK consistently delayed, and incorporation never occurred. The election of the Nationalist government in South Africa in 1948, which instituted apartheid, and South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth in 1961, ended any prospect of these territories agreeing to incorporation into South Africa.

An expansion of British central authority and the evolution of native government led to the establishment of two advisory councils in 1920 to represent both Africans and Europeans. The African Council consisted of the eight heads of the Tswana tribes and some elected members. Proclamations in 1934 regulated tribal rule and powers. A European-African advisory council was formed in 1951, and the 1961 constitution established a consultative legislative council. This period saw socio-economic changes and the emergence of a national consciousness, with traditional leaders playing a significant role in navigating colonial policies and advocating for their people's interests.

3.4. Independence and Post-Colonial Era

In June 1964, the United Kingdom accepted proposals for democratic self-government in Botswana. An independence conference was held in London in February 1966. The seat of government was moved in 1965 from Mahikeng (then Mafeking) in South Africa to the newly established capital, Gaborone, located near Botswana's border with South Africa. Based on the 1965 constitution, the country held its first general elections under universal suffrage and gained independence on September 30, 1966, becoming the Republic of Botswana.

Seretse Khama, a paramount chief of the Bamangwato people and a key leader in the independence movement, was elected as the first president. He was subsequently re-elected twice and served until his death in office in 1980. Under Khama's leadership, Botswana established itself as a stable, multi-party democracy and embarked on a path of significant economic development, largely fueled by the discovery of diamonds shortly after independence. His government prioritized education, healthcare, and infrastructure development, laying the foundation for Botswana's future prosperity. Emphasis was placed on prudent management of resources and combating corruption, contributing to the country's reputation as a model of good governance in Africa.

The presidency passed to the sitting vice-president, Quett Masire, who was elected in his own right in 1984 and re-elected in 1989 and 1994. Masire continued Khama's policies of democratic consolidation and economic development, navigating regional challenges including apartheid in South Africa. He retired from office in 1998 and was succeeded by Festus Mogae, who was elected in 1999 and re-elected in 2004. Mogae's presidency focused on tackling the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which had become a major public health crisis, and further economic diversification.

In 2008, Ian Khama (son of Seretse Khama) became president after serving as Mogae's vice-president. He won elections in 2009 and 2014. His tenure saw continued economic stability but also faced criticism regarding governance style and human rights issues, particularly concerning the San people. On April 1, 2018, Mokgweetsi Masisi was sworn in as the fifth president of Botswana, succeeding Ian Khama.

A long-running dispute over the northern border with Namibia's Caprivi Strip concerning Kasikili Island (or Sedudu Island) was resolved by a ruling from the International Court of Justice in December 1999, which awarded the island to Botswana.

The Botswana Democratic Party (BDP) had been the ruling party since independence. However, in the 2024 general election, the BDP lost its majority for the first time in the country's history, marking a significant shift in the political landscape. The Umbrella for Democratic Change (UDC), an opposition coalition, won the election. On November 1, 2024, Duma Boko, leader of the UDC, was sworn in as president, becoming the first president not to represent the BDP. This peaceful transfer of power further solidified Botswana's democratic credentials.

4.1. Topography and Hydrology

Botswana covers an area of 225 K mile^{2 (581.73 K km2)}, making it the world's 48th-largest country. It has a mean altitude of roughly 3.3 K ft ^{(1.00 K m)} above sea level. The country is predominantly flat, characterized by a gently rolling tableland. The Kalahari Desert dominates the landscape, covering up to 70% of its land surface, particularly in the south and west.

Despite its arid nature, Botswana possesses significant hydrological features. The most notable is the Okavango Delta in the northwest, the world's largest inland delta. This unique ecosystem is formed where the Okavango River fans out into the Kalahari, creating a vast network of waterways, swamps, and islands. The Makgadikgadi Pan, a large complex of salt pans in the northeast, is another prominent feature, representing the remnant of a massive ancient lake.

The Limpopo River Basin, a major landform of southern Africa, lies partly in Botswana. Its tributaries within Botswana, including the Notwane, Bonwapitse, Mahalapye, Lotsane, Motloutse, and the Shashe, are primarily located in the eastern part of the country. The Notwane River supplies water to the capital, Gaborone, through the Gaborone Dam. In the north, the Chobe River forms part of the border with Namibia and meets the Zambezi River at Kazungula, near the quadripoint where Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe converge. Most rivers in Botswana are seasonal, with perennial flow largely confined to the Okavango and Chobe systems.

4.2. Climate

Botswana has a semi-arid climate characterized by hot summers and mild, dry winters. Rainfall is generally low and erratic, with most precipitation occurring during the summer months (November to March). The eastern part of the country receives slightly more rainfall than the western and southern regions, which are predominantly desert. Average annual rainfall varies from less than 9.8 in ^{(250 mm)} in the southwest Kalahari to over 26 in ^{(650 mm)} in the Chobe District in the north.

Temperatures show significant seasonal and diurnal variation. Summer days can be very hot, often exceeding 95 °F ^{(35 °C)}, while winter nights can be cold, occasionally dropping below freezing, especially in the Kalahari. The aridity means that humidity is generally low. Droughts are a recurrent feature of Botswana's climate and pose a significant challenge to agriculture and water resources. The climate heavily influences the natural vegetation, which ranges from sparse desert scrub in the driest areas to acacia savanna and mopane woodland in areas with more rainfall. Botswana is considered vulnerable to climate change, with potential impacts including increased temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, and more frequent and severe droughts, which could affect water availability, agriculture, and biodiversity.

4.3. Biodiversity and Conservation

Botswana is renowned for its rich wildlife and diverse ecosystems, which form the backbone of its significant tourism industry. The country has dedicated a substantial portion of its land (approximately 17%) to national parks, game reserves, and other protected areas to conserve its natural heritage.

Key wildlife habitats include the Okavango Delta, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which teems with aquatic and terrestrial life, including large populations of elephants, hippos, crocodiles, and a wide variety of bird species. The Kalahari Desert, while seemingly harsh, supports a unique array of adapted flora and fauna. Grasslands and savannas are also prevalent.

Northern Botswana hosts one of the few remaining large populations of the endangered African wild dog. Chobe National Park, located in the Chobe District, is famous for having the world's largest concentration of African elephants and also supports around 350 species of birds. Other major protected areas include the Moremi Game Reserve within the Okavango Delta, the vast Central Kalahari Game Reserve in Ghanzi District, and the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park and Nxai Pan National Park in the Central District.

Forest cover in Botswana was around 27% of the total land area in 2020, equivalent to 15,254,700 hectares. This represents a decrease from 18,803,700 hectares in 1990. In 2020, all of this forest was naturally regenerating, with no reported primary forest. About 11% of the forest area was within protected areas. For 2015, 24% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 76% under private ownership.

Botswana has a strong commitment to wildlife conservation, often pioneering innovative approaches. National efforts focus on anti-poaching initiatives, habitat preservation, and promoting sustainable tourism. There is an increasing emphasis on community-based natural resource management programs, aiming to ensure that local communities benefit from wildlife and tourism, thereby incentivizing conservation. However, challenges such as human-wildlife conflict and pressure from land use changes persist. The country achieved a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.13/10, ranking it 8th globally out of 172 countries.

4.4. Environmental Challenges

Botswana faces several significant environmental challenges, primarily related to its semi-arid climate and dependence on natural resources. The most pressing issues include drought, desertification, and water scarcity. These problems are often interlinked and exacerbated by factors such as climate change and human activities.

Drought is a recurrent phenomenon, severely impacting agriculture, water supplies, and ecosystems. The majority of the country's human and animal populations depend on groundwater, particularly during dry periods. While deep borehole drilling has eased some effects of drought, reliance on groundwater is not a sustainable long-term solution in all areas. Surface water is scarce, with less than 5% of agriculture being sustainable by rainfall.

Desertification, the degradation of land in arid and semi-arid areas, is a major concern. Approximately 71% of Botswana's land is used for communal grazing. The profitability of livestock raising has led to increased animal populations (from 1.7 million in 1966 to 5.5 million in 1991), which contributes to overgrazing, soil erosion, and land degradation. This pressure is also reported to be affecting sensitive ecosystems like the Okavango Delta.

Water scarcity is a chronic issue. Competition for water resources among agriculture, domestic use, and wildlife is intensifying. The government and civil society organizations are involved in mitigation efforts. These include projects to reintroduce indigenous vegetation to combat land degradation, such as those implemented by the Department of Forestry and Range Resources in Kgalagadi South, Kweneng North, and Boteti. International partnerships, like a debt-for-nature agreement with the United States government (US$7 million to reduce debt by US$8.3 million in exchange for conservation efforts), also contribute to these efforts.

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has highlighted poverty as a significant driver of resource overexploitation. Initiatives involving indigenous knowledge and traditional land management systems, aimed at empowering local communities and providing alternative income sources, are being explored to address these challenges from an environmental justice perspective, ensuring that the burdens of environmental degradation and the benefits of conservation are shared equitably.

5.1. Governmental Structure

Botswana is a parliamentary republic governed by the Constitution of Botswana. It is recognized as the longest uninterrupted democracy in Africa. The seat of government is in Gaborone. The governmental structure is based on both the United Kingdom's Westminster system and traditional Tswana tribal governance systems. Botswana has a centralised government, where national law supersedes local law. Local laws are developed by local councils and district councils, which are heavily influenced by tribal governments led by chiefs.

The Parliament of Botswana consists of the President and the National Assembly. The National Assembly serves as the nation's formal and sole legislature. The Ntlo ya Dikgosi (House of Chiefs) serves as an advisory body composed of tribal chiefs and other appointed members; it does not have legislative power but plays a crucial role in matters of traditional law and custom.

The executive branch is led by the President of Botswana, who is both the head of state and head of government. The members of the National Assembly elect the president. The president then appoints the Vice-President and cabinet ministers. The president holds significant power, and the legislature has limited power to check the president once appointed. This executive dominance has been a subject of political analysis, highlighting a potential imbalance in the separation of powers.

5.2. Elections and Political Parties

Elections in Botswana are held every five years and are overseen by the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC). Botswana operates a multi-party system with numerous political parties competing in elections. For much of its history since independence in 1966, Botswana was a dominant-party state, with the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP) ruling with a majority government until 2024. National elections are generally recognized as free and fair, although the ruling party historically enjoyed institutional advantages.

Factionalism is common within Botswana's political parties, and several groups have formed new parties by splitting from established ones. Since 2019, the Umbrella for Democratic Change (UDC) has operated as a significant coalition of opposition parties. The general election in 2024 marked a historic turning point when the BDP lost its majority for the first time, ending its 58-year rule. Duma Boko of the UDC was elected president. This peaceful transition of power was seen as a testament to the strength of Botswana's democratic institutions.

Botswana's political landscape has been shaped by notable figures and internal party dynamics. Early politics were managed by President Seretse Khama and Vice-President (later President) Quett Masire. Factionalism within the BDP became more prominent following the Kgabo Commission in 1991, with rivalries such as the "Barata-Phathi" and "A Team" factions. More recent political dynamics include the rivalry between former President Ian Khama and his successor, Mokgweetsi Masisi.

In terms of democratic assessment, Botswana was ranked as a "flawed democracy" and 33rd out of 167 states in the 2023 Democracy Index, the second-highest rating in Africa (after Mauritius). However, the 2024 V-Dem Democracy Indices indicated that Botswana has experienced an episode of democratic backsliding over the past decade, recording its lowest ever score on these indices. These indices classify Botswana as an electoral democracy in a 'grey zone' between electoral democracy and electoral autocracy, noting a decline in liberal, participatory, and deliberative components. The 2023 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index ranks Botswana as the third-least corrupt country in Africa, below Cape Verde and the Seychelles. Botswana is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.

5.3. Judiciary

The judicial system of Botswana is independent of the executive and legislative branches, a cornerstone of its democratic framework. It includes the High Court of Botswana, the Court of Appeal, and Magistrates' Courts. The High Court has original jurisdiction in serious civil and criminal cases and appellate jurisdiction over Magistrates' Courts. The Court of Appeal is the highest court in the country and hears appeals from the High Court.

A significant feature of Botswana's legal system is the role of customary law, which is applied in customary courts (kgotla), particularly in rural areas and for matters concerning personal law, family disputes, and minor offenses. These courts are typically presided over by traditional chiefs (Dikgosi). While customary law operates alongside common law, the formal court system based on Roman-Dutch law (inherited from the Cape Colony) and English common law takes precedence. The state of the rule of law is generally considered strong, although challenges related to access to justice, particularly for marginalized communities and in remote areas, persist. Efforts are ongoing to ensure that the judicial system provides fair and timely justice for all citizens.

5.4. Human Rights

Botswana has a generally positive human rights record compared to many other African nations, though specific areas of concern persist and are subject to scrutiny by domestic and international human rights organizations. The Botswana Centre for Human Rights (Ditshwanelo), established in 1993, is a key non-governmental organization working to promote and protect human rights in the country.

Civil liberties, including freedom of speech, assembly, and the press, are largely respected, though some concerns have been raised about media freedom and potential government influence. Political rights are upheld, with regular multi-party elections, as discussed previously.

A significant positive development was the decriminalization of homosexual acts in June 2019, when a Botswana High Court decision struck down provisions in the Criminal Code that punished "carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature" and "acts of gross indecency." This made Botswana one of the African countries to protect the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals.

However, capital punishment remains a legal penalty for murder, with executions carried out by hanging. This practice is a point of concern for human rights advocates who call for its abolition, aligning with a global trend away from the death penalty.

Socio-economic rights, while addressed through government programs in health, education, and social welfare, face challenges related to inequality, poverty, and access to resources, particularly for vulnerable groups. The government and civil society continue to work on addressing these human rights challenges, striving to uphold universal rights and protections for all citizens, including those in marginalized communities.

5.4.1. Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Minorities

The human rights situation of indigenous peoples, particularly the San people (also known as Basarwa), is a significant concern in Botswana. Many San have faced forcible relocation from their ancestral lands, often to government-created reservations. A prominent case involves the San eviction from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR). The government has often cited wildlife conservation and development needs as reasons for these relocations, denying links to potential diamond mining in these areas. However, critics argue that these relocations disrupt traditional lifestyles, deny access to traditional hunting grounds and water sources, and lead to socio-economic hardship, cultural loss, and difficulty in finding employment, with alcoholism becoming rampant in some resettlement communities.

In 2010, James Anaya, then UN Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, highlighted loss of land as a major contributor to the problems faced by Botswana's indigenous communities. His recommendations included promoting development programs in consultation with indigenous communities that are in harmony with their cultures, such as traditional hunting and gathering activities. In August 2018, the UN Special Rapporteur on Minorities, Fernand de Varennes, called on Botswana to increase efforts to recognize and protect the rights of minorities concerning public services, land and resource use, and the use of minority languages in education and other critical areas.

While Botswana's constitution guarantees equal rights for all citizens, the specific recognition and protection of indigenous land rights, cultural heritage, and political representation for groups like the San and other minorities, such as the Bakgalagadi, remain areas requiring further attention to ensure environmental and social justice.

6.1. Districts and Major Urban Centers

Botswana is divided into 10 administrative districts, 2 city districts, and 4 town districts, which are further divided into sub-districts, resulting in a total of 16 administrative divisions administered by local authorities (district councils, city councils, or town councils). The primary administrative districts are:

• Central District
• Chobe District
• Ghanzi District
• Kgalagadi District
• Kgatleng District
• Kweneng District
• North-East District
• North-West District (formerly Ngamiland)
• South-East District
• Southern District

The city/town districts with council status are:

• Francistown (City)
• Gaborone (City)
• Jwaneng (Town)
• Lobatse (Town)
• Selebi-Phikwe (Town)
• Sowa Town (Town)

Historically, in 1977, Botswana's administrative divisions included Ngamiland, Chobe, Francistown, Ngwato (Central), Tuli, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Ngwaketse (Southern), Kweneng, Gaborone, and Lobatse. Changes occurred over time, with Chobe being re-established as a separate district in 2014 after a period of amalgamation.

Major Urban Centers:
Botswana's population is increasingly urbanized, though many still live in large traditional villages.

• Gaborone: The capital and largest city, located in the South-East District. It is the administrative, economic, and commercial hub of Botswana. Population (2022 Census): 246,325.
• Francistown: The second-largest city, located in the North-East District. It is a major commercial and industrial center, historically significant due to early gold mining. Population (2022 Census): 103,417.
• Molepolole: A large traditional village and one of the most populous settlements, located in the Kweneng District. Population (2022 Census): 74,674.
• Maun: The administrative center of the North-West District and the primary gateway to the Okavango Delta and other northern tourist attractions. Population (2022 Census): 84,993.
• Serowe: A large traditional village in the Central District, historically the capital of the Bamangwato people and an important cultural center. Population (2022 Census): 55,676.
• Mogoditshane: A rapidly growing urban center adjacent to Gaborone in the Kweneng District. Population (2022 Census): 88,006.
• Kanye: The administrative center of the Southern District and a significant traditional village. Population (2022 Census): 48,028.
• Mahalapye: A town in the Central District, situated along the main north-south road and railway line. Population (2022 Census): 48,431.
• Mochudi: The main center of the Kgatleng District and a large traditional village. Population (2022 Census): 50,317.
• Lobatse: A town in the South-East District, known for its abattoir (Botswana Meat Commission) and High Court. Population (2022 Census): 29,772.
• Palapye: A growing town in the Central District, a center for coal mining and power generation. Population (2022 Census): 52,636.
• Selebi-Phikwe: A mining town in the Central District, historically focused on copper-nickel mining. Population (2022 Census): 42,488.
• Jwaneng: A town built around the Jwaneng diamond mine, one of the richest in the world, located in the Southern District.
• Kasane: A town in the Chobe District, a key tourist hub near Chobe National Park and the borders with Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Other notable towns and large villages include Tlokweng, Ramotswa, Thamaga, Moshupa, Tonota, Letlhakane, and Bobonong.

7.1. Foreign Policy and International Relations

Botswana's foreign policy is characterized by its commitment to democracy, human rights, rule of law, and peaceful resolution of conflicts. It plays an active role in regional and international forums. Key foreign policy objectives include safeguarding national security, promoting economic development, and contributing to regional stability and integration.

Botswana is a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and its capital, Gaborone, hosts the SADC Secretariat. It champions economic and political integration within Southern Africa and has historically taken strong stances against oppression, such as apartheid in South Africa. It maintains generally good relations with its neighboring countries: South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Zambia.

Globally, Botswana is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Commonwealth of Nations, the African Union (AU), and the Non-Aligned Movement. It often aligns with the African consensus on major international issues but is also known for its independent and sometimes critical voice on matters of governance and human rights within the continent and beyond. For example, Botswana has been outspoken on political situations in countries like Zimbabwe and was one of the few African nations to publicly criticize regimes for human rights abuses.

Botswana has established diplomatic relations with a wide range of countries, including major global partners in Europe, North America, and Asia. Japan and Botswana share a friendly relationship, with diplomatic missions in each other's countries. Notably, Botswana severed diplomatic ties with North Korea in 2014, citing human rights concerns, a move reflecting its principled foreign policy approach. Botswana is also a member of the International Criminal Court (ICC). In 2019, Botswana signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Botswana is ranked as the 50th most peaceful country in the world according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.

7.2. Defence Force

At the time of independence in 1966, Botswana had no armed forces. The Botswana Defence Force (BDF) was established in 1977 in response to security threats, particularly cross-border incursions from Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa during the struggles against minority rule. The President of Botswana is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and appoints a defence council. The BDF consists of a ground force (army) and an air wing. It does not have a navy, being a landlocked country. Military service is voluntary.

The BDF is regarded as a professional and disciplined force. Its primary roles include ensuring national security, border protection, and sovereignty. In recent years, following political changes in Southern Africa, the BDF's missions have increasingly focused on anti-poaching operations (especially for elephants and rhinos), disaster response, and contributions to regional and international peacekeeping missions. BDF personnel have participated in UN and AU peacekeeping operations.

The United States has been a significant foreign contributor to the development of the BDF, with a large segment of its officer corps having received U.S. training. There have been discussions about the possibility of the United States Africa Command (AFRICOM) establishing a presence or conducting more activities in Botswana, reflecting close security cooperation. While Botswana's military expenditure has sometimes been a point of discussion given its peaceful environment, the government maintains it is necessary for national security and its broader regional responsibilities.

8.1. Economic Development and Structure

Since gaining independence in 1966, Botswana has experienced one of the fastest growth rates in per capita income globally. With a GDP per capita of about US$70 per year in the late 1960s, it has become an upper-middle-income country. GDP per capita grew from $439 in 1950 to $15,842 in 2018 (PPP). This transformation is largely attributed to the discovery and prudent management of vast diamond reserves, coupled with stable democratic governance and sound macroeconomic policies. The country's institutional framework allowed for the reinvestment of resource income to generate stable future income. By some estimates, Botswana has the fourth-highest gross national income at purchasing power parity in Africa, affording it a relatively high standard of living compared to many African nations, comparable to that of Mexico.

The Ministry of Trade and Industry is responsible for promoting business development. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), economic growth averaged over 9% per year from 1966 to 1999. Botswana maintains a high level of economic freedom compared to other African countries. The government has generally pursued sound fiscal policy, despite occasional budget deficits, and has a negligible level of foreign debt. It earned the highest sovereign credit rating in Africa and has accumulated significant foreign exchange reserves (over $7 billion in 2005/2006, amounting to almost two and a half years of current imports).

Despite these successes, Botswana faces significant challenges. Unemployment remains high, standing at 25.4% in 2022, with youth unemployment reaching 45.41% in 2023. Income inequality is also a major issue, and poverty, while reduced, still affects a portion of the population. As of 2015/2016, an estimated 17.2% of Botswana's population was multidimensionally poor, with an additional 19.7% at risk. Addressing these social disparities and ensuring that economic benefits are shared more equitably are key priorities for sustainable and inclusive development. The legal system is generally sufficient for secure commercial dealings, though a backlog of cases can cause delays. Botswana ranks highly among sub-Saharan African countries in the International Property Rights Index.

8.2. Major Economic Sectors

Botswana's economy has historically been dominated by a few key sectors. This subsection provides an overview of these principal sectors, with attention to their social and environmental implications, including labor rights and equitable benefit distribution.

8.2.1. Mining (Diamonds and other minerals)

The mining sector, particularly diamond extraction, has been the cornerstone of Botswana's economy since the late 1960s. The Department of Mines and Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security oversees mining activities. Debswana, a 50/50 joint venture between the Botswana government and De Beers, is the largest diamond mining company and operates major mines such as Jwaneng (the world's richest diamond mine by value), Orapa, Letlhakane, and Damtshaa. Diamonds account for a significant portion of GDP, the vast majority of export earnings (75-90%), and about 40-50% of government revenue. This revenue has been crucial for funding public services and infrastructure development.

The government has focused on ensuring that the nation benefits from its mineral wealth, including initiatives to increase local processing and value addition, such as the establishment of the Diamond Trading Company Botswana (DTCB) in Gaborone for sorting and valuing diamonds. However, the dominance of mining raises concerns about economic diversification, environmental impacts (such as water use and land disturbance), and ensuring fair labor conditions within the sector. From a social perspective, the wealth generated has not always translated into equitable distribution, with income inequality remaining a challenge.

Other mineral resources in Botswana include copper, nickel, coal, soda ash, and potentially uranium (the Letlhakane Uranium Project is a large undeveloped deposit). The government has expressed intentions to diversify the economy to reduce over-reliance on diamonds, particularly as diamond reserves are finite.

8.3. Trade, Investment, and Diversification

Botswana's economy is heavily reliant on international trade, primarily through the export of diamonds. The country actively seeks foreign investment and has implemented policies to create a favorable investment climate, including relatively low corporate tax rates and the absence of foreign exchange controls since 1999. However, attracting significant foreign direct investment (FDI) outside the mining sector has been a persistent challenge.

The government has long recognized the need to diversify the economy beyond diamonds to ensure long-term sustainable development and reduce vulnerability to fluctuations in global diamond demand and prices. Efforts to diversify have focused on sectors such as tourism, financial services, manufacturing, and agriculture. The establishment of special economic zones (SEZs) and initiatives like the Botswana Investment and Trade Centre (BITC) aim to promote export-oriented industries and attract investment in non-traditional sectors. The relocation of De Beers' Diamond Trading Company (DTC) rough diamond sales operations from London to Gaborone was a significant step towards developing a downstream diamond industry, including cutting and polishing, thereby creating local employment and value addition.

Botswana is a member of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), which provides for free trade among its members (Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Eswatini). It is also a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and is involved in efforts to promote regional economic integration, including the SADC Free Trade Area. Botswana has benefited from trade agreements such as the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) with the United States and is party to Economic Partnership Agreement negotiations with the European Union.

Challenges to diversification and trade include a small domestic market, high transport costs due to its landlocked status, skills shortages in certain areas, and competition from more established economies. From a social equity perspective, successful diversification should lead to broader employment opportunities, support local enterprise development, and ensure that the benefits of new industries are widely shared, addressing issues of unemployment and income inequality. Labor market implications, including skills development and the protection of workers' rights in new and expanding sectors, are also critical considerations.

8.4. Infrastructure

Botswana has made significant investments in developing its infrastructure since independence, which has been crucial for its economic and social development. However, as a large and sparsely populated country, challenges remain in providing equitable access to infrastructure across all regions.

Transport: Botswana has a network of approximately 11 K mile ^{(18.44 K km)} of roads, of which about 4.6 K mile ^{(7.38 K km)} are paved. The main road network connects major towns and economic centers and provides links to neighboring countries. The Trans-Kalahari Corridor is an important route connecting Botswana to Namibia and South Africa. The country has about 603 mile ^{(971 km)} of railway lines, primarily operated by Botswana Railways. The main railway line runs north-south, connecting Zimbabwe to South Africa via Francistown and Gaborone, and is important for freight transport, particularly for minerals and beef. Passenger rail services are limited. Botswana has 92 airports, with 12 having paved runways. The main international airport is Sir Seretse Khama International Airport in Gaborone. Air Botswana is the national airline, providing domestic and regional flights.

Telecommunications: The telecommunications sector has seen significant growth, with widespread mobile phone penetration. Internet access is also expanding, although connectivity in rural and remote areas can be limited. The government is working to improve broadband infrastructure.

Energy: Botswana relies heavily on coal for electricity generation, with the Morupule B Power Station (600 MW) and Morupule A (132 MW) being the main power plants. Other smaller power stations include Orapa (90 MW) and Phakalane (1.3 MW). The Mmamabula Power Station (300 MW) is also planned. Despite domestic coal resources, Botswana also imports electricity, mainly from South Africa's Eskom. The government has shown increasing interest in developing renewable energy sources, particularly solar power, given the country's high solar irradiation levels. Wind and biomass are also being explored. A 200 MW solar power plant is in the planning stages. Ensuring a reliable and affordable energy supply, while transitioning towards cleaner energy, is crucial for equitable development.

Water Infrastructure: Given its semi-arid climate, water infrastructure is critical. This includes dams (like the Gaborone Dam, Bokaa Dam, and Letsibogo Dam), pipelines, and boreholes for groundwater extraction. The Water Utilities Corporation is responsible for water supply. Water scarcity remains a challenge, requiring efficient management and investment in water resources.

Equitable access to infrastructure, particularly roads, telecommunications, energy, and water in rural and underserved areas, is essential for promoting balanced economic growth and improving social welfare.

9.1. Population and Ethnic Groups

As of 2024, Botswana has a population of slightly over 2.4 million people. With a large land area, it is one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. Population density is low, and the population is unevenly distributed, with higher concentrations in the eastern part of the country where rainfall and soil quality are more favorable. The population growth rate has moderated in recent years, and the age structure reflects a youthful population, though it is gradually aging.

The Tswana people (or Batswana in plural) are the largest ethnic group, constituting approximately 79% of the population. They are a Bantu-speaking group with several major sub-groups or clans. The Kalanga are the second-largest ethnic group, making up around 11% of the population, concentrated mainly in the northeast. The San people (also known as Basarwa or Bushmen), the original inhabitants of the region, constitute about 3% of the population. They comprise various distinct linguistic and cultural groups, such as the !Kung, G//ana, and G/wi.

The remaining 7% of the population consists of other groups, including White Batswana (of European descent, mainly Afrikaner and British), Indians (both recent migrants and descendants of earlier settlers from South Asia via Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzania, Mauritius, and South Africa), and a number of other smaller Southern African ethnic groups such as the Bayei, Bambukushu, Basubia, Baherero, and Bakgalagadi. Since 2000, deteriorating economic conditions in Zimbabwe have led to an influx of Zimbabweans, numbering in the tens of thousands.

Inter-group relations are generally peaceful, though the socio-economic status and cultural rights of minority groups, particularly the San, remain a concern. Many San still live a traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, though this is increasingly difficult due to land displacement and government resettlement policies. The UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people, James Anaya, noted in 2010 that loss of land, exemplified by the San eviction from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, was a major contributor to problems faced by Botswana's indigenous people. His recommendations included promoting development programs harmonious with their culture, such as traditional hunting and gathering.

9.2. Languages

The official language of Botswana is English, which is used in government, business, and higher education. Setswana (also simply called Tswana) is the national language and is widely spoken by the majority of the population as a first or second language, serving as a lingua franca across the country.

Setswana is a Bantu language belonging to the Sotho-Tswana group. It is characterized by a system of noun classes, denoted by prefixes. For example, Bo- refers to the country (Botswana), Ba- to the people (Batswana - plural), Mo- to one person (Motswana - singular), and Se- to the language (Setswana).

Besides English and Setswana, a number of other languages are spoken by minority groups. These include:

• Ikalanga (or Sekalanga), spoken by the Kalanga people.
• Various Khoe and Kx'a languages (often grouped under "Sarwa" or Sesarwa), spoken by different San groups, such as !Xóõ.
• Ndebele (Sindebele).
• Sekgalagadi.
• Setswapong.
• Shiyeyi.
• Afrikaans, spoken by some members of the White Batswana community.

Government policy has historically favored English and Setswana in education and public life, which has led to concerns about the endangerment and preservation of minority languages. There are ongoing discussions and efforts regarding language rights and the promotion of mother-tongue education for minority language speakers to ensure linguistic diversity and cultural preservation.

9.3. Religion

Botswana is a secular state that guarantees freedom of religion in its constitution. The majority of the population identifies as Christian. Estimates vary, but around 77-79% of citizens are Christian. The main Christian denominations include:

• Anglican
• Methodist
• The United Congregational Church of Southern Africa (UCCSA), which has historical roots with the London Missionary Society.

Other Christian groups present in the country include Lutherans, Baptists, Roman Catholics, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), the Dutch Reformed Church, Mennonites, Seventh-day Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses. There is also a Serbian Orthodox presence.

Approximately 15-20% of the population identifies with no religion or is unaffiliated.

Traditional African beliefs (often referred to as Badimo in Setswana) are practiced by about 4-6% of the population, although elements of these beliefs may also be integrated with Christian practices by some individuals (syncretism).

Other faiths have a smaller presence. According to the 2001 census, there were around 5,000 Muslims (mainly of South Asian descent), 3,000 Hindus, and 700 adherents of the Baháʼí Faith.

Religious tolerance is generally high, and religious organizations play a role in social services and community life.

10.1. Healthcare System and Indicators

The Ministry of Health is responsible for overseeing healthcare services in Botswana. The healthcare system is largely public, with a network of hospitals, clinics, and health posts throughout the country. Efforts have been made to ensure that a high percentage of the population (around 85%) lives within 3.1 mile ^{(5 km)} radius of a health facility. Access to antenatal care is also high, with about 73% of pregnant women attending at least four visits, and almost all births (nearly 100%) take place in health facilities.

Key health indicators have shown improvement, though they have also been impacted by HIV/AIDS. Life expectancy at birth, which had fallen significantly due to the epidemic (from a peak of 64.1 years in 1990 to a low of 49 years in 2002), has since recovered due to effective treatment programs. As of 2024, life expectancy is estimated at 66.4 years. Infant and maternal mortality rates have been steadily declining.

Despite progress, disparities in access to healthcare and health outcomes persist, particularly between urban and rural areas and among different socio-economic groups. Challenges include shortages of specialized medical personnel and the need for continued infrastructure development in remote regions. The Cancer Association of Botswana, a voluntary non-governmental organization, supplements existing services by providing cancer prevention and awareness programs, facilitating access to health services for cancer patients, and offering support and counseling. Botswana's 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI) score is 20.7, indicating a moderate level of hunger.

10.2. HIV/AIDS Epidemic

Botswana has been one of the countries most severely affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. At its peak, prevalence rates were among the highest in the world, leading to a dramatic drop in life expectancy and significant socio-economic consequences. Economic development spending was cut by 10% in 2002-2003 due to recurring budget deficits and rising healthcare expenditures related to AIDS.

However, Botswana has mounted one of Africa's most comprehensive and effective responses to the epidemic. In 2002, it became the first country in Africa to establish a national antiretroviral therapy (ARV) program, offering free or highly subsidized treatment to its citizens. This program, known as Masa (meaning "new dawn"), has been instrumental in reducing AIDS-related deaths and improving the quality of life for people living with HIV. As of 2013, over 40% of adults in Botswana had access to ARV therapy, and by recent estimates, Botswana has achieved near universal access to treatment (around 75% for adults and 98% for children among UN Global Plan countries).

The government, under leaders like Festus Mogae, solicited international support from organizations such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Merck Foundation (forming the African Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Partnership - ACHAP), the Botswana-Harvard AIDS Institute, and the Botswana-UPenn Partnership.

Significant progress has also been made in the Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV. Botswana reduced HIV transmission from infected mothers to their children from about 40% in 2003 to 4% in 2010 and has been recognized as the first country with a severe HIV epidemic to reach key milestones in eliminating mother-to-child transmission. Less than 10% of pregnant HIV-infected women were not receiving ARVs in 2013.

Despite these successes, the number of people living with AIDS rose from 290,000 in 2005 to 320,000 in 2013 due to increased survival rates and new infections. In 2013, HIV prevalence in the 15-19 age group was estimated at 6% for females and 3.5% for males, and for the 20-24 age group, 15% for females and 5% for males. Ongoing efforts focus on prevention, testing, treatment adherence, and addressing the social stigma associated with HIV/AIDS, with a strong emphasis on supporting affected individuals and communities.

11.1. Structure and Access

At independence in 1966, Botswana had very few graduates (around 22) and a small percentage of the population attended secondary school. The government has since invested heavily in education. A key policy has been the provision of ten years of basic education, leading to the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE). Many students then proceed to junior secondary school and senior secondary school, culminating in the Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE).

Historically, Botswana offered free state education for two decades. In January 2006, school fees were reintroduced for secondary education, though the government continues to provide full scholarships with living expenses for citizens attending university, either at the University of Botswana or for studies abroad in fields not offered locally. This commitment to funding higher education has played a role in developing a skilled workforce, although it also represents a significant public expenditure.

The Ministry of Education and Skills Development oversees the education system. Efforts to ensure quality and inclusive education for all include curriculum development, teacher training, and infrastructure improvement. The African Library Project has partnered with the Ministry to establish libraries in primary schools. Education is seen as a crucial tool for social mobility, and policies aim to reduce disparities in access, particularly between urban and rural areas and for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. The National Policy on Vocational Education and Training (NPVET) also aims to strengthen vocational pathways. Botswana invests a significant portion of its government spending in education (around 21%).

11.2. Literacy and Higher Education

Botswana has achieved a relatively high adult literacy rate, increasing from 69% in 1991 to 83% in 2008, and as of 2024, 88.5% of the population aged 15 and over were literate. This is one of the highest literacy rates in sub-Saharan Africa.

Higher education is centered around institutions like the University of Botswana (UB), established in 1982 and located in Gaborone. UB is a comprehensive university offering a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate programs. Other tertiary institutions include the Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST), the Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, and several technical colleges and teacher training colleges.

The government's focus on higher education and vocational training aims to develop a skilled workforce capable of supporting economic diversification beyond diamonds, promoting research and innovation, and reducing reliance on expatriate expertise. Challenges include ensuring the relevance of higher education to labor market needs, improving research capacity, and managing the costs of tertiary education financing.

12.1. Arts, Crafts, and Rock Art

Botswana is renowned for its traditional arts and crafts. Basketry is a particularly prominent art form, especially among women in the northwestern villages of Etsha and Gumare. Using mokola palm and local dyes, they weave intricate baskets in various shapes and sizes: large, lidded baskets for storage; large, open baskets for carrying goods or winnowing grain; and smaller plates. The designs often have symbolic names like "Tears of the Giraffe," "Urine Trail of the Bull," or "Forehead of the Zebra," reflecting a deep connection to the natural environment. These baskets are increasingly produced for commercial markets, providing income for rural communities.

Pottery, particularly from Thamaga, and textiles, such as those from Oodi Weavers, are other notable crafts. Woodcarving and beadwork are also practiced.

Botswana is home to significant ancient rock art sites, most famously at Tsodilo Hills, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. These paintings, created by the San (Khoisan) and Bantu-speaking peoples, date back thousands of years (some over 20,000 years) and depict hunting scenes, animals, and human figures, offering invaluable insights into the beliefs and lifestyles of early inhabitants. Preservation of these sites is a key cultural heritage concern.

12.2. Music and Literature

Botswana's music is diverse, encompassing traditional folk styles and contemporary genres. Traditional music is often vocal, performed with or without drums depending on the occasion, and makes significant use of string instruments. Instruments include the setinkane (a type of lamellophone or thumb piano), segankure/segaba (a single-string bowed instrument, similar to the Chinese erhu), and various types of drums (moropa, plural meropa). Whistles (phala) are used, especially during celebrations. Hand clapping and body percussion, such as striking phathisi (goat skin wraps on the calves, used by men), also create rhythm. The national anthem is "Fatshe leno la rona" (Blessed Be This Noble Land), composed by Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete and adopted upon independence in 1966. Contemporary music includes genres like jazz, gospel, hip-hop, and kwaito, often with local influences.

Botswana literature includes both oral traditions (folktales, proverbs, poetry) and written works in English and Setswana. Notable Botswana writers include Bessie Head, a South African-born author who spent much of her life in Botswana and wrote extensively about life in rural Botswana (e.g., When Rain Clouds Gather, Maru, A Question of Power). Unity Dow, a lawyer, human rights activist, and former judge and minister, is another prominent Motswana author whose novels often explore themes of gender, law, tradition, and modernity (e.g., Far and Beyont, The Screaming of the Innocent). Alexander McCall Smith's popular The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency series, set in Botswana, has also brought international attention to the country, though written by an external author.

12.3. Cuisine

Botswana's cuisine shares characteristics with other Southern African culinary traditions but has its own distinct dishes and ingredients. The staple food is bogobe, a porridge made from sorghum, maize, or millet flour, often eaten with meat and/or vegetable relish. Seswaa (also known as chotlho or kgomo) is considered the national dish. It consists of pounded or shredded meat (beef, goat, or sometimes chicken), slow-cooked until very tender, often with only salt and water. It is typically served with bogobe.

Other common foods include:

• Morogo: A type of wild spinach or leafy green vegetable.
• Vetkoek (magwinya): Fried dough bread.
• Samp: Dried corn kernels pounded and cooked, often with beans.
• Boerewors: A traditional spicy sausage.
• Biltong (segwapa): Dried, cured meat, similar to jerky.
• Mopane worms (phane): Caterpillars of the emperor moth, which are harvested, dried or smoked, and eaten as a protein-rich delicacy.
• Ting: A fermented sorghum or maize porridge, which can be eaten plain or with milk and sugar.
• Madila: A traditional fermented milk product, similar to yogurt or sour cream.
• Cooking melons (lerotse) are used in various dishes.

Traditional beverages include sorghum beer (bojalwa) and non-alcoholic fermented drinks.

12.4. Sports

Sports play an important role in Botswana's national life. Football (soccer) is the most popular sport. The Botswana national team, known as "The Zebras," qualified for the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations, which remains their highest achievement to date. The Botswana Premier League is the top domestic football league.

Athletics has seen significant success. Nijel Amos won Botswana's first Olympic medal, a silver in the men's 800 metres at the 2012 London Olympics. Letsile Tebogo is a world-renowned sprinter who won Botswana's first-ever Olympic gold medal in the men's 200 metres at the 2024 Paris Olympics, and also anchored the men's 4 × 400 metres relay team to a silver medal. He also set a world junior record in the 100 metres. Other notable athletes include Amantle Montsho (2011 world champion in 400 metres), Isaac Makwala (sprinter), and Kabelo Kgosiemang (three-time African champion in high jump).

Other popular sports include softball, cricket (Botswana is an associate member of the International Cricket Council), tennis, rugby, badminton, handball, and golf. The Botswana Golf Union oversees amateur golf. Ross Branch is a prominent motorcycle racer who has competed in the Dakar Rally. The card game bridge also has a strong following, with the Botswana Bridge Federation (BBF) founded in 1988. Botswana was the first African nation to host the Netball World Youth Cup in 2017.

12.5. Festivals and Public Holidays

Botswana observes a number of national holidays and cultural festivals that reflect its heritage and national identity.
Public Holidays:

• January 1: New Year's Day
• January 2: Public Holiday
• Good Friday: (movable feast, March/April)
• Easter Monday: (movable feast, March/April)
• May 1: Labour Day
• Ascension Day: (movable feast, May/June)
• July 1: Sir Seretse Khama Day (commemorating the birthday of the first president)
• Third Monday of July: President's Day
• Tuesday following President's Day: Public Holiday
• September 30: Botswana Day (Independence Day)
• October 1: Public Holiday (often observed in conjunction with Botswana Day celebrations)
• December 25: Christmas Day
• December 26: Boxing Day

If a public holiday falls on a Sunday, the following Monday is observed as a public holiday.

Various cultural festivals and events are held throughout the year, celebrating traditional music, dance, food, and crafts. These include events like the Maitisong Festival in Gaborone, which showcases local and international arts, and various regional cultural festivals.

12.6. World Heritage Sites

Botswana is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding universal value:

1. **Tsodilo Hills** (inscribed in 2001): Located in the northwest, Tsodilo is a sacred site for the San and Hambukushu peoples. It contains one of the highest concentrations of rock art in the world, with over 4,500 paintings in an area of about 3.9 mile^{2 (10 km2)} of the Kalahari Desert. These paintings provide a rich record of human settlement and environmental changes over at least 100,000 years. The site is considered a "Louvre of the Desert" due to its cultural and spiritual significance. Conservation efforts focus on protecting the rock art from natural degradation and human impact, while respecting the site's spiritual importance to local communities.

2. **Okavango Delta** (inscribed in 2014): This vast inland delta is a unique wetland ecosystem where the Okavango River flows into the Kalahari Desert, creating a mosaic of channels, lagoons, floodplains, and islands. It supports an exceptional diversity of wildlife, including large populations of elephants, hippos, lions, leopards, African wild dogs, and numerous bird species. The Delta's ecological processes are driven by seasonal flooding. It was inscribed as the 1,000th World Heritage Site. Conservation efforts aim to maintain its ecological integrity in the face of potential threats from upstream water abstraction, tourism pressures, and climate change, involving local communities in sustainable resource management.