Colombia

3.1. Pre-Columbian era

The territory of present-day Colombia served as a vital corridor for early human civilization, connecting Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and the Amazon basin. Archaeological evidence indicates human presence since at least 12,500 BCE. The oldest finds, dating to the Paleoindian period (18,000-8000 BCE), come from sites like Pubenza and El Totumo in the Magdalena River Valley, about 62 mile ^{(100 km)} southwest of Bogotá. Traces from the Archaic Period (circa 8000-2000 BCE) have been found at Puerto Hormiga and other locations. Early occupation is also evident in the El Abra and Tequendama regions in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000-4000 BCE.

Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at El Abra, Tibitó, and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá engaged in trade with each other and with cultures from the Magdalena River Valley. In November 2020, an 8 mile stretch of pictographs at Serranía de la Lindosa was revealed, potentially dating back 12,500 years (c. 10,480 BCE), as suggested by depictions of extinct fauna. This period represents the earliest known human occupation of the area.

Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies, establishing fixed settlements and developing pottery. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, various Amerindian groups, including the Muisca, Zenú, Quimbaya, and Tairona, developed sophisticated political systems known as cacicazgos (chiefdoms). These societies had a pyramidal power structure headed by caciques (chiefs).

The Muisca primarily inhabited the high plateaus of what are now the departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca, known as the Altiplano Cundiboyacense. They formed the Muisca Confederation, a political and social entity. Their economy was based on agriculture, cultivating maize, potato, quinoa, and cotton. They were skilled traders, exchanging gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca, and especially rock salt with neighboring nations. The Muisca had a complex religious system and left behind significant goldwork, much of which is associated with the legend of El Dorado. Their social structure was stratified, and they developed a calendar and a form of hieroglyphic writing.

The Tairona inhabited the northern regions of Colombia, in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. They were known for their advanced engineering skills, evident in their construction of stone paths, terraces, bridges, and irrigation systems. Their goldwork and pottery were also highly developed. The Tairona fiercely resisted Spanish colonization.

The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley, between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes. They were renowned for their exquisite goldwork, characterized by intricate designs and technical mastery. Their society was also agricultural, and they produced high-quality ceramics.

Other significant indigenous cultures included the Calima, Zenú, and Nariño peoples, each with distinct artistic traditions and social organizations. The Zenú, for instance, were known for their extensive canal systems for agriculture in the Caribbean plains. Some groups, like the Caribs, were known for being warlike, while others had more peaceful dispositions. These civilizations varied in their social structures and agricultural practices.

Around the 1200s, there is evidence of contact between Malayo-Polynesians and Native Americans in Colombia, leading to the spread of Native American genetics from Precolonial Colombia to some Pacific Ocean islands.

3.2. Colonial period

Spanish exploration of the Colombian coast began in 1499 when Alonso de Ojeda, who had sailed with Columbus, reached the Guajira Peninsula. In 1500, Rodrigo de Bastidas led the first exploration of the Caribbean coast. Christopher Columbus himself navigated near the Caribbean coast of Colombia in 1502.
The first stable European settlement on the American continent, Santa María la Antigua del Darién, was founded in 1510 by Vasco Núñez de Balboa in the region of the Gulf of Urabá. Balboa is also famed for being the first European to see the Pacific Ocean in 1513, which he named Mar del Sur (South Sea), a discovery that significantly facilitated further Spanish exploration and colonization of South America.

The Spanish colonial period was marked by the establishment of cities: Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. The conquest of the interior was led by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, who embarked on an expedition in April 1536. He named the territories he passed through the "New Kingdom of Granada". In August 1538, Quesada provisionally founded its capital, Santa Fé de Bogotá (present-day Bogotá), near the Muisca cacicazgo of Muyquytá.

Other notable conquistador expeditions occurred around the same time. Sebastián de Belalcázar, the conqueror of Quito, traveled north from Peru, founding Popayán in 1537 and Cali in 1536. From 1536 to 1539, the German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann, in service of the Welser banking family of Augsburg, crossed the Llanos Orientales (eastern plains) and traversed the Cordillera Oriental in search of El Dorado, the mythical "city of gold." The legend of El Dorado played a crucial role in attracting Spanish and other European explorers to New Granada throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, fueling expeditions and the exploitation of resources.

The Spanish conquistadors frequently formed alliances with indigenous groups who were enemies of other local communities. These indigenous allies were crucial for the conquest, as well as for the subsequent creation and maintenance of the colonial empire. However, the indigenous populations suffered a catastrophic decline due to the violence of the conquest, forced labor, and, most devastatingly, Eurasian diseases like smallpox, to which they had no immunity. This demographic collapse had profound and lasting impacts on the social and economic fabric of the region.

Viewing the land as largely depopulated or underutilized, the Spanish Crown distributed land grants (mercedes) to settlers and established systems like the encomienda (a grant of indigenous labor and tribute) and later haciendas (large estates) for agriculture and mining. These systems led to the widespread exploitation of indigenous people and natural resources. Gold and emerald mining became particularly important economic activities for the colony.

In 1542, the New Kingdom of Granada, along with other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital in Lima. In 1547, New Granada was established as a separate captaincy-general within the viceroyalty. In 1549, the Royal Audiencia of Santa Fe de Bogotá was created, giving the region more administrative autonomy, although important decisions were still made in Spain by the Council of the Indies.

The transatlantic slave trade brought enslaved Africans to Colombia, beginning in the 16th century. Spain, unlike other European powers, did not establish its own trading posts (factories) in Africa to purchase slaves. Instead, the Spanish Empire relied on the asiento system, which granted licenses to merchants from other European nations to supply enslaved Africans to its American territories. This system brought many Africans to Colombia, primarily to work in mines, on plantations, and as domestic servants. Despite the brutality of slavery, resistance was common. Palenque de San Basilio, founded by runaway slaves (cimarrones) in the 17th century under leaders like Benkos Biohó, became the first officially recognized free town in the Americas in 1713, a testament to the resilience and struggle for freedom by Afro-descendant populations. Figures like Saint Peter Claver, a Spanish Jesuit priest in Cartagena, dedicated their lives to ministering to and advocating for the dignity of enslaved Africans, though such efforts did not challenge the institution of slavery itself. Indigenous peoples were legally considered subjects of the Spanish Crown and, in theory, could not be enslaved in the same manner as Africans, though they were subjected to various forms of forced labor. The Spanish colonial authorities established resguardos (indigenous communal lands) to protect indigenous populations and their lands, but these were often insufficient and subject to encroachment.

Spain's colonial trade policies were restrictive. Direct trade between the Viceroyalty of Peru (which included New Granada) and the Viceroyalty of New Spain (which included the Philippines, a source of Asian goods like silk and porcelain) was often prohibited to maintain Spain's monopoly. This led to widespread illegal trade among Peruvian, Filipino, and Mexican merchants, with smuggled Asian goods often passing through regions like Córdoba, Colombia, fostering resentment against Spanish economic control.

In 1717, the Viceroyalty of New Granada was established with Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. It was temporarily dissolved and then re-established in 1739. This new viceroyalty included provinces in northwestern South America previously under the jurisdiction of New Spain or Peru, corresponding mainly to modern-day Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish Empire in the New World, alongside Lima and Mexico City, though it remained comparatively less developed in economic and logistical terms.

During the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739-1748) between Great Britain and Spain, the strategic port city of Cartagena de Indias became a prime target for the British. In 1741, a massive British expeditionary force attempted to capture the city but was decisively defeated by Spanish forces under Blas de Lezo. This victory secured Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War and highlighted Cartagena's military importance.

The 18th century also saw significant scientific and intellectual developments. The Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada, led by the priest, botanist, and mathematician José Celestino Mutis, began in 1783 under the commission of Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora. This expedition aimed to inventory the flora and fauna of New Granada, classify species, and founded the first astronomical observatory in Santa Fe de Bogotá. The expedition played a crucial role in fostering scientific inquiry and produced figures who would later become prominent in the independence movement, such as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, and the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano. The Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt visited Santa Fe de Bogotá in 1801 and met with Mutis, further contributing to the scientific exploration of the region.

3.3. Independence

The struggle for independence from Spanish rule in New Granada was part of a broader movement across Spanish America, influenced by Enlightenment ideas, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and Spain's weakening due to the Napoleonic Wars. Rebellions against Spanish authority had occurred throughout the colonial period, but a concerted push for independence emerged around 1810. The Colombian Declaration of Independence is traditionally commemorated on July 20, 1810, following events in Bogotá where criollos (people of Spanish descent born in the Americas) challenged viceregal authority, demanding a local governing junta. This day is now celebrated as Colombia's Independence Day.

Early independence efforts were marked by internal divisions. Antonio Nariño, a proponent of centralism, clashed with federalist factions, leading to a period of instability known as the Patria Boba (Foolish Fatherland, 1810-1816). Cities like Cartagena declared their own independence in November 1811. In 1811, the United Provinces of New Granada was proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio, but unity was elusive.

Following Napoleon's defeat and the restoration of King Ferdinand VII to the Spanish throne, Spain launched a military reconquest of its American colonies. In 1815-1816, Spanish forces under Pablo Morillo retook New Granada, restoring the viceroyalty under Juan de Sámano. This period was characterized by harsh repression of patriots, which, in turn, fueled renewed resistance.

The definitive phase of the independence war was led by Simón Bolívar, a Venezuelan criollo, with crucial support from figures like Francisco de Paula Santander of New Granada. Bolívar, after securing support from Haiti and organizing his forces, launched a daring campaign across the Andes. The victory at the Battle of Boyacá on August 7, 1819, was decisive, leading to the liberation of Bogotá and effectively securing independence for New Granada. The war involved significant loss of life, with estimates suggesting that 12-20% of the pre-war population (between 250,000 and 400,000 people) perished. Pro-Spanish resistance continued in some regions, notably in Pasto in the south, but was largely defeated by 1822.

In 1819, at the Congress of Angostura, Bolívar proclaimed the creation of the Republic of Colombia (historiographically known as Gran Colombia to distinguish it from the modern republic). This new state united the territories of the former Viceroyalty of New Granada, encompassing present-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and parts of Guyana and Brazil. The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new republic, with Bolívar as its first president and Santander as vice president.

However, Gran Colombia was plagued by internal political and territorial divisions, regional rivalries, and differing visions for the new state. Tensions between centralists, who favored a strong central government led by Bolívar, and federalists, advocated by Santander and regional leaders, grew. Economic difficulties and logistical challenges in governing such a vast and diverse territory also contributed to its instability. By 1830, Venezuela, under José Antonio Páez, and Ecuador (then known as the District of the South, led by Juan José Flores), seceded from the union. Bolívar, disillusioned, resigned from the presidency and died later that year. Gran Colombia officially dissolved in 1831.

3.4. 19th century

Following the dissolution of Gran Colombia, the remaining central territory, formerly known as the Department of Cundinamarca (which included Panama), became the Republic of New Granada in 1831. Francisco de Paula Santander became its first president (1832-1837), implementing policies that promoted education and a degree of federalism, though the nation was often caught between centralist and federalist ideals. This period laid the groundwork for Colombia's enduring two-party system, with the emergence of the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party in 1848 and 1849, respectively. These parties, representing differing socio-economic interests and ideologies regarding the role of the state and the Catholic Church, would dominate Colombian politics for over a century, often leading to intense and violent conflict. Slavery was formally abolished in 1851, a significant step towards social reform, though Afro-Colombian communities continued to face discrimination and marginalization.

The mid-19th century was characterized by political instability and frequent civil wars as Liberals and Conservatives vied for power and clashed over issues such as federalism versus centralism, the role of the Church in state affairs, and economic policies. In 1858, the country adopted a federalist constitution and became the Granadine Confederation. This was followed by another civil war (1860-1862), which led to the establishment of the United States of Colombia in 1863 under a more radically federalist constitution (the Rionegro Constitution). This constitution granted significant autonomy to the constituent states and promoted liberal reforms, including the separation of church and state and freedom of education.

However, the highly decentralized nature of the United States of Colombia contributed to persistent instability and regional conflicts. By the 1880s, a movement known as the Regeneración (Regeneration), led by Rafael Núñez (initially a Liberal, later aligning with Conservatives), sought to restore central authority and the influence of the Catholic Church. This culminated in the Constitution of 1886, which established a highly centralized, unitary state named the Republic of Colombia. This constitution, which remained in effect with amendments until 1991, strengthened the executive branch, made Catholicism the state religion, and curtailed many of the liberal freedoms granted by the Rionegro Constitution. The establishment of the Republic of Colombia in 1886 marked a significant shift towards conservative, centralist rule, but it did not end the deep-seated partisan divisions that continued to shape the nation's trajectory. These internal divisions frequently ignited bloody civil wars, the most significant of which was the Thousand Days' War (1899-1902). This devastating conflict, primarily between Liberals and Conservatives, resulted in an estimated 100,000 to 180,000 deaths and had profound social and economic consequences, further weakening the nation at the turn of the century.

3.5. 20th century

The 20th century in Colombia was a period of profound political, social, and economic transformations, marked by both progress and intense conflict. The century began in the aftermath of the devastating Thousand Days' War (1899-1902). Weakened by internal strife, Colombia faced a major territorial loss in 1903 when Panama, with the backing of the United States and France, seceded to allow for the construction of the Panama Canal. This event, perceived by many Colombians as a result of U.S. imperialism, strained relations with the United States for years, though a settlement was reached in 1921 with the Thomson-Urrutia Treaty, which included a 25.00 M USD indemnity to Colombia.

The early decades saw the rise of the coffee economy, which became a crucial driver of economic growth and modernization, particularly in regions like Antioquia and the newly established "Coffee Axis." However, social inequalities persisted, and political tensions between the Liberal and Conservative parties remained high. A brief border conflict with Peru, the Leticia Incident (1932-1933), over territory in the Amazon basin was resolved through League of Nations mediation, with the disputed area awarded to Colombia.

The period from the late 1940s to the early 1950s is known as La Violencia ("The Violence"), a brutal undeclared civil war between supporters of the Liberal and Conservative parties. The assassination of the popular Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on April 9, 1948, in Bogotá triggered massive riots known as the Bogotazo. The violence quickly spread throughout the country, leading to an estimated 180,000 to 300,000 deaths and widespread displacement. This era left deep scars on Colombian society and contributed to the later emergence of guerrilla movements. Colombia participated in the Korean War under the UN Command, being the only Latin American country to send troops.

To end La Violencia, the Liberal and Conservative elites agreed to a power-sharing arrangement known as the National Front (1958-1974). Under this pact, the presidency alternated between the two parties every four years, and government positions were divided equally. While the National Front succeeded in reducing partisan violence between the two main parties, it largely excluded other political voices and failed to address underlying social and economic inequalities. This exclusion, coupled with the influence of the Cuban Revolution and Cold War ideologies, contributed to the formation of various left-wing guerrilla groups in the 1960s, including the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the ELN, and later the 19th of April Movement (M-19). These groups initiated a new phase of armed conflict against the state.

The latter half of the 20th century was dominated by this asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict involving the state, leftist guerrillas, and, increasingly from the 1980s, right-wing paramilitary groups (such as the AUC) often formed by landowners, business interests, and drug traffickers to counter guerrilla influence. The conflict was further complicated and intensified by the rise of powerful drug cartels, most notably the Medellín Cartel led by Pablo Escobar and the Cali Cartel. These organizations amassed enormous wealth and power through the production and trafficking of cocaine, leading to widespread corruption, violence (narco-terrorism), and a "war on drugs" heavily supported by the United States. The drug trade fueled violence on all sides of the conflict and had a devastating impact on Colombian society, undermining state institutions and leading to countless human rights abuses, including massacres, assassinations, forced displacement, and kidnappings.

The profound social impact of these conflicts included massive internal displacement, turning Colombia into one of the countries with the highest number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the world. Widespread human rights violations were committed by all armed actors, including extrajudicial killings, torture, and violence against civilians, particularly affecting rural communities, indigenous peoples, Afro-Colombians, and social leaders.

Despite the violence, Colombia made efforts towards democratic reform. The Constitution of 1991 was a significant step, introducing mechanisms for citizen participation, recognizing ethnic and cultural diversity, and strengthening human rights protections. However, the implementation of these reforms was often hampered by the ongoing conflict and entrenched inequalities. Peace negotiations with some guerrilla groups, like the M-19, led to their demobilization in the late 1980s and early 1990s, but the larger FARC and ELN remained active. The conflict escalated significantly in the 1990s, with widespread violence affecting many parts of the country.

3.6. 21st century

The 21st century in Colombia has been characterized by significant security improvements, continued economic growth, a landmark peace process with the FARC, and persistent social and human rights challenges. The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002-2010) implemented a "Democratic Security" policy, which involved a more aggressive military campaign against guerrilla groups, particularly the FARC, with substantial support from the United States through Plan Colombia. This period saw a reduction in violence and kidnappings in many areas and weakened the FARC militarily. However, it was also marked by controversies, including the "false positives" scandal, where military personnel extrajudicially killed civilians and presented them as combat casualties to inflate success rates, a grave human rights violation. The demobilization process of the AUC (paramilitary groups) during Uribe's tenure was also controversial, with concerns about impunity for human rights abuses and the re-emergence of successor criminal bands (BACRIM).

President Juan Manuel Santos (2010-2018), Uribe's former defense minister, shifted focus towards a negotiated end to the conflict. In 2012, his government initiated peace negotiations with the FARC in Havana, Cuba. After four years of complex talks, a final peace agreement was announced in 2016. However, in a national referendum in October 2016, a narrow majority of voters rejected the initial deal. Following modifications, a revised peace accord was signed in November 2016 and subsequently approved by the Colombian Congress. President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. The peace agreement included provisions for FARC's demobilization and disarmament, their transformation into a political party, rural development reforms, victims' rights (including truth, justice, reparation, and non-repetition), and addressing illicit drug cultivation. A Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP) was created as a transitional justice mechanism to prosecute serious human rights violations committed during the conflict by all parties.

The implementation of the peace accord has been a complex and challenging process. While FARC officially disarmed and transitioned into a political party (now Comunes), some dissident factions rejected the agreement and continue to engage in violence and illicit activities. The ELN remains an active guerrilla group, though peace talks have been intermittent. Challenges include ensuring security in former FARC-controlled areas, addressing the needs of victims, implementing land reforms, combating illegal economies (coca cultivation, illegal mining), and protecting social leaders and ex-combatants, many of whom have been assassinated. Pope Francis visited Colombia in 2017, paying tribute to victims and encouraging reconciliation.

President Iván Duque (2018-2022), from the right-wing Democratic Center party founded by Uribe, expressed skepticism about parts of the peace deal and faced criticism for perceived slow implementation of some aspects. His term was also marked by significant social unrest, including widespread protests in 2019 and 2021 against economic policies, inequality, and police brutality, highlighting ongoing social discontent. Relations with Venezuela remained tense, with Colombia receiving millions of Venezuelan refugees and migrants fleeing the crisis in their country. Colombia took a leading role in proposing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which were adopted by the United Nations.

In 2022, Gustavo Petro was elected president, becoming Colombia's first left-wing head of state. His running mate, Francia Márquez, became the first Afro-Colombian vice president. Petro's agenda focuses on "Total Peace" (seeking negotiations with remaining armed groups), social and economic reforms to address inequality, environmental protection (particularly the Amazon rainforest), and a shift in drug policy. His government has re-established diplomatic relations with Venezuela. The pursuit of lasting peace, strengthening democratic institutions, ensuring justice and reparations for victims of the long conflict, tackling deep-rooted social and economic inequalities, and addressing human rights concerns remain central challenges for Colombia in the 21st century.

4.1. Topography

Colombia's topography is exceptionally diverse, dominated by the Andes Mountains in its western and central parts. East of the Andes lie vast lowlands.
The Andean Region is the most populous and is characterized by three parallel mountain ranges (cordilleras) that emerge from the Colombian Massif in the southwestern departments of Cauca and Nariño:

• The Cordillera Occidental (Western Range) runs adjacent to the Pacific coast. It includes cities like Cali. Peaks in this range can exceed 15 K ft ^{(4.70 K m)}.
• The Cordillera Central (Central Range) runs between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys. It is home to cities like Medellín, Manizales, Pereira, and Armenia. This range contains numerous volcanoes and high peaks, some reaching over 16 K ft ^{(5.00 K m)}.
• The Cordillera Oriental (Eastern Range) is the widest of the three and extends northeast towards the Guajira Peninsula. It includes major cities such as Bogotá, Bucaramanga, and Cúcuta. Peaks in this range also reach over 16 K ft ^{(5.00 K m)}. The Altiplano Cundiboyacense, a high plateau within this range, is where Bogotá (8.5 K ft ^{(2.60 K m)}) is situated, making it one of the highest large cities in the world.

The Caribbean Coastal Plains are generally low-lying, except for the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated massif with Colombia's highest peaks, Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar (both approx. 19 K ft ^{(5.78 K m)}). This region also features the arid La Guajira Desert.

The Pacific Coastal Plains are narrow and discontinuous, backed by the Serranía de Baudó. This region is characterized by dense rainforests and extremely high rainfall.

East of the Andes, the topography transitions to vast lowlands:

• The Llanos Orientales (Eastern Plains) are expansive savannas belonging to the Orinoco River basin, characterized by grasslands and gallery forests along rivers. Human settlement is sparse, focused on cattle ranching and agriculture.
• The Amazon Rainforest covers the southeastern part of Colombia. This region is a vast, largely undeveloped area of dense tropical rainforest with numerous rivers, forming part of the larger Amazon Basin. Human settlements are typically found along rivers.

These varied topographical regions create diverse ecosystems and influence human settlement patterns, with the majority of the population concentrated in the Andean valleys and intermontane plateaus.

4.2. Climate

Colombia's climate is predominantly tropical due to its proximity to the equator. However, it exhibits significant variations primarily due to altitude, resulting in diverse climatic zones across its six natural regions. Temperature, humidity, winds, and rainfall patterns differ considerably from one region to another.

The country experiences several climatic zones:

• Tierra caliente (Hot Land): Found below 3.3 K ft ^{(1.00 K m)} in elevation. This zone is characterized by average temperatures above 75.2 °F ^{(24 °C)}. It covers approximately 82.5% of Colombia's total area and includes coastal plains, the Llanos, and the Amazon rainforest. This zone supports tropical agriculture.
• Tierra templada (Temperate Land): Located between 3.3 K ft ^{(1.00 K m)} and 6.6 K ft ^{(2.00 K m)}. Average temperatures range from 62.6 °F ^{(17 °C)} to 75.2 °F ^{(24 °C)}. This zone is ideal for coffee cultivation and is where many major cities are located.
• Tierra fría (Cold Land): Present between 6.6 K ft ^{(2.00 K m)} and 9.8 K ft ^{(3.00 K m)}. Temperatures vary between 53.6 °F ^{(12 °C)} and 62.6 °F ^{(17 °C)}. This zone supports crops like wheat and potatoes and is home to cities like Bogotá.
• Páramo (Alpine Tundra/Moorland): Found above the forested zone, typically between 9.8 K ft ^{(3.00 K m)} and 13 K ft ^{(4.00 K m)}. These are treeless grasslands characterized by unique flora adapted to cold, windy, and humid conditions.
• Tierra helada (Frozen Land): Above 13 K ft ^{(4.00 K m)}, where temperatures are below freezing. This zone includes areas of permanent snow and ice on the highest Andean peaks and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

Rainfall patterns are influenced by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), trade winds, and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Most of Colombia experiences two rainy seasons (typically April-May and October-November) and two dry seasons. However, the Pacific coastal region is one of the wettest places on Earth, receiving extremely high rainfall year-round (often exceeding 0.2 K in ^{(5.00 K mm)} annually). In contrast, the La Guajira Peninsula in the extreme north is semi-arid to arid, with annual rainfall sometimes below 30 in ^{(750 mm)}. The Amazon region also experiences high rainfall.

These diverse climatic conditions profoundly affect agriculture, with different crops suited to specific altitudinal and rainfall zones. They also impact livelihoods, water resources, and biodiversity across the country.

4.3. Biodiversity and conservation

Colombia is recognized as one of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries, boasting an extraordinary level of biodiversity. It ranks first globally in bird species (over 1,900 species, more than Europe and North America combined) and orchid species. The country is home to approximately 10% of the Earth's species, despite its intermediate size. This includes a significant percentage of the world's mammal species (around 10%), amphibian species (14%), and reptile and palm species (ranking third globally for both). Colombia also has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. There are an estimated 7,000 species of beetles and around 1,900 species of mollusks. The country is estimated to host about 300,000 species of invertebrates in total.

This remarkable biodiversity is a result of Colombia's varied ecosystems, which include Amazon rainforests, Andean highlands (with diverse altitudinal zones like páramos and cloud forests), grasslands (Llanos), deserts, mangroves, and coral reefs along both its Caribbean and Pacific coasts. Colombia has 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems.

Conservation efforts are managed through the "National Natural Parks System," which covers approximately 55 K mile^{2 (142.68 K km2)}, accounting for 12.77% of the Colombian territory. These protected areas aim to preserve the country's rich flora and fauna. The national flower, the orchid Cattleya trianae, is an example of its endemic plant life.

Despite these efforts, Colombia faces significant environmental challenges. Deforestation, driven by agricultural expansion (including illicit coca cultivation and cattle ranching), illegal mining, logging, and infrastructure development, is a major threat, particularly in the Amazon and Andean regions. This habitat loss impacts biodiversity and affects the territories and livelihoods of indigenous communities and other local populations who depend on these ecosystems. Other challenges include water pollution, soil erosion, and the impacts of climate change.

Environmental protection policies are in place, and Colombia is a signatory to various international environmental agreements. There is a growing awareness of the need for sustainable development and the protection of natural resources. However, balancing economic development with conservation, addressing the social drivers of environmental degradation, and ensuring the rights and participation of indigenous and local communities in conservation efforts remain critical tasks. Colombia had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.26/10, ranking it 25th globally out of 172 countries. The country also possesses large reserves of freshwater, ranking sixth globally in total renewable freshwater supply. The social and environmental impact of resource exploitation, such as mining and oil extraction, is a significant concern, often leading to conflicts with local communities and environmental damage if not managed responsibly.

5.1. Administrative divisions

Colombia is a unitary republic divided into 32 departments (departamentos^Spanish) and one Capital District (Distrito Capital^Spanish) for Bogotá. The Capital District is treated as a department for administrative purposes and serves as the nation's capital. Bogotá also serves as the capital of the surrounding department of Cundinamarca.

Each department is headed by a Governor (Gobernador^Spanish) and has a Departmental Assembly (Asamblea Departamental^Spanish), both directly elected for four-year terms. Departments are responsible for regional administration, development planning, and coordinating services between the national government and municipalities.

Departments are further subdivided into municipalities (municipios^Spanish). There are over 1,100 municipalities in Colombia. Each municipality is governed by a Mayor (Alcalde^Spanish) and a Municipal Council (Concejo Municipal^Spanish), also directly elected for four-year terms. Municipalities are the basic territorial and administrative unit, responsible for local services, urban planning, and local governance. Each municipality has a designated municipal seat or capital town (cabecera municipal^Spanish).

Municipalities, in turn, are subdivided into:

• Corregimientos in rural areas. These are often extensive rural territories within a municipality and may include several smaller villages (veredas^Spanish). Each corregimiento may have a local administrative board (Junta Administradora Local, JAL^Spanish) and is headed by a Corregidor, usually appointed by the mayor.
• Comunas in larger urban areas. These are urban subdivisions within a city, also with the possibility of having an elected JAL.

In addition to the Capital District of Bogotá, four other cities have been designated as Special Districts (Distritos Especiales^Spanish) due to their unique historical, cultural, port, or tourism importance. These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta, and Buenaventura. These districts have a special administrative regime.

Some departments with low population density, particularly in the Amazon and Orinoquía regions (e.g., Amazonas, Vaupés, Vichada), have special administrative divisions known as "departmental corregimientos" (corregimientos departamentales^Spanish). These function as a hybrid between a municipality and a regular corregimiento, directly under departmental administration due to their sparse population and limited administrative capacity.

The following is a list of the departments and the Capital District, with their respective capital cities:

Department	Capital City	Department	Capital City
Amazonas	Leticia	La Guajira	Riohacha
Antioquia	Medellín	Magdalena	Santa Marta
Arauca	Arauca	Meta	Villavicencio
Atlántico	Barranquilla	Nariño	Pasto
Bogotá, Capital District	Bogotá	Norte de Santander	Cúcuta
Bolívar	Cartagena	Putumayo	Mocoa
Boyacá	Tunja	Quindío	Armenia
Caldas	Manizales	Risaralda	Pereira
Caquetá	Florencia	San Andrés and Providencia	San Andrés
Casanare	Yopal	Santander	Bucaramanga
Cauca	Popayán	Sucre	Sincelejo
Cesar	Valledupar	Tolima	Ibagué
Chocó	Quibdó	Valle del Cauca	Cali
Córdoba	Montería	Vaupés	Mitú
Cundinamarca	Bogotá	Vichada	Puerto Carreño
Guainía	Inírida
Guaviare	San José del Guaviare
Huila	Neiva

5.2. Foreign affairs

Colombia's foreign policy objectives are centered on promoting national interests, security, economic development, and international cooperation. Key aspects of its foreign affairs include:

1. Relations with Neighboring Countries:

• Venezuela**: Relations have historically fluctuated significantly due to ideological differences, border security issues (presence of armed groups, illicit trafficking), and massive Venezuelan migration into Colombia. Efforts to manage the humanitarian crisis and maintain regional stability are priorities. Under President Gustavo Petro, diplomatic relations, severed in 2019, were restored in 2022.
• Ecuador**: Relations are generally cooperative, focusing on border security, trade, and environmental issues. Past tensions, such as a 2008 Colombian raid against a FARC camp in Ecuadorian territory, have largely been overcome.
• Peru**, **Brazil**, **Panama**: Colombia maintains generally stable and cooperative relations with these neighbors, focusing on trade, security cooperation (especially against drug trafficking and organized crime), and infrastructure projects.

2. Regional Integration Efforts:

• Pacific Alliance**: Colombia is a founding member of this trade bloc (along with Chile, Mexico, and Peru), which aims for deep economic integration, free movement of goods, services, capital, and people, and joint promotion in Asia-Pacific markets. This alliance reflects a strategy to diversify economic partners and enhance competitiveness, contributing to equitable development through increased trade and investment opportunities.
• Andean Community (CAN)**: Colombia is an active member of CAN (with Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru), working on customs union, free trade, and harmonized policies in areas like transportation and intellectual property.
• Organization of American States (OAS)**: Colombia participates actively in the OAS, supporting its pillars of democracy, human rights, security, and development. It has often played a role in regional diplomatic efforts and has been subject to OAS human rights monitoring.
• CELAC** and **UNASUR** (though its participation in UNASUR has been suspended/withdrawn by some members including Colombia): Colombia has engaged in these broader regional forums, though its alignment and level of participation can vary depending on the political orientation of its government and the dynamics within these organizations.

3. Participation in Major International Organizations:

• United Nations (UN)**: Colombia is an active UN member, contributing to peacekeeping operations (historically) and engaging in various UN agencies and programs focused on development, human rights, and peacebuilding. The UN has played a significant role in verifying the Colombian peace process.
• World Trade Organization (WTO)**: Colombia adheres to WTO rules and participates in global trade negotiations.
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)**: Colombia became a full member of the OECD in 2020, committing to its standards in areas like economic policy, governance, and social development. This membership is seen as a step towards modernizing its public policies and fostering inclusive growth.

4. Relations with Global Powers and Partners:

• United States**: The U.S. has historically been Colombia's most significant partner, particularly in security cooperation (Plan Colombia for counter-narcotics and counter-terrorism) and trade. The U.S. is a major trading partner and source of foreign investment. Colombia is designated as a Major Non-NATO Ally of the United States.
• European Union**: The EU is an important trading partner and a key supporter of Colombia's peace process and human rights initiatives, providing financial and technical assistance.
• NATO**: Colombia is a NATO Global Partner, the only Latin American country with this status. This partnership involves cooperation in areas like security, demining, and military interoperability, but does not imply NATO membership or collective defense commitments.
• China**: Relations with China have been growing, particularly in trade and investment, reflecting China's increasing economic presence in Latin America.

Colombia's foreign policy often emphasizes multilateralism, the fight against transnational organized crime (especially drug trafficking), promoting foreign investment and trade, and seeking international support for its peacebuilding and development efforts. Human rights considerations and the impact of its policies on vulnerable populations are increasingly important dimensions of its international engagement, aligning with a focus on equitable and democratic progress.

5.3. Military

The Military Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Militares de Colombia^Spanish) are responsible for the defense of the nation, maintaining sovereignty, and contributing to internal security. The President of Colombia is the commander-in-chief. The Ministry of National Defence oversees the military branches and the National Police (which has a gendarmerie role and is part of the defense sector, though it primarily handles law enforcement).

Composition and Roles:
The Colombian Armed Forces consist of three main branches:
1. National Army (Ejército Nacional^Spanish): The largest branch, focused on land-based operations, border security, counter-insurgency, and counter-narcotics efforts. It is organized into divisions, brigades, and special units.
2. National Navy (Armada Nacional^Spanish): Responsible for maritime security in both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, riverine operations (given Colombia's extensive river network), and coastal defense. It includes the Naval Infantry (Marines), Coast Guard, and Naval Aviation.
3. Aerospace Force (Fuerza Aeroespacial Colombiana^Spanish, formerly Air Force): Responsible for air defense, air support for ground and naval operations, reconnaissance, and air transport. It operates various types of aircraft and has air units stationed across the country.

Primary Missions:

• National Defense**: Protecting Colombia's sovereignty and territorial integrity from external threats.
• Internal Conflict Resolution**: Historically, a primary focus has been combating internal armed groups, including leftist guerrillas (like FARC dissidents and ELN) and other illegal armed organizations. This involves counter-insurgency operations and efforts to establish state control in remote areas.
• Counternarcotics Efforts**: The military plays a significant role in combating drug trafficking, including eradication of illicit crops (coca), interdiction of drug shipments, and dismantling drug trafficking organizations. This is often conducted in cooperation with international partners, notably the United States.
• Border Security**: Patrolling and securing Colombia's extensive land and maritime borders.
• Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Aid**: Providing assistance during natural disasters and humanitarian crises.
• International Cooperation**: Participating in regional security initiatives and, in some cases, international peacekeeping or training missions. Colombia is a NATO Global Partner.

Defense Policy and Expenditure:
Colombia has historically dedicated a significant portion of its GDP to military expenditure, largely due to the long-running internal armed conflict. In 2016, military spending was around 3.4% of GDP. Colombia's armed forces are among the largest and most experienced in Latin America in counter-insurgency warfare. Defense policy has emphasized professionalization, modernization of equipment, and strengthening intelligence capabilities. The "Democratic Security" policy under President Uribe (2002-2010) significantly expanded military operations. The subsequent peace process with FARC has led to some shifts in military focus, though challenges from remaining armed groups persist. In 2018, Colombia signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Human Rights Considerations:
The Colombian military's operations, particularly in the context of the internal armed conflict, have faced scrutiny regarding human rights. There have been documented cases of abuses, including extrajudicial killings (the "false positives" scandal), forced displacement, and other violations. Significant efforts have been made, with national and international pressure, to improve human rights training, accountability mechanisms within the armed forces, and adherence to international humanitarian law. Transitional justice mechanisms like the Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP) are tasked with investigating and prosecuting serious violations committed by all parties to the conflict, including members of the state forces. Ensuring respect for human rights and strengthening civilian oversight remain ongoing priorities for democratic progress and reconciliation.

The National Police, while part of the Ministry of Defence, functions primarily as a law enforcement agency throughout the country, distinct from the military forces, though they often coordinate in security operations. As of 2023, Colombia had approximately 455,461 active military personnel.

5.4. Human rights

The human rights situation in Colombia has been a significant concern for decades, deeply intertwined with the country's long-standing internal armed conflict, pervasive social inequality, and the activities of illegal armed groups and criminal organizations. Despite progress in some areas, numerous challenges persist, affecting various segments of the population, particularly minorities and vulnerable groups.

Impact of the Internal Armed Conflict:
The internal armed conflict, involving state forces, leftist guerrillas (FARC, ELN, and their dissidents), right-wing paramilitaries (historically, like the AUC, and their successor groups), and drug trafficking organizations, has been the primary driver of human rights violations. These include:

• Violence against Civilians**: Massacres, assassinations, forced displacement (Colombia has one of the world's largest internally displaced populations), kidnappings, torture, and sexual violence have been committed by all armed actors.
• Extrajudicial Killings**: The "false positives" scandal, where military personnel killed civilians and presented them as combatants, remains a stark example of state-committed abuses.
• Recruitment of Child Soldiers**: Illegal armed groups have systematically recruited and used children in hostilities.
• Landmines and Unexploded Ordnance**: Extensive use of landmines by non-state armed groups continues to endanger civilian populations.

Rights of Minorities and Vulnerable Groups:

• Indigenous Peoples and Afro-Colombians**: These communities have been disproportionately affected by the conflict, often caught in the crossfire or targeted for control of their resource-rich territories. They face displacement, violence, land dispossession, and threats to their cultural survival. Despite constitutional recognition of their collective rights, effective protection and consultation regarding development projects in their territories remain challenges.
• Human Rights Defenders, Social Leaders, and Journalists**: Colombia is one of the most dangerous countries for human rights defenders, community leaders, environmental activists, and journalists, who face threats, harassment, and assassination for their work in denouncing abuses and advocating for rights.
• Women and LGBTQ+ Individuals**: Women have suffered disproportionately from conflict-related sexual violence and displacement. LGBTQ+ individuals face discrimination and violence, although legal protections have advanced in recent years.
• Children**: Children are affected by recruitment, displacement, lack of access to education in conflict zones, and violence.

Social Inequality and Economic Rights:
Deep-rooted social and economic inequality, including unequal land distribution and limited access to basic services like healthcare, education, and justice for many, particularly in rural and marginalized areas, are underlying causes of social unrest and contribute to human rights challenges. Labor rights are also a concern, with issues related to informal employment and attacks on trade unionists.

Efforts for Protection and Promotion of Human Rights:

• Governmental Institutions**: The Colombian government has institutions dedicated to human rights, such as the Ombudsman's Office (Defensoría del Pueblo) and the Presidential Council for Human Rights. The 1991 Constitution includes robust human rights protections.
• Justice and Accountability**: The peace agreement with FARC established the Special Jurisdiction for Peace (JEP), a transitional justice mechanism aimed at ensuring truth, justice, reparations, and non-repetition for victims. The ordinary justice system also prosecutes human rights violations, though impunity remains a challenge.
• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Civil Society**: A vibrant civil society, including numerous national and international NGOs, plays a crucial role in documenting abuses, providing legal aid to victims, advocating for policy changes, and promoting human rights education.
• International Community**: International bodies like the UN Human Rights Office, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, and various governments provide monitoring, support, and pressure for improvements in the human rights situation.

Despite progress in security in some areas and the peace agreement with FARC, significant human rights challenges persist. Ensuring the safety of social leaders and ex-combatants, effectively implementing the peace accord's provisions on victims' rights and rural reform, combating impunity, addressing structural inequalities, and protecting vulnerable communities from ongoing violence by armed groups are critical for advancing human rights and consolidating peace in Colombia. The center-left/social liberal perspective emphasizes the need for comprehensive state action, robust justice mechanisms, and the strengthening of civil society to address these deep-seated issues and build a more equitable and rights-respecting society.

6.1. Agriculture and natural resources

Colombia's economy is significantly endowed with agricultural potential and abundant natural resources. However, the exploitation and management of these resources present ongoing challenges regarding environmental sustainability and social equity.

Agriculture:
Agriculture has historically been a cornerstone of the Colombian economy. Key agricultural products include:

• Coffee**: Colombia is globally renowned for its high-quality coffee. It is one of the world's largest producers of Arabica beans. The coffee sector provides livelihoods for hundreds of thousands of families, particularly in the Andean regions, often on small-scale farms. While historically a dominant export, its relative share has declined with economic diversification, but it remains culturally and economically important. The "Coffee Cultural Landscape" is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
• Flowers**: Colombia is the world's second-largest exporter of cut flowers (after the Netherlands), particularly roses, carnations, and chrysanthemums. This industry is a major source of employment, especially for women, but has faced scrutiny regarding labor conditions and pesticide use.
• Bananas and Plantains**: These are important export crops and staple foods within the country. Large plantations exist, primarily in the Urabá region and the Caribbean coast.
• Palm oil**: Colombia is a significant global producer of palm oil. While providing economic benefits, the expansion of palm oil cultivation has raised concerns about deforestation, biodiversity loss, and land conflicts, particularly affecting Afro-Colombian and indigenous communities in regions like the Pacific coast and the Llanos. Efforts towards sustainable palm oil production are underway but face challenges.
• Other Crops**: Other notable agricultural products include sugarcane (for sugar and ethanol), rice, maize, potatoes, cassava, avocados (a growing export), cocoa, and a wide variety of tropical fruits.
• Livestock**: Cattle ranching is widespread, particularly in the Llanos and parts of the Andean and Caribbean regions. Beef and chicken meat production are significant for domestic consumption and some export. Extensive cattle ranching is a driver of deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions.

Challenges in the agricultural sector include unequal land distribution (latifundia vs. minifundia), limited access to credit and technology for small farmers, infrastructure deficits, and the impact of climate change. Illicit crop cultivation (coca and poppy) in some rural areas, often linked to armed conflict and poverty, further complicates agricultural development and has severe social and environmental consequences. The Colombian agricultural sector contributes significantly to the country's greenhouse gas emissions (around 55%), largely due to deforestation, extensive cattle ranching, land grabbing, and illegal agriculture. Equitable rural development, land reform, and support for sustainable agricultural practices are crucial for social justice and environmental protection.

Natural Resources:
Colombia is rich in mineral and energy resources:

• Coal**: Colombia is a major coal exporter, with large open-pit mines like Cerrejón in La Guajira. The coal industry is a significant source of export revenue but also faces criticism for its environmental impact (water use, dust, habitat disruption) and its effects on local communities, particularly indigenous groups like the Wayuu.
• Petroleum and Natural Gas**: Oil is a primary export, and natural gas is important for domestic energy consumption. Exploration and exploitation occur in various regions, including the Llanos, Magdalena Valley, and offshore. Fluctuations in global oil prices significantly impact the Colombian economy. Concerns exist regarding the environmental effects of oil extraction and the social impacts on local communities. In 2019, Colombia was the 20th largest petroleum producer globally. As of 2020, oil and coal accounted for over 40% of the country's exports.
• Emeralds**: Colombia is the world's leading producer of high-quality emeralds. The mining regions, primarily in Boyacá and Cundinamarca, have a history of conflict and informal mining, though efforts are made to formalize the sector.
• Gold and other Metals**: Gold mining, both formal and informal/illegal, is widespread. Illegal gold mining, often linked to criminal organizations and armed groups, causes severe environmental damage (mercury pollution, deforestation) and social conflicts. Colombia also has deposits of nickel, silver, and platinum. In 2017, the country extracted 52.2 tons of gold.
• Water Resources**: Colombia has abundant freshwater resources, crucial for agriculture, hydroelectric power, and human consumption. However, water management, pollution, and access disparities are challenges.

The exploitation of natural resources has been a driver of economic growth but also a source of social and environmental conflict. Ensuring that resource extraction benefits local communities, respects human rights (especially of indigenous and Afro-Colombian populations whose territories are often affected), minimizes environmental damage, and contributes to sustainable and equitable national development are key ongoing challenges.

6.2. Energy and transportation

Energy:
Colombia's energy matrix is characterized by a high reliance on hydroelectric power, which accounts for approximately 65-70% of its electricity generation. This makes its electricity sector largely based on a renewable source, but also vulnerable to climatic variations like droughts associated with El Niño. The country has significant untapped potential for other renewable energy sources, including wind (especially in La Guajira), solar, and biomass. The government has been promoting diversification and the development of non-conventional renewable energies to enhance energy security and reduce environmental impact.

Fossil fuels, particularly natural gas and coal, also play a role in electricity generation, especially as backup during dry periods or for specific industrial needs. Oil is a major primary energy source for transportation and a key export commodity. Natural gas is widely used for residential cooking, heating, and industrial processes.

The development of renewable energy projects, while environmentally beneficial, must consider social impacts, including land use and consultation with local communities, particularly indigenous groups in areas with high wind or solar potential like La Guajira. Energy efficiency programs and grid modernization are also part of Colombia's energy strategy. The country was recognized in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI) for its efforts in greening efficiency sectors.

Transportation:
Colombia's challenging topography, with three Andean mountain ranges, has historically made transportation infrastructure development difficult and costly. The Ministry of Transport and various agencies like the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) and the National Infrastructure Agency (ANI) regulate and manage the sector.

• Roads**: Roads are the primary mode of transportation for passengers and freight. Colombia has an extensive road network of approximately 127 K mile ^{(204.39 K km)}, but a significant portion, especially rural roads, remains unpaved or in poor condition. Significant investments have been made in recent decades to improve and expand the primary road network, including the construction of dual carriageways (divided highways) (around 1.3 K mile ^{(2.10 K km)} by late 2017) and tunnels to overcome mountainous terrain. The government has ambitious plans for further road infrastructure development through concession programs (public-private partnerships), aiming to reduce travel times and transport costs, which are crucial for economic competitiveness and regional integration. This is particularly important for connecting production centers with ports and for improving access to remote areas, thereby contributing to equitable development.
• Railways**: Colombia's railway network is relatively limited and primarily dedicated to freight transport, especially for coal from mining regions like Cerrejón to Caribbean ports. There is potential for revitalizing and expanding the rail network for both freight and passenger transport to offer a more cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative to road transport, but this requires substantial investment. The network has about 1.1 K mile ^{(1.70 K km)} of potentially active rails.
• Aviation**: Air transport is crucial for connecting Colombia's geographically dispersed cities and regions, given the difficult overland travel. El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá is a major hub for Latin America, handling a large volume of passenger and cargo traffic. Several other cities have international airports, and a network of smaller airports serves regional needs. The civil aviation authority is Aerocivil.
• Ports and Waterways**: Colombia has major ports on both the Caribbean coast (e.g., Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta) and the Pacific coast (Buenaventura). These ports are vital for international trade. Inland waterways, particularly the Magdalena River, have historically been important for transportation, and there are efforts to improve their navigability for freight. The country has about 2.5 K mile ^{(3.96 K km)} of gas pipelines, 3.0 K mile ^{(4.90 K km)} of oil pipelines, and 1.9 K mile ^{(2.99 K km)} of refined-products pipelines.
• Urban Transportation**: Major cities like Bogotá and Medellín have developed Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems (e.g., TransMilenio in Bogotá, Metroplús in Medellín) to address urban mobility challenges. Medellín is also known for its integrated system including a metro, tram, and cable cars (Metrocable) that serve hillside communities, often cited as an example of socially inclusive urban transport.

Improving transportation infrastructure is a key priority for Colombia's economic development and regional equity. Efficient transport networks are essential for reducing logistics costs, enhancing agricultural and industrial competitiveness, promoting tourism, and integrating remote and marginalized regions into the national economy.

6.3. Science and technology

Colombia has been making concerted efforts to advance its science and technology (S&T) sector to foster innovation, economic competitiveness, and address societal challenges. Key aspects include:

Institutions and Governance:

• The Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MinCiencias), formerly Colciencias, is the primary government body responsible for formulating and implementing national S&T policies, funding research, and promoting innovation.
• Universities, both public and private, are major centers for research and development. Notable institutions include the National University of Colombia, University of Antioquia, and Universidad de los Andes.
• Research institutes, such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT, part of the CGIAR consortium, based near Cali), conduct specialized research in areas like health, agriculture, and biodiversity. Colombia has over 3,950 research groups in science and technology.

Government Support and Initiatives:

• iNNpulsa Colombia is a government agency dedicated to promoting entrepreneurship, innovation, and business development. It provides grants, mentorship, and support services to startups and innovative companies.
• There are various national programs and funds aimed at strengthening research capabilities, fostering collaboration between academia and industry, and promoting the development of strategic S&T sectors.
• Efforts are made to increase investment in R&D, though it remains relatively low compared to OECD averages.

Notable Achievements and Areas of Focus:

• Biotechnology and Health Sciences**: Colombia has made contributions in medical research. Notable inventions include an early external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes by Jorge Reynolds Pombo, developments in LASIK eye surgery techniques (microkeratome and keratomileusis by José Barraquer), and the Hakim valve for hydrocephalus. Research in tropical diseases, genetic diversity of food crops (by scientists like Joseph M. Tohme), and neurosciences (e.g., Rodolfo Llinás's work on neuron properties; Francisco Lopera's research on early-onset Alzheimer's) are also significant. Manuel Elkin Patarroyo is known for his work on synthetic vaccines for malaria. Ángela Restrepo has made contributions to diagnosing and treating diseases caused by Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.
• Agriculture and Biodiversity**: Given its rich biodiversity, Colombia focuses on research related to sustainable agriculture, conservation, and the biotechnological applications of its genetic resources. CIAT plays a crucial role in agricultural research for the tropics, addressing food security and climate change.
• Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)**: The ICT sector has seen growth, with government initiatives to expand internet connectivity, promote digital literacy, and support software development and tech startups. Co-working spaces and tech hubs have emerged in major cities.
• Military Technology**: Colombia has developed capabilities in military technology, particularly in personal ballistic protection, military hardware, robotics for demining, simulators, and radar systems, driven partly by its internal security needs.
• Innovation Rankings**: Colombia was ranked 61st in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.

Challenges and Access:
Despite progress, challenges remain in strengthening the S&T ecosystem. These include:

• Limited funding for R&D compared to more developed nations.
• The need for more highly skilled researchers and engineers.
• Improving the connection between academic research and industrial application (technology transfer).
• Ensuring equitable access to scientific and technological advancements across different regions and social groups. Bridging the digital divide and ensuring that S&T benefits reach marginalized communities are important for social equity.
• Promoting a culture of innovation and scientific inquiry throughout society.

Governmental policies increasingly emphasize the role of S&T in achieving sustainable development goals, enhancing productivity, and improving the quality of life for Colombians. The focus is on building human capital, strengthening research infrastructure, and creating an environment conducive to innovation that benefits all segments of society.

6.4. Tourism

Tourism has become an increasingly significant sector for Colombia's economy, driven by improvements in security, a diverse range of attractions, and government initiatives to promote the country internationally. Colombia offers a wealth of natural and cultural heritage, appealing to various types of travelers.

Main Tourist Attractions:

• Natural Heritage**:
  • Caribbean Coast**: Features popular beach destinations like Cartagena, Santa Marta, and the islands of San Andrés and Providencia. Tayrona National Natural Park, with its stunning beaches and rainforest backing onto the Sierra Nevada, is a major draw. The Guajira Desert offers unique landscapes.
  • Andean Region**: Home to vibrant cities like Bogotá, Medellín, and the "Coffee Triangle" (Eje Cafetero), which is a UNESCO World Heritage site offering coffee plantation tours and scenic landscapes. Mountain ecosystems like páramos (e.g., Chingaza, Los Nevados) and cloud forests attract nature enthusiasts. Colonial towns like Villa de Leyva and Barichara are also popular.
  • Pacific Coast**: Known for its Afro-Colombian culture, pristine rainforests, whale watching (humpback whales migrate here to breed), and surfing. Destinations include Nuquí and Bahía Solano.
  • Amazon Rainforest**: Offers opportunities for ecotourism, wildlife viewing, and experiencing indigenous cultures in cities like Leticia.
  • Llanos Orientales (Eastern Plains)**: Provides a unique experience of savanna landscapes, wildlife, and llanero (cowboy) culture.
  • Cultural Heritage**:
    • Colonial Cities**: Cartagena's walled city and fortresses (UNESCO World Heritage site), Bogotá's La Candelaria district, Popayán ("the White City"), Mompox (UNESCO), and Villa de Leyva showcase rich colonial architecture and history.
    • Archaeological Sites**: San Agustín and Tierradentro (both UNESCO sites) feature pre-Columbian statues and tombs. Ciudad Perdida ("Lost City") in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is an ancient Tayrona city accessible via a challenging trek.
    • Museums and Arts**: Bogotá and Medellín have world-class museums, including the Gold Museum and Botero Museum in Bogotá.
    • Festivals and Events**: Colombia hosts numerous vibrant festivals, such as the Barranquilla's Carnival (UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage), Medellín's Flower Festival (Feria de las Flores), and the Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá.

    Status of the Tourism Industry:
    The tourism industry experienced significant growth in the 2010s. In 2016, tourism contributed approximately 5.88 B USD (2.0% of total GDP) and generated around 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment). Foreign tourist visits were projected to rise from 0.6 million in 2007 to 4 million in 2017. While the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the sector, recovery efforts are underway.
    
    Government Initiatives for Sustainable and Community-Benefiting Tourism:
    The Colombian government, through entities like ProColombia and the Ministry of Commerce, Industry, and Tourism, actively promotes Colombia as a tourist destination. There is an increasing emphasis on:

    • Sustainability**: Promoting environmentally responsible tourism practices to protect Colombia's biodiversity and natural landscapes. This includes supporting ecotourism projects and certifications.
    • Community-Based Tourism**: Encouraging tourism initiatives that directly benefit local communities, including indigenous and Afro-Colombian populations, by providing economic opportunities and preserving cultural heritage. This aims to make tourism more inclusive and equitable.
    • Peace Tourism**: Developing tourism in regions previously affected by conflict, as a means of economic development and reconciliation.
    • Diversification**: Promoting lesser-known destinations and niche tourism segments like adventure travel, birdwatching (Colombia has the highest bird diversity in the world), cultural tourism, and wellness tourism.
    • Infrastructure and Safety**: Investing in tourism-related infrastructure and continuing efforts to improve safety and security for travelers.

    Challenges for the tourism sector include ensuring that growth is sustainable, benefits are distributed equitably, negative environmental and social impacts are minimized, and that security gains are maintained. A focus on high-quality, responsible tourism that respects local cultures and ecosystems is crucial for the long-term success of the industry and its contribution to equitable national development.

6.5. Socioeconomic conditions and development

Colombia has made significant strides in economic development and poverty reduction over the past decades, yet it continues to grapple with substantial socioeconomic challenges, particularly high levels of inequality and the need to ensure that development benefits reach all segments of society, especially marginalized communities.

Key Socioeconomic Indicators (Pre-Pandemic Context, around 2017-2019 for consistency with source data where available):

• Poverty Levels**: In 2017, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 26.9% of the population lived below the national monetary poverty line. Extreme poverty affected 7.4% of the population. These figures represent a significant reduction from previous decades but indicate that a substantial portion of Colombians still live in poverty.
• Multidimensional Poverty**: The multidimensional poverty index, which considers deprivations in education, health, employment, housing, and childhood conditions, stood at 17.0% in 2017. This highlights that poverty is not just an income issue but involves a lack of access to basic rights and opportunities.
• Income Inequality**: Colombia has historically been one of the most unequal countries in Latin America and the world, as measured by the Gini coefficient. While there has been some progress in reducing inequality, it remains a persistent challenge. Unequal distribution of income, assets (particularly land), and opportunities perpetuates social divides. The World Bank Gini index for Colombia was around 0.51-0.53 in the late 2010s.
• Employment**: The national unemployment rate fluctuated, for example, around 9.4% in 2017. A major structural issue is high labor informality, with nearly half of the workforce engaged in informal employment. This often means lower wages, lack of social security benefits (health insurance, pensions), and precarious working conditions, disproportionately affecting women and youth.
• Access to Public Services**:
  • Health**: While Colombia has achieved near-universal health insurance coverage (around 96% by 2012), disparities in the quality and accessibility of healthcare services persist, particularly between urban and rural areas and for marginalized populations.
  • Education**: Gross enrollment rates in primary and secondary education are high. However, challenges remain in the quality of education, dropout rates (especially at the secondary level in rural areas), and equitable access to higher education.
  • Housing and Basic Utilities**: Access to basic utilities like water, sanitation, and electricity has improved, but significant gaps remain, especially in rural and peri-urban informal settlements.

  Ongoing Development Efforts Aimed at Improving Living Standards and Promoting Social Equity:
  Colombian governments have implemented various policies and programs to address these socioeconomic challenges, with a focus on improving living standards and promoting social equity, particularly for marginalized communities. These include:

  • Poverty Reduction Programs**: Conditional cash transfer programs (e.g., Familias en Acción), subsidies for vulnerable populations, and social housing initiatives.
  • Peace Process and Rural Development**: The 2016 peace agreement with FARC includes comprehensive rural reform as a key pillar, aiming to address historical land inequality, provide access to land for peasants, improve rural infrastructure and services, and promote alternative livelihoods in coca-growing regions. Effective implementation of these reforms is crucial for equitable development and lasting peace.
  • Focus on Vulnerable Groups**: Specific programs and policies target internally displaced persons (IDPs), victims of the armed conflict, indigenous peoples, Afro-Colombians, women, and children, aiming to guarantee their rights and provide targeted support.
  • Financial Inclusion**: Efforts to expand access to financial services for low-income households and small businesses.
  • Investment in Human Capital**: Policies to improve the quality and equity of education and healthcare, and to enhance vocational training and skills development.
  • Formalizing the Economy**: Initiatives to reduce labor informality and improve working conditions.
  • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)**: Colombia has committed to the SDGs, integrating them into its national development plans, with a focus on poverty eradication, reducing inequality, and promoting sustainable development.

  Despite these efforts, significant challenges remain. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated poverty and inequality. Deep-seated structural issues, the persistence of violence in some regions, corruption, and limited state presence in remote areas hinder progress. Achieving more equitable and inclusive development requires sustained political will, effective implementation of reforms (especially those related to the peace accord), robust social investment, and the active participation of civil society and marginalized communities in shaping development policies. A center-left/social liberal perspective underscores the urgency of tackling these inequalities to build a more just and prosperous society for all Colombians.

7.1. Ethnic groups

Colombia is an ethnically diverse nation, a result of centuries of intermingling between indigenous populations, Spanish colonizers, enslaved Africans, and later immigrants from Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. This multicultural heritage is a defining characteristic of Colombian society, though it has also been marked by historical and ongoing challenges related to discrimination and inequality for minority groups.

According to the 2018 census, the self-identified ethnic composition was reported as:

• Mestizo and White**: 87.58% (combined). This category includes Mestizos (people of mixed European and indigenous ancestry) and White Colombians (those primarily of European descent, predominantly Spanish, but also including Italian, German, French, Portuguese, and other European ancestries). Mestizo campesinos (rural dwellers) are prevalent in the Andean highlands, while Whites are found throughout the country, particularly in urban centers.
• Afro-Colombian**: 6.68%. This group includes people of African descent, Mulattos (mixed African and European), and Zambos (mixed African and indigenous). Enslaved Africans were brought primarily to coastal lowlands (Caribbean and Pacific) and mining areas. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Pacific Coast (e.g., in Chocó department) and in cities like Cali, Cartagena, and Barranquilla. They possess a rich cultural heritage but have historically faced significant discrimination and marginalization, and have been disproportionately affected by armed conflict and displacement.
• Indigenous Amerindians**: 4.31%. Despite a drastic population decline during the colonial era, over 102 distinct indigenous groups remain, totaling around 1.9 million people per the 2018 census. Major groups include the Wayuu, Nasa (Paez), Pastos, Emberá, and Zenú. Indigenous peoples have constitutionally recognized collective land rights (resguardos), covering about 76 M acre ^{(30.57 M ha)} (27-30% of national territory), inhabited by over 800,000 people. They face challenges related to land rights, resource exploitation, violence, poverty, and cultural preservation. Departments with large indigenous populations include La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba, and Sucre. The National Indigenous Organization of Colombia (ONIC) is a major representative body.
• Raizal**: 0.06%. The Raizal people are an Afro-Caribbean Protestant ethnic group from the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, speaking San Andrés-Providencia Creole English.
• Palenquero**: 0.02%. Descendants of cimarrons (escaped slaves) from Palenque de San Basilio, a historic free town. They speak Palenquero, a Spanish-based creole language.
• Romani (Gypsy)**: 0.01%. A small, recognized ethnic minority.
• Not Stated**: 1.35% of respondents did not state an ethnicity.

A 2023 Latinobarómetro study provided different self-identification estimates: Mestizo 50.3%, White 26.4%, Indigenous 9.5%, Black 9.0%, Mulatto 4.4%, and Asian 0.4%. Asian Colombians include descendants of Middle Eastern immigrants (primarily Lebanese, Syrian, and Palestinian, often referred to as "Turcos") and East Asian immigrants (Chinese, Japanese, Korean). An American Journal of Physical Anthropology study indicated an average Colombian genetic ancestry of 47% Amerindian, 42% European, and 11% African.

The demographic distribution reflects colonial history. The struggle for recognition, rights, and overcoming discrimination is key for Afro-Colombian and indigenous social justice movements. The 1991 Constitution recognized Colombia as a multicultural and pluri-ethnic nation, though fully implementing protections and addressing inequalities remain challenges.

7.2. Languages

The official language of Colombia is Spanish (also known as Castilian), spoken by around 99.2% of the population. Colombian Spanish has various regional dialects and accents.

Beyond Spanish, Colombia is a linguistically diverse country, recognizing and protecting its array of indigenous and creole languages. According to Ethnologue, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia. Approximately 71 of these are spoken today.

• Indigenous Languages**: There are over 65 distinct indigenous languages spoken by more than 850,000 people. These languages belong to various language families, including Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora-Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban. The 1991 Constitution grants official status to indigenous languages within their respective territories and mandates bilingual education where appropriate. However, many of these languages are endangered due to a declining number of speakers, displacement, and the dominance of Spanish. Efforts by indigenous communities and organizations, supported by government initiatives like the Ley de Lenguas Nativas (Native Languages Law), aim to preserve and revitalize this linguistic heritage.
• Creole languages**:
  • San Andrés-Providencia Creole English**: Spoken by the Raizal people in the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. English also has official status in this department alongside Spanish.
  • Palenquero**: A Spanish-based creole language spoken in Palenque de San Basilio by descendants of escaped African slaves. It is unique in the Americas for its strong African linguistic influences.
• Romani Language**: Spoken by the Romani (Gypsy) minority in Colombia.
• Colombian Sign Language** (Lengua de Señas Colombiana^Spanish, LSC): Recognized as the sign language for the deaf community in Colombia.

The preservation of linguistic diversity is crucial for maintaining Colombia's multicultural identity and respecting the rights of its ethnic minorities. Education policies and community-led initiatives play a vital role in ensuring that these languages continue to be spoken and transmitted to future generations, contributing to social equity and cultural richness.

7.3. Religion

Colombia is a predominantly Christian country, with Roman Catholicism having a long history and significant cultural influence. However, the religious landscape has become increasingly diverse, particularly with the growth of Protestant denominations. The 1991 Constitution guarantees freedom of religion and establishes the separation of church and state, ensuring that all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.

The National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect official religious statistics in its censuses, so figures are typically based on surveys and studies by various organizations.

• Roman Catholicism**: The majority of Colombians identify as Roman Catholic. Estimates from various studies (e.g., Pew Research Center 2014, local academic studies) suggest that around 70% to 79% of the population adheres to Catholicism. The Catholic Church has historically played a significant role in Colombian society, culture, and education. Many national holidays and cultural traditions have Catholic origins.
• Protestantism**: There is a significant and growing Protestant minority, estimated to be around 13% to 17% of the population. This group primarily consists of Evangelical and Pentecostal churches, which have seen considerable expansion in recent decades, particularly in urban areas and among certain social groups. Other Protestant denominations, such as Adventists, are also present.
• Atheism, Agnosticism, and Unaffiliated**: Approximately 4.7% to 6% of the population identifies as atheist or agnostic, or claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion.
• Other Religions and Beliefs**:
  • Jehovah's Witnesses: Constitute a notable minority (around 1.8% in some surveys, often grouped with Adventists).
  • Indigenous Religions: Many indigenous communities maintain their traditional spiritual beliefs and practices, often syncretized with elements of Catholicism. An estimated 1-3% of the population may follow indigenous religions.
  • Other faiths, each with less than 1% adherence, include the Baháʼí Faith, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), Hinduism, Afro-Colombian spiritual traditions (which can include syncretic forms), the Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, and various spiritual study groups. The Eastern Orthodox Church also has a small presence.

  While many Colombians identify with a religion, studies (such as a 2013 study by Beltrán Cely) indicate that a significant percentage (e.g., around 35.9%) may not actively practice their faith.
  
  The constitutional guarantee of religious freedom is crucial for social equity, allowing individuals and communities to practice their beliefs without discrimination. Interfaith dialogue and respect for religious diversity are important aspects of Colombia's multicultural society. The state is officially lay, meaning it does not endorse or favor any particular religion, though the historical influence of Catholicism remains evident in some cultural aspects.

7.4. Health

Colombia has made significant progress in its healthcare system over the past few decades, particularly since the reforms initiated by Law 100 of 1993, which aimed to establish universal health insurance coverage. However, challenges related to equity, access, and quality persist.

Structure of the Healthcare System:
The Colombian healthcare system is a mixed model involving public, private, and subsidized components:

• Contributory Regime (Régimen Contributivo)**: For individuals with formal employment or the capacity to pay, who contribute a percentage of their income to Health Promoting Entities (EPS - Entidades Promotoras de Salud). EPSs are insurance companies that manage affiliations and contract services with healthcare providers (IPS - Instituciones Prestadoras de Servicios).
• Subsidized Regime (Régimen Subsidiado)**: For the low-income population without the capacity to pay. The state subsidizes their health insurance, and they are affiliated with EPSs that manage the subsidized regime.
• Special Regimes**: Certain groups, like teachers and military personnel, have separate healthcare systems.

The system aims for universal coverage, and by 2012, it was reported that around 96% of the population had health insurance coverage. The World Health Organization (WHO) once ranked Colombia's healthcare system 22nd in the world (in a 2000 report), and it has been considered one of the best in Latin America in some comparative studies. Several Colombian hospitals and clinics, particularly in major cities like Bogotá, Medellín, and Cali, are recognized for their high quality of care and specialized services, attracting medical tourism. In 2022, 26 Colombian hospitals were ranked among the top 61 in Latin America. In 2023, two Colombian hospitals were among the top 75 globally.

Key Health Indicators:

• Life expectancy**: Overall life expectancy at birth is around 79.3 years (76.7 for males, 81.9 for females, as of recent estimates).
• Infant mortality**: Has declined significantly but regional disparities exist.
• Major Health Concerns**: Include non-communicable diseases (cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes), infectious diseases (though many vaccine-preventable diseases are controlled), maternal and child health issues (especially in remote areas), mental health, and health problems related to violence and the armed conflict.

Access to Medical Services and Public Health Policies:
Despite high coverage rates, access to timely and quality medical services remains a challenge for many, particularly:

• Rural and Remote Areas**: Often lack adequate health infrastructure, personnel, and specialized services.
• Vulnerable Populations**: Indigenous communities, Afro-Colombians, internally displaced persons, and those in extreme poverty often face significant barriers to accessing care.
• Bureaucracy and Delays**: Patients sometimes experience long waiting times for appointments, specialist consultations, and procedures, even within the insured system.
• Financial Sustainability**: The system faces financial pressures, and there are ongoing debates about funding, the role of EPSs, and ensuring the efficient use of resources.

Public health policies focus on disease prevention, health promotion, vaccination programs, and addressing public health emergencies. The government declared a cancer research and treatment center as a Project of National Strategic Interest in 2017.

Challenges in Achieving Universal Health and Social Equity:
Achieving genuinely universal health (not just coverage) with equity is a major ongoing challenge. This requires:

• Reducing regional and socioeconomic disparities in access to quality care.
• Strengthening primary healthcare and preventive services.
• Improving the working conditions and distribution of healthcare professionals.
• Addressing social determinants of health, such as poverty, education, sanitation, and nutrition.
• Ensuring greater transparency and efficiency in the management of healthcare resources.
• Addressing the specific health needs of communities affected by conflict and violence, including mental health and rehabilitation services.

A center-left/social liberal perspective emphasizes healthcare as a fundamental human right and advocates for a system that prioritizes public health, equitable access for all citizens regardless of their socioeconomic status or geographic location, and a stronger role for the state in regulating and ensuring the quality and fairness of the healthcare system.

7.5. Education

The Colombian educational system is structured in several levels, from preschool to higher education, with the government playing a significant role in policy-making and funding. Ensuring equitable access to quality education for all citizens is a key challenge for social development.

Structure of the Educational System:

• Preschool Education (Educación Preescolar)**: For children up to age five. Attendance is common, especially in urban areas, but not universally accessible.
• Basic Education (Educación Básica)**: Compulsory by law and divided into two stages:
  • Primary Basic Education (Educación Básica Primaria): Grades 1 to 5, typically for children aged six to ten.
  • Secondary Basic Education (Educación Básica Secundaria): Grades 6 to 9.
• Middle Vocational Education (Educación Media Vocacional)**: Grades 10 and 11. Students can choose different vocational tracks or specialties (academic, technical, business, etc.) depending on the school's curriculum. Successful completion leads to a high-school diploma (bachiller). The entire secondary phase (grades 6-11) is often referred to as bachillerato.
• Higher Education (Educación Superior)**: Accessed after passing the national standardized exam, ICFES (now Saber 11). It includes:
  • Undergraduate professional studies at universities (typically 4-5 years, longer for careers like medicine).
  • Technical, technological, and intermediate professional education, often offered by specialized institutions like SENA (National Service of Learning) or technological institutes.
  • Post-graduate studies (specializations, master's degrees, doctorates).

  Major Universities and Institutions:
  Colombia has a mix of public and private universities. Some of the most prominent include:

  • National University of Colombia (Universidad Nacional de Colombia) - Public, largest and one of the most prestigious.
  • University of Antioquia (Universidad de Antioquia) - Public, major university in Medellín.
  • University of the Andes (Universidad de los Andes) - Private, highly ranked.
  • Pontifical Xavierian University (Pontificia Universidad Javeriana) - Private, Jesuit university.
  • University of Valle (Universidad del Valle) - Public, major university in Cali.

  The SENA (Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje) is a key public institution offering vocational and technical training.
  
  Literacy Rates and Enrollment:

  • Literacy rates are relatively high: In 2015, 94.58% for adults (15+) and 98.66% for youth (15-24).
  • Gross enrollment ratios for primary education are generally high (around 113.56% in 2015, indicating over-age enrollment or repetition), and for secondary education, around 98.09%.
  • School-life expectancy was about 14.42 years in 2015.

  Governmental Education Policies and Funding:
  The Ministry of National Education oversees the education system. Public spending on education was approximately 4.49% of GDP in 2015, representing about 15.05% of total government expenditure. Policies aim to improve quality, expand coverage (especially in preschool and higher education), reduce dropout rates, and enhance teacher training. There have been initiatives to promote bilingualism (Spanish-English) and integrate ICT into education.
  
  Challenges in Providing Equitable Access to Quality Education:
  Despite progress, significant challenges persist in ensuring equitable access to quality education for all Colombians:

  • Regional Disparities**: Rural and remote areas often have poorer quality schools, fewer resources, lack of qualified teachers, and limited access to secondary and higher education compared to urban centers.
  • Socioeconomic Disparities**: Children from low-income families face greater barriers to accessing and completing education, particularly quality higher education. The cost of private education is prohibitive for many, and competition for public university places is intense.
  • Quality Concerns**: While enrollment is high, the quality of education can vary significantly. Issues include outdated curricula, inadequate infrastructure in some schools, and the need for continuous professional development for teachers.
  • Impact of Conflict**: In areas affected by armed conflict, children's education has been disrupted by violence, displacement, recruitment by armed groups, and damage to school infrastructure.
  • Dropout Rates**: Dropout rates, especially at the secondary level and in vulnerable communities, remain a concern.
  • Access for Minorities**: Indigenous and Afro-Colombian communities often face additional barriers, including culturally inappropriate curricula, lack of bilingual teachers, and discrimination. Efforts to provide ethno-education tailored to their cultural contexts are ongoing but require more support.

  A center-left/social liberal perspective emphasizes education as a fundamental right and a key driver of social mobility and equitable development. This involves advocating for increased public investment in education at all levels, reducing disparities between urban and rural areas, ensuring culturally relevant education for ethnic minorities, improving teacher training and remuneration, and making higher education more accessible and affordable for students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Strengthening public education is seen as crucial for building a more democratic and equitable society.

7.6. Crime and public safety

Colombia has faced significant challenges related to crime and public safety, largely intertwined with its history of internal armed conflict, drug trafficking, and social inequalities. While substantial progress has been made in reducing certain types of crime over the past two decades, issues persist, impacting communities and human rights.

Past and Present Challenges:

• Drug Trafficking**: Colombia has been a major global producer and exporter of cocaine. Powerful drug cartels (like the Medellín and Cali cartels in the past) and numerous smaller trafficking organizations have fueled violence, corruption, and instability. While large cartels have been dismantled, drug trafficking continues, now often managed by more fragmented criminal networks, FARC dissidents, and other illegal armed groups. This illicit economy drives violence, deforestation (for coca cultivation), and social disruption in many regions.
• Violence Associated with the Internal Conflict**: The long-running conflict involving leftist guerrillas (FARC, ELN, and their dissident factions), paramilitary groups (historically the AUC, and their successor groups known as BACRIM or Clan del Golfo), and state forces has resulted in widespread violence, including massacres, assassinations (of social leaders, human rights defenders, ex-combatants), forced displacement, extortion, and control of illicit economies. While the 2016 peace accord with FARC aimed to reduce this violence, significant security challenges remain in many rural areas.
• Common Crime**: Urban areas face challenges with common crimes such as robbery, theft, and assault. Homicide rates, while significantly lower than their peak in the 1990s (when Colombia had one of the highest homicide rates globally), remain a concern in certain cities and regions.
• Organized Crime**: Beyond drug trafficking, organized criminal groups are involved in illegal mining, extortion, contraband, and human trafficking. These groups often exert territorial control and engage in violence to protect their interests.
• Corruption**: Corruption within state institutions, including the justice system and security forces, undermines efforts to improve public safety and the rule of law.

Governmental Efforts to Improve Public Safety and Reform the Justice System:
Colombian governments have implemented various strategies to address crime and improve public safety:

• Strengthening Security Forces**: Investing in the military and police, improving intelligence capabilities, and deploying forces to assert state control in previously neglected areas.
• Peace Processes**: Negotiating peace agreements with armed groups (e.g., the FARC accord) aims to reduce conflict-related violence and dismantle armed structures. Efforts for "Total Peace" under the Petro administration seek to engage with remaining groups.
• Justice System Reform**: Ongoing efforts to modernize the justice system, improve efficiency, reduce impunity, and enhance access to justice for citizens. This includes the transition to an adversarial criminal justice system.
• Counternarcotics Policies**: Strategies have included forced eradication of coca crops (manual and aerial spraying, though the latter is controversial due to health and environmental concerns), crop substitution programs, interdiction efforts, and targeting drug trafficking organizations. There is ongoing debate about the effectiveness and human cost of these policies, with recent discussions leaning towards a greater focus on rural development, public health approaches, and disrupting high-level trafficking networks rather than solely focusing on peasant coca growers.
• Citizen Security Programs**: Initiatives in urban areas to improve community policing, install surveillance systems, and address local crime issues.

Impact on Communities and Human Rights:
High levels of crime and violence have had a devastating impact on Colombian communities, leading to:

• Loss of life and injury.
• Widespread internal displacement.
• Fear and insecurity, affecting daily life and economic activity.
• Erosion of social trust and the rule of law.
• Human rights violations committed by both state and non-state actors in the context of security operations or criminal activities.

A center-left/social liberal perspective emphasizes that sustainable public safety requires not only effective law enforcement but also addressing the root causes of crime and violence, such as poverty, inequality, lack of opportunity, and weak state presence. This includes investing in social programs, strengthening democratic institutions, ensuring accountability for human rights violations by all actors, promoting community-based security initiatives, and pursuing comprehensive strategies for rural development and alternative livelihoods to counter illicit economies. Reforming drug policy to focus more on public health and harm reduction, while targeting organized crime, is also a key consideration from this viewpoint.

7.7. Internally displaced persons and refugees

Colombia has one of the largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the world, a direct and devastating consequence of its long-standing internal armed conflict, widespread violence involving various illegal armed groups, drug trafficking, and, to a lesser extent, natural disasters and development projects. The situation of IDPs represents a profound humanitarian crisis and a significant challenge to social equity and human rights.

Scale and Causes of Internal Displacement:

• Millions of Colombians have been forcibly displaced from their homes since the conflict intensified in the latter half of the 20th century. Official figures from the Colombian government's Unified Victim's Registry (Registro Único de Víctimas - RUV) indicate over 8 million registered victims of forced displacement.
• The primary drivers of displacement include direct threats and violence from illegal armed groups (guerrillas, paramilitaries, and their successor criminal bands/BACRIM), clashes between these groups and state security forces, massacres, forced recruitment (especially of minors), extortion, landmines, and disputes over land and control of illicit economies (coca cultivation, illegal mining) in their territories.
• Rural communities, indigenous peoples, and Afro-Colombians have been disproportionately affected, often being forced to abandon their ancestral lands and livelihoods.

Humanitarian Response and Government Policies:

• Legal Framework**: Colombia has developed a comprehensive legal framework for the attention and reparation of victims, notably Law 1448 of 2011 (Victims and Land Restitution Law). This law recognizes IDPs as victims and aims to provide humanitarian assistance, attention, and integral reparation, including land restitution.
• Government Agencies**: Institutions like the Victims' Unit (Unidad para las Víctimas) are responsible for coordinating assistance and reparation programs. The Land Restitution Unit (Unidad de Restitución de Tierras) handles claims for land dispossessed or abandoned due to the conflict.
• Humanitarian Assistance**: IDPs are entitled to emergency humanitarian aid (shelter, food, health) upon displacement. However, access to and the adequacy of this aid can be challenging, especially in remote areas or during mass displacement events.
• Durable Solutions**: The government aims to facilitate durable solutions for IDPs, which can include:
  • Voluntary Return**: Supporting safe and dignified return to their places of origin, often requiring demining, security guarantees, and basic infrastructure.
  • Relocation**: Assisting IDPs to settle in new locations if return is not feasible or safe.
  • Local Integration**: Supporting IDPs to integrate into host communities, often in urban peripheries where they face challenges related to housing, employment, and access to services.
• Land Restitution**: A complex and often dangerous process of returning land to those who were forcibly displaced. It faces challenges from ongoing insecurity, legal hurdles, and opposition from those who illegally acquired or currently occupy the land.

Challenges and Impact on IDPs:
Displacement has severe consequences for IDPs:

• Loss of homes, land, assets, and livelihoods.
• Poverty and precarious living conditions, often in overcrowded informal settlements in cities.
• Limited access to basic services like healthcare, education, and justice.
• Psychosocial trauma due to violence and loss.
• Increased vulnerability to exploitation, discrimination, and further violence.
• Erosion of social networks and cultural identity.
• Specific vulnerabilities for women (sexual violence, single-headed households), children (recruitment, lack of education), and ethnic minorities.

Refugees:
While Colombia is primarily a country of internal displacement, it also hosts refugees and asylum seekers from other countries, though in smaller numbers compared to its IDP population. More significantly in recent years, Colombia has become a major host country for millions of Venezuelan migrants and refugees fleeing the crisis in their homeland. This has placed additional strain on Colombia's social services and humanitarian response capacity. The Colombian government has largely maintained an open-door policy, implementing measures like Temporary Protection Status to regularize Venezuelans and facilitate their access to rights and services.

From a center-left/social liberal perspective, addressing the IDP crisis requires a comprehensive approach that prioritizes victims' rights, ensures their participation in policy-making, tackles the root causes of displacement (conflict, inequality, lack of state presence), strengthens protection mechanisms, guarantees access to justice and reparations (including land restitution), and promotes sustainable and dignified durable solutions. For Venezuelan migrants and refugees, ensuring their protection, access to humanitarian aid, and integration into society, while managing the social and economic impacts on host communities, is crucial.

7.8. Urbanization

Colombia has undergone a significant process of urbanization over the past century, transforming from a predominantly rural society to one where the majority of its population lives in urban centers. This trend has brought both opportunities and challenges related to social, economic, and infrastructural development.

Trends and Patterns of Urbanization:

• Rapid Growth**: The most intense period of rural-to-urban migration occurred from the mid-20th century. In 1938, only about 31% of the population was urban; by 1973, this figure had risen to nearly 60%. The 2018 census reported that 77.1% of the population lived in urban areas.
• Concentration in Major Cities**: Population growth has been particularly concentrated in a few large metropolitan areas. Bogotá, the capital, grew from around 300,000 inhabitants in 1938 to approximately 8 million today. Other major urban centers include Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, and Cartagena, each with populations exceeding one million in their metropolitan areas. Numerous other cities have also experienced significant growth.
• Drivers of Urbanization**: Key drivers include seeking better economic opportunities (employment, income), access to education and healthcare services, and, significantly, forced displacement due to the internal armed conflict and rural violence, which has pushed millions from the countryside into cities.

Social, Economic, and Infrastructural Challenges and Developments:

• Housing**: Rapid urbanization has led to significant housing deficits, particularly for low-income populations. This has resulted in the growth of informal settlements (barrios de invasión or asentamientos informales) on the peripheries of cities, often lacking adequate infrastructure, basic services, and secure land tenure. Government social housing programs aim to address this, but the scale of the need is vast.
• Access to Services**:
  • Basic Utilities**: While access to water, sanitation, and electricity has improved in urban areas, informal settlements often lack reliable connections.
  • Health and Education**: Urban centers generally offer better access to healthcare and education facilities compared to rural areas, which is a pull factor for migration. However, quality and accessibility can be unequal within cities, with poorer neighborhoods often having under-resourced schools and health centers.
  • Transportation**: Managing urban mobility is a major challenge. Cities like Bogotá and Medellín have implemented Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems (e.g., TransMilenio, Metroplús) and, in Medellín's case, integrated metro and cable car systems to improve public transport. However, traffic congestion, air pollution, and the need for more sustainable transport options remain.
• Employment and Economy**: Cities are centers of economic activity, offering more diverse employment opportunities than rural areas. However, high rates of labor informality are prevalent in urban economies, leading to precarious work and limited social protection for many.
• Public Safety and Crime**: Urban areas face challenges related to crime, including theft, robbery, and gang activity, although homicide rates have generally decreased from their peaks.
• Social Inequality**: Urbanization has not eliminated social inequality; in fact, cities often exhibit stark contrasts between wealthy and impoverished areas. Ensuring inclusive urban development that benefits all residents is a key policy goal.
• Environmental Issues**: Rapid urban growth can lead to environmental problems such as air and water pollution, waste management challenges, and encroachment on natural areas. Sustainable urban planning is crucial.

Urban Development Initiatives:
Colombian cities and national government have undertaken various initiatives to manage urbanization and improve living conditions:

• Urban renewal projects.
• Investments in public transportation and infrastructure.
• Social housing programs (e.g., "Vivienda de Interés Social" - VIS).
• Programs for legalizing informal settlements and upgrading basic services.
• Efforts to promote citizen participation in urban planning.

From a center-left/social liberal perspective, addressing the challenges of urbanization requires policies that prioritize social inclusion, reduce urban inequalities, ensure access to affordable housing and quality public services for all, promote sustainable and environmentally sound urban development, and create decent employment opportunities. Integrating displaced populations and other vulnerable groups into the urban fabric in a dignified manner is also a critical aspect of equitable urban development.

8.1. Literature

Colombian literature traces its origins to pre-Columbian oral traditions, with notable examples like the epic poem known as the Legend of Yuruparý. During the Spanish colonial period, writers such as Juan de Castellanos (author of Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias), Hernando Domínguez Camargo (known for his epic poem dedicated to San Ignacio de Loyola), Pedro Simón, and Juan Rodríguez Freyle (author of El Carnero) documented the era and laid the foundations for a literary tradition.

Following independence in the early 19th century, literature was closely linked to Romanticism and the nation-building process. Key figures included Antonio Nariño (a precursor of independence and translator of the Declaration of the Rights of Man), José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio, and Francisco Antonio Zea. The latter half of the 19th century and the early 20th century saw the rise of costumbrismo, a literary movement focusing on depicting local customs and daily life. Prominent costumbrista writers were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs (whose novel María became a classic of Latin American Romanticism), and Rafael Pombo, renowned for his children's literature.

Around this time, authors like José Asunción Silva (a precursor of Latin American Modernism), José Eustasio Rivera (author of the influential novel La vorágine, which depicted the harsh realities of the Amazon rubber boom), León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob, and José María Vargas Vila contributed to the Modernist movement, exploring new literary forms and themes. In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas, highlighting the importance of language and literature in the nation's identity. Candelario Obeso, an Afro-Colombian writer, published Cantos Populares de mi Tierra in 1877, a groundbreaking work of poetry that gave voice to Afro-Colombian culture.

Between 1939 and 1940, a group of poets published seven books under the name Piedra y Cielo in Bogotá, significantly influencing Colombian poetry. In the following decades, Gonzalo Arango founded the Nadaísmo (Nothingness) movement, a literary avant-garde response to the social and political violence of the time (La Violencia), influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the work of Colombian philosopher Fernando González.

The Boom in Latin American literature in the mid-20th century brought Colombian writers to international prominence. The most celebrated figure is Gabriel García Márquez, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1982. His masterpiece, One Hundred Years of Solitude, is a seminal work of magical realism and has been translated into numerous languages. Other important writers from this era and beyond include Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, who received prestigious awards like the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters.

Contemporary Colombian literature continues to thrive, with diverse voices exploring a wide range of themes, including the armed conflict, urban life, social inequality, and personal identity. Writers like Fernando Vallejo, Laura Restrepo, Juan Gabriel Vásquez, and Héctor Abad Faciolince have gained international recognition, reflecting the dynamism and richness of Colombian literary expression. The inclusion of diverse voices, including those from marginalized communities and different regions, is increasingly recognized as vital for a complete and equitable literary landscape.

8.2. Visual arts

Colombian visual arts have a rich history spanning over 3,000 years, reflecting the country's diverse cultural influences and evolving socio-political landscape. Artists have utilized a range of styles and mediums to capture these changes.

Archaeological evidence indicates that ceramics were produced in Colombia earlier than anywhere else in the Americas, with some examples dating as early as 3,000 BCE. The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship are attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast, dating to around 325 BCE. Pre-Columbian cultures like the Muisca, Quimbaya, Tayrona, and Calima produced intricate goldwork, pottery, and stone sculptures. The San Agustín culture (roughly 200 BCE - 800 CE) is renowned for its monumental stone statues and ceremonial centers, depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphic forms. These artifacts represent the artistic achievements and spiritual beliefs of indigenous civilizations.

During the colonial period (16th to 18th centuries), art was heavily influenced by Spanish Catholicism. Religious themes dominated, with painting and sculpture primarily serving ecclesiastic purposes. The Baroque style was prevalent, later evolving into Rococo with the Bourbon dynasty. Notable colonial painters included Gregorio Vásquez de Arce y Ceballos, Gaspar de Figueroa, Baltasar Vargas de Figueroa, Baltasar de Figueroa (the Elder), Antonio Acero de la Cruz, and Joaquín Gutiérrez. Alonso de Narváez (painter of the Virgin of Chiquinquirá) and the Italian Angelino Medoro also contributed significantly during this era.

In the 19th century, following independence, art began to reflect national themes and identities. Ramón Torres Méndez was a prominent painter known for his costumbrista scenes depicting the people and customs of different Colombian regions. Other notable artists of this period included Andrés de Santa María, Pedro José Figueroa, Epifanio Garay, Mercedes Delgado Mallarino, José María Espinosa, and Ricardo Acevedo Bernal.

The 20th century saw the emergence of modern art movements. Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado spearheaded the Colombian Mural Movement in the 1940s, incorporating neoclassical and Art Deco features.

Since the 1950s, Colombian art has sought a distinctive voice, reinterpreting traditional elements within contemporary concepts. Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo's portraits and Carlos Correa's "Naturaleza muerta en silencio" (Silent Dead Nature), which blended geometric abstraction and Cubism, are examples of this period. Alejandro Obregón is often considered the father of modern Colombian painting, known for his symbolic and expressionist use of animals (especially the Andean condor) and Colombian landscapes.

Internationally renowned Colombian artists include Fernando Botero, whose voluminous figures have become iconic; Omar Rayo, known for his geometric abstraction; Enrique Grau; Édgar Negret (sculptor); David Manzur; and Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt (sculptor). Contemporary artists like Doris Salcedo, whose work often addresses themes of violence, trauma, and memory in Colombia, and Oscar Muñoz, have gained significant international recognition, reflecting on the country's social and political realities. Oscar Murillo is another contemporary artist with international prominence.

Sculpture in Colombia, from colonial religious carvings to 19th-century neoclassical portraits of public figures, evolved in the 20th century towards more innovative and bold expressions aimed at capturing national sensibility.

Photography was introduced to Colombia with the daguerreotype, brought by Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros in 1841. The Piloto Public Library in Medellín holds Latin America's largest archive of photographic negatives, documenting Colombian history from 1848 to 2005. The Colombian press has also fostered the work of cartoonists, and in recent decades, fanzines, the internet, and independent publishers have been crucial for the growth of comics in Colombia.

The diversity of Colombian visual arts reflects its multicultural society, addressing themes of identity, history, social justice, and human experience, often with a critical perspective on the nation's challenges and a celebration of its cultural richness.

8.3. Architecture

The architecture of Colombia reflects its diverse history, geography, and cultural influences, evolving from indigenous constructions to contemporary designs.

Indigenous Constructions:
Pre-Columbian architectural heritage includes ancient habitation areas, longhouses, agricultural terraces, parts of the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums, and necropolises. Prominent examples are:

• The preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama.
• Tierradentro, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, known for its monumental shaft tombs with side chambers.
• San Agustín Archaeological Park, another UNESCO site, featuring the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America.
• Ciudad Perdida ("Lost City"), an ancient Tayrona city in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, characterized by terraces, tiled roads, and circular plazas.

Indigenous communities traditionally built large villages using stone, wood, cane, and mud, adapted to their specific environments and social structures.

Colonial Architecture (16th-18th centuries):
Spanish colonial architecture adapted European styles, particularly Andalusian and Extremaduran influences, to local conditions and materials. The founding of cities involved geometric layouts with a central plaza and grid street patterns.

• Military Architecture**: Forts and defensive walls were common, especially in Caribbean port cities like Cartagena (whose fortifications are a UNESCO World Heritage site), to protect against pirates and rival European powers.
• Religious Architecture**: Churches, chapels, convents, and monasteries built by Catholic religious orders had a significant urban and social influence. Styles evolved from simpler early forms to elaborate Baroque and later Rococo. Notable examples can be found in Bogotá, Tunja, Popayán, and Mompox. Domingo de Petrés was an important architect of this period.
• Domestic Architecture**: Houses featured courtyards, balconies, and thick adobe or stone walls, adapted to the climate.

Republican Era (19th century):
After independence, neoclassical styles became popular for public buildings, reflecting the ideals of the new republic. The Capitolio Nacional (National Capitol) in Bogotá is a major example, influenced by Romanticism and designed by figures like Thomas Reed. Francisco José de Caldas, though more known as a scientist, also contributed to architectural thought. Wood was extensively used in the Antioquian colonization region for housing. Caribbean coastal architecture developed unique features, sometimes with Arabic influences. The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of 19th-century theater architecture. Gothic revival styles were often used for churches.

Transition and Modern Architecture (20th century):
The early to mid-20th century saw a transition with styles like Art Deco, modern neoclassicism, and eclecticism. The introduction of new construction technologies and materials like steel, reinforced concrete, and glass led to the Modern Movement.
Influential modern architects included Rogelio Salmona, known for his masterful use of brick and integration of buildings with public space and landscape, and Fernando Martínez Sanabria. Their works, particularly in Bogotá, significantly shaped Colombian modern architecture, often reflecting a critical engagement with social and urban contexts.

Contemporary Architecture (Late 20th century - Present):
Contemporary Colombian architecture emphasizes materiality, context (both natural and artificial geographies), and sensory experience. There is a growing focus on sustainable design and innovative use of local materials. The conservation of architectural and urban heritage has also gained importance in recent years. Architects today grapple with issues of urban density, social housing, public space, and creating buildings that respond to Colombia's diverse climates and cultural identities.

The evolution of Colombian architecture reflects the nation's historical trajectory, from indigenous ingenuity and colonial imposition to republican aspirations and modern innovations, all shaped by social needs, available materials, and changing aesthetic ideals.

8.4. Music

Colombian music is exceptionally diverse, a vibrant fusion of indigenous, European (primarily Spanish), and African influences, resulting in a rich array of rhythms and genres. It is often called "the land of a thousand rhythms," with estimates of around 1,024 folk rhythms. This musical diversity reflects the country's multicultural society and varied regional identities.

Traditional and Folk Music by Region:

• Caribbean Coast**: This region is a hotbed of influential genres:
  • Cumbia**: Perhaps Colombia's most iconic rhythm, cumbia originated from the intermingling of indigenous (gaitas - long flutes), African (drums, percussion structure, dance), and European (melodic and harmonic structures, dress) elements. It is played with instruments like maracas, drums, gaitas, and the guacharaca (a percussion instrument).
  • Vallenato**: Originating in the La Guajira, Cesar, and Magdalena departments, vallenato is centered around the accordion, caja vallenata (a small drum), and guacharaca. Its lyrics often tell stories of daily life, love, and regional events. Carlos Vives is a key figure in popularizing vallenato internationally.
  • Porro** and **Fandango**: Brass-band based rhythms popular in Córdoba and Sucre.
  • Mapalé**: An energetic Afro-Colombian rhythm and dance with fast tempos and constant clapping.
  • Champeta**: A more contemporary genre with strong African and Caribbean influences, originating in Cartagena.
  • Pacific Coast**: This region has a strong Afro-Colombian musical heritage:
    • Currulao**: Characterized by its powerful use of drums like the cununos, bass drum, side drum, and the native marimba de chonta (a wooden xylophone). It is often accompanied by call-and-response vocals and dance. Marimba music, traditional chants, and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are recognized on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
    • Contradanza**: A dance music showing European influences, popular in the southern Pacific coast.
    • Andean Region**: This region features string-instrument based music with European and indigenous influences:
      • Bambuco**: A widely recognized national rhythm, often considered the "national dance." It is typically played with guitar, tiple (a 12-stringed guitar-like instrument), and mandolin, and is danced by couples.
      • Pasillo**: A rhythm inspired by the European waltz and the Colombian "danza." It can be both instrumental and vocal, with lyrics often written by well-known poets.
      • Guabina**: A vocal and instrumental genre from Santander and Boyacá, typically featuring the tiple, bandola, and requinto.
      • Sanjuanero** and **Rajaleña**: Joyful and fast rhythms originating in the Tolima and Huila departments, prominent during local festivities.
      • Orinoquía Region (Llanos Orientales)**: The music of the Eastern Plains is shared with Venezuela and is characterized by:
        • Joropo**: A fast-paced rhythm featuring the harp, cuatro (a small four-stringed guitar), and maracas. It is often accompanied by zapateado (foot-stomping) dance, showing flamenco ancestry.
        • Galerón**: A narrative song form often heard during cowboys' work and festivities.
        • Amazon Region**: Music here is strongly influenced by indigenous traditions and religious practices. Instruments include the manguaré (a ceremonial pair of large cylindrical drums), quena (flute), rondador (panpipes), congas, and various types of flutes.
        • Insular Region (San Andrés and Providencia)**: The music of this Caribbean archipelago has distinct influences from English-speaking Caribbean traditions:
          • Genres like Schottische, Calypso, Polka, and Mento are popular, often accompanied by mandolin, washtub bass, jawbone, guitar, and maracas.

          Art Music and Popular Music:
          Guillermo Uribe Holguín, Luis Antonio Calvo, and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are important figures in Colombian art music. The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the country's most active orchestras.
          
          Salsa, while not originating in Colombia, has become immensely popular throughout the country, with cities like Cali being recognized as major international salsa centers, developing its own distinctive style. Rock, pop, reggaeton, and urban music genres also have a strong following, with Colombian artists achieving international success. Musicians like Shakira, Juanes, J Balvin, Maluma, and Karol G have gained global recognition, blending Colombian rhythms with contemporary sounds.
          
          Colombian music is a dynamic and evolving field, deeply connected to its social history, regional identities, and the everyday lives of its people. Festivals and cultural events across the country celebrate this rich musical diversity.

8.5. Cuisine

Colombian cuisine is highly varied, reflecting the country's diverse geography, climates, and the cultural traditions of its indigenous, European (primarily Spanish), and African populations, with some Middle Eastern influences in certain regions. Dishes and ingredients differ significantly from one region to another.

Common Ingredients:

• Cereals**: Rice and maize (corn) are staples.
• Tubers**: Potatoes (many varieties, especially in the Andes) and cassava (yuca) are widely used.
• Legumes**: Assorted beans (frijoles) are fundamental in many dishes.
• Meats**: Beef, chicken, pork, and goat are common.
• Fish and Seafood**: Abundant along the Caribbean and Pacific coasts and in major rivers.
• Fruits**: Colombia boasts an incredible variety of tropical fruits, including cape gooseberry (uchuva), feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit (pitahaya), mangosteen (mangostino), granadilla, papaya, guava (guayaba), mora (a type of blackberry), lulo (naranjilla), soursop (guanábana), and passionfruit (maracuyá). Fruit juices are extremely popular.

Representative Dishes:

• Appetizers and Soups**:
  • Arepa: A flatbread made from ground maize dough or cooked flour, ubiquitous and prepared in many regional variations (e.g., with cheese, egg, or various toppings).
  • Empanada: Fried or baked pastries filled with meat, potatoes, or cheese.
  • Patacón (or tostón): Fried green plantain slices, often served as a side or appetizer.
  • Ajiaco santafereño: A hearty soup from Bogotá, made with chicken, three types of potatoes, corn on thecob, and guascas (an herb). Served with capers, avocado, and cream.
  • Sancocho: A traditional soup found throughout the country, with regional variations. Typically made with meat (chicken, beef, or fish), plantains, yuca, corn, potatoes, and other vegetables.
• Main Courses**:
  • Bandeja paisa ("Paisa Platter"): A very large and emblematic dish from the Antioquia region, typically including red beans, white rice, ground meat, chicharrón (fried pork belly), fried egg, plantain, chorizo, arepa, hogao sauce, and avocado.
  • Lechona tolimense: A whole roasted pig stuffed with rice, peas, and spices, originating from the Tolima department.
  • Mamona or Ternera a la llanera: Veal or beef roasted on a spit, a specialty of the Llanos Orientales.
  • Tamal: A dish made of masa (corn dough) or rice, filled with meats, vegetables, and spices, wrapped in plantain or bijao leaves and steamed. Many regional variations exist (e.g., Tolimense, Antioqueño).
  • Fish Dishes: Especially popular in coastal regions. Examples include Arroz de lisa (mullet rice) from the Caribbean coast, fried fish with coconut rice and patacones.
  • Caribbean specialties: Kibbeh (reflecting Middle Eastern influence), suero (a cultured milk product), costeño cheese, and Carimañola (fried yuca fritters filled with meat or cheese).
• Side Dishes**:
  • Papas chorreadas: Boiled potatoes topped with a creamy cheese and onion sauce.
  • Arroz con coco: Coconut rice, a popular side dish, especially on the Caribbean coast.
• Breads and Snacks**:
  • Pandebono: A cheese bread made with yuca starch and corn flour.
  • Almojábana: A type of cheese bread.
  • Buñuelos: Fried dough balls, often enjoyed with natilla (a custard-like dessert) during Christmas.
  • Torta de choclo: Sweet corn cake.
  • Aborrajados: Fried sweet plantains stuffed with cheese.

  Desserts:

  • Natilla: A set custard, especially popular at Christmas.
  • Bocadillo veleño: A firm guava paste, often eaten with cheese.
  • Cocadas: Coconut sweets.
  • Casquitos de guayaba: Candied guava peels.
  • Torta de natas: Cream cake.
  • Oblea: Thin wafers filled with arequipe (dulce de leche) and other sweet toppings.
  • Flan de mango: Mango crème caramel.
  • Roscones: Ring-shaped sweet breads.
  • Milhoja ("thousand leaves"): A layered puff pastry dessert.
  • Manjar blanco: A creamy milk-based dessert similar to dulce de leche.
  • Dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela: Candied fruits.
  • Torta de mojicón, esponjado de curuba.

  Sauces and Beverages:

  • Sauces**: Hogao (a basic sauce made from tomatoes, onions, garlic, and spices) and Colombian-style ají (a spicy sauce) are common accompaniments.
  • Beverages**:
    • Coffee (tinto - black coffee, or with milk) is a national pride.
    • Fresh fruit juices (jugos naturales) are ubiquitous, often made with water or milk.
    • Aguapanela: A drink made from unrefined cane sugar (panela), often served hot with cheese or cold with lime.
    • Aguardiente: An anise-flavored liqueur, a popular alcoholic beverage.
    • Champús, Cholado, Lulada: Traditional fruit-based beverages.
    • Avena colombiana: A creamy oatmeal-based drink.
    • Sugarcane juice (jugo de caña).
    • Hot chocolate (often served with cheese).

    Organic food is a growing trend in big cities, though generally, fruits and vegetables across the country are very natural and fresh. Colombian cuisine is a testament to its rich agricultural bounty and multicultural heritage, offering a diverse and flavorful gastronomic experience.

8.6. Sports

Sports play a significant role in Colombian culture and national identity, with several disciplines enjoying widespread popularity and producing internationally recognized athletes.

• Football (Soccer)**: Football is by far the most popular sport in Colombia. The national team ("Los Cafeteros") evokes passionate support. They won the 2001 Copa América as hosts, setting a record by winning every match without conceding a goal. The team has participated in several FIFA World Cups, with their best performance being the quarter-finals in 2014. Colombian players like Carlos Valderrama, Faustino Asprilla, Radamel Falcao, and James Rodríguez have achieved international fame. The domestic professional league, Categoría Primera A, features popular clubs like Atlético Nacional, Millonarios, América de Cali, and Deportivo Cali.
• Cycling**: Colombia has a strong tradition in cycling, particularly road cycling. The country's mountainous terrain produces excellent climbers. Colombian cyclists ("escarabajos" - beetles) have achieved significant success in major international races, including Grand Tours like the Tour de France, Giro d'Italia, and Vuelta a España. Riders like Lucho Herrera, Fabio Parra, Nairo Quintana, Egan Bernal (winner of the 2019 Tour de France and 2021 Giro d'Italia), and Rigoberto Urán are national heroes. BMX cycling is also popular, with Mariana Pajón being a multiple Olympic gold medalist and world champion.
• Tejo**: This is Colombia's national sport, a traditional throwing sport with pre-Columbian origins. It involves launching a metal disc (tejo) at a clay target containing small explosive envelopes (mechas). It is a popular social and recreational activity.
• Roller Skating (Speed Skating)**: Colombia is a dominant force in inline speed skating, with its national team consistently winning multiple gold medals at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships.
• Boxing**: Boxing has produced numerous world champions for Colombia, particularly in lighter weight classes. Figures like Antonio Cervantes ("Kid Pambelé") are legendary.
• Weightlifting**: Colombia has a strong tradition in Olympic weightlifting, with athletes like María Isabel Urrutia (Olympic gold medalist) achieving international success.
• Athletics**: Colombian athletes have excelled in various track and field events. Caterine Ibargüen (Olympic gold medalist in triple jump) is a prominent example.
• Baseball**: Popular in Caribbean coastal cities like Cartagena and Barranquilla. Colombia has produced Major League Baseball (MLB) players such as Édgar Rentería (a two-time World Series champion) and Orlando Cabrera. Colombia won the Amateur World Series (now Baseball World Cup) in 1947 and 1965.
• Motorsports**: Juan Pablo Montoya is a highly successful Colombian racing driver, having competed in Formula One (winning 7 races), IndyCar, and NASCAR.
• Other Sports**: Judo, shooting sports, taekwondo, wrestling, and bowling also have followings and have seen Colombian athletes achieve success. High diving is another area where Colombians have excelled.

Sports in Colombia are not just a form of entertainment but also a source of national pride, a means of social mobility for some athletes, and a way to promote positive values. The success of Colombian athletes on the international stage often brings a sense of unity and joy to the nation.

8.7. World Heritage Sites

Colombia is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding universal value, encompassing both cultural and natural heritage. These sites reflect the country's rich history, diverse ecosystems, and unique cultural traditions. As of the last update, these include:

1. **Port, Fortresses and Group of Monuments, Cartagena** (Cultural, inscribed 1984): Located on the Caribbean coast, Cartagena was one of the most important Spanish ports in the Americas. Its extensive system of fortifications, built from the 16th to the 18th centuries, is a remarkable example of military architecture. The historic walled city (ciudad amurallada) showcases well-preserved colonial architecture, including churches, palaces, and squares, reflecting its historical role in trade and defense.
2. **Los Katíos National Park** (Natural, inscribed 1994): Situated in northwestern Colombia, bordering Panama, this park comprises low hills, forests, and wet plains. It is known for its exceptional biodiversity, including many threatened animal species and endemic plants. The park is part of the Darién Gap, a historically important land bridge.
3. **Historic Centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox** (Cultural, inscribed 1995): Located on an island in the Magdalena River, Mompox (or Mompós) played a crucial role during the Spanish colonial period as a river port and a safe haven for royalist wealth. It has preserved its colonial character, with streets laid out along the river and notable examples of colonial architecture, particularly its churches with unique bell towers and interior decorations.
4. **National Archeological Park of Tierradentro** (Cultural, inscribed 1995): Located in the department of Cauca, Tierradentro is famous for its elaborate pre-Columbian hypogea (underground burial chambers). These monumental shaft tombs, dating from the 6th to the 10th centuries AD, are adorned with intricate geometric, zoomorphic, and anthropomorphic paintings in red, black, and white, reflecting the unique funerary traditions of the culture that inhabited this region.
5. **San Agustín Archaeological Park** (Cultural, inscribed 1995): Situated in the department of Huila, this park contains the largest group of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America. Dating from the 1st to the 8th centuries AD, these impressive stone statues, representing deities, animals, and human figures, are associated with funerary rites and the worldview of a mysterious Andean culture.
6. **Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary** (Natural, inscribed 2006): Malpelo Island is a remote, uninhabited volcanic island in the Pacific Ocean, about 311 mile ^{(500 km)} off the Colombian coast. The sanctuary includes the island and a large surrounding marine protected area. It is recognized as a critical habitat for internationally threatened marine species, particularly large pelagic fish like sharks (hammerheads, silky sharks, whale sharks), giant grouper, and billfish. It is a major diving destination and an important site for marine research.
7. **Coffee Cultural Landscape of Colombia** (Cultural, inscribed 2011): This site comprises six farming landscapes, including 18 urban centers in the foothills of the western and central ranges of the Cordillera de los Andes. It reflects a centennial tradition of coffee growing on small plots in the high forest and the unique way of life of a community that has adapted cultivation to difficult mountain conditions. The architecture of the coffee farms, typically built with bahareque (wattle and daub) and colorful woodwork, is also distinctive.
8. **Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System** (Cultural, inscribed 2014): This is a transnational serial site shared with Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru. It represents the extensive Inca communication, trade, and defense network of roads covering over 19 K mile ^{(30.00 K km)}. Parts of this ancient road system pass through Colombian territory in the southern Andes, highlighting the reach of the Inca Empire and the pre-existing indigenous pathways.
9. **Chiribiquete National Park - "The Maloca of the Jaguar"** (Mixed Cultural and Natural, inscribed 2018): Located in the heart of the Colombian Amazon, Chiribiquete is Colombia's largest national park. It is recognized for its exceptional biodiversity, being a meeting point for Amazonian, Andean, Orinoquian, and Guyanan flora and fauna. Culturally, it is significant for its numerous tepuis (table-top mountains) that feature over 75,000 ancient rock paintings, some potentially dating back 20,000 years, depicting hunting scenes, dances, ceremonies, and megafauna. These paintings are considered sacred by uncontacted indigenous communities who still inhabit the region, and the park is referred to as the "Maloca (longhouse) of the Jaguar."

These World Heritage Sites underscore Colombia's global importance in terms of both its natural wonders and its rich human history, from ancient indigenous civilizations to the colonial era and unique cultural landscapes. Their preservation is vital for national identity and for humanity.