Haiti

2.1. Etymology

The name Haiti (also historically spelled Hayti) originates from the indigenous Taíno language, where Ayiti_ah-ee-TEE^{Uncoded languages} meant "land of high mountains." This was the native name for the entire island of Hispaniola. The name was revived by the Haitian revolutionary leader Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name for the newly independent nation of Saint-Domingue in 1804, serving as a tribute to the island's original Amerindian inhabitants and signifying a rejection of its colonial past.

In French, Haiti is spelled Haïti. The diaeresis on the "ï" indicates that the vowel "i" is pronounced separately from the preceding "a" (as in the English word "naïve"). The "H" is silent in French. The standard English pronunciation is _HAY-tee^English, though other anglicizations such as HIGH-ti, high-EE-ti, and haa-EE-ti have also been used. In Haitian Creole, the language spoken by virtually the entire population, the country is called Ayiti_A-yi-ti^Haitian, reflecting a spelling and pronunciation closer to the original Taíno.

During the French colonial era, Saint-Domingue was often referred to as La Perle des Antilles ("The Pearl of the Antilles") due to its stunning natural beauty and the immense wealth it generated for the Kingdom of France through its plantation economy. Within Haiti, various affectionate or significant nicknames for the country exist, including Ayiti-Cheri_{Ayiti my Darling}^Haitian, Tè-Desalin_{Land of Dessalines}^Haitian, and Lakay_Home^Haitian. An alternative theory for the name's origin, drawn from African tradition, suggests that in the Fon language, spoken by many enslaved Haitians born in Africa, Ayiti-Tomè means "From nowadays this land is our land." This has also led to the nickname Ayiti-Toma.

The nation was officially founded as Hayti in its Declaration of Independence and early prints, constitutions, and imperial declarations. Published writings in the United States commonly used the name Hayti between 1802 and 1919. By 1873, Haiti became more common in US publications, and Frederick Douglass used Haiti in all his publications after 1890. The spelling Hayti continued to be used in some books published in England as late as 1949, but by 1950, usage in England had predominantly shifted to Haiti.

3.1. Pre-Columbian Era

The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths, was inhabited for thousands of years before European arrival. The earliest inhabitants are believed to have arrived from Central or northern South America around 6,000 years ago. These Archaic Age peoples were primarily hunter-gatherers.
Around the 1st millennium BC, the Arawakan-speaking ancestors of the Taíno people began migrating into the Caribbean islands. Unlike the earlier Archaic peoples, the Taíno practiced intensive pottery production and agriculture. The earliest evidence of Taíno ancestors on Hispaniola is the Ostionoid culture, dating to around 600 AD.

At the time of European contact in 1492, the Taíno society on Hispaniola was organized into five major political units called caciquedoms (chiefdoms), each led by a cacique (chief). These were:

• Marién: Located in the northwest, encompassing much of what is now northern Haiti.
• Maguá: Located in the northeast.
• Maguana: Located in the central regions of Cibao.
• Jaragua (or Xaragua): Located in the southwest, covering a significant portion of modern-day southern Haiti. Its capital was near present-day Léogâne.
• Higüey: Located in the southeast.

The Taíno people had a rich culture, which included complex social structures, religious beliefs centered on spirits called zemis, and artistic expressions such as cave paintings. Several of these cave painting sites in Haiti have become national symbols and tourist attractions.

3.2. Colonial Era

The arrival of Europeans marked a devastating turning point for Hispaniola, leading to the decimation of the indigenous population and the establishment of a brutal system of colonial exploitation based on enslaved African labor. This era laid the groundwork for Haiti's future social and economic struggles.

3.2.1. Spanish Rule (1492-1625)

Christopher Columbus, sailing for the Crown of Castile, landed on the island of Hispaniola on December 6, 1492, near an area he named Môle-Saint-Nicolas in present-day Haiti. He claimed the island for Spain, naming it La Española. Nineteen days later, on December 25, 1492, Columbus's flagship, the Santa María, ran aground near the site of modern Cap-Haïtien. He left 39 men to found the settlement of La Navidad, the first European colony in the Americas. However, relations with the Taíno, initially peaceful, soon deteriorated, and the settlers were killed by the indigenous people.

The Spanish colonizers brought Old World diseases, such as smallpox, to which the native population had no immunity. These diseases, combined with the brutality of the forced labor system known as the encomienda, led to a catastrophic decline in the Taíno population. Under the encomienda system, Taínos were forced to work in gold mines and on plantations. The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507, decimating the remaining Taíno.

To regulate the treatment of the indigenous people and legitimize the encomienda, the Spanish crown enacted the Laws of Burgos in 1512-1513. These laws theoretically forbade the maltreatment of natives and endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, but in practice, they did little to alleviate the suffering and exploitation. As the Taíno population dwindled, the Spanish began importing enslaved Africans to provide labor.

Over time, as Spain's colonial focus shifted towards the richer mainland territories of Central and South America, Hispaniola became less central to the Spanish Empire. The island became primarily a trading and refueling post. This neglect allowed piracy to flourish, often encouraged by rival European powers like France and England. French buccaneers, many based on the nearby island of Tortuga, began to settle the western part of Hispaniola, which Spain had largely abandoned. Bertrand d'Ogeron, a notable buccaneer, successfully cultivated tobacco and recruited French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe to settle the area.

3.2.2. French Rule (1625-1804)

The increasing French presence in western Hispaniola eventually led to a formal division of the island. In 1697, under the Treaty of Ryswick, Spain officially ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France. The French named their new colony Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of the Spanish Santo Domingo.

Under French rule, Saint-Domingue became the most profitable colony in the world, often referred to as the "Pearl of the Antilles." Its wealth was built on a vast plantation system cultivating sugarcane and coffee, which relied entirely on the brutal exploitation of enslaved Africans. Hundreds of thousands of Africans were forcibly transported to Saint-Domingue through the transatlantic slave trade. By the late 18th century, Saint-Domingue was generating 40% of France's foreign trade and producing two-thirds of Europe's tropical produce.

The society of Saint-Domingue was rigidly hierarchical and deeply divided by race and class:

• Grands blancs (rich whites): Wealthy plantation owners, merchants, and royal officials who formed the colonial elite.
• Petits blancs (poor whites): Artisans, shopkeepers, overseers, and laborers, who often resented the grands blancs but shared their racial prejudices.
• Gens de couleur libres (free people of color): Often of mixed African and European descent (mulattoes), many of whom were manumitted (freed) or born free. Some owned property, including enslaved people, and sought greater rights and social standing, but faced legal discrimination.
• Enslaved Africans: The vast majority of the population, subjected to horrific conditions, brutal punishments, and a high mortality rate. By 1788, the population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free people of color, and an estimated 700,000 enslaved Africans.

The French enacted the Code Noir ("Black Code") in 1685, prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV. This code regulated the treatment of enslaved people and defined their status, as well as the status of free people of color. While it included some provisions for basic care, its primary purpose was to maintain the system of slavery and ensure the total submission of the enslaved. Life for the enslaved in Saint-Domingue was exceptionally harsh; it's estimated that one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years due to overwork, malnutrition, and disease. The enslaved population had low birth rates, and some women resorted to abortion rather than bring children into slavery.

Enslaved Africans in Saint-Domingue retained and adapted many aspects of their African cultures, religions, and languages. Haitian Vodou, a syncretic religion blending West African spiritual traditions with elements of Catholicism, emerged and was practiced in secret. Resistance to slavery was constant, taking various forms, including individual acts of defiance, escape, and the formation of maroon communities in the mountainous interior. One notable maroon leader, François Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s, poisoning enslavers and their livestock, before being captured and executed by the French.

The extreme brutality and inherent injustice of the slave system in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the revolutionary ideals spreading from France, created an explosive environment that would soon erupt into the Haitian Revolution.

3.3. Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

The Haitian Revolution was a period of profound social and political upheaval in Saint-Domingue, leading to the abolition of slavery and the establishment of Haiti as the first independent Black republic. It was the only successful slave revolt in history and had a significant impact on the Americas and the global fight against slavery and colonialism, deeply resonating with democratic ideals and human rights.

The revolution was sparked by a combination of factors, including the brutal conditions of slavery, the influence of the French Revolution (1789) and its ideals of "liberty, equality, fraternity," and existing tensions between the different social classes in the colony.

• Grands blancs (wealthy whites) sought greater autonomy from France.
• Petits blancs (poor whites) sought more political power and resented the privileges of the grands blancs.
• Gens de couleur libres (free people of color) demanded equal rights with whites, as promised by early French revolutionary decrees. Vincent Ogé, a wealthy free man of color, led an early revolt in 1790 for these rights but was captured and brutally executed.
• Enslaved Africans, who formed the vast majority of the population, desired freedom from bondage.

The revolution is often considered to have begun in August 1791. Inspired by a Vodou ceremony led by houngan (priest) Boukman Dutty at Bois Caïman, enslaved people in the northern plains launched a massive, coordinated uprising. Plantations were burned, and enslavers were killed, marking the start of a brutal and protracted conflict.

Key figures emerged to lead the formerly enslaved:

• Toussaint Louverture: A formerly enslaved man who rose to become a brilliant military strategist and political leader. He initially allied with the Spanish against the French, then switched allegiance to the French Republic when it abolished slavery. He eventually became the de facto ruler of Saint-Domingue, drafting a constitution in 1801 that made him governor-general for life but did not declare full independence.
• Jean-Jacques Dessalines: Louverture's principal lieutenant, also formerly enslaved. Known for his military prowess and ruthlessness, he would later lead the final phase of the revolution and declare Haiti's independence.
• Henri Christophe: Another key general, formerly enslaved, who would later rule northern Haiti.
• Alexandre Pétion: A leader of the gens de couleur, who allied at times with the enslaved rebels and at other times with the French.

The revolution involved complex and shifting alliances. In 1792, French commissioners, notably Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel, arrived to restore order. To gain support against counter-revolutionaries and foreign invaders (Spain and Britain), Sonthonax abolished slavery in the northern province in August 1793. This was extended to the entire colony, and in February 1794, the French National Convention in Paris formally abolished slavery in all French colonies. This was a radical step, driven by both revolutionary ideals and pragmatic military needs.

Louverture, now allied with the French, successfully fought off Spanish and British forces. The Spanish were forced to cede their part of Hispaniola (Santo Domingo) to France by the Peace of Basel in 1795, though French control was not fully established. However, internal conflicts persisted, notably the War of the Knives (1799-1800) between Louverture's forces and those of André Rigaud, leader of the southern mulattoes, which Louverture won with indirect U.S. support. The United States, under President John Adams, provided some aid to Louverture, viewing an autonomous Saint-Domingue as beneficial to U.S. trade and a check on French power, a policy reversed by the slave-holding President Thomas Jefferson.

In 1802, Napoléon Bonaparte, seeking to restore French authority and, crucially, slavery to maximize colonial profits (especially after acquiring Louisiana), sent a massive expedition of over 20,000 soldiers led by his brother-in-law, General Charles Leclerc. Louverture was tricked, captured, and deported to France, where he died in prison at Fort de Joux in 1803. Leclerc initially had success, but his forces were decimated by yellow fever and fierce Haitian resistance. More than 50,000 French troops, including 18 generals, would perish in the campaign.

Dessalines, Christophe, and Pétion took up the fight. They employed guerrilla tactics and benefited from the devastating impact of yellow fever on the European troops. The rebels finally defeated the French at the decisive Battle of Vertières on November 18, 1803. This victory secured Haitian independence.

On January 1, 1804, in the city of Gonaïves, Dessalines proclaimed the independence of Saint-Domingue, renaming it Haiti. This marked the birth of the world's first independent Black republic and the second independent nation in the Americas (after the United States). The Haitian Revolution was a triumph for human rights, demonstrating that enslaved people could overthrow their oppressors and establish their own state. It sent shockwaves throughout the slaveholding world, inspiring fear among enslavers and hope among the enslaved. An estimated 350,000 formerly enslaved Haitians died during the revolution, alongside tens of thousands of European soldiers.

3.4. Early Independence (1804-1915)

Haiti's first century of independence was marked by formidable challenges, including establishing a new state from the ashes of a brutal slave society, fending off external threats, dealing with internal political divisions, and grappling with a crippling economic legacy. This period saw experiments with different forms of government, territorial changes, and persistent instability that hindered national development and efforts towards social justice.

3.4.1. First Empire (1804-1806)

Following the declaration of independence on January 1, 1804, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the revolution's leading general, became Haiti's first ruler. Later in 1804, he proclaimed himself Emperor Jacques I, establishing the First Empire of Haiti. One of his first and most controversial acts was the 1804 massacre of the remaining white French population in Haiti. Between January and April 1804, an estimated 3,000 to 5,000 white men, women, and children were killed. This brutal measure was intended to prevent any resurgence of French influence or attempts to re-enslave the population and was seen by Dessalines as retribution for centuries of slavery. Exceptions were made for some Polish deserters from the French army who fought with the Haitians, a small group of German colonists, medical professionals, and women who agreed to marry non-white men.

Dessalines implemented policies aimed at consolidating the new state, including land reform and the maintenance of a strong military. He sought to abolish the plantation system in favor of smaller landholdings, although he also enforced strict labor policies to maintain agricultural production. His rule was authoritarian, and his efforts to centralize power and manage the economy created discontent among his former revolutionary colleagues, particularly Henri Christophe and Alexandre Pétion. Dessalines was assassinated on October 17, 1806, by a conspiracy of his rivals, leading to the collapse of the First Empire and a period of national division. The assassination reflected deep-seated tensions regarding governance, economic policy, and the distribution of power in the newly independent nation.

3.4.2. State Division and Unification (1806-1844)

Following Dessalines' assassination in 1806, Haiti split into two separate states, reflecting a deep political and ideological divide between the northern and southern/western leaders:

• In the north, Henri Christophe established the State of Haiti, which he later transformed into the Kingdom of Haiti in 1811, crowning himself King Henri I. His regime was autocratic and focused on economic development through a quasi-feudal system of forced agricultural labor on large plantations, primarily producing sugar. He used the state's revenues to build impressive fortifications, such as the Citadelle Laferrière, and palaces like Sans-Souci Palace, and established a Haitian nobility. He also promoted education and attempted to create a sophisticated court.
• In the south and west, Alexandre Pétion founded the Republic of Haiti, with Port-au-Prince as its capital. Pétion's government was less absolutist. A key policy was land reform, breaking up former plantations and distributing land to soldiers and peasants in small plots. While this created a large class of independent smallholders and was popular, it led to a decline in export-oriented agricultural production and shifted the economy towards subsistence farming. Pétion is also remembered for providing crucial military and financial support to Simón Bolívar in his struggle for South American independence, on the condition that Bolívar would abolish slavery in the liberated territories.

This division lasted until 1820. After Pétion's death in 1818, his successor was Jean-Pierre Boyer. In the north, King Henri I, facing declining health and a rebellion, committed suicide in 1820. Boyer then marched north and peacefully reunited Haiti under his rule.

In 1821, the eastern part of Hispaniola (then known as Spanish Haiti, now the Dominican Republic) declared its independence from Spain as the Republic of Spanish Haiti. However, Boyer, seeing an opportunity to unite the entire island under Haitian rule and abolish slavery there, invaded in early 1822. The Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo lasted for 22 years (1822-1844). Boyer abolished slavery in the east and implemented land reforms, but his rule was often resented by the Spanish-speaking population due to cultural differences, economic policies like the Code Rural (which restricted peasant mobility and enforced plantation labor, causing widespread discontent even in western Haiti), and heavy taxation.

A major challenge during Boyer's presidency was the indemnity demanded by France. In 1825, under threat of a French naval invasion and to gain official French recognition of Haiti's independence (which was crucial for international trade and legitimacy), Boyer agreed to pay France 150 million francs. This sum was intended as compensation for the loss of property, including formerly enslaved people, by French colonists. The amount was later reduced to 90 million francs in 1838, but the debt was enormous, equivalent to several times Haiti's annual revenue. To make the payments, Haiti had to take out large loans from French banks at high interest rates. This debt burdened Haiti's economy for over a century (it was not fully paid off until 1947) and severely hampered its development, diverting resources that could have been used for education, infrastructure, and social programs. This financial burden is widely seen as a major factor in Haiti's long-term poverty and instability.

Boyer's long rule eventually faced mounting opposition due to economic hardship, his authoritarian style, and resentment over the Rural Code. He was overthrown in 1843 by a liberal-led revolution.

3.4.3. Loss of the Eastern Part and Second Empire (1844-1859)

The overthrow of Jean-Pierre Boyer in 1843 created a power vacuum and further instability, which the Spanish-speaking eastern part of Hispaniola exploited. On February 27, 1844, nationalist forces in Santo Domingo, led by figures like Juan Pablo Duarte and organized under secret societies like La Trinitaria, declared independence from Haitian rule, establishing the Dominican Republic. Haitian forces, weakened by internal divisions and unprepared for the uprising, were unable to suppress the rebellion, leading to the Dominican War of Independence. Several Haitian attempts to reconquer the eastern territory under Boyer's successors, such as President Charles Rivière-Hérard, were unsuccessful.

The period following the loss of the eastern part was marked by continued political turmoil in Haiti. After a succession of short-lived presidencies, General Faustin Soulouque became President in 1847. Soulouque, a black nationalist, initially appeared to be a figurehead but quickly consolidated power. In 1849, he declared himself Emperor Faustin I, establishing the Second Empire of Haiti.

Emperor Faustin I's reign (1849-1859) was characterized by authoritarianism, lavish spending on a new imperial court and nobility, and a suppression of civil liberties. He created a secret police force and brutally repressed any opposition. Economically, his policies did little to improve the country's situation. Externally, Faustin I made several costly and ultimately failed attempts to reconquer the Dominican Republic (in 1849, 1855-56). These military campaigns drained the treasury and increased popular discontent. Britain and France eventually intervened, obtaining an armistice on behalf of the Dominicans.

The combination of economic hardship, political repression, and failed military ventures led to growing opposition to Faustin I. In 1858, a revolution led by General Fabre Geffrard began. Geffrard's forces defeated the Imperial Army, and in January 1859, Emperor Faustin I abdicated and went into exile. Geffrard then became president, restoring the republic. The Second Empire, like the first, was a relatively brief but impactful period that highlighted the ongoing struggles for stable governance and national identity in Haiti.

3.4.4. Late 19th Century-Early 20th Century

The period from the fall of the Second Empire in 1859 to the early 20th century was characterized by persistent political instability, economic difficulties, and increasing foreign intervention in Haiti. While the republican form of government was restored under President Fabre Geffrard (1859-1867), the country experienced a succession of presidents, many of whom were overthrown by coups or rebellions. This chronic instability hindered consistent economic development and social progress.

Presidents during this era included Geffrard, who was overthrown in 1867, followed by Sylvain Salnave (overthrown in 1869), Nissage Saget, Michel Domingue (1874-76), Lysius Salomon (1879-1888), Florvil Hyppolite (1889-1896), and Tirésias Simon Sam (1896-1902). Some administrations, like Salomon's and Hyppolite's, saw attempts at modernization of infrastructure and the economy, including the establishment of a national bank and postal service, and improvements to public works. Under Domingue, a treaty was signed with the Dominican Republic where both nations acknowledged each other's independence, temporarily easing tensions.

However, Haiti remained heavily indebted to foreign powers, particularly France, Germany, and the United States. These debts often led to foreign interference. A notable example was the Lüders Affair in 1897. When a German national, Emile Lüders, was imprisoned in Haiti, the German Empire dispatched two warships to Port-au-Prince and issued an ultimatum, forcing the Haitian government under President Sam to pay a large indemnity and offer a formal apology. This incident was a humiliating example of gunboat diplomacy and highlighted Haiti's vulnerability to foreign powers. The United States also sought to increase its influence, attempting in 1889 to force Haiti to lease Môle Saint-Nicolas for a naval base during the Môle Saint-Nicolas affair, a demand firmly resisted by President Hyppolite.

Internally, political power often revolved around regional strongmen and factions, frequently leading to violent conflicts for control of the presidency. The country's economy remained largely agrarian, with coffee being a major export, but it suffered from lack of investment, inefficient land use, and the diversion of resources due to political turmoil and debt repayment.

The early 1900s saw continued instability. President Pierre Nord Alexis was forced from power in 1908. His successor, François C. Antoine Simon, was overthrown in 1911. President Cincinnatus Leconte (1911-12) was killed in an explosion at the National Palace, an event suspected by some to be an assassination. Michel Oreste (1913-14) and his successor Oreste Zamor (1914) were also ousted by coups. This cycle of violence and short-lived governments created an environment ripe for more direct foreign intervention, which culminated in the United States occupation in 1915.

3.5. United States Occupation (1915-1934)

The United States occupied Haiti from 1915 to 1934, a period that profoundly impacted Haitian sovereignty, society, and politics. The occupation was justified by the U.S. government on several grounds: to restore political stability after years of turmoil and assassinations of presidents (President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam was lynched by a mob in July 1915 after ordering a mass execution of political prisoners, triggering the intervention); to protect U.S. economic interests and citizens; and to prevent other foreign powers, particularly Germany, from gaining a strategic foothold in the Caribbean, in line with the Monroe Doctrine. In December 1914, prior to the full occupation, U.S. Marines had already landed and removed $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank for "safe-keeping" in New York, effectively giving the U.S. control over Haitian finances.

U.S. Marines landed in Port-au-Prince on July 28, 1915. They quickly established control, declared martial law, and installed a pro-U.S. president, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave. A new constitution, drafted under U.S. supervision (reportedly with input from then-Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt), was imposed in 1918. Critically, this constitution overturned a long-standing Haitian law that forbade foreign ownership of land, a change that was deeply resented by many Haitians as it opened the way for U.S. corporate interests.

The U.S. administration aimed to modernize Haiti by improving infrastructure, finances, and public health. During the occupation, roads were built (approximately 1.1 K mile ^{(1.70 K km)} made usable), bridges constructed, irrigation canals rehabilitated, hospitals and schools established, and public buildings erected. Port-au-Prince's infrastructure was particularly developed, and efforts were made to bring drinking water to main cities. Agricultural education was organized. However, much of this infrastructure work was carried out using the traditional Haitian system of corvée (forced labor), where peasants were conscripted, sometimes at gunpoint, to work on public projects. This practice was deeply unpopular and fueled resistance. Economically, sisal cultivation was introduced, and sugarcane and cotton became significant exports, which benefited U.S. businesses and some Haitian elites but did little to alleviate widespread poverty.

Haitian resistance to the occupation was significant, particularly in rural areas. The Cacos, peasant guerrillas with a history of rebellion, led armed opposition under figures like Charlemagne Péralte. Péralte was captured and executed by U.S. Marines in 1919; a photograph of his body displayed as a warning backfired, turning him into a national martyr. The U.S. military response to the Caco insurgency was often brutal, leading to thousands of Haitian deaths. U.S. Marines were often instilled with a paternalistic and racist attitudes towards Haitians.

The occupation centralized power in Port-au-Prince and favored the mulatto elite, often at the expense of the Black majority. While some urban elites welcomed aspects of the modernization and economic activity, the occupation was widely seen as a violation of Haitian sovereignty.

Growing anti-occupation sentiment in Haiti, coupled with criticism in the United States (particularly after Senate hearings in 1921 revealed abuses), and President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy, led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops in August 1934, under the Haitian presidency of Sténio Vincent. However, the U.S. retained fiscal control over Haiti until 1941 (some sources say 1947) to ensure debt repayment.

The long-term consequences of the occupation were mixed. While some infrastructure was improved, the occupation exacerbated social divisions, undermined democratic development by imposing leaders and policies, and left a legacy of resentment. It also strengthened the Haitian military (Gendarmerie), which would later play a dominant role in Haitian politics. The focus on export agriculture often benefited foreign interests more than the Haitian peasantry.

3.6. Post-Occupation Era (1934-1957)

The period following the end of the U.S. occupation in 1934 until the rise of François Duvalier in 1957 was marked by continued political instability, economic challenges, and social tensions. While Haiti regained political sovereignty, U.S. influence remained significant, particularly in financial matters.

President Sténio Vincent (1930-1941), who had negotiated the U.S. withdrawal, extended his term and ruled with an increasingly authoritarian hand. During his presidency, Haiti faced a horrific incident with its neighbor, the Dominican Republic. In 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo, fueled by anti-Haitian sentiment, ordered the massacre of Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. In what became known as the Parsley Massacre (Masacre del Perejil), an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 Haitians were brutally killed by the Dominican army over several days, often identified as Haitian by their pronunciation of the Spanish word for parsley (perejil). The Vincent government's response was muted, leading to widespread criticism within Haiti.

Vincent was succeeded by Élie Lescot (1941-1946). During World War II, Lescot declared war on the Axis Powers in December 1941, aligning Haiti with the Allies. Haiti became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945. Lescot's government, however, faced economic difficulties and accusations of corruption and favoring the mulatto elite. He was overthrown by a military coup in 1946.

The 1946 coup led to the election of Dumarsais Estimé (1946-1950) as president. Estimé, a Black nationalist from a modest background, sought to implement social and economic reforms, including raising the minimum wage, promoting education, and increasing the role of Black Haitians in government and society. He also oversaw the organization of the Port-au-Prince International Exposition in 1949 to celebrate the city's bicentennial and promote tourism. However, his policies faced opposition from the traditional mulatto elite and the United States, which viewed some of his reforms with suspicion during the early Cold War. When Estimé attempted to amend the constitution to allow for his re-election, he too was overthrown by a military coup in 1950, led by Colonel Paul Magloire.

Paul Magloire (1950-1956) became president following the coup. His regime was initially popular and benefited from a period of relative economic prosperity, partly due to rising coffee prices and increased tourism. Port-au-Prince's waterfront was redeveloped to attract cruise ships. Magloire, a staunch anti-Communist, enjoyed good relations with the United States. However, his government also became known for corruption and repression. When Magloire attempted to extend his term in office, widespread protests and a general strike forced him to resign and flee the country in December 1956.

The ousting of Magloire ushered in a period of intense political turmoil, with four short-lived provisional governments in less than a year. This instability and the deep social and racial divisions within Haitian society set the stage for the 1957 presidential election, which would bring François Duvalier to power and initiate a new, darker chapter in Haiti's history.

3.7. Duvalier Dynasty (1957-1986)

The Duvalier dynasty, comprising François "Papa Doc" Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier, subjected Haiti to nearly three decades of brutal dictatorial rule from 1957 to 1986. This period was characterized by extreme political repression, widespread human rights abuses, systemic corruption, economic stagnation, and the creation of a pervasive climate of fear, profoundly impacting Haitian society and its development.

François Duvalier, a physician and former Minister of Health, was elected president in September 1957, appealing to the Black majority with a populist and noiriste (Black nationalist) platform. Initially, some hoped he would bring stability and address social inequalities. However, he quickly consolidated power, transforming his presidency into an absolute dictatorship.
Key features of François Duvalier's rule (1957-1971):

• Repression and Terror**: To eliminate opposition and maintain control, Duvalier established a feared paramilitary force known as the Tonton Macoute (officially Milice de Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale - MVSN, or Volunteers for National Security Militia). The Tonton Macoute, named after a bogeyman figure in Haitian folklore, operated outside the law, terrorizing the population, assassinating political opponents, and extorting businesses. They were fanatically loyal to Duvalier.
• Cult of Personality**: Papa Doc cultivated an intense cult of personality, portraying himself as the embodiment of the Haitian nation. He skillfully manipulated Haitian Vodou imagery and beliefs, associating himself with spirits like Baron Samedi (the loa of the dead) to enhance his mystique and instill fear.
• Political Control**: He systematically dismantled political opposition, purged the military of anyone suspected of disloyalty, and rewrote the constitution. In 1964, he declared himself "President for Life." An uprising against his rule in Jérémie in 1964 (known as the Jérémie Vespers) was brutally suppressed, with hundreds of mixed-race citizens massacred.
• Economic Impact**: Corruption became rampant, and the economy suffered. While Duvalier promoted Black Haitians in the public sector, often displacing the traditional mulatto elite, this did little to improve the overall economic situation for the majority. A significant "brain drain" occurred as educated professionals and intellectuals fled the country to escape repression.
• Foreign Relations**: Despite his regime's brutality, Papa Doc's staunch anti-Communist stance during the Cold War earned him a degree of tolerance and even aid from the United States at various times.

François Duvalier died in April 1971. He was succeeded by his 19-year-old son, Jean-Claude Duvalier ("Baby Doc"), who also became President for Life.
Key features of Jean-Claude Duvalier's rule (1971-1986):

• Initial Liberalization Attempts**: Baby Doc initially projected an image of modernization and a slight easing of his father's harsh repression, partly to improve Haiti's international image and attract foreign investment. Some political prisoners were released, and press censorship was somewhat relaxed. Tourism saw a revival.
• Continued Repression and Corruption**: However, the fundamental nature of the dictatorship remained. The Tonton Macoute continued to operate, although perhaps with less overt brutality than under Papa Doc. Corruption remained endemic, with the Duvalier family and their cronies amassing vast personal fortunes. The economy continued to decline, and poverty deepened for most Haitians. The slaughter of Haiti's entire native pig population in the late 1970s due to an outbreak of African swine fever (under pressure from U.S. agricultural authorities concerned about the disease spreading) devastated the rural economy, as pigs were a vital source of income and investment for peasants.
• Growing Opposition**: By the 1980s, opposition to Baby Doc's rule grew. A visit by Pope John Paul II in 1983, during which he famously declared that "Things must change here," galvanized dissent. Economic conditions worsened, and popular protests began to spread, starting in Gonaïves in 1985.
• Fall from Power**: With mounting internal pressure and a withdrawal of support from the United States (which had previously backed him), Jean-Claude Duvalier and his wife Michèle Bennett fled Haiti for France on February 7, 1986, ending 29 years of Duvalier family rule.

The Duvalier era left a devastating legacy. An estimated 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians were killed or disappeared. The country's institutions were weakened, its economy crippled, and its society deeply scarred by fear and division. The massive brain drain deprived Haiti of much-needed human capital, hindering its recovery for decades to come. The fall of the Duvaliers was met with widespread jubilation but also ushered in a new period of political instability as Haiti struggled to transition towards democracy.

3.8. Post-Duvalier Era (1986-Present)

The period following the collapse of the Duvalier dictatorship in 1986 has been characterized by Haiti's tumultuous efforts to establish democratic governance amidst recurrent political turmoil, devastating natural disasters, foreign interventions, and deep-seated socio-economic problems. This era has seen moments of hope for democratic renewal often overshadowed by coups, instability, and crises that have severely impacted human rights and the well-being of the Haitian people.

3.8.1. Aristide Governments and Coups (1986-2004)

After Jean-Claude Duvalier fled, a provisional military-led government, the National Governing Council headed by General Henri Namphy, took power. A new constitution was approved in 1987, paving the way for elections. However, the first attempt at presidential elections in November 1987 was aborted due to widespread violence orchestrated by former Tonton Macoutes and elements of the military. Fraudulent elections in January 1988 brought Leslie Manigat to power, but he was overthrown by Namphy in a military coup just months later (June 1988 Haitian coup d'état). Namphy himself was soon ousted in another coup (September 1988 Haitian coup d'état) led by General Prosper Avril, following the St. Jean Bosco massacre where parishioners at a church led by the charismatic and critical priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide were attacked. Avril ruled until March 1990, when popular protests forced his resignation.

In December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a former Salesian priest and a champion of the poor through his liberation theology-inspired movement Lavalas (The Flood/Cleansing), won the presidency with a landslide victory in what was widely considered Haiti's first truly democratic election. His inauguration in February 1991 was met with immense popular enthusiasm. Aristide embarked on an ambitious reform agenda aimed at dismantling the structures of the Duvalierist state, curbing corruption, improving the lives of the poor, and bringing the military under civilian control.

However, Aristide's reforms and populist rhetoric alarmed Haiti's traditional economic elite and powerful elements within the military. Just seven months into his term, in September 1991, he was overthrown in a brutal military coup led by General Raoul Cédras. Aristide was forced into exile. The coup regime unleashed a wave of repression against Aristide's supporters, with thousands killed or disappeared. The international community, led by the Organization of American States (OAS) and the United Nations, condemned the coup and imposed severe economic sanctions on Haiti. These sanctions, while intended to pressure the military junta, also caused immense hardship for the Haitian population. Many Haitians attempted to flee the country in makeshift boats, leading to a refugee crisis.

After three years of military rule and failed diplomatic efforts, the United States, under President Bill Clinton, led a multinational force (Operation Uphold Democracy) that intervened in Haiti in September 1994. The U.S. negotiated the departure of the military leaders, and Aristide was restored to the presidency in October 1994 to complete his term. His return was conditioned on implementing free-market reforms advocated by international financial institutions, which had mixed results and were criticized by some of his grassroots supporters for not adequately addressing poverty.

Aristide was constitutionally barred from immediate re-election. In the 1995 elections, René Préval, Aristide's former prime minister and close ally, was elected president. Préval's term (1996-2001) saw some political stability but was also marked by political gridlock and ongoing economic challenges.

Aristide formed a new political party, Fanmi Lavalas, and won the presidency again in November 2000 with a large majority, although the election was boycotted by major opposition parties (organized as the Convergence Démocratique) who alleged irregularities in earlier legislative elections. Aristide's second term (2001-2004) was plagued by increasing political polarization, accusations of corruption and authoritarianism, and growing armed opposition. Former soldiers and anti-Aristide paramilitary groups launched a rebellion in early 2004, starting in Gonaïves and spreading across the country. As the rebels approached Port-au-Prince, and with pressure from the United States, France, and Canada, Aristide departed Haiti on February 29, 2004. The circumstances of his departure remain controversial, with Aristide claiming he was a victim of a "modern kidnapping" orchestrated by U.S. forces, a charge the U.S. denied. His ouster led to another period of instability and international intervention.

3.8.2. Post-2004 Turmoil, Disasters, and Crises

Following Jean-Bertrand Aristide's ouster in February 2004, Haiti entered a new phase of protracted crisis marked by ongoing political instability, devastating natural disasters, a deadly epidemic, and a dramatic escalation of gang violence, culminating in the assassination of a president and a near collapse of state authority. Human rights and the well-being of vulnerable populations have been severely impacted throughout this period.

An interim government led by Prime Minister Gérard Latortue and President Boniface Alexandre was installed. The United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) was deployed in June 2004 to help restore order and support the political process. MINUSTAH's presence, which lasted until 2017, was controversial; while credited with some security improvements, it faced accusations of human rights abuses, including excessive force and sexual exploitation, and was later implicated in the introduction of cholera to the country.

René Préval was re-elected president in the 2006 elections and served until 2011. His second term was dominated by efforts to rebuild after a series of natural disasters. In 2004, Tropical Storm Jeanne caused catastrophic flooding and mudslides, particularly in Gonaïves, killing over 3,000 people. In 2008, four storms in quick succession-Tropical Storm Fay, and Hurricanes Gustav, Hanna, and Ike-caused widespread destruction, hundreds of deaths, and left around 800,000 in need of aid. These disasters were compounded by a global food and fuel price crisis in 2008, leading to food riots and political unrest.

The most devastating catastrophe struck on January 12, 2010, when a magnitude 7.0 earthquake hit near Port-au-Prince. The earthquake caused unprecedented destruction: an estimated 160,000 to 316,000 people were killed, hundreds of thousands were injured, and over 1.5 million were left homeless. The capital city, including the National Palace, government ministries, and critical infrastructure, was largely destroyed. The international response was massive, but reconstruction efforts were slow and fraught with challenges.

Compounding the earthquake's devastation, a cholera outbreak began in October 2010. The disease, previously unknown in Haiti for a century, was traced to a United Nations peacekeeping base whose waste contaminated the Artibonite River. The epidemic killed roughly 10,000 people and sickened nearly a million. After years of denial, the UN apologized in 2016 but did not accept legal fault or provide direct compensation to victims.

Amidst these crises, Michel Martelly, a popular musician, won the presidency in 2011. His term was marked by political infighting and delays in holding legislative elections. Martelly stepped down in 2016 without an elected successor. After numerous postponements, partly due to the impact of Hurricane Matthew in October 2016 (which caused further widespread damage, especially in the southwest), Jovenel Moïse was elected president in November 2016 and took office in February 2017.

Moïse's presidency was soon engulfed in crisis. Large-scale protests erupted in 2018 over allegations of corruption related to the Venezuelan PetroCaribe oil assistance program and demanded his resignation. Political deadlock paralyzed the government, and legislative elections due in 2019 were not held, leading Moïse to rule by decree from January 2020. During this period, gang violence escalated dramatically, with criminal gangs taking control of large parts of Port-au-Prince and other areas, engaging in kidnappings, extortion, and massacres, often with impunity.

On July 7, 2021, President Jovenel Moïse was assassinated at his private residence, an event that plunged Haiti into an even deeper political and security vacuum. Ariel Henry eventually became acting prime minister. Just over a month later, on August 14, 2021, a magnitude 7.2 earthquake struck southwestern Haiti, killing over 2,200 people and causing extensive damage.

The assassination of Moïse and the subsequent power struggles exacerbated the security crisis. Gangs expanded their control, blockading fuel terminals, choking the economy, and causing widespread shortages of food, water, and medical supplies. Kidnappings for ransom became rampant, targeting all segments of society and leading to an exodus of those who could afford to leave, including medical professionals. By early 2024, gangs controlled most of Port-au-Prince. In March 2024, while Ariel Henry was abroad seeking support for a multinational security force, coordinated gang attacks targeted government buildings, police stations, and the main prisons, leading to a mass jailbreak of thousands of inmates. Henry was prevented from returning and, under international and domestic pressure, agreed to resign once a transitional government was formed.

On April 25, 2024, a Transitional Presidential Council was sworn in, tasked with restoring order, organizing new elections, and governing until February 2026. Michel Patrick Boisvert was named interim prime minister, later replaced by Garry Conille in June 2024, who was himself replaced by Alix Didier Fils-Aimé in November 2024. As of late 2024, Haiti remains in a state of severe crisis, with widespread hunger, a collapsed healthcare system, millions displaced by violence, and an urgent need for humanitarian aid and a restoration of security and democratic governance. The impact on human rights, particularly for women, children, and those living in gang-controlled areas, has been catastrophic.

4.1. Topography and Climate

Haiti occupies the western three-eighths of Hispaniola, the second-largest island in the Greater Antilles. It covers an area of 11 K mile^{2 (27.75 K km2)}. To its east, Haiti shares a 360 adj=on border with the Dominican Republic. The country's shape is roughly like a horseshoe, with two peninsulas (the northern and southern peninsulas) extending westward, enclosing the Gulf of Gonâve. This configuration gives Haiti a disproportionately long coastline, approximately 1.1 K mile ^{(1.77 K km)}, second only to Cuba in the Greater Antilles.

Haiti is the most mountainous nation in the Caribbean. Its terrain consists of rugged mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. The name "Haiti" itself means "land of high mountains" in the Taíno language.

• The northern region includes the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif), an extension of the Dominican Republic's Cordillera Central, and the adjacent Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain).
• The central region features the Plateau Central (Central Plateau), the Montagnes Noires (Black Mountains), and the fertile Plaine de l'Artibonite, which is home to Haiti's longest river, the Artibonite River. The Péligre Dam on this river forms Lac de Péligre, an important reservoir.
• The southern region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac, a natural depression containing saline lakes like Trou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake, Étang Saumatre (also known as Lake Azuéi), and the mountainous southern peninsula (the Tiburon Peninsula). This peninsula includes the Chaîne de la Selle and the Massif de la Hotte. The highest point in Haiti, Pic la Selle, at 8.8 K ft ^{(2.68 K m)}, is located in the Chaîne de la Selle.

Haiti also includes several offshore islands, the largest being Île de la Gonâve in the Gulf of Gonâve. Other notable islands include Tortuga off the north coast, Île à Vache off the southwest coast, and the Cayemites. The United States currently administers Navassa Island, located about 40 km mi west of Haiti's southern peninsula, but Haiti maintains a territorial claim over it.

Haiti has a tropical climate, with variations depending on altitude. Coastal areas are generally warm and humid, while mountainous regions can be cooler.

• Port-au-Prince experiences average minimum temperatures of 73.4 °F ^{(23 °C)} in January, rising to average maximums of 87.8 °F ^{(31 °C)}. In July, temperatures range from 77 °F ^{(25 °C)} to 95 °F ^{(35 °C)}.
• Rainfall patterns vary across the country. The lowlands and the northern and eastern mountain slopes tend to receive more rain. There are generally two rainy seasons: one from April to June, and another from October to November. The dry season typically occurs from November to January. Port-au-Prince receives an average annual rainfall of 0.1 K in ^{(1.37 K mm)}.

Haiti is located in the hurricane belt and is frequently subject to tropical cyclones, which can bring devastating winds, heavy rainfall, and flooding. Its mountainous terrain and extensive deforestation exacerbate the risk of landslides and flash floods.

4.2. Geology

Haiti is situated in a seismically active region, characterized by complex interactions between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. The country lies primarily over the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone (EPGFZ), a major left-lateral strike-slip fault system that runs through southern Hispaniola and extends westward towards Jamaica. Another significant fault system, the Septentrional-Oriente fault zone, runs across the northern part of the island. These fault systems are responsible for Haiti's history of destructive earthquakes.

The EPGFZ is part of the boundary where the Caribbean Plate shifts eastward by about 0.8 in ^{(20 mm)} per year relative to the North American Plate. The devastating 2010 Haiti earthquake (magnitude 7.0 M_w) occurred on a previously unmapped blind thrust fault associated with the EPGFZ near Port-au-Prince. This earthquake caused catastrophic damage and loss of life, highlighting the country's extreme seismic vulnerability. The 2021 Haiti earthquake (magnitude 7.2 M_w) also struck the southern peninsula, causing further destruction. Historical records indicate other significant earthquakes, such as the one that destroyed Port-au-Prince in 1770.

Haiti's geology also includes mineral resources. There are known deposits of gold (such as at the Mont Organisé mine), bauxite, copper, calcium carbonate, marble, and lignite, but large-scale commercial exploitation has been limited. The country does not have any currently active volcanoes, although there is evidence of minor intrusive volcanic activity in the geological past (Oligocene-Miocene).

4.3. Environment

Haiti faces severe environmental challenges, among the most critical in the world. These issues are deeply intertwined with poverty, population pressure, and a history of unsustainable resource use, and they significantly exacerbate the country's vulnerability to natural disasters.

Deforestation is perhaps the most pressing environmental problem. Historically, Haiti was heavily forested. However, centuries of tree-cutting for timber export, agricultural land, and, most significantly, for the production of charcoal (the primary fuel source for most of the population) have led to a drastic reduction in forest cover. While estimates vary, and the oft-cited figure of 2% forest cover has been challenged by studies showing around 30% tree cover (which includes diverse tree systems beyond dense forests), it is undeniable that primary forest has largely disappeared. Deforestation has led to:

• Soil erosion: Without tree cover to hold the soil, heavy rains wash topsoil from the steep mountain slopes into rivers and eventually the sea, degrading agricultural land and damaging coastal ecosystems like coral reefs.
• Increased flooding and landslides: Deforested hillsides cannot absorb heavy rainfall, leading to rapid runoff, flash floods, and devastating mudslides, as seen tragically after numerous hurricanes and tropical storms.
• Loss of biodiversity: The destruction of habitats threatens Haiti's unique flora and fauna.
• Desertification: In some areas, land degradation is leading to desert-like conditions.

Other major environmental issues include:

• Water scarcity and pollution: Access to safe drinking water is limited, and water sources are often contaminated due to inadequate sanitation and agricultural runoff.
• Coastal degradation: Mangrove forests have been cleared, and coral reefs are damaged by sedimentation and pollution.
• Waste management: Inadequate solid waste disposal poses health risks and pollutes the environment, especially in urban areas.
• Vulnerability to climate change: As a small island developing state with existing environmental stresses, Haiti is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including more intense hurricanes, sea-level rise, and changes in rainfall patterns.

Efforts are being made by governmental and non-governmental organizations to address these issues through reforestation projects, promotion of alternative energy sources (to reduce reliance on charcoal), soil conservation techniques, and sustainable agriculture. However, the scale of the problems and the country's socio-economic challenges make progress difficult. The Haiti Regenerative Initiative, involving Columbia University's Center for International Earth Science Information Network and the United Nations Environment Programme, is one example of an initiative aiming to reduce poverty and disaster vulnerability through ecosystem restoration and sustainable resource management.

4.3.1. Biodiversity

Despite its severe environmental degradation, Haiti, as part of the island of Hispaniola, is located within a biodiversity hotspot in the Caribbean. Its mountainous terrain and varied microclimates have historically supported a rich array of plant and animal life, including many endemic species (found nowhere else). Haiti is home to four main ecoregions: Hispaniolan moist forests, Hispaniolan dry forests, Hispaniolan pine forests (in higher altitudes), and Greater Antilles mangroves along the coasts.

Flora:
Haiti's plant life once included extensive forests of mahogany, West Indian cedar, pine, and various tropical hardwoods. While much of this has been lost, remaining forested areas, particularly in protected zones like Macaya National Park and La Visite National Park, harbor unique plant species. Other notable trees include the breadfruit tree, mango tree, acacia, and various palm species, including the royal palm. The country is also known for vetiver, a grass whose roots are used to produce essential oils for perfumes.

Fauna:

• Mammals: Native land mammals are few. The most notable are two endemic insectivores: the Hispaniolan solenodon and the Hispaniolan hutia (a large rodent). Both are endangered due to habitat loss and predation by introduced species like mongooses and rats. Various bat species are also native. Marine mammals, including whales and dolphins, can be found off Haiti's coasts.
• Birds: Hispaniola is home to over 260 bird species, with around 31 endemic to the island. Some endemic species found in Haiti include the Hispaniolan trogon, Hispaniolan parakeet, grey-crowned tanager, and the Hispaniolan Amazon (a parrot). Various raptors, waterbirds (pelicans, ibis, ducks), and hummingbirds are also present.
• Reptiles and Amphibians: Haiti has a diverse herpetofauna. Notable reptiles include the endangered rhinoceros iguana, various species of anole lizards, the Haitian boa, and the American crocodile (found in saline lakes and coastal areas). The island also has a high number of endemic frog species, many of which are critically endangered due to habitat loss.
• Invertebrates: A wide variety of insects and other invertebrates exist, though many are poorly studied.

Conservation Challenges:
The primary threat to Haiti's biodiversity is habitat destruction due to deforestation, agriculture, and urban expansion. Hunting, pollution, and the impact of invasive species also pose significant risks. Conservation efforts are underway, including the establishment of national parks and protected areas. However, these efforts are often hampered by lack of resources, weak institutional capacity, and socio-economic pressures that drive unsustainable resource use. Protecting Haiti's remaining biodiversity is crucial not only for its ecological value but also for the ecosystem services (like clean water and soil stability) that are vital for human well-being.

5.1. Government Structure

Haiti is a semi-presidential republic with a government structure based on the separation of powers, though this has often been compromised in practice. The current framework was largely set forth in the Constitution of 1987, which has been amended.

• Executive Branch:
  • The President is the head of state, elected by direct popular vote for a five-year term. The president is responsible for ensuring the regular functioning of public powers and the continuity of the state. They appoint the Prime Minister, promulgate laws, and are the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Historically, the presidency has often been a highly contested and powerful office.
  • The Prime Minister is the head of government. Appointed by the President from the majority party in the National Assembly (though this process has been fraught in times of political division), the Prime Minister, along with the cabinet (Council of Ministers), is responsible for implementing laws and managing the day-to-day affairs of the government. The Prime Minister and the government are accountable to the National Assembly.
• Legislative Branch:
  • The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) is bicameral, consisting of:
    • The Senate (Sénat): Composed of 30 members, with three senators elected from each of the ten departments for six-year terms. Elections are staggered, with one-third of the Senate renewed every two years.
    • The Chamber of Deputies (Chambre des Députés): Composed of members elected for four-year terms from constituencies across the country. The number of deputies has varied (e.g., 119 in recent configurations).

    The National Assembly is responsible for passing laws, ratifying treaties, and overseeing the executive branch. However, its functioning has frequently been disrupted by political crises, leading to periods where elections are not held and terms expire without replacement, leaving a legislative vacuum. As of early 2023, Haiti was left with no elected officials at the national level after the terms of the remaining senators expired.

    • Judicial Branch:
      • The judiciary is, in principle, independent. It is headed by the Court of Cassation (Cour de Cassation), which is the highest court of appeal. There are also courts of appeal, courts of first instance, and justice of the peace courts. The Haitian legal system is based on a modified version of the Napoleonic Code (French civil law).
      • The judiciary has faced significant challenges, including corruption, lack of resources, political interference, and difficulties in ensuring access to justice for all citizens.

      Haiti operates as a unitary state, where the central government delegates powers to the departments and local administrative units, but there is no constitutional division of powers as in a federal system. The country has a multi-party system, but political parties are often weak, personality-driven, and fragmented, contributing to political instability. Elections have frequently been marred by controversy, low turnout, and allegations of fraud.
      
      Since the end of the Duvalier dictatorship in 1986, Haiti has experienced numerous coups d'état (e.g., 1991, 2004), periods of interim or de facto rule, and foreign interventions aimed at restoring democratic order. The assassination of President Jovenel Moïse in 2021 further plunged the country into a severe political and constitutional crisis, highlighting the fragility of its democratic institutions. The rise of powerful armed gangs, controlling significant territory and challenging state authority, has further undermined governance and the rule of law. The establishment of a Transitional Presidential Council in 2024 represents another attempt to navigate out of profound political crisis and steer the country towards new elections.

5.2. Military

Haiti's military history is long and complex, dating back to the Indigenous Army that fought for independence in the Haitian Revolution. For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the military played a dominant role in Haitian politics, with many presidents being army officers.

The traditional Armed Forces of Haiti (Forces Armées d'Haïti - FAd'H) were heavily influenced by the U.S. occupation (1915-1934), during which the existing army was disbanded and reorganized into the Gendarmerie d'Haïti, later evolving back into the FAd'H. The FAd'H became a powerful institution, frequently involved in coups and political repression, particularly during the Duvalier era.

In 1995, following his restoration to power, President Jean-Bertrand Aristide disbanded the Haitian military, which was widely seen as an instrument of oppression and a threat to democratic development. This move was supported by many Haitians and parts of the international community. The 1987 Constitution had already reduced the military's political role. After the FAd'H's dissolution, internal and external security responsibilities fell primarily to the newly created Haitian National Police (Police Nationale d'Haïti - PNH), with support from international peacekeeping forces like MINUSTAH.

However, calls for the reconstitution of a military force persisted, citing needs for border security, disaster relief, and national defense. In 2011, President Michel Martelly announced plans to revive the military. The process was slow, but in 2017, President Jovenel Moïse officially reinstated the FAd'H.

The reconstituted Haitian Armed Forces are intended to be a much smaller and professionally distinct entity from its predecessor, focused on tasks such as border patrol, counter-smuggling, disaster response, and engineering projects. Its Ministry of Defense oversees its operations. As of 2023, the army was reported to be in the process of forming one infantry battalion with around 700 personnel. Its development has been gradual and faces resource constraints and political scrutiny.

The Haitian National Police (PNH), established in 1995, remains the primary law enforcement agency. It includes various specialized units, such as SWAT teams. The PNH has received considerable international training and assistance but has struggled with issues of understaffing, under-resourcing, corruption, and effectiveness, especially in the face of overwhelming gang violence in recent years. The Haitian Coast Guard operates as part of the PNH, responsible for maritime security. In 2010, the PNH numbered around 7,000 officers; efforts have been made to increase its size and capacity, but it remains heavily challenged.

5.3. Public Order and Crime

Haiti has long struggled with high crime rates and challenges in maintaining public order. In recent years, particularly since the assassination of President Jovenel Moïse in 2021, the situation has deteriorated into a severe security crisis, with armed gangs wielding significant power and perpetrating widespread violence, profoundly impacting human security and community well-being.

Historically, common crimes included theft, robbery, and sporadic violence. However, the nature and scale of crime have evolved. The current crisis is dominated by gang-related violence. Powerful, heavily armed gangs control large swathes of the capital, Port-au-Prince, and other regions. These gangs engage in:

• Kidnapping for ransom: This has become endemic, targeting people from all walks of life, including ordinary citizens, professionals, and even clergy. Kidnapping generates significant revenue for gangs and instills widespread fear.
• Territorial control and turf wars: Gangs fight violently for control of neighborhoods, markets, and critical infrastructure like roads and fuel terminals. These conflicts often result in mass displacement of civilians.
• Extortion and "protection rackets": Businesses and residents in gang-controlled areas are often forced to pay "taxes" or protection money.
• Homicides and massacres: Targeted killings and indiscriminate violence against civilian populations in contested areas are common.
• Sexual violence: Rape and other forms of sexual violence are systematically used by gangs as weapons of war to terrorize and control communities. Women and girls are particularly vulnerable.
• Drug trafficking and arms smuggling: Haiti serves as a transit point for illicit drugs, and the proliferation of illegal firearms fuels gang power.

The Haitian National Police (PNH) is overwhelmed and outgunned by the gangs. Despite efforts and international assistance (including training from entities like the NYPD and support from USAID), the PNH suffers from insufficient personnel, lack of equipment, corruption, and low morale. Police officers themselves are often targeted by gangs.

The justice system is weak and dysfunctional, leading to widespread impunity. Prisons are severely overcrowded, and pre-trial detention is often prolonged. This lack of effective law enforcement and judicial response has emboldened criminal elements.

International assistance has been a constant feature, including the MINUSTAH peacekeeping mission (2004-2017) and its smaller successor, MINUJUSTH (2017-2019). However, these interventions have had mixed success and sometimes faced criticism. Efforts to deploy a new multinational security support mission, requested by the Haitian government, have faced delays.

The impact of crime and lack of public order on human security is devastating. Millions live in fear, with limited access to basic services like healthcare and education due to gang blockades and violence. Internal displacement is widespread, and the humanitarian situation is dire. Restoring public order and dismantling the power of criminal gangs is one of the most critical challenges facing Haiti. The UN and human rights organizations have repeatedly condemned the extreme violence and its impact on civilians, particularly children, who are also recruited by gangs.

5.4. Penitentiary System

Haiti's penitentiary system faces a profound and persistent crisis, characterized by extreme overcrowding, inhumane conditions, prolonged pre-trial detention, and severe under-resourcing, leading to significant human rights concerns.

Overcrowding is a critical issue. Haitian prisons are among the most overcrowded in the world. For example, the National Penitentiary in Port-au-Prince, which houses a large portion of the country's prison population, has often held inmates at several times its official capacity. In 2017, it was reported to hold 4,359 detainees with a capacity for 1,200, an occupancy level of 363%. This extreme overcrowding leads to dire living conditions.

Conditions of Detention are often deplorable:

• Sanitation**: Inmates frequently lack access to basic sanitation, including functional latrines. They may be forced to use plastic bags or buckets for human waste.
• Food and Water**: Provision of adequate food and clean water is often insufficient, leading to widespread malnutrition and related illnesses among inmates. Malnutrition has been a direct cause of death in Haitian prisons.
• Healthcare**: Access to medical care is minimal. The cramped and unsanitary conditions contribute to the rapid spread of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, skin infections, and other communicable illnesses.
• Living Space**: Inmates often endure 22-23 hours a day in extremely confined cells, with little or no space for movement or recreation.

Prolonged Pre-Trial Detention: A very high percentage of Haiti's prison population consists of individuals in pre-trial detention, meaning they have not been convicted of a crime. Many wait for years for their cases to be heard. Haitian law stipulates that an arrested person must appear before a judge within 48 hours, but this is rarely observed. The dysfunctional judicial system, lack of legal aid, and corruption contribute to these extensive delays. Unless families can provide funds for legal representation or to facilitate court appearances, inmates can remain in detention indefinitely.

Human Rights Concerns: International human rights organizations and bodies like the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (which condemned the conditions as inhumane in 2008) have consistently criticized the state of Haiti's prisons. The conditions violate basic human dignity and international standards for the treatment of prisoners.

Recent Developments: The security crisis has further impacted the penitentiary system. In March 2024, armed gangs stormed the main prison in Port-au-Prince and another major facility, leading to the escape of nearly 4,000 inmates and several deaths. This event highlighted the state's inability to maintain control over its correctional facilities and exacerbated the already precarious security situation.

Efforts to reform the penitentiary system, often with international support, have been made but have struggled to achieve significant, sustainable improvements due to lack of funding, political instability, and the overwhelming challenges within the broader justice sector.

6.1. Major Cities

Haiti's urban centers are hubs of population, economic activity, and cultural life, though they also face significant challenges related to infrastructure, housing, and public services. The most prominent cities include:

• Port-au-Prince:
  • Location**: Situated in the Ouest Department on the Gulf of Gonâve, it is the capital and largest city of Haiti.
  • Population**: The metropolitan area is home to a significant portion of Haiti's population, estimated at over 2.5 to 3 million people, though precise figures are difficult due to rapid urbanization and displacement. The city proper has around 1 to 1.2 million inhabitants.
  • Economic Functions**: As the nation's political, economic, and cultural heart, Port-au-Prince hosts the main government buildings, the principal port (Port international de Port-au-Prince), financial institutions, and commercial enterprises. It is a major center for trade and industry, though much of this has been disrupted by recent crises.
  • Cultural Significance**: The city is home to universities, museums like the Musée du Panthéon National Haïtien (MUPANAH), art galleries, and historical sites. It has been a center for Haitian intellectual and artistic life.
  • Challenges**: Port-au-Prince has suffered immensely from the 2010 earthquake and subsequent gang violence, which has led to widespread destruction, displacement, and a breakdown of public services. Many areas are informal settlements or slums facing extreme poverty.
  • Cap-Haïtien (often referred to as Le Cap):
    • Location**: Located in the Nord Department on the northern coast of Haiti.
    • Population**: It is Haiti's second-largest city, with a population estimated around 500,000 in its urban area.
    • Economic Functions**: Historically a major port and commercial center, particularly during the colonial era and early independence. It remains an important regional economic hub.
    • Cultural Significance**: Cap-Haïtien boasts a rich colonial history and architecture. It is close to significant historical sites such as the Citadelle Laferrière and Sans-Souci Palace (UNESCO World Heritage sites). It was the capital of the French colony of Saint-Domingue and later of the Kingdom of Haiti under Henri Christophe. It has its own distinct cultural identity and is a center for art and music.
    • Gonaïves:
      • Location**: Situated in the Artibonite Department, on the coast of the Gulf of Gonâve.
      • Population**: A significant regional city.
      • Economic Functions**: It serves as an agricultural and commercial center for the fertile Artibonite Valley.
      • Cultural Significance**: Gonaïves holds immense historical importance as the city where Haiti's independence was proclaimed by Jean-Jacques Dessalines on January 1, 1804. It has often been a site of political protest and mobilization. It has also been severely affected by hurricanes and flooding.

      Other important urban centers include:

      • Carrefour: A large, densely populated commune within the Port-au-Prince metropolitan area.
      • Delmas: Another major commune within the Port-au-Prince metropolitan area, hosting commercial and residential zones.
      • Pétion-Ville: A wealthier suburb of Port-au-Prince, located in the hills above the main city, known for its hotels, restaurants, and expatriate community.
      • Les Cayes (Okay): A port city and commercial center in the Sud Department on the southern peninsula.
      • Jacmel: A historic port city in the Sud-Est Department, known for its colonial architecture, vibrant arts scene, and annual Carnival. It was significantly affected by the 2010 earthquake.
      • Port-de-Paix: The capital of the Nord-Ouest Department.
      • Jérémie: The capital of the Grand'Anse Department, known as the "City of Poets."

      These cities, while varying in size and character, all reflect Haiti's ongoing urbanization and face common challenges in providing adequate infrastructure and services to their populations, especially in the context of poverty, natural disasters, and political instability.

7.1. Economic Structure and Current Status

Haiti is classified as a least developed country. Key economic indicators paint a stark picture:

• GDP: Haiti's GDP is small. For example, in 2017, its GDP was estimated at 19.97 B USD. More recent figures reflect further decline due to crises.
• GDP per capita: Consistently among the lowest globally (e.g., around 1.80 K USD PPP in 2017, but likely lower in recent years). A large portion of the population lives on less than 2 USD per day.
• Unemployment and Underemployment: Extremely high, with most of the labor force engaged in the informal economy or subsistence agriculture. Formal job creation is minimal.
• Inflation: Often high and volatile, eroding purchasing power.
• Poverty and Inequality: Widespread and extreme. Haiti ranks very low on the Human Development Index (e.g., 145th out of 182 countries in 2010, with 57.3% of the population deprived in multiple poverty measures). Income distribution is highly skewed, with a small elite controlling a disproportionate share of wealth.
• Currency: The official currency is the Haitian gourde (HTG). The US dollar is also widely accepted, especially in urban areas and for larger transactions.

Structural economic difficulties include:

• Political Instability**: Frequent changes in government, coups, and civil unrest disrupt economic activity, deter investment, and undermine long-term planning.
• Corruption**: Endemic corruption diverts public resources, hinders efficient governance, and creates an unfavorable business environment.
• Weak Institutions**: Fragile legal and regulatory frameworks, coupled with a weak judicial system, fail to protect property rights and enforce contracts effectively.
• Infrastructure Deficit**: Severe lack of adequate roads, ports, electricity, and communication systems.
• Environmental Degradation**: Deforestation and soil erosion reduce agricultural productivity and increase vulnerability to disasters.
• Natural Disasters**: Earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods repeatedly devastate the economy and infrastructure, requiring massive and costly recovery efforts.
• Human Capital**: Low levels of education and health, and significant "brain drain" of skilled professionals.

The economy is largely based on agriculture (mostly subsistence), services (including a large informal sector), and some light manufacturing (primarily apparel assembly for export). Remittances from Haitians living abroad are a crucial source of income, often exceeding export earnings and foreign aid combined. The recent escalation of gang violence since 2021 has further crippled the economy, disrupting supply chains, forcing businesses to close, and leading to shortages of essential goods.

7.2. Foreign Aid

Foreign aid has played a significant and complex role in Haiti's economy for decades, particularly following major political crises and natural disasters. Haiti is one of the most aid-dependent countries in the world.

• Major Donors**: The largest bilateral donors have historically been the United States, Canada, and member states of the European Union (particularly France). Multilateral organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), and various United Nations agencies are also major providers of financial and technical assistance. Venezuela, through its Petrocaribe oil alliance, was a significant source of development funds for a period, though this program has faced controversy and decline. Neighboring Dominican Republic has also provided substantial humanitarian aid, especially after disasters.
• Volume of Aid**: Haiti received over 4.00 B USD in aid between 1990 and 2003. Following the 2010 earthquake, international pledges for reconstruction reached over 13.00 B USD. For example, the U.S. pledged 1.15 B USD, and the EU over 400.00 M EUR (equivalent to approximately 616.00 M USD at the time). However, the disbursement and effective utilization of these funds have been ongoing challenges. In 2015, it was reported that over 90% of the government's budget came from the Petrocaribe agreement.
• Forms of Aid**: Aid comes in various forms, including humanitarian assistance (food, shelter, medical supplies after disasters), development aid (funding for infrastructure, education, health, agriculture), budget support for the government, and technical assistance.
• Effectiveness and Limitations**: The effectiveness of foreign aid in Haiti has been a subject of much debate.
  • Positive Impacts**: Aid has been crucial in saving lives during emergencies, providing basic services where the state cannot, and funding some infrastructure and development projects.
  • Challenges and Criticisms**:
    • Coordination**: Lack of coordination among numerous donors and NGOs can lead to duplication of efforts and fragmented projects.
    • Sustainability**: Many aid projects have lacked long-term sustainability, often collapsing once external funding ends.
    • Dependency**: Critics argue that heavy reliance on aid can undermine local capacity, create a "charity economy," and reduce government accountability.
    • "Bypass" of Government**: A significant portion of aid has historically been channeled through international NGOs and private contractors rather than directly through Haitian government institutions, partly due to concerns about corruption and capacity. This can weaken state institutions further.
    • Corruption and Mismanagement**: Both within donor-funded projects and Haitian institutions, corruption has diverted aid resources.
    • Alignment with Local Priorities**: Aid agendas are not always aligned with the priorities and needs of the Haitian people or government.
    • Impact on Local Markets**: Large inflows of certain types of aid (e.g., food aid) can sometimes negatively impact local agricultural production.

    Despite these challenges, foreign aid remains essential for Haiti, particularly in humanitarian crises and for funding basic social services and development initiatives. Efforts to improve aid effectiveness focus on better coordination, Haitian leadership in development planning, strengthening local institutions, and ensuring transparency and accountability.

7.3. Trade

Haiti's external trade is characterized by a persistent and significant trade deficit, with imports far exceeding exports. The country's participation in international trade is shaped by its economic structure, production capacity, and trade agreements.

• Main Exports**:
  • Apparel**: The garment assembly industry is the largest export sector. Haiti benefits from preferential trade agreements like the U.S. HOPE/HELP acts, which provide duty-free access to the U.S. market for certain apparel products. These are typically assembled in Haiti using imported textiles.
  • Agricultural Products**: Haiti exports some agricultural commodities, though this sector has declined significantly from its historical prominence. Key agricultural exports include:
    • Mangoes
    • Cacao
    • Coffee (once a major export, now much smaller in volume)
    • Vetiver oil (used in perfumes, Haiti is a leading world producer)
    • Other fruits and vegetables in smaller quantities (e.g., papayas, spinach, watercress).
• Essential oils and some handicrafts.

Agricultural products constitute a relatively small percentage of total exports (e.g., around 6% in some estimates).

• Main Imports**:
  • Foodstuffs**: Haiti is heavily reliant on food imports, including rice (a staple), wheat, poultry, edible oils, and processed foods. It imports roughly half of its food needs and about 80% of its rice.
  • Fuel**: Petroleum products (gasoline, diesel, kerosene) are entirely imported, as Haiti has no domestic oil production.
  • Manufactured Goods**: Machinery, vehicles, electronics, construction materials, and consumer goods.
  • Textiles**: For the apparel assembly industry.
  • Key Trading Partners**:
    • United States**: The U.S. is by far Haiti's largest trading partner, accounting for the vast majority of its exports (e.g., around 83.5% in 2013) and a significant share of its imports (e.g., around 26.8% in 2013).
    • Dominican Republic**: A major source of imports, particularly food products and manufactured goods, benefiting from the land border (e.g., around 35% of imports in 2013). Trade relations are sometimes complicated by political tensions.
    • Netherlands Antilles** (primarily Curaçao for fuel imports).
    • China**: An increasingly important source of imported manufactured goods.
  • Other partners include Canada and countries in the European Union.
  • Trade Deficit**: Haiti consistently runs a large trade deficit. For example, in 2011, the trade deficit was reported at 3.00 B USD, equivalent to 41% of GDP. This deficit is financed through remittances, foreign aid, and borrowing.
  • Trade Policies and Agreements**: Haiti is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). It benefits from preferential trade arrangements such as the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) and the HOPE (Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement) Act and HELP (Haiti Economic Lift Program) Act with the United States, which are crucial for its apparel sector.

  Challenges to expanding trade include poor infrastructure (ports, roads), high transportation costs, political instability, lack of access to finance for exporters, and low productivity in key sectors like agriculture. The recent security crisis, with gangs disrupting ports and supply routes, has further crippled trade activities.

7.4. Energy

Haiti's energy sector is characterized by chronic shortages, low electrification rates, heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels and traditional biomass, and significant challenges in developing sustainable and reliable energy sources. Access to modern energy services is severely limited, particularly for vulnerable communities and in rural areas.

• Primary Energy Sources**:
  • Biomass (Wood and Charcoal)**: Traditional biomass, primarily wood and charcoal, remains the dominant energy source for a large majority of Haitian households, especially for cooking. This reliance contributes to deforestation and indoor air pollution. An estimated 4 million metric tons of wood products are consumed annually.
  • Petroleum Products**: Imported fossil fuels (diesel, gasoline, fuel oil) are the main source for electricity generation and transportation. Haiti has no domestic oil production and is entirely dependent on imports (around 691,000 tons of oil imported yearly in some estimates). For a period, the Petrocaribe agreement with Venezuela provided oil on preferential terms, but this has largely ceased.
  • Hydropower**: Some hydroelectric capacity exists, notably from the Péligre Dam, but its output is often affected by drought and sedimentation.
  • Electricity Sector**:
    • Low Access**: Haiti has one of the lowest electricity access rates in the world. As of 2017, less than a quarter of the country had electric coverage, with significant disparities between urban (especially Port-au-Prince) and rural areas. In 2018, only 27.5% of the population reportedly had access to electricity.
    • Unreliable Supply**: Even in areas with grid access, electricity supply is highly unreliable, with frequent and prolonged power cuts (blackouts). Some areas may only receive a few hours of electricity per day.
    • Generation**: Electricity is primarily generated by aging, inefficient diesel power plants operated by the state utility, Électricité d'Haïti (Ed'H), and some independent power producers (IPPs) like Sogener, E-Power, and Haytrac. Ed'H often struggles to meet even 62% of overall electricity demand.
    • No National Grid**: There is no comprehensive national electricity grid connecting all parts of the country. Supply is often localized.
    • High Costs and Losses**: Electricity tariffs are high, and Ed'H suffers from significant technical and commercial losses (e.g., due to dilapidated infrastructure and electricity theft).
    • Self-Generation**: Many businesses, institutions, and wealthier households rely on expensive and polluting private diesel generators for their electricity needs.

    

    • Renewable Energy Efforts**:

    There is significant potential for renewable energy in Haiti, including solar, wind, and further hydropower.

    • Solar**: Solar power is increasingly being adopted for off-grid solutions, street lighting, and powering critical facilities like hospitals (e.g., the Hôpital Universitaire de Mirebalais is a large solar-powered hospital).
    • Wind**: Some potential for wind energy exists, particularly in certain coastal and mountainous regions.
    • Hydropower**: Potential for small-scale hydro projects exists, in addition to optimizing existing facilities.

    Efforts to develop renewable energy are supported by international partners and private initiatives, aiming to reduce fossil fuel dependency, lower energy costs, and improve access, especially for underserved communities. In 2018, a "24-hour electricity project" was announced, highlighting the ambition to significantly increase generation capacity (e.g., needing 236 MW for Port-au-Prince and 75 MW for other regions).
    
    The lack of reliable and affordable energy is a major impediment to economic development, poverty reduction, and the provision of basic services like healthcare and education in Haiti. The ongoing security crisis has further disrupted fuel supplies and the functioning of the energy sector.

7.5. Major Industries

Haiti's industrial sector is relatively small and underdeveloped, facing numerous challenges including poor infrastructure, political instability, lack of skilled labor, and limited access to finance. The major industries primarily revolve around light manufacturing for export, construction, and some processing of agricultural products. These sectors' impact on labor rights and environmental sustainability varies and is often a concern.

7.5.1. Agriculture

Agriculture has historically been the backbone of the Haitian economy, though its contribution to GDP has declined. It still employs a large portion of the workforce (around 40-50%), mostly in small-scale subsistence farming.

• Characteristics**:
  • Dominated by smallholder farms, often on marginal, hilly land.
  • Traditional farming methods with low use of modern inputs (fertilizers, improved seeds, irrigation).
  • High vulnerability to weather patterns (droughts, hurricanes) and environmental degradation (soil erosion, deforestation).
• Major Crops**:
  • Staple Crops (primarily for domestic consumption)**: Maize (corn), beans, cassava, sweet potato, plantains, bananas, rice, sorghum, millet, pigeon peas.
  • Export Crops/Cash Crops**:
    • Mangoes: A significant export fruit.
    • Coffee: Once a major export, quality Haitian coffee (especially Blue Mountain varieties grown at altitude) still finds niche markets, but production has fallen dramatically due to various factors including low prices, disease, and lack of investment.
    • Cacao: Another traditional export crop with potential for quality production.
    • Sugarcane: Historically important, now mainly for local rum (clairin) production and some sugar.
    • Vetiver: Haiti is a world-leading producer of vetiver oil, an essential ingredient in high-end perfumes.
    • Other products include papayas, mahogany nuts, spinach, and watercress.
• Issues and Challenges**:
  • Low Productivity**: Due to factors mentioned above, yields are generally low.
  • Food Security**: Haiti is heavily reliant on food imports (half its food needs, 80% of its rice), making it vulnerable to international price fluctuations and supply disruptions. Chronic hunger and malnutrition are widespread.
  • Land Tenure**: Insecure land tenure can discourage long-term investment by farmers.
  • Lack of Infrastructure**: Poor rural roads, limited storage facilities, and inadequate irrigation systems.
  • Environmental Degradation**: Deforestation and soil erosion severely impact agricultural land.
• Strategies for Revitalization**: Efforts to revitalize the rural economy focus on improving agricultural practices, investing in irrigation and infrastructure, promoting crop diversification, supporting farmer cooperatives, improving access to credit and markets, and addressing land tenure issues. Sustainable agriculture and agroforestry are also promoted to combat environmental degradation.

The agricultural sector's development is crucial for poverty reduction, food security, and overall economic stability in Haiti, but it requires substantial and sustained investment and reform.

7.5.2. Tourism

Haiti possesses significant natural and cultural assets that could support a thriving tourism industry, including beautiful beaches, mountainous scenery, a unique history, vibrant art and music, and rich Vodou traditions. However, the development of this sector has been severely hampered by persistent challenges.

• Tourism Assets**:
  • Natural Beauty**: White sand beaches (e.g., in the north near Cap-Haïtien, Île-à-Vache, Côte des Arcadins), mountains offering hiking and eco-tourism potential, waterfalls (like Saut-d'Eau), and caves.
  • Cultural Heritage**:
    • Historical Sites**: The UNESCO World Heritage Site of the National History Park - Citadel, Sans Souci, Ramiers (including the Citadelle Laferrière and Sans-Souci Palace) is a major draw. The colonial architecture of cities like Jacmel and Cap-Haïtien.
    • Art and Music**: World-renowned Haitian art (painting, sculpture, ironwork) and diverse musical traditions (Compas, Rara, Vodou drumming).
    • Vodou Culture**: Offers a unique cultural experience for interested visitors, though it is often misunderstood.
    • Festivals**: The vibrant Haitian Carnival and Rara festivals.
• Potential of the Tourism Industry**: Tourism could be a significant source of foreign exchange, employment, and economic diversification for Haiti. It could also help preserve cultural heritage and promote local crafts.
• Factors Hindering Development**:
  • Security Concerns**: Chronic political instability, civil unrest, and high crime rates (especially gang violence and kidnappings in recent years) are major deterrents for international tourists. Negative travel advisories from key source countries are common.
  • Infrastructure Deficits**: Inadequate transportation infrastructure (poor roads, limited airport capacity outside Port-au-Prince and Cap-Haïtien), insufficient and unreliable electricity and water supply, and a lack of quality tourist accommodations in many areas.
  • Negative Image Overseas**: Haiti often suffers from a negative international perception due to media coverage focusing on poverty, disasters, and instability, which overshadows its positive attributes.
  • Health Concerns**: Outbreaks of diseases like cholera have impacted tourism.
  • Environmental Degradation**: Pollution and deforestation can detract from the appeal of natural sites.
• Government Promotion Policies and Developments**:

The Haitian government has, at various times, identified tourism as a priority sector for development. Efforts have included:

• Investment in specific tourist zones (e.g., Île-à-Vache, Côte des Arcadins).
• Promotion of Haiti at international travel fairs.
• Encouraging private sector investment in hotels and tourism services.
• In 2014, the country received 1,250,000 tourists (mostly from cruise ships, particularly to the private resort of Labadee), generating an estimated 200.00 M USD. Several new hotels opened around that time, including international brands like Best Western, Marriott, and Occidental Hotel and Resorts, mainly in Port-au-Prince and Pétion-Ville, and some developments in Les Cayes, Cap-Haïtien, and Jacmel.
• Plans were introduced in 2013 for an international airport on Île-à-Vache.

Despite these efforts, the tourism sector remains largely underdeveloped and highly vulnerable to Haiti's broader challenges. The cruise ship segment, particularly at Labadee (a fenced-off private resort leased to Royal Caribbean International), has been more resilient but offers limited economic integration with the rest of the country. For sustainable tourism to flourish, significant improvements in security, infrastructure, and Haiti's international image are essential.

7.6. Currency

The official currency of Haiti is the Haitian gourde (gourde^French). Its ISO 4217 currency code is HTG. The gourde is notionally subdivided into 100 centimes.

Historically, the term "Haitian dollar" is often used in informal commerce. This is not a separate currency but a customary way of pricing goods and services, where one "Haitian dollar" is equivalent to five gourdes. Prices may be quoted in Haitian dollars, but payment is made in gourdes (or US dollars). For example, if something is priced at "10 Haitian dollars," the cost is 50 gourdes.

The United States dollar (USD) is also widely accepted in Haiti, especially in urban areas, tourist establishments, and for larger transactions. Many businesses price goods and services in USD, and remittances from abroad are often received in USD. Locals may refer to the USD as "dollar américain^French" (dola ameriken_{American dollar}^Haitian) or "dollar US^French" (pronounced oo-es_{US dollar}^Haitian).

The exchange rate of the gourde has historically been subject to fluctuations against the US dollar, often influenced by political stability, economic conditions, inflation, and the flow of remittances and foreign aid. The Bank of the Republic of Haiti (Banque de la République d'Haïti - BRH) is the central bank and is responsible for issuing the currency and managing monetary policy.

Banknotes and coins are issued in various denominations of gourdes. While centime coins exist, their practical use is limited due to their low value.

7.7. Infrastructure

Haiti's social and economic infrastructure is severely underdeveloped and has been further damaged by recurrent natural disasters and chronic underinvestment. Deficiencies in transportation, communications, energy, and water/sanitation systems represent major obstacles to national development, poverty reduction, and the improvement of public well-being.

7.7.1. Transportation

Haiti's transportation infrastructure is generally in poor condition, hindering economic activity and access to essential services.

• Road Network: Haiti has two main national highways:
  • Route Nationale No. 1 (RN1): Runs from Port-au-Prince northwards through coastal towns like Montrouis and Gonaïves to Cap-Haïtien.
  • Route Nationale No. 2 (RN2): Connects Port-au-Prince southwards with Les Cayes via Léogâne and Petit-Goâve.

  Many roads, including sections of these main highways and most secondary and rural roads, are unpaved, poorly maintained, heavily potholed, and can become impassable during rainy seasons or after natural disasters. Road travel is often slow and hazardous. Recent gang control over key highways has further disrupted transportation and commerce.

  • Port Facilities:
    • Port international de Port-au-Prince is the main international seaport, handling the majority of Haiti's maritime trade. Its facilities (cranes, berths, warehouses) have often been in poor condition and underutilized, partly due to high fees and inefficiencies.
    • Other ports exist in cities like Cap-Haïtien, Saint-Marc, Les Cayes, and Jacmel, but they generally have more limited capacity. The port of Saint-Marc has sometimes been a preferred entry point for consumer goods.
    • The Caracol Industrial Park project included plans for a new international seaport in Fort-Liberté, but this faced significant challenges and was largely abandoned.
    • Airports:

      • 

      Toussaint Louverture International Airport (PAP), located near Port-au-Prince in the commune of Tabarre, is the primary international gateway. It handles most international flights.

      • Cap-Haïtien International Airport (CAP) also receives some international flights.
      • Smaller airports exist in other cities (e.g., Jacmel, Jérémie, Les Cayes, Port-de-Paix) but primarily serve domestic flights by regional airlines and private aircraft.
      • Airport operations, particularly at Toussaint Louverture, have been severely disrupted by gang violence, leading to closures (e.g., for three months in early 2024).
      • Rail Transport: Haiti historically had a railway system, but it fell into disuse due to poor maintenance and is no longer operational. Rehabilitation costs are prohibitive. In 2018, a "trans-Hispaniola" railway linking Haiti and the Dominican Republic was proposed by a Dominican regional council, but it remains a conceptual idea.
      • Public Transportation:

        • 

        Tap taps are the most common form of public transport. These are brightly painted buses, pickup trucks, or vans that operate as shared taxis along fixed routes. Passengers "tap" on the vehicle's body to signal their desire to disembark. Tap taps are often privately owned and are a distinctive form of Haitian folk art. They typically do not depart until full.

        • Motorcycle taxis (motos) are also prevalent, especially for shorter distances and in areas with poor road access.

        The inadequacy of the transportation network increases the cost of goods, limits access to markets for farmers, isolates rural communities, and hampers disaster relief efforts.

8.1. Population

As of 2018, Haiti's population was estimated to be around 10.788 million, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the most populous Francophone country in the Americas after Canada. More recent estimates (e.g., 11.4 million) confirm its status as the most populous Caribbean nation. The country has a high population density, averaging approximately 350 people per km², with the population concentrated most heavily in urban areas (especially the Port-au-Prince metropolitan area), coastal plains, and fertile valleys.

Key demographic trends and characteristics include:

• Age Structure**: Haiti has a very young population. In 2006, half of the population was younger than age 20. This youthful demographic presents both opportunities (a large potential workforce) and challenges (strain on education, health, and employment services).
• Fertility and Mortality Rates**: Historically, Haiti has had high fertility rates, though these have been gradually declining. Mortality rates, particularly infant and child mortality, remain high compared to regional averages, reflecting poor health conditions and limited access to healthcare. The 2010 Haiti earthquake and subsequent cholera epidemic, as well as ongoing crises, have significantly impacted mortality.
• Life Expectancy**: Life expectancy at birth is among the lowest in the Americas. In 2018, it was estimated at 63.66 years.
• Urbanization**: There has been significant rural-to-urban migration, particularly towards Port-au-Prince, leading to rapid and often unplanned urban growth, and the expansion of slums.
• Emigration**: Haiti has a large diaspora, with millions of Haitians and people of Haitian descent living abroad, primarily in the United States, Dominican Republic, Canada, France, the Bahamas, and other Caribbean islands. Remittances from the diaspora are a crucial component of the Haitian economy.

The first formal census in 1950 recorded a total population of 3.1 million. The population has more than tripled since then, placing considerable pressure on resources and infrastructure in a country with limited economic opportunities and high vulnerability to environmental shocks.

8.2. Ethnic Composition

Haiti's population is overwhelmingly of African descent, estimated at around 95%. Their ancestors were primarily enslaved Africans brought from various regions of West and Central Africa during the French colonial era to work on plantations. The diverse African origins contributed to the richness of Haitian culture, particularly Vodou and Creole.

A significant minority group consists of Mulattoes (people of mixed African and European ancestry), who make up much of the remaining 5% of the population, along with a smaller number of people of primarily European descent. Historically, under colonial rule, mulattoes often occupied an intermediate social position between whites and enslaved Blacks, and some were free and owned property. After independence, this group often formed a significant part of the country's social, economic, and political elite. While the racial lines are complex and fluid, colorism and class distinctions associated with skin tone have historically been, and to some extent remain, a sensitive issue in Haitian society, influencing socio-economic relations.

There are also small communities of Arab Haitians (primarily of Lebanese or Syrian descent who immigrated mainly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, often involved in commerce), as well as individuals of other European (e.g., German, Polish from the Napoleonic era soldiers who stayed) and Asian backgrounds.

The indigenous Taíno population was decimated by disease and violence shortly after European colonization and has no distinct surviving communities, though some genetic and cultural influences may persist.

Haitian identity is strongly tied to its African heritage and its history as the first Black republic. However, social stratification has often, though not exclusively, correlated with skin color and ancestry, with lighter-skinned individuals sometimes having greater access to wealth and power. This is a complex legacy of colonialism and the country's own historical development.

8.3. Languages

Haiti has two official languages: Haitian Creole (Kreyòl ayisyen_{Haitian Creole}^Haitian) and French (Français_French^French). This bilingualism reflects the country's unique historical and cultural development.

• Haitian Creole (often simply called Kreyòl):
  • It is spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti (90-95% or more) as a first language.
  • It is a French-based creole language, meaning its vocabulary is largely derived from 18th-century French, but its grammar and syntax have been significantly influenced by West African languages spoken by the enslaved population during its formation. It also contains some loanwords from Taíno, Spanish, Portuguese, and English.
  • Haitian Creole evolved as a lingua franca among enslaved people from diverse African linguistic backgrounds and French colonists.
  • It was officially recognized as a national language in the 1961 constitution and as an official language alongside French in the 1987 constitution.
  • There has been a growing movement to standardize its orthography and promote its use in education, literature, and official domains. Most Haitians, especially outside the elite, conduct their daily lives entirely in Creole.
  • French:
    • It is the historical language of colonization, administration, and formal education.
    • While an official language, fluent French is spoken by a minority of the population, estimated at around 10-15%, although up to 42% may have some knowledge. It is primarily used by the educated elite, in government, the legal system, the business sector, and as the medium of instruction in most secondary and higher education institutions.
    • French is also the main language of the press and much of Haiti's written literature.
    • Haiti is a member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.

    The linguistic situation in Haiti presents challenges and opportunities. The dominance of French in formal spheres has historically created a barrier to education and social mobility for the Creole-speaking majority. However, there is increasing recognition of the importance of Haitian Creole as a symbol of national identity and a tool for broader communication and education. Efforts are underway to develop educational materials and promote literacy in Creole.
    
    Some Haitians, particularly those living near the border with the Dominican Republic or those who have lived or worked there, may also speak Spanish. English is also spoken by some, particularly in the business and tourism sectors, and among those with ties to the United States or other English-speaking Caribbean countries. Haitians deported from the U.S. or Latin American countries may also bring these languages back.

8.4. Religion

Haiti's religious landscape is predominantly Christian, with Roman Catholicism and various forms of Protestantism being the most widely practiced faiths. However, Haitian Vodou, a syncretic religion with deep African roots, plays a profoundly significant role in the cultural and spiritual life of many Haitians, often coexisting or blending with Christian practices.
According to a 2010 Pew Research Center report, 56.8% of Haitians identified as Catholic, 29.6% as Protestant, 10.6% as unaffiliated, and 3% as Other (including Vodou as primary).

• Roman Catholicism:
  • Historically, Catholicism was the state religion and remains the largest single Christian denomination. Estimates suggest that around 55-80% of the population identifies as Catholic, though active participation rates may vary.
  • Catholicism was introduced by Spanish and French colonizers. During the colonial period and for much of Haiti's history, it was the dominant religious institution.
  • The Catholic Church has a significant presence in education, healthcare, and social services.
  • Chibly Langlois became Haiti's first native Cardinal in 2014.
  • Protestantism:
    • Protestant denominations have grown significantly in recent decades, particularly Evangelical and Pentecostal churches. Estimates for the Protestant population range from around 29% to over one-third of Haitians.
    • Major Protestant groups include Baptists (the largest single Protestant group, around 15.4%), Pentecostals (around 7.9%), Seventh-day Adventists (around 3%), and Methodists (around 1.5%), among others.
    • The growth of Protestantism is part of a broader trend seen across Latin America and the Caribbean.
    • Haitian Vodou (also spelled Voodoo, Vodun, Vodoun):
      • Vodou is a complex spiritual and religious system that originated among enslaved West Africans in Haiti. It combines beliefs and practices from various African ethnic groups (particularly Fon, Kongo, and Yoruba) with elements of Roman Catholicism (due to forced conversion and syncretism) and indigenous Taíno beliefs.
      • Central to Vodou is the worship of a distant, unknowable creator God (Bondye, from the French Bon Dieu or Good God) and service to a pantheon of spirits called loa (or lwa). These spirits are intermediaries between Bondye and the human world, each with distinct personalities and responsibilities (e.g., Papa Legba, Erzulie, Ogou, Baron Samedi).
      • Vodou rituals involve drumming, singing, dancing, spirit possession, and offerings to the loa. It is an integral part of Haitian culture, influencing art, music, and social customs.
      • While only a small percentage (e.g., 2.1% in some surveys) may identify Vodou as their sole religion, it is widely estimated that a large majority of Haitians (perhaps 50-80%) incorporate Vodou beliefs or practices into their lives, often alongside Christianity. Many Haitians see no contradiction in practicing both Catholicism and Vodou (a phenomenon known as "serving with both hands").
      • Historically, Vodou was often persecuted and misrepresented, particularly by colonial authorities and in popular Western media (which often sensationalized it with imagery of "black magic" and "zombies"). However, it played a crucial role in the Haitian Revolution, providing spiritual inspiration and a framework for unity among the enslaved.
      • Vodou was officially recognized as a religion by the Haitian government in 2003.
      • While some Christians (particularly some Protestants) denounce Vodou, many Haitians, regardless of their primary religious affiliation, acknowledge the power and existence of Vodou spirits.
      • Other Faiths:
        • Small communities of Muslims, Baháʼís, Jews, and Buddhists also exist in Haiti.
        • A segment of the population (around 10.6% in a 2010 Pew survey) identifies as unaffiliated with any specific religion.

        The religious environment in Haiti is thus characterized by a dominant Christian presence, significantly intertwined with the pervasive cultural and spiritual influence of Vodou, creating a unique and dynamic religious tapestry.

8.5. Education

Haiti's education system faces enormous challenges, including low enrollment and completion rates, poor quality of instruction, inadequate infrastructure, and unequal access, all of which contribute to low literacy levels and hinder national development. The system is largely based on the French model.

• Structure**: The education system generally comprises:
  • Preschool (jardin d'enfants)
  • Primary education (école fondamentale), typically 9 years, starting around age 6. Officially, the first 6 years are compulsory.
  • Secondary education (école secondaire), typically 4 years.
  • Higher education (universities, technical and vocational schools).
  • Access and Enrollment**:
    • While net enrollment in primary education has increased over the years (e.g., from 47% in 1993 to a reported 88% in 2011, with near gender parity), significant numbers of children remain out of school, particularly in rural areas and among the poorest families.
    • Enrollment drops sharply at the secondary and higher education levels.
    • Cost is a major barrier, as even "public" schools often require fees for materials, uniforms, and other expenses.
    • Quality of Education**:
      • The quality of education is generally low. Many schools lack basic materials, qualified teachers, and adequate facilities.
      • Teacher training and salaries are often insufficient.
      • Curricula may not always be relevant to local needs.
      • The language of instruction is a significant issue. While Haitian Creole is the first language of nearly all students, French has traditionally been the primary language of instruction, especially in later grades and in private schools. This creates a learning barrier for many children. There are ongoing efforts to promote bilingual education and greater use of Creole.
      • Public vs. Private Sector**:
        • A striking feature of Haiti's education system is the dominance of the private sector. More than 80% of primary schools (and an even higher percentage of secondary schools) are privately managed - by non-governmental organizations (NGOs), churches, community groups, or for-profit operators.
        • Government oversight of these private schools is often minimal.
        • The public education system is underfunded and has limited capacity.
        • Many reformers advocate for a free, public, and universal education system, but the financial and institutional challenges are immense. The Inter-American Development Bank estimated that at least 3.00 B USD would be needed to create an adequately funded public system.
        • Literacy**:
          • Haiti has one of the lowest literacy rates in the Americas. The 2015 CIA World Factbook estimated the literacy rate for those age 15 and over at 60.7% (64.3% for males and 57.3% for females).
          • Higher Education**:
            • Higher education institutions include the State University of Haiti (Université d'État d'Haïti - UEH), which is the main public university, as well as numerous private universities and specialized schools.
            • Access to higher education is very limited.
            • Significant "brain drain" occurs, with many Haitian university graduates emigrating due to lack of opportunities.
            • Impact of Crises**:
              • Natural disasters, like the 2010 earthquake, have severely damaged school infrastructure.
              • Political instability and, more recently, gang violence have disrupted schooling for hundreds of thousands of children, with schools often forced to close or being targeted.

              Charity organizations, both local and international (e.g., Food for the Poor, Haitian Health Foundation), play a significant role in building schools and providing educational support. Improving education is widely recognized as critical for Haiti's long-term development and social progress.

8.6. Health

Haiti faces some of the most severe health challenges in the Americas, characterized by high rates of infectious diseases, malnutrition, maternal and child mortality, limited access to healthcare services, and a fragile healthcare system further weakened by political instability and natural disasters.

• Major Health Issues**:
  • Infectious Diseases**: These are a primary cause of morbidity and mortality.
    • Waterborne diseases: Due to lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation, diarrheal diseases, cholera, and typhoid fever are prevalent. An estimated 90% of Haitian children suffer from waterborne diseases and intestinal parasites.
    • HIV/AIDS: While prevalence has declined from its peak, Haiti still has a significant HIV burden (e.g., 1.71% of the population in 2015).
    • Tuberculosis (TB): Haiti has the highest incidence of TB in the region (e.g., an estimated 200 cases per 100,000 people in 2017).
    • Malaria: Endemic in many parts of the country, with around 30,000 Haitians falling ill each year.
    • Respiratory Infections: A common cause of death, particularly in children.
    • Meningitis.
  • Malnutrition**: Chronic malnutrition is widespread, especially among children, contributing to stunting and increased vulnerability to disease.
  • Maternal and Child Health**: Haiti has high rates of maternal mortality and infant mortality (48.2 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2019, compared to 5.6 in the U.S.). Access to prenatal and obstetric care is limited.
  • Non-Communicable Diseases**: While infectious diseases dominate, non-communicable diseases like hypertension and diabetes are also a growing concern.
  • Healthcare System**:
    • Access**: Access to healthcare services is extremely limited for much of the population, particularly in rural areas and urban slums. Most people have no easy transportation to hospitals or clinics.
    • Infrastructure**: Hospitals and clinics are often poorly equipped, understaffed, and lack essential medicines and supplies. Many were damaged or destroyed in the 2010 earthquake.
    • Personnel**: There is a chronic shortage of doctors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals due to inadequate training capacity and significant "brain drain" (emigration of skilled personnel). The recent gang crisis has exacerbated this, with up to 20% of qualified medical staff reportedly leaving by the end of 2023.
    • Funding**: Public spending on health is very low. The healthcare system relies heavily on international aid and NGOs.
    • Impact of Crises**: Natural disasters and political instability (including gang violence that targets or isolates hospitals) severely disrupt healthcare delivery and worsen health outcomes.
    • Key Health Indicators (approximate, may vary by source and year)**:
      • Life Expectancy**: Around 63-64 years.
      • Infant Mortality Rate**: High (e.g., 48.2 per 1,000 live births in 2019).
      • Vaccination Coverage**: Historically lower than regional averages (e.g., 60% for children under 10 in 2012), though mass vaccination campaigns for specific diseases have achieved higher coverage at times (e.g., 91% for measles/rubella in a campaign).

      Efforts to improve health in Haiti involve partnerships between the government, international organizations (like WHO, PAHO, UNICEF), and numerous NGOs. Initiatives focus on strengthening primary healthcare, improving maternal and child health, combating infectious diseases, improving nutrition, and rebuilding health infrastructure. The Hôpital Universitaire de Mirebalais, founded by Partners In Health after the 2010 earthquake, is a notable example of a modern, solar-powered teaching hospital. However, the scale of the challenges and the ongoing instability make progress difficult.

8.7. Social Issues

Haiti grapples with a multitude of profound and interconnected social issues that perpetuate a cycle of hardship for much of its population. These problems are rooted in a complex history of colonialism, political instability, economic exploitation, environmental degradation, and vulnerability to disasters, all of which disproportionately affect the most vulnerable groups.

8.7.2. Housing

Housing conditions for a large segment of the Haitian population are precarious and inadequate, particularly in densely populated urban slums and in areas affected by natural disasters. Housing insecurity is a major social problem.

• Urban Slums**: Rapid urbanization, driven by rural poverty and lack of opportunity, has led to the proliferation of informal settlements (slums) in and around major cities, especially Port-au-Prince (e.g., Cité Soleil, Martissant). These areas are characterized by:
  • Overcrowding and high population density.
  • Housing constructed from flimsy materials (e.g., corrugated metal, wood scraps, plastic sheeting), offering little protection from the elements or disasters.
  • Lack of basic services such as clean water, sanitation, electricity, and waste disposal.
  • Insecure land tenure, with many residents lacking formal ownership or rental agreements, making them vulnerable to eviction.
  • High exposure to environmental hazards like flooding and landslides due to their location in vulnerable areas (e.g., ravines, coastal floodplains).
• Rural Housing**: In rural areas, housing often consists of simple wooden huts, sometimes with mud walls and thatched or corrugated iron roofs. Access to basic amenities is also very limited.
• Impact of Natural Disasters**:
  • The 2010 earthquake caused catastrophic damage to housing stock, particularly in Port-au-Prince and surrounding areas, leaving over 1.5 million people homeless. Many lived in temporary displacement camps for years.
  • Hurricanes and floods regularly destroy or damage homes, especially those of substandard construction.
• Reconstruction Challenges**:
  • Post-disaster reconstruction efforts have been slow and complex. Challenges include clearing rubble, land tenure disputes, lack of funding, logistical difficulties, and the need to build more resilient housing ("build back better").
  • Despite significant international aid pledged after the 2010 earthquake, the delivery of safe and permanent housing has fallen far short of the need.
• Housing Insecurity**:
  • The combination of poverty, lack of affordable housing options, insecure tenure, and vulnerability to disasters creates chronic housing insecurity for millions of Haitians.
  • Recent gang violence has led to massive internal displacement, with hundreds of thousands forced to flee their homes, further exacerbating the housing crisis. Many displaced people live in makeshift shelters or overcrowded host communities.

  Addressing Haiti's housing crisis requires long-term strategies focusing on urban planning, construction of affordable and disaster-resilient housing, upgrading informal settlements, resolving land tenure issues, and improving access to basic services. The middle and upper classes often live in more robust housing, frequently in fortified compounds with private security, backup generators, and water reservoirs, highlighting the stark disparities in living conditions.

9.1. Art

Haitian art, particularly painting and sculpture, is internationally renowned for its distinctiveness, vibrant colors, imaginative themes, and often spiritual or narrative content. It is characterized by:

• Vibrant Colors and Naïve Perspectives**: Many Haitian paintings, especially within the "naïve" or "primitivist" style, utilize bold, bright colors and a direct, intuitive approach to perspective and form.
• Themes**: Common subjects include scenes of daily life (markets, agricultural work, festivals), lush landscapes, jungle animals, historical events (especially the Haitian Revolution), and, very prominently, themes and symbolism drawn from Haitian Vodou (depictions of loa or spirits, rituals, and sacred imagery).
• Symbolism**: Due to its deep historical and African roots, symbolism is highly significant. Vodou symbols, in particular, are intricately woven into many artistic expressions.
• Artistic Schools and Movements**:
  • The Indigéniste movement of the 1920s emphasized Haitian culture and African roots, producing expressionist paintings that gained international acclaim.
  • The Centre d'Art in Port-au-Prince, founded in 1944 by American artist DeWitt Peters, played a crucial role in discovering and promoting Haitian artists. Many so-called "masters" of Haitian popular painting emerged from this milieu.
  • Various "schools" or styles are often identified, such as:
    • The Cap-Haïtien school, often featuring detailed depictions of urban life and historical events.
    • The Jacmel school, reflecting the coastal town's scenery and vibrant carnival traditions.
    • The Saint-Soleil school, characterized by abstracted human forms, spiritual intensity, and strong Vodou influences.
• Notable Artists**:
  • Painters**: Hector Hyppolite (a Vodou priest whose work gained international fame), Philomé Obin (known for historical scenes and depictions of Cap-Haïtien), Préfète Duffaut (famous for his imaginative cityscapes and Vodou imagery), Wilson Bigaud, Castera Bazile, Rigaud Benoit. More contemporary painters include Edouard Duval-Carrié, Frantz Zéphirin, and Louisiane Saint Fleurant.
  • Sculptors**: Sculpture is also a vital art form, often utilizing wood, stone, and famously, cut and hammered metal (especially from oil drums). Georges Liautaud is considered a pioneer of Haitian metal sculpture. Other noted metal sculptors include Serge Jolimeau, Gabriel Bien-Aimé, and the Murat Brierre.

  Haitian art is not only a form of aesthetic expression but also a powerful medium for storytelling, social commentary, spiritual devotion, and asserting cultural identity. It is highly sought after by collectors worldwide.

9.2. Music and Dance

Haitian music is a rich tapestry of rhythms and melodies, drawing from African, French, Spanish, and Taíno influences, reflecting the diverse peoples who have shaped the island. Dance is inextricably linked to Haitian music, forming an essential part of religious ceremonies, social gatherings, and cultural expressions.

• Traditional and Folk Genres**:
  • Vodou Music: This is foundational to much of Haitian music. It is primarily ceremonial, featuring complex polyrhythms played on various drums (such as the tanbou), call-and-response singing, and specific rhythms associated with different loa (spirits). It is integral to Vodou rituals and often induces spiritual possession.
  • Rara: A vibrant and energetic form of festival music performed by parading street bands, especially during Lent and Easter week. Rara bands use bamboo trumpets (vaksen), drums, metal percussion, and often incorporate satirical or political lyrics. It has pre-Christian African and indigenous roots and is associated with Vodou and rural peasant communities.
  • Twoubadou (Troubadour): A style of balladry featuring acoustic guitars, maracas, and often romantic or humorous lyrics. It has influences from Cuban son and Spanish folk music.
  • Popular Music Genres**:
    • Compas (also Konpa dirèk or simply Konpa): This is Haiti's most enduring and popular modern musical genre, emerging in the 1950s, pioneered by Nemours Jean-Baptiste. It is a sophisticated dance music characterized by a steady rhythm, often featuring electric guitars, keyboards, saxophones, and other brass instruments, along with Creole vocals. It evolved from earlier Haitian méringue and has incorporated elements of jazz and other Caribbean styles. Famous Compas bands include Tabou Combo, Mini All-Stars, T-Vice, and Carimi.
    • Méringue: A traditional Haitian ballroom dance and musical style with French contredanse and African rhythmic influences. It is considered a national symbol and a precursor to Compas.
    • Mini-jazz: A rock-influenced band format that became popular in the 11960s and 1970s, often featuring smaller ensembles than traditional Compas bands.
    • Mizik Rasin (Roots Music): Emerging in the late 1980s, this movement blended traditional Vodou rhythms and folk music with rock, reggae, and jazz influences. Rasin bands often have politically and socially conscious lyrics. Notable groups include Boukman Eksperyans and Boukan Ginen.
    • Hip Hop Kreyòl: A growing genre, with artists rapping in Haitian Creole, often addressing social and political issues.
    • Kadans: Another popular dance music style, related to Compas.
    • Dance**: Dance is central to Haitian life. From the sacred dances of Vodou ceremonies to the social dances accompanying Compas and Méringue, and the energetic street dancing of Rara and Carnival, movement is a key form of expression.

    Haitian music and dance are dynamic, continually evolving while maintaining strong connections to their historical and cultural roots. They play a vital role in community life, celebration, and social commentary. Many Haitian musicians, like Wyclef Jean (of The Fugees), Emeline Michel, and Mélissa Laveaux, have achieved international recognition.

9.3. Literature

Haitian literature boasts a rich and complex history, with works written in both French and Haitian Creole, reflecting the nation's bilingual reality and its unique cultural and political trajectory. It has produced internationally recognized poets, novelists, essayists, and playwrights who have grappled with themes of colonialism, revolution, identity, race, social injustice, exile, and the Haitian experience.

• Early Period and French Influence**:
  • Following independence, French was the dominant literary language, associated with education, prestige, and the elite. Early Haitian writers often emulated French literary models while addressing Haitian themes and history.
  • Nineteenth-century literature included historical epics, romantic poetry, and political essays. Writers like Antoine Dupré and Oswald Durand are notable from this period.
• The Indigéniste Movement and Revaluation of Haitian Culture**:
  • The U.S. occupation (1915-1934) spurred a nationalist reaction and a cultural movement known as Indigénisme. Led by intellectuals like Jean Price-Mars, whose seminal work Ainsi Parla l'Oncle (Thus Spoke the Uncle, 1928) called for a revaluation of Haiti's African heritage and folk culture (including Vodou), which had been denigrated by the Francophile elite.
  • This movement profoundly influenced literature, leading to works that celebrated peasant life, Haitian Creole, and African-derived traditions. Jacques Roumain's novel Gouverneurs de la Rosée (Masters of the Dew, 1944) is a classic of this "peasant novel" genre. Jacques Stephen Alexis (e.g., Compère Général Soleil, 1955; Les Arbres Musiciens, 1957) also made significant contributions.
• Noirisme and Negritude**:
  • Indigénisme was a precursor to Noirisme, a political and cultural ideology emphasizing Black identity and leadership, which later influenced François Duvalier. Haitian writers also contributed to and were influenced by the broader Negritude movement, which asserted Black cultural pride, with figures like Aimé Césaire (Martinique) and Léopold Sédar Senghor (Senegal) having connections to Haitian intellectual circles.
• Literature of the Duvalier Era and Exile**:
  • The Duvalier dictatorship (1957-1986) led to severe repression and the exile of many writers and intellectuals. Literature during this period often took the form of resistance, critique, or testimony, much of it produced abroad. Notable writers from this era include Marie Vieux-Chauvet (whose works like Amour, Colère et Folie were banned), René Depestre, and Anthony Phelps.
• Emergence of Haitian Creole Literature**:
  • While there were earlier attempts, a significant body of literature in Haitian Creole began to emerge more prominently in the mid-to-late 20th century. Frankétienne is a pioneering figure, known for his experimental novels, poetry, and plays in Creole, including Dezafi (1975), considered the first novel written entirely in Haitian Creole. His work often employs a "spiralist" technique, reflecting the complexities and cyclical nature of Haitian reality.
• Contemporary and Diaspora Literature**:
  • Contemporary Haitian literature continues to thrive both in Haiti and in its large diaspora (particularly in the United States, Canada, and France). Writers explore a wide range of themes, including the legacy of dictatorship, poverty, migration, identity, gender, and the impact of natural disasters.
  • Internationally acclaimed contemporary Haitian and Haitian-diaspora authors include:
    • Edwidge Danticat (Haitian-American): Known for her powerful novels and short stories in English (e.g., Breath, Eyes, Memory; Krik? Krak!; The Dew Breaker) that explore themes of Haitian history, trauma, family, and the immigrant experience.
    • Dany Laferrière (Haitian-Canadian): A prolific and celebrated novelist and essayist, member of the Académie Française (e.g., Comment faire l'amour avec un nègre sans se fatiguer; L'énigme du retour).
    • Lyonel Trouillot, Gary Victor, Kettly Mars, Yanick Lahens, Emmelie Prophète, and Pierre Clitandre are among other significant contemporary voices writing primarily in French and/or Creole.

    Haitian literature is a vital space for cultural expression, historical reflection, and social critique, offering profound insights into the Haitian experience and contributing significantly to world literature.

9.4. Cinema

The Haitian film industry is relatively small but has produced a number of notable films, both documentary and fictional, often reflecting the country's social, political, and historical realities. Haitian filmmakers have faced challenges including lack of funding, limited infrastructure, and political instability.

• Key Directors and Films**:
  • Raoul Peck: Perhaps Haiti's most internationally acclaimed filmmaker. Peck is known for his powerful documentaries and feature films that often explore themes of colonialism, power, and Haitian/African diasporic history. His notable works include:
    • Lumumba (2000), a biographical film about Congolese independence leader Patrice Lumumba.
    • Moloch Tropical (2009), a drama set in Haiti exploring the corrupting nature of power.
    • Assistance Mortelle (Fatal Assistance, 2013), a documentary critically examining the international aid efforts in Haiti after the 2010 earthquake.
    • I Am Not Your Negro (2016), an Oscar-nominated documentary based on James Baldwin's unfinished manuscript about race in America.
  • Arnold Antonin: A prolific documentary filmmaker who has chronicled Haitian history, culture, and politics for decades. His films often focus on Haitian art, Vodou, and social issues.
  • Patricia Benoit: A Haitian-American filmmaker, known for Desounen: Dialogue with Death (1994), a documentary about the experience of Haitian exiles.
  • Richard Sénécal: Known for feature films like Barikad (2002).
  • Wilkenson Bruna: A younger generation filmmaker.
  • Themes and Characteristics**:
    • Haitian cinema often grapples with the country's turbulent history, political struggles, poverty, and social inequalities.
    • Vodou and Haitian culture are frequently explored.
    • Many films are produced with limited budgets, often relying on international co-productions or support from NGOs.
    • The Haitian diaspora also contributes significantly to filmmaking about Haiti.
    • Challenges and Growth**:
      • The lack of cinemas and distribution networks within Haiti makes it difficult for local films to reach a wide audience domestically.
      • Piracy is also an issue.
      • Despite these challenges, there is a growing interest in Haitian cinema, with film festivals and initiatives dedicated to supporting local filmmakers. The rise of digital filmmaking has also opened new possibilities.

      Haitian cinema provides a vital lens through which to understand the complexities of Haitian life and history, offering perspectives often missing from mainstream international media.

9.5. Cuisine

Haitian cuisine is a vibrant and flavorful fusion of West African, French, indigenous Taíno, and Spanish culinary traditions, with some Caribbean influences. It is known for its bold use of spices, herbs, and peppers, creating dishes that are both hearty and complex.

• Key Ingredients**:
  • Rice and Beans** (diri kole ak pwa or diri ak pwa): A national staple, often served as a side dish with most meals. Red or black beans are typically cooked with rice, coconut milk, and spices.
  • Plantains**: Served in various forms - fried (bannann peze - pressed and twice-fried green plantains), boiled, or mashed.
  • Root Vegetables**: Yams, cassava (manioc), sweet potatoes (patat), and malanga (taro) are widely used. Cassava is used to make a flatbread called kassav.
  • Meats**: Chicken (poul), goat (kabrit), pork (griot - marinated and fried pork chunks, a very popular dish), and beef are common. Seafood is also popular in coastal areas.
  • Spices and Herbs**: Haitian cuisine makes extensive use of epis (a seasoning base made from parsley, scallions, garlic, thyme, and peppers), as well as cloves, Scotch bonnet peppers (piman bouk), and other spices.
  • Fruits**: Mangoes, pineapples, coconuts, passion fruit, soursop (corossol), and avocados are abundant and used in dishes, drinks, and desserts.
  • Representative Dishes**:
    • Griot: Marinated, boiled, then fried chunks of pork shoulder, often served with bannann peze and pikliz (a spicy pickled vegetable relish of cabbage, carrots, and peppers).
    • Soup joumou: A rich pumpkin or squash soup traditionally eaten on Haiti's Independence Day (January 1st) to commemorate the end of slavery, as enslaved Haitians were forbidden by their French masters to eat this soup. It typically includes meat, potatoes, vegetables, and pasta.
    • Tassot (Taso): Fried goat or beef, similar in preparation to griot.
    • Poul an Sòs: Chicken stewed in a flavorful Creole sauce.
    • Lalo: A stew made with jute leaves (lalo) and often crab or pork.
    • Legim: A vegetable stew, often made with eggplant, cabbage, carrots, and other vegetables, sometimes with meat.
    • Akra: Malanga fritters.
    • Pate Kode: Savory pastries filled with meat or fish.
    • Diri Djon Djon: Rice cooked with black mushrooms (djon djon), giving it a distinctive dark color and earthy flavor.
    • Drinks and Desserts**:
      • Rum: Haiti produces distinctive rums, with Barbancourt being a well-known brand. Clairin is a type of unrefined sugarcane spirit popular locally.
      • Juices: Fresh fruit juices are common.
      • Desserts: Include items like pain patate (sweet potato bread/pudding), blancmange (a coconut pudding), and various fruit-based sweets.

      Haitian cuisine is a source of national pride and an important part of social gatherings and celebrations. It reflects the country's resourcefulness and rich cultural heritage.

9.6. Architecture

Haitian architecture reflects its complex history, blending indigenous influences, colonial European styles (primarily French), African building traditions, and adaptations to the tropical climate and natural environment. While much vernacular architecture is simple and functional, Haiti also boasts significant historical monuments.

• UNESCO World Heritage Sites**:
  • The most prominent examples of Haitian historical architecture are found in the National History Park - Citadel, Sans Souci, Ramiers, inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1982. These structures date from the early 19th century, built after Haiti's independence under Henri Christophe, who ruled northern Haiti as King Henri I.
    • Citadelle Laferrière: A massive mountaintop fortress built between 1805 and 1820. It is the largest fortress in the Americas and a powerful symbol of Haitian sovereignty and resistance to French reconquest. Its imposing stone walls and strategic location are remarkable feats of engineering.
    • Sans-Souci Palace: The royal residence of King Henri I, located in Milot at the foot of the mountain leading to the Citadelle. Built between 1810 and 1813, it was once a grand and opulent palace complex, inspired by European royal residences like Versailles, though much of it is now in ruins (partially due to an 1842 earthquake).
    • Ramiers Buildings: Fortifications and other structures associated with the defensive complex.
    • Colonial Architecture**:
      • Cities like Cap-Haïtien (the former colonial capital) and Jacmel retain examples of French colonial architecture, characterized by two-story buildings with wide verandas, intricate wrought-iron balconies, and tall shuttered windows designed for ventilation. Jacmel's historic center was particularly noted for its late 19th-century "gingerbread" style houses and was tentatively accepted as a World Heritage Site, though it suffered damage in the 2010 earthquake. The historic center of Cap-Haïtien is also preserved by the Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National (ISPAN).
      • Gingerbread Houses**:
        • Port-au-Prince and other towns feature "gingerbread houses," a distinctive architectural style that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These are typically large, ornate wooden houses with steep roofs, tall windows, intricate fretwork, and wrap-around verandas. They represent a unique Haitian adaptation of Victorian and other international styles, designed for the tropical climate. Many of these historic structures were damaged or destroyed in the 2010 earthquake.
        • Vernacular Architecture**:
          • Traditional rural housing (kay) often consists of simple structures made from local materials like wood, mud-and-wattle (torchis), and thatch or corrugated iron for roofing. These designs are adapted to the climate and local resources.
          • In urban areas, particularly in informal settlements, housing is often constructed from whatever materials are available, such as concrete blocks, wood, and sheet metal, reflecting the challenges of poverty and rapid urbanization.
          • Fortifications**: Besides the Citadelle, Haiti has numerous other historical forts and defensive structures built during the colonial and early independence periods, reflecting its turbulent military history.

          Preservation of Haiti's architectural heritage is a significant challenge due to natural disasters, lack of funding, and socio-economic pressures. ISPAN is the main governmental body responsible for the protection of national heritage.

9.7. Museums

Haiti has several museums that showcase its rich history, vibrant art, and unique culture, though the museum sector faces challenges related to funding, infrastructure, and preservation, especially after natural disasters.

• Musée du Panthéon National Haïtien (MUPANAH):
  • Located in Port-au-Prince, MUPANAH is Haiti's national museum. It is dedicated to preserving and promoting Haitian history and culture from the pre-Columbian era to the present day.
  • Its collections include historical artifacts, documents, artworks, and ethnographic objects.
  • One of its most famous exhibits is the anchor of Christopher Columbus's flagship, the Santa María, which ran aground off Haiti's coast in 1492.
  • The museum building itself is an interesting semi-underground structure designed to withstand hurricanes and earthquakes. It also serves as a mausoleum for some of Haiti's national heroes.
  • Musée d'Art Haïtien du Collège Saint-Pierre:
    • Also in Port-au-Prince, this museum houses one of the most important collections of Haitian art, particularly paintings from the mid-20th century "naïve" or "primitivist" school that gained international recognition. It features works by masters like Hector Hyppolite, Philomé Obin, and Rigaud Benoit. The museum has faced significant challenges, including damage from the 2010 earthquake.
    • Bureau d'Ethnologie (Bureau of Ethnology):
      • This institution in Port-au-Prince is dedicated to the study and preservation of Haitian folklore, Vodou traditions, and popular culture. It has a collection of ethnographic artifacts related to Vodou.
      • Centre d'Art (Art Center):
        • Though primarily an art gallery and school, the historic Centre d'Art in Port-au-Prince (founded 1944) has played a museum-like role in documenting and promoting Haitian art. It has been instrumental in the careers of many prominent Haitian artists. It was severely damaged in the 2010 earthquake but has been undergoing reconstruction and revival efforts.
        • Regional Museums**:
          • Smaller museums or cultural centers may exist in other cities, often focusing on local history or specific aspects of Haitian culture.

          The preservation and promotion of Haitian heritage through museums are vital for national identity and education. However, these institutions often struggle with limited resources. The Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National (ISPAN) is the governmental body responsible for the overall protection of national heritage, including monuments and museum collections.

9.8. Folklore and Mythology

Haitian folklore and mythology are rich and deeply ingrained in the national psyche, drawing heavily from West African spiritual traditions, particularly those that formed Haitian Vodou, blended with some European and indigenous Taíno elements. These beliefs and stories are transmitted through oral traditions, music, dance, and art, and they provide a framework for understanding the world, morality, and the supernatural.

• Vodou Pantheon and Spirits (Loa or Lwa)**:
  • The core of Haitian mythology revolves around the Vodou spirits. There is a vast pantheon of loa, each with specific attributes, domains, personalities, symbols, and ways of being served.
  • Examples include:
    • Papa Legba**: Guardian of the crossroads, who opens the way for communication between humans and the spirits.
    • Erzulie Freda**: Spirit of love, beauty, and luxury.
    • Ogou (or Ogoun)**: Spirit of war, iron, and politics.
    • Baron Samedi**: Loa of the dead, often depicted as a suave, top-hatted figure, along with his consort Maman Brigitte and the Gede family of spirits associated with death and fertility.
    • Damballa**: The serpent spirit, associated with creation, wisdom, and peace.
  • Stories about the loa, their interactions, and their influence on human lives form a significant part of Haitian folklore.
  • Zombies:
    • The concept of the zombie is perhaps Haiti's most internationally known folkloric element, though often sensationalized and misunderstood in popular Western culture.
    • In Haitian Vodou belief, a zombie is a soulless human corpse supposedly revived by a sorcerer (bokor) through necromancy. The zombie is then enslaved and forced to do the bokor's bidding. It is associated with the fear of losing one's will and soul, and with social control. The process is often linked to poisoning with neurotoxins found in substances like pufferfish toxin.
    • Lougarou (Werewolf/Shape-shifter):
      • The lougarou (from the French loup-garou, werewolf) is a malevolent creature, often a human who can transform into an animal or fly at night, typically to suck blood or cause harm. This figure shares similarities with vampire and werewolf legends in other cultures but has specific Haitian interpretations.
      • Other Mythological Beings and Beliefs**:
        • Various other spirits, mythical creatures, and folk beliefs exist, including tales of water spirits (La Sirène, a mermaid-like figure), forest spirits, and trickster figures.
        • Belief in magic, charms (wanga), and curses is also part of the folkloric landscape.
        • Oral Traditions**:
          • Folktales (kont), proverbs, riddles, and songs are vital means of transmitting cultural knowledge, moral lessons, and entertainment.
          • Storytelling is a highly valued art form. Figures like Bouki and Ti Malice are popular characters in Haitian folktales, similar to trickster figures in other African diasporic cultures.
          • Rituals and Practices**:
            • Vodou rituals themselves are rich in mythological symbolism and enactments of sacred stories.
            • Festivals like Rara also incorporate folkloric elements and traditional beliefs.

            Haitian folklore and mythology are not static relics of the past but are living traditions that continue to evolve and inform contemporary Haitian culture and worldview. They provide a deep connection to ancestral heritage and a unique way of interpreting life's experiences.

9.9. National Holidays and Festivals

Haiti's calendar is marked by a number of national holidays and vibrant cultural festivals that reflect its history, religious traditions, and unique blend of African and European influences. These events are important occasions for national commemoration, community gathering, and cultural expression.

• Main National Holidays**:
  • January 1: New Year's Day / Independence Day** (Jour de l'An / Jour de l'Indépendance_{New Year's Day / Independence Day}^French): This is Haiti's most important national holiday. It commemorates the declaration of independence from France on January 1, 1804, making Haiti the first free Black republic. It is also celebrated as New Year's Day. A traditional food eaten on this day is soup joumou (pumpkin soup), symbolizing freedom, as enslaved Haitians were forbidden to eat it during colonial times.
  • January 2: Ancestors' Day** (Jour des Aïeux_{Ancestors' Day}^French): A day to honor the nation's ancestors and founders.
  • May 1: Agriculture and Labor Day** (Fête de l'Agriculture et du Travail_{Agriculture and Labor Day}^French)
  • May 18: Flag and University Day** (Fête du Drapeau et de l'Université_{Flag and University Day}^French): Commemorates the creation of the Haitian flag in 1803 and celebrates Haitian universities.
  • October 17: Dessalines Day** (Anniversaire de la Mort de Jean-Jacques Dessalines_{Anniversary of the Death of Jean-Jacques Dessalines}^French): Commemorates the death of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Haiti's first ruler and a key figure in the revolution.
  • November 1: All Saints' Day** (La Toussaint_{All Saints' Day}^French)
  • November 2: All Souls' Day** (Jour des Morts / Fête des Guédés_{Day of the Dead / Feast of the Gede}^French): A day to commemorate the deceased, often marked by visits to cemeteries and Vodou ceremonies honoring the Gede spirits of the dead.
  • November 18: Battle of Vertières Day and Armed Forces Day** (Commémoration de la Bataille de Vertières et Jour des Forces Armées_{Commemoration of the Battle of Vertières and Armed Forces Day}^French): Celebrates the decisive victory over the French in 1803 that secured Haiti's independence.
  • December 25: Christmas Day** (Noël_Christmas^French)
  • Significant Cultural Festivals**:
    • Haitian Carnival** (Carnaval d'Haïti_{Haitian Carnival}^French or Kanaval_Carnival^Haitian):
      • This is Haiti's largest and most famous festival, typically held in the days leading up to Ash Wednesday (February or March).
      • It is a vibrant celebration with colorful parades, elaborate costumes, masks, street music (especially Compas and Rara-inspired Kanaval bands), dancing, and satirical commentary.
      • The main Carnival celebrations traditionally take place in Port-au-Prince, but other cities, notably Jacmel, also have renowned Carnivals. The Jacmel Carnival, known for its artistic papier-mâché masks and creative floats, often takes place a week or two before the national Carnival.
      • In 2010, the government decided to stage the national event in different cities annually to promote regional culture, though this has been inconsistent due to various crises.
    • Rara**:
      • A festival and type of parading street music unique to Haiti, primarily celebrated during Lent, culminating in Easter week.
      • Rara bands, composed of musicians playing drums, bamboo trumpets (vaksen), and metal percussion instruments, along with singers and dancers, parade through rural and urban areas.
      • Rara is deeply connected to Vodou traditions and often has social and political undertones in its lyrics and performances. It is a powerful expression of peasant culture and spiritual belief.
    • Religious Festivals (Catholic and Vodou)**:
      • Many Catholic feast days are celebrated, often with local pilgrimages and festivals (e.g., a major pilgrimage to Saut-d'Eau in July for Our Lady of Mount Carmel, who is syncretized with the Vodou loa Erzulie).
      • Vodou ceremonies and festivals dedicated to specific loa occur throughout the year, varying by region and specific Vodou house (hounfort).

      These holidays and festivals are vital expressions of Haitian identity, resilience, and cultural richness, providing opportunities for communal celebration, artistic creativity, and the reaffirmation of historical and spiritual traditions.

9.10. Sports

Sports play an important role in Haitian society, with football (soccer) being the most popular. Despite economic challenges and limited infrastructure, Haitians participate in and follow various sports, and the country has produced some notable athletes.

• Football (Soccer)**:
  • Football is by far the most popular sport in Haiti. It is played passionately in neighborhoods across the country, and there are hundreds of small clubs competing at local levels.
  • The Haiti national football team (Les Grenadiers) has a proud history. Their most significant achievement was qualifying for the 1974 FIFA World Cup in West Germany, making them only the second Caribbean team (after Cuba in 1938) to reach the World Cup finals. While they did not advance past the group stage, they famously scored the opening goal against Italy, ending Dino Zoff's record run without conceding an international goal.
  • The national team won the CONCACAF Championship (precursor to the Gold Cup) in 1973 and the Caribbean Cup in 2007. They have also participated in several CONCACAF Gold Cup tournaments and the Copa América Centenario in 2016.
  • The domestic league is the Ligue Haïtienne.
  • Stade Sylvio Cator in Port-au-Prince is the national stadium, used primarily for football matches and other events.
  • Notable Haitian footballer Joe Gaetjens famously scored the winning goal for the United States national team in their 1-0 upset victory over England in the 1950 FIFA World Cup. Other Haitian players have played professionally in leagues in Europe and North America.
  • Olympic Games**:
    • Haiti first participated in the Olympic Games in 1900 in Paris.
    • The country has won two Olympic medals:
      • A bronze medal in team free rifle shooting at the 1924 Paris Olympics.
      • A silver medal won by Silvio Cator in the men's long jump at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics.
    • Haiti has participated in most Summer Olympics since, but has not yet won further medals. The country has not participated in the Winter Olympics.
    • Other Sports**:
      • Basketball is growing in popularity, particularly among youth.
      • Baseball also has a following, though it is less widespread than in some other Caribbean countries. Efforts have been made to promote the sport.
      • Boxing has produced some professional Haitian fighters, such as Joachim Alcine.
      • Volleyball and athletics (track and field) are also practiced.

      Sports infrastructure in Haiti is generally limited, and development is often hampered by lack of funding. However, sports provide an important outlet and source of national pride for many Haitians. Samuel Dalembert is a notable Haitian-Canadian former NBA basketball player.

10.1. Relations with Major Countries

Haiti's relationships with certain key countries have been particularly influential throughout its history, shaped by colonial legacies, economic ties, migration, and political interventions.

• United States:
  • The U.S. is Haiti's largest trading partner, a major source of foreign aid and remittances, and home to a large Haitian diaspora.
  • Relations have been complex, marked by the U.S. occupation (1915-1934), support for various Haitian regimes (including the Duvaliers at times, due to Cold War anti-communism), and interventions to restore democratic order (e.g., 1994 to reinstate Aristide, and involvement in Aristide's 2004 ouster).
  • The U.S. plays a significant role in Haitian politics and development efforts, often focusing on security, governance, and humanitarian assistance.
  • France:
    • As the former colonial power, France has a deep historical and cultural connection with Haiti. Relations have been shaped by the legacy of colonialism, the Haitian Revolution, and the controversial indemnity Haiti was forced to pay France for recognition of its independence.
    • France is an important aid donor, a partner in the Francophonie, and home to a Haitian diaspora community.
    • In 2013, the Haitian government called for European governments, including France, to pay reparations for slavery.
    • Canada:
      • Canada is a significant development partner for Haiti, a major aid donor, and home to a large and influential Haitian diaspora, particularly in Montreal.
      • Canada has been involved in peacekeeping efforts, police training, and various development programs in Haiti. It is also a member of the Francophonie.
      • Dominican Republic:
        • Haiti shares the island of Hispaniola with the Dominican Republic, and their relationship is complex and often fraught with tension.
        • Issues include border disputes (though largely settled), migration (large numbers of Haitians live and work in the DR, often in precarious conditions), trade (DR is a major source of imports for Haiti), and historical grievances (including Haitian occupation of the DR in the 19th century and the 1937 Parsley Massacre of Haitians by the Trujillo regime).
        • Despite tensions, there is also significant cross-border interaction and, at times, cooperation, especially in disaster response (the DR provided substantial aid after the 2010 earthquake).
        • Cuba:
          • Cuba and Haiti share historical and cultural ties. Cuba has provided significant assistance to Haiti, particularly in the healthcare sector, by sending medical brigades to work in underserved areas. There is also a notable Haitian-Cuban community in Cuba.
          • Relations with Asian Countries**:
            • Haiti maintains diplomatic relations with various Asian countries. Notably, it is one of the few remaining countries that officially recognizes the Republic of China (Taiwan) instead of the People's Republic of China. Taiwan has provided development aid to Haiti.
            • Relations with other major Asian countries, such as South Korea and Japan, primarily revolve around development aid, trade, and participation in international forums. For instance, South Korean company Sae-A Trading has been a major tenant in the Caracol Industrial Park.

            Haiti's foreign relations are often focused on securing the necessary international support to address its profound domestic challenges, including poverty, political instability, insecurity, and vulnerability to natural disasters, while striving to maintain its sovereignty and promote its national interests on the global stage.