Guyana

3.1. Pre-Columbian Period

The lands that constitute present-day Guyana have been inhabited for millennia, with the first humans estimated to have arrived from North America via Central America around 35,000 years ago. These early inhabitants were nomadic, eventually spreading throughout South America. While major civilizations developed elsewhere on the continent, the societies of the indigenous peoples in the Guianas, such as the Arawak (Lokono), Carib (Kalina), Warao, Wai-Wai, Macushi, Patamona, Pemon (Arekuna), Akawaio, and Wapishana, were generally organized into smaller, semi-nomadic groups. They practiced shifting cultivation, primarily of cassava (manioc), complemented by hunting and fishing. Historians speculate that the Arawaks and Caribs originated in the South American hinterland and migrated northward, first to the Guianas and then to the Caribbean islands. The Arawak, known for their agricultural skills, settled in the coastal regions, while the Carib groups often inhabited the interior and were known for their warrior traditions, frequently clashing with the Arawak for territory and resources. By the time of European contact, these indigenous societies had well-established trade networks and distinct cultural practices.

3.2. Colonial Period

The colonial period in Guyana was marked by European exploration, the establishment of Dutch and then British colonies, the development of a plantation economy based on sugarcane, and the forced migration of enslaved Africans and indentured laborers, which profoundly shaped the country's demographic and social fabric.

3.2.1. Dutch Colonization

Although Christopher Columbus is credited as the first European to sight the coast of Guyana during his third voyage in 1498, and Sir Walter Raleigh fueled European interest with his accounts of a mythical "El Dorado" in the region in 1596, it was the Dutch who were the first Europeans to establish lasting settlements. Early Dutch traders arrived in the late 16th century, and by the early 17th century, they began to establish colonies. The first Dutch trading posts were set up along the rivers, focusing on trade with the indigenous populations.
In 1616, a permanent Dutch settlement was established on the Essequibo River under the leadership of Aert Adriaenszoon Groenewegen. The Dutch West India Company, chartered in 1621, was granted control over these trading posts and further colonization efforts. The Dutch established three main colonies: Essequibo (1616), Berbice (1627), and later Demerara (1752, officially recognized as a separate colony in 1773). The Dutch developed a plantation economy, initially focusing on tobacco and later shifting to sugarcane cultivation, which proved highly profitable. To support these plantations, they imported enslaved Africans. The Dutch engineers also constructed intricate systems of canals, dikes, and polders to drain the low-lying coastal plains for agriculture, a legacy still visible today. Dutch sovereignty over these settlements was formally recognized by Spain in the Peace of Münster in 1648.

3.2.2. British Rule and British Guiana

During the Napoleonic Wars, Dutch colonial power waned, and France invaded the Dutch Republic. In 1796, Great Britain, then at war with France, assumed control of the Dutch colonies in Guiana to prevent them from falling into French hands. Although briefly returned to the Dutch, British control was formalized by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, which ceded Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice to Britain. In 1831, these three colonies were unified into a single British colony known as British Guiana.
The British continued and expanded the plantation economy, primarily focused on sugarcane. The abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire in 1834 created a severe labor shortage on the plantations, as many emancipated Africans chose to leave the estates and establish their own villages. To address this, the British colonial authorities implemented a system of indentured servitude. Laborers were recruited from various parts of the world, including Portugal (Madeira), China, and significantly, from British India. Between 1838 and 1917, approximately 240,000 indentured laborers from India were brought to British Guiana. This influx of diverse ethnic groups profoundly reshaped the colony's demographic makeup and laid the foundation for future ethnic-political complexities. The system of indentured servitude, while different from slavery, often involved harsh conditions and exploitation, leading to considerable social strain.
Under British rule, Georgetown (formerly the Dutch town of Stabroek) became the capital. The British also established the administrative and legal systems that would influence post-independence Guyana. The discovery of gold in the 1860s led to a temporary economic boom. However, the colony remained heavily dependent on sugar, and the lives of the majority of the population were tied to the plantation system.

3.3. Path to Independence

The 20th century saw the rise of nationalism in British Guiana, fueled by economic grievances, social inequalities, and a growing desire for self-determination. Early labour movements and proto-political organizations began to emerge. The Great Depression and World War II further impacted the colony, leading to increased calls for political reform.
The key figures in the independence movement were Cheddi Jagan, an Indo-Guyanese dentist educated in the United States, and Forbes Burnham, an Afro-Guyanese lawyer educated in Britain. In 1950, they co-founded the People's Progressive Party (PPP), a multi-ethnic party advocating for socialist policies and independence. The PPP won a resounding victory in British Guiana's first elections under universal adult suffrage in 1953, and Jagan became Chief Minister. However, his government's radical policies, including pro-labor legislation and perceived communist leanings, alarmed the British authorities and the United States during the Cold War. Fearful of a communist state in South America, the British government suspended the constitution just 133 days after the election, ousted the PPP government, and installed an interim administration.
This intervention exacerbated tensions within the PPP. In 1955, Forbes Burnham split from the PPP to form the People's National Congress (PNC), which drew its support primarily from the Afro-Guyanese population, while the PPP became predominantly Indo-Guyanese. This division solidified the ethnic-political polarization that would dominate Guyanese politics for decades, often referred to as aapan jaat politics (a Guyanese Hindustani phrase loosely meaning "vote for your own kind").
Throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s, British Guiana experienced significant political unrest, including strikes and ethnic violence, particularly between 1962 and 1964. The British government, influenced by US concerns, manipulated the electoral system to favor Burnham's PNC. A system of proportional representation was introduced, which, in the 1964 elections, allowed the PNC to form a coalition government with the smaller, conservative United Force party, despite the PPP winning the most votes. Forbes Burnham became Premier. Following further constitutional conferences, British Guiana achieved independence from the United Kingdom on May 26, 1966, and adopted the name Guyana.

3.4. Post-Independence Era

Since gaining independence in 1966, Guyana has navigated a complex path of nation-building, marked by significant political leaderships, ambitious socio-economic policies, internal ethnic tensions, and impactful international events. The nation officially became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations on February 23, 1970.

4.1. Topography and Natural Regions

Guyana can be divided into five main natural regions:
1. The Low Coastal Plain: A narrow, fertile, and marshy plain along the Atlantic coast, generally 10 mile to 40 mile wide. This region, much of which is below sea level and protected by sea walls and an extensive network of canals and drains (a legacy of Dutch engineering), is where approximately 90% of the population lives and most agricultural activity, including rice and sugarcane cultivation, takes place.
2. The Hilly Sand and Clay Region (White Sand Belt): Located further inland, this region is characterized by rolling hills of white and brown sands and clays. It contains significant deposits of bauxite, gold, and diamonds, forming the heart of Guyana's mining industry. The vegetation includes scrub forests and some savannas.
3. The Forested Highland Region (Interior Highlands): This is the largest region, covering the majority of central and southern Guyana. It consists of dense tropical rainforest, rugged mountains, and plateaus, part of the ancient Guiana Shield. This region is rich in biodiversity and timber resources.
4. The Interior Savannahs (Rupununi Savannahs): Located in the southwest, primarily south of the Kanuku Mountains, these are drier grasslands, divided into the North and South Rupununi. This region supports cattle ranching and a significant indigenous population.
5. The Interior Lowlands: A smaller region of lowlands, also part of the Guiana Shield, featuring mountains that gradually rise towards the Brazilian border.

Notable geographical features include Kaieteur Falls on the Potaro River, one of the world's most powerful single-drop waterfalls, with a sheer drop of 741 ft ^{(226 m)}. Mount Roraima, a flat-topped mountain (tepui) at 9.1 K ft ^{(2.77 K m)}, is Guyana's highest peak and forms the tripoint border with Brazil and Venezuela. It, along with other tepuis in the Pakaraima Mountains, is said to have inspired Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's novel The Lost World. Other significant mountains include Mount Ayanganna (6.7 K ft ^{(2.04 K m)}) and Monte Caburaí (4.8 K ft ^{(1.47 K m)}).

Guyana has four main rivers: the Essequibo River (the longest at 1.01 K 0), the Courantyne River (724 0, forming the border with Suriname), the Berbice River (595 0), and the Demerara River (346 0). Shell Beach, along the northwest coast, is an important nesting site for sea turtles.

4.2. Climate

Guyana has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af), characterized by consistently high temperatures and humidity throughout the year. Conditions are generally hot and humid, though moderated by northeast trade winds, especially along the coast.
There are two main rainy seasons:

• The primary rainy season occurs from May to mid-August.
• A secondary, shorter rainy season lasts from mid-November to mid-January.

Annual rainfall is substantial, varying from about 0.1 K in ^{(2.00 K mm)} on the coast to over 0.1 K in ^{(2.50 K mm)} in the interior. Average temperatures range from 75.2 °F ^{(24 °C)} to 87.8 °F ^{(31 °C)}. The high humidity can make temperatures feel warmer. The country is generally outside the main hurricane belt.

4.3. Biodiversity and Environment

Guyana possesses one of the highest levels of biodiversity in the world, largely due to its extensive, unspoiled rainforests which cover over 80% of its land area. These forests are part of the larger Amazon rainforest and the ancient Guiana Shield ecoregion, one of the world's last remaining pristine tropical wildernesses. The country is home to an extraordinary variety of flora and fauna, including many endemic species (found nowhere else). Estimates suggest Guyana hosts over 8,000 species of plants, around 900 species of birds, over 225 species of mammals, and more than 880 species of reptiles and amphibians. Notable wildlife includes the jaguar, giant otter, giant anteater, harpy eagle, arapaima (one of the world's largest freshwater fish), and the Guianan cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola rupicola). The country's diverse habitats range from coastal mangroves and marshes to lowland rainforests, montane forests, cloud forests, and savannas.

Significant conservation efforts are underway. The Kanashen Community-Owned Conservation Area, established in 2004 and managed by the Wai-Wai indigenous community, is one of the world's largest community-owned protected areas, covering over 0.4 mile^{2 (1 km2)}. The Iwokrama International Centre for Rain Forest Conservation and Development manages a vast forest reserve dedicated to research and sustainable forest use. Guyana has also participated in international agreements like REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), notably through a partnership with Norway aimed at preserving its forests in exchange for development aid.

Despite these efforts, Guyana faces environmental challenges. Deforestation, primarily driven by gold mining (often illegal or poorly regulated), logging, and agricultural expansion, poses a threat to its forests and biodiversity. Mining activities, particularly gold mining using mercury, contribute to water pollution and habitat degradation. The recent boom in offshore oil production also presents new environmental risks that require careful management to protect marine ecosystems and mitigate climate change impacts.

5.1. Political System

Guyana operates as a parliamentary republic. The President is both the head of state and head of government. The President is not directly elected by popular vote but is the leader of the party list that secures the most votes in a general election. Executive power is exercised by the President and the Government (Cabinet). The President appoints the Prime Minister (who must be an elected member of the National Assembly and is the principal assistant to the President in the discharge of executive functions) and other ministers. Legislative power is vested in the unicameral National Assembly. It consists of 65 members elected for a five-year term using a system of proportional representation. 40 members are elected from a national top-up list, and 25 members are elected from the ten geographical constituencies (regions).

The judiciary is independent of the executive and legislative branches. The highest court is the Court of Appeal, with final appellate jurisdiction resting with the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), which Guyana joined as a full member. The Chancellor of the Judiciary is the head of the judiciary.

Guyana's political landscape has historically been dominated by two main political parties, which largely reflect the country's ethnic demographics:

• The People's Progressive Party/Civic (PPP/C), traditionally drawing support from the Indo-Guyanese population.
• The People's National Congress Reform (PNCR), which historically forms the core of the A Partnership for National Unity (APNU) coalition and draws support primarily from the Afro-Guyanese population.

The Alliance For Change (AFC) is another significant party that has at times formed coalitions with either of the major blocs. Elections in Guyana have often been contentious and marked by ethnic tensions, though international observation has played a role in recent electoral processes. During the 1970s and 1980s, politics was dominated by the People's National Congress under Forbes Burnham and later Desmond Hoyte, a period during which elections were widely considered not free and fair. The 1992 election, overseen by former U.S. President Jimmy Carter, marked a return to more democratic processes.

5.2. Human Rights

The human rights situation in Guyana presents a mixed picture, with legal protections in place but challenges in enforcement and societal acceptance in certain areas.
Homosexual acts between consenting adult males remain illegal under laws inherited from the British Empire, specifically sections of the Criminal Law (Offences) Act. These laws, though rarely enforced, can carry severe penalties, including life imprisonment. Guyana is the only country in South America where such acts are still criminalized. Constitutional "savings clauses" protect laws inherited from the colonial era from easy constitutional review, making repeal difficult. However, there has been growing advocacy for decriminalization by local LGBT rights groups and international human rights organizations. Cross-dressing, which was previously criminalized under vaguely worded "vagrancy" laws primarily targeting transgender individuals, was declared unconstitutional by the Caribbean Court of Justice in 2018, a landmark ruling for LGBT rights in the Caribbean. Former President David A. Granger (2015-2020) had expressed some support for respecting LGBT rights, but legislative change has been slow.

Indigenous peoples' rights are a significant concern, particularly regarding land rights, resource management, and access to social services in hinterland communities. While there are legal frameworks like the Amerindian Act, issues persist with the recognition of traditional land claims, consultation on development projects affecting their territories (especially mining and logging), and the impact of these activities on their environment and livelihoods.

Other human rights issues include concerns about the effectiveness and impartiality of the judicial system, conditions in prisons, allegations of police misconduct including excessive force and corruption, and domestic and sexual violence. Freedom of expression and the press are generally respected, though there have been occasional reports of government pressure on media outlets. The rapid influx of oil revenue has also raised concerns about potential impacts on governance, transparency, and equitable distribution of resources, which could indirectly affect human rights.

6.1. Regions

Guyana is divided into ten administrative regions. Each region is governed by a Regional Democratic Council (RDC), headed by a Regional Chairman. These regions vary significantly in size, population, and economic characteristics.
The ten regions are:

6.2. Neighbourhood Councils

The ten administrative regions are further subdivided into a lower tier of local government known as Neighbourhood Democratic Councils (NDCs). There are approximately 27 NDCs across the country. These councils are responsible for local governance within their specific areas, including services like waste management, local road maintenance, and market administration. Municipalities, such as Georgetown, Linden, and New Amsterdam, have their own town councils.

6.3. Major Cities and Towns

Guyana is predominantly rural, with a high concentration of its population along the coastal plain.

• Georgetown: The capital and largest city, located in the Demerara-Mahaica region (Region 4). It is the country's main administrative, commercial, and financial center, and a major port. Population was approximately 118,363 according to the 2012 census.
• Linden: The second-largest town, situated in the Upper Demerara-Berbice region (Region 10). It is a major center for bauxite mining. Population was 27,277 in 2012.
• New Amsterdam: An important town in the East Berbice-Corentyne region (Region 6), located on the eastern bank of the Berbice River. It is a port and commercial hub. Population was 17,329 in 2012.
• Corriverton: Located in the East Berbice-Corentyne region (Region 6), near the border with Suriname. It is a commercial center. Population was 11,386 in 2012.
• Bartica: Situated in the Cuyuni-Mazaruni region (Region 7), at the confluence of the Essequibo, Mazaruni, and Cuyuni Rivers. It serves as a gateway to the interior mining and forestry regions. Population was 8,004 in 2012.

Other notable towns include Anna Regina (Pomeroon-Supenaam), Lethem (Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo, bordering Brazil), and Mabaruma (Barima-Waini).

7.1. Boundary Disputes

Guyana has long-standing and significant territorial disputes with two of its neighbors, Venezuela and Suriname, which cover a substantial portion of the territory Guyana administers.

7.1.1. Guayana Esequiba Dispute (with Venezuela)

This is Guyana's most significant territorial dispute. Venezuela claims all of the territory west of the Essequibo River, an area known as Guayana Esequiba, which constitutes about two-thirds of Guyana's landmass (approximately 159.50 K sqkm).
The dispute dates back to the colonial era. Venezuela's claim is based on its assertion as the successor to Spanish colonial claims. The current boundary was established by the Paris Arbitral Award of 1899, which awarded the territory to British Guiana. Venezuela initially accepted the award but formally repudiated it in 1962, arguing the award was a result of collusion between the British and Russian arbitrators.
The Geneva Agreement of 1966, signed by the UK, Venezuela, and British Guiana just before Guyana's independence, established a mixed commission to seek a practical settlement. After decades of unsuccessful mediation, including efforts by the UN Secretary-General, Guyana referred the matter to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 2018, seeking a judgment that the 1899 Arbitral Award is valid and binding. Venezuela has largely objected to the ICJ's jurisdiction.
The dispute has intensified following the discovery of significant offshore oil reserves in waters off the Guayana Esequiba coast since 2015. Venezuela has engaged in actions perceived as escalatory, including increased military presence near the border and a referendum in December 2023 on annexing the region, which Guyana condemned as a threat to its sovereignty. The ICJ has issued provisional measures ordering Venezuela not to take any action that would modify the situation on the ground while the case is pending. The island of Ankoko in the Cuyuni River, part of the disputed territory, has been occupied by Venezuela since 1966.

7.2. Membership in International Organizations

Guyana is an active member of numerous international and regional organizations, reflecting its commitment to multilateralism and regional cooperation. Key memberships include:

• United Nations (UN)**: Guyana joined the UN shortly after independence in 1966 and participates in various UN agencies and programs. It has served multiple terms as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, most recently for 2024-2025.
• Commonwealth of Nations**: As a former British colony, Guyana is a member of the Commonwealth, sharing political, cultural, and historical ties with other member states.
• Caribbean Community (CARICOM)**: Guyana is a founding member of CARICOM, and its capital, Georgetown, hosts the CARICOM Secretariat headquarters. This membership is central to Guyana's identity as a Caribbean nation and facilitates close economic, political, and social cooperation with other Caribbean countries.
• Organization of American States (OAS)**: Guyana joined the OAS in 1991 and participates in its efforts to promote democracy, human rights, security, and development in the Americas.
• Union of South American Nations (UNASUR)**: Guyana was a founding member of UNASUR in 2008, aiming to foster South American integration. However, UNASUR has faced challenges and a decline in activity in recent years.

Guyana is also a member of other bodies such as the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Group of 77 (G77), the Islamic Development Bank (IsDB) through its membership in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Trade Organization (WTO).

8.1. Guyana Defence Force (GDF)

The Guyana Defence Force (GDF) is the unified military service of Guyana, established on November 1, 1965, prior to the country's independence. It comprises ground forces (infantry), a coast guard, and an air corps. The President of Guyana is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The GDF's primary roles include defending Guyana's territorial integrity, supporting internal security operations (in aid of civil power), disaster relief, and contributing to regional security efforts.
The GDF has faced significant challenges given Guyana's large land area, porous borders, and long-standing territorial disputes with Venezuela and Suriname. In January 1969, the GDF successfully quelled the Rupununi uprising, a secessionist movement in southern Guyana. In August 1969, in an operation codenamed "Operation Climax," the GDF expelled Surinamese military personnel from the Tigri Area (New River Triangle), which Guyana has administered since.
The GDF maintains modest capabilities due to limited resources, though recent oil revenues may lead to increased defense spending. It engages in international cooperation and training exercises with foreign militaries, notably with the armed forces of Brazil for border security and jungle warfare training, and with the United States Army through programs aimed at enhancing military readiness and capabilities, particularly in areas like maritime security and disaster response. US Southern Command held air exercises with the GDF in Guyana in December 2023 amidst heightened tensions with Venezuela. Military expenditure was reported as 1.69% of GDP in 2018. The GDF has an estimated active personnel of around 4,600, with a reserve component.

9.1. Main Economic Sectors

Guyana's economy traditionally revolved around a few key sectors:

• Agriculture: Historically the backbone of the economy, with rice and Demerara sugar (sugarcane) being the primary export crops. Other agricultural products include fruits, vegetables, and livestock. The Guyana Sugar Corporation (GuySuCo), a state-owned enterprise, has historically been a major employer but has faced restructuring.
• Mining: Bauxite and gold mining have been significant contributors to export earnings for decades. Diamond mining also occurs. Guyana's gold production in 2015 was 14 metric tons.
• Timber: Guyana has extensive forest resources, and the timber industry is an important sector, though concerns about sustainable logging practices exist.
• Seafood: The fishing industry, particularly shrimp harvesting, contributes to exports.

Since 2015, the crude oil and natural gas sector has emerged as the dominant force in Guyana's economy. ExxonMobil, leading a consortium, made a series of major oil discoveries offshore, with commercial production commencing in December 2019. By 2023, Guyana's oil reserves were estimated at over 11 billion barrels, making it a significant new player in the global oil market. This sector is driving massive GDP growth and transforming the economic landscape.

9.2. Economic History and Development

Following independence in 1966, the government of Forbes Burnham pursued a policy of "co-operative socialism", which involved the nationalization of major foreign-owned industries, including sugar (Booker Tate, later GuySuCo) and bauxite (Reynolds Metals, Alcan). This period, lasting into the 1980s, was characterized by state control of the economy, but also by economic decline, mismanagement, shortages of goods, high debt, and significant emigration of skilled labor.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, under President Desmond Hoyte and subsequent PPP/C governments, Guyana embarked on economic reforms, including privatization, market liberalization, and efforts to attract foreign investment. The country benefited from debt relief initiatives, such as the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative and the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI), which significantly reduced its external debt burden. Despite these reforms, Guyana remained one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere.
The discovery of oil in 2015 marked a turning point. GDP growth has been exceptionally high since oil production began: 43.5% in 2020 (despite the COVID-19 pandemic), and projected strong double-digit growth in subsequent years. This oil boom has led to a rapid increase in government revenue and foreign investment. However, challenges include managing this wealth to avoid the "resource curse" (e.g., inflation, Dutch disease), ensuring equitable benefit distribution, developing non-oil sectors, building human capital, addressing infrastructure deficits, and mitigating potential environmental and social risks. A Natural Resource Fund was established to manage oil revenues. Despite the boom, the World Bank noted in 2023 that significant poverty still exists and the country faces risks in managing its growth.

9.3. Foreign Trade

Guyana's foreign trade profile has been significantly altered by the oil sector.

• Exports: Traditionally, Guyana's main exports were sugar, gold, bauxite, rice, shrimp, and timber. Since 2019, crude petroleum has become by far the largest export, accounting for the vast majority of export earnings (e.g., 85.9% or 15.90 B USD in 2022). Gold remains a significant export (7.36% or 1.36 B USD in 2022), followed by rice (2.32% or 429.00 M USD).
• Imports: Major imports include machinery, manufactured goods, refined petroleum products (though this may change with local refining capacity development), vehicles, construction materials, and food.
• Major Trading Partners: Export partners in 2022 included Panama (31.6%), Netherlands (15.5%), United States (12.8%), United Arab Emirates (6.39%), and Italy (6.35%). Import partners included the United States (27.8%), China (14.3%), Brazil (7.06%), Trinidad and Tobago (6.84%), and Suriname (4.23%).

Key economic indicators (estimates, subject to rapid change due to oil):

• GDP: 4.12 B USD (5.25 K USD per capita, 2019 est., pre-major oil impact)
• GDP growth rate: 86.7% (2020), strong growth continues.
• Inflation: 5.03% (2021)
• Unemployment: 16.42% (2021)
• Arable land: 2% (2018 estimate)

9.4. Tax Policy

Guyana's tax system underwent a major overhaul in 2007 with the introduction of a Value Added Tax (VAT), which replaced several pre-existing consumption taxes, including the consumption tax, purchase tax, and hotel accommodation tax. The standard VAT rate was initially 16%, later reduced to 14% on most goods and services, with some items being zero-rated or exempt. The aim of the VAT was to broaden the tax base, simplify the tax structure, and improve tax collection efficiency. Other taxes include income tax (personal and corporate), property tax, and customs duties. The management of oil revenues and their impact on fiscal policy are critical current issues.

10.1. Population and Ethnic Groups

Guyana's population was estimated at approximately 743,700 in 2019. It has one of the lowest population densities in the world. About 90% of the population lives on the narrow coastal plain, which accounts for roughly 10% of the country's total land area. The interior regions are sparsely populated.

Guyana is a multi-ethnic nation. According to the 2012 census, the main ethnic groups are:

• Indo-Guyanese: 39.8% (descendants of indentured laborers from India)
• Afro-Guyanese: 29.3% (descendants of enslaved Africans)
• Mixed Heritage: 19.9%
• Indigenous Peoples (Amerindians): 10.5%
• Other groups (including Portuguese, Chinese, Europeans): 0.5%

The Indigenous population comprises nine main tribes: Akawaio, Arawak (Lokono), Arekuna (Pemon), Carib (Karinya), Macushi, Patamona, Wai-Wai, Wapishana, and Warao. They are the majority population in many parts of the interior.
Most Indo-Guyanese are descended from indentured laborers who migrated from North India, especially the Bhojpur and Awadh regions (present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand). A significant minority are descended from migrants from South Indian states like Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Afro-Guyanese primarily descend from West African ethnic groups such as the Ashanti, Yoruba, Igbo, and Mandingo.
Ethnic identity has historically played a significant role in Guyanese politics and society, and there have been periods of tension between the two largest groups, the Indo-Guyanese and Afro-Guyanese.

10.2. Languages

The official language of Guyana is English. It is used in government, education, media, and business.
However, the most widely spoken language in everyday life is Guyanese Creole, an English-based creole language with influences from African, Indian (especially Bhojpuri), and Amerindian languages. For many Guyanese, it is their first language.
Several Indigenous Cariban languages are spoken by Amerindian communities, including Akawaio, Wai-Wai, Macushi, and Pemon. Arawakan languages like Lokono (Arawak) and Wapishana, and Warao (a language isolate) are also spoken. Many of these languages are endangered.
Guyanese Hindustani (a form of Bhojpuri) is spoken by some older members of the Indo-Guyanese community, particularly in religious and cultural contexts, but its use as a daily vernacular has declined among younger generations. Immigrants from Suriname may speak Sarnami Hindustani. Portuguese and Spanish are also spoken by some, particularly near the borders with Brazil and Venezuela, respectively.

10.3. Religion

Guyana is a secular state with a religiously diverse population, reflecting its multi-ethnic heritage. The 2012 census data on religious affiliation indicated:

• Christianity: 62.7% of the population.
  • Pentecostal: 22.8% (largest Christian denomination)
  • Anglican: 5.2%
  • Roman Catholic: 7.1%
  • Seventh-day Adventist: 5.3%
  • Methodist: 1.4%
  • Other Christian: 20.8% (including Jehovah's Witnesses at 1.3%)
• Hinduism: 24.8% (primarily practiced by Indo-Guyanese)
• Islam: 6.8% (practiced by both Indo-Guyanese and Afro-Guyanese, as well as other groups)
• No Religion: 3.1%
• Other Faiths: 2.6% (including Rastafarianism, Baháʼí Faith, and traditional Amerindian spiritual beliefs).

Religion plays an important role in Guyanese society and culture. Christian missionaries were active during the colonial era, establishing schools and churches. Hinduism and Islam arrived with indentured laborers from India. Religious festivals of all major faiths are often celebrated as national holidays, reflecting the country's religious tolerance.

10.4. Education

Guyana's education system provides for education from nursery to tertiary levels and is largely based on the former British education model. The Ministry of Education is responsible for overseeing the sector.
Primary education is compulsory. Historically, literacy rates in Guyana were among the highest in the Caribbean, estimated at 96% in 1990. A 2014 UNESCO estimate put literacy at 96.7% for the 15-24 age group, though functional literacy may be lower.
The school system includes:

• Nursery Education
• Primary Education: Students take the National Grade Six Assessment (NGSA) at the end of primary school for placement into secondary schools.
• Secondary Education: Students traditionally take the Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) examinations, administered by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC), at the end of secondary school (Grade 11). Some schools also offer the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE) for pre-university studies. The British A-level system is offered in a few schools.
• Tertiary Education: The main tertiary institution is the University of Guyana, with campuses in Turkeyen (Greater Georgetown) and Tain (Berbice). There are also technical institutes, teacher training colleges, and other vocational centers.

Challenges in the education sector include disparities in resources and quality between coastal and hinterland (interior) schools, a need for more trained teachers, outdated infrastructure in some areas, and the need to align the curriculum with the demands of a modernizing economy, particularly with the advent of the oil and gas sector. Historically, many schools were run by religious denominations until the government took over control in the 1960s and 1970s, making education free.

10.5. Health

Guyana's health indicators have seen improvements over the years, but the country still faces several public health challenges. Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be around 69.5 years as of 2020.
Major health concerns include:

• Non-communicable diseases (NCDs): Such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancers, which are leading causes of mortality.
• Infectious diseases: While progress has been made, diseases like HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria (particularly in interior regions) remain concerns. HIV prevalence in the 15-49 age group was estimated at 1.2% by the WHO in 2011.
• Mental Health and Suicide: Guyana has historically had one of the highest suicide rates in the world. A PAHO/WHO report in 2014, using 2012 statistics, ranked it as having the highest rate globally, with 44.2 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants. Efforts are ongoing to address this through mental health services and awareness campaigns.
• Maternal and Child Health: Improvements have been made, but maternal and infant mortality rates are still higher than in many other Caribbean countries.

The healthcare system comprises public and private facilities. The public system includes health posts, health centers, district hospitals, regional hospitals, and the national referral hospital, the Georgetown Public Hospital Corporation (GPHC). Access to healthcare can be challenging in remote hinterland areas due to geographical barriers and limited infrastructure. The Ministry of Health is responsible for overseeing the health sector. Challenges include a shortage of specialized medical personnel (due in part to emigration), the need for better equipment and infrastructure, and ensuring equitable access to quality care across all regions.

11.1. Transport

Guyana's transport system is varied, relying on roads, rivers, and air travel, especially to access the interior. Guyana is one of only three regions in South America (along with Suriname and the Falkland Islands) where traffic drives on the left.

• Roads: The road network is limited, with a total of about 4.95 K mile of highways, of which only a small portion (around 367 mile) is paved. Most paved roads are concentrated along the coastal plain. Major road projects are underway or planned to improve connectivity, including links to Brazil and Suriname.
• Railways: Guyana currently has no public railway system for passenger transport. Historically, there were railways for sugar and bauxite transport, but most are now defunct or dedicated solely to ore transport (approximately 116 mile).
• Waterways: Rivers like the Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice are important transportation arteries, especially for bulk cargo and access to interior communities. Navigable waterways extend for about 669 mile. Major ports include Georgetown, New Amsterdam, and Port Kaituma.
• Airports: Air travel is crucial for accessing the hinterland. The main international airport is the Cheddi Jagan International Airport (GEO) at Timehri, near Georgetown. The Eugene F. Correia International Airport (formerly Ogle Airport), also near Georgetown, serves regional and domestic flights. There are about 90 smaller airstrips scattered throughout the interior, many with unpaved runways.
• Bridges: The Demerara Harbour Bridge, a long floating pontoon bridge, is a critical link. The Berbice Bridge, a public-private partnership, spans the Berbice River. The Takutu River Bridge connects Lethem, Guyana, to Bonfim, Brazil, facilitating cross-border trade and travel.

11.2. Electricity

The electricity sector in Guyana is primarily managed by the state-owned Guyana Power and Light (GPL) Inc. The country has historically relied heavily on imported diesel fuel and heavy fuel oil for electricity generation, leading to high costs and, at times, unreliable supply, particularly outside the coastal belt.
Installed capacity was around 226 MW (as of earlier estimates), with frequent power outages being a common issue. There is significant potential for renewable energy, especially hydropower, due to Guyana's numerous rivers and waterfalls. Several large-scale hydropower projects have been proposed over the years, but have faced financial and environmental hurdles. Solar power initiatives are also being implemented, particularly for hinterland communities not connected to the national grid.
The new oil wealth is expected to provide resources for major upgrades to the energy infrastructure, including the development of gas-to-energy projects (utilizing associated natural gas from offshore oil production) and further investment in renewables, aiming to improve reliability, reduce costs, and lower carbon emissions. Challenges remain in modernizing the transmission and distribution network and ensuring energy access for all, especially in remote areas.

12.1. Cultural Influences and Identity

Guyanese national identity is a blend of influences from its primary ethnic groups:

• Indo-Guyanese: Descendants of indentured laborers from India have preserved many aspects of Indian culture, including religious practices (Hinduism and Islam), cuisine (roti, curry), music (chutney, tassa drumming), festivals (Diwali, Phagwah, Eid), and traditional attire.
• Afro-Guyanese: Descendants of enslaved Africans have contributed significantly to Guyanese music (folk songs, drumming, calypso, soca), dance, folklore (Anansi stories), cuisine (metemgee, cook-up rice, pepperpot), and religious expressions (Christianity, Revivalism).
• Indigenous Peoples (Amerindians): The nine distinct Amerindian nations have rich cultural traditions, including languages, spiritual beliefs, crafts (basketry, pottery), knowledge of traditional medicine, and unique culinary practices (cassava bread, pepperpot).
• European: British colonial rule left a lasting impact on language (English), legal and political systems, education, architecture (wooden colonial buildings in Georgetown), and some social customs. Portuguese and other European influences are also present.
• Chinese: Descendants of indentured laborers from China have contributed to Guyanese cuisine and commerce.

This blend creates a unique cultural milieu often described as a "mosaic." While English is the official language, Guyanese Creole is widely spoken and is a vital part of cultural expression. Guyana maintains strong cultural ties to the English-speaking Caribbean, evident in music, sports (cricket), and social norms.

12.2. Festivals and Public Holidays

Guyana celebrates a variety of national holidays and cultural festivals that reflect its diverse religious and ethnic composition. Many of these are public holidays.

• Mashramani (usually February 23): Guyana's Republic Day, celebrated with a large carnival including costume parades, music, and street parties. The name is an Amerindian word meaning "celebration after cooperative work."
• Phagwah (Holi): A Hindu spring festival, also known as the festival of colors, celebrated with joyful throwing of colored powders and water.
• Diwali (Deepavali): The Hindu festival of lights, celebrated with the lighting of diyas (oil lamps), feasts, and fireworks.
• Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha: Important Islamic festivals celebrated by the Muslim community with prayers, feasts, and charity.
• Christmas and Easter: Major Christian holidays widely celebrated.
• Emancipation Day (August 1): Commemorates the abolition of slavery.
• Arrival Day (May 5): Commemorates the arrival of the first indentured laborers from India.

12.3. Sports

Sports play a significant role in Guyanese culture and national pride.

• Cricket: By far the most popular sport. Guyana is part of the West Indies cricket team for international matches and has produced many famous West Indian cricketers. Domestic cricket is also keenly followed. The Providence Stadium near Georgetown hosted matches during the 2007 Cricket World Cup.
• Football (Soccer): Also very popular. The Guyana national team (the "Golden Jaguars") competes in CONCACAF tournaments. The GFF Elite League is the country's top domestic league.
• Basketball, Volleyball, and Athletics (Track and Field) are also popular.

Minor sports include softball cricket, field hockey, netball, lawn tennis, table tennis, boxing, squash, and horse racing. Guyana has five horse racing courses. The country also participated in beach volleyball at the 2019 South American Beach Games.

12.4. Cuisine

Guyanese cuisine is a flavorful fusion reflecting its diverse ethnic heritage, incorporating Amerindian, African, Indian, Chinese, Portuguese, and British influences.

• Pepperpot: Considered Guyana's national dish, it is an Amerindian meat stew flavored with cassareep (a thick black liquid made from cassava root), cinnamon, and hot peppers. Traditionally eaten at Christmas and other special occasions.
• Roti and Curry: Staple dishes of Indian origin. Various types of roti (paratha, dhal puri) are served with curried chicken, beef, goat, shrimp, or vegetables.
• Cook-up rice: A one-pot dish similar to pelau, typically made with rice, peas or beans, coconut milk, and chicken or beef.
• Metemgee (Metagee): An African-influenced dish made with ground provisions (like cassava, yams, eddoes, plantains), coconut milk, and often served with fried fish or chicken.
• Other popular items include fried rice, chow mein (Chinese influence), garlic pork (Portuguese influence), various seafood dishes, and an abundance of tropical fruits like mangoes, pineapples, and passion fruit. Bakes (fried dough) are also common.

12.5. Media

The media landscape in Guyana includes state-owned and private entities. The National Communications Network (NCN) operates state television and radio services. There are several private television stations, radio stations, and daily newspapers (e.g., Stabroek News, Kaieteur News, Guyana Chronicle). Freedom of the press is generally upheld, but challenges related to political influence and financial sustainability for independent media exist.

12.6. Landmarks

Guyana has several significant historical, cultural, and natural landmarks:

• St. George's Cathedral (Georgetown): One of the tallest wooden churches in the world, an iconic example of Victorian architecture.
• Stabroek Market (Georgetown): A large, historic cast-iron market building with a distinctive clock tower, serving as a bustling commercial hub.
• Demerara Harbour Bridge: A long floating pontoon bridge crossing the Demerara River, vital for transportation. A new, higher fixed bridge is planned.
• Parliament Building (Georgetown): The seat of the National Assembly, a historic colonial-era structure.
• Umana Yana (Georgetown): A conical, palm-thatched Amerindian-style benab (shelter), originally built in 1972 for a Non-Aligned Movement conference and rebuilt after a fire. It symbolizes indigenous heritage.
• Shell Beach: Located on the northwestern coast, a protected area and important nesting site for four species of sea turtles.
• Kaieteur Falls: A spectacular waterfall in the Kaieteur National Park, a major natural attraction.
• Arthur Chung Conference Centre: A modern facility gifted by the People's Republic of China, used for international conferences and events.
• Georgetown City Hall: A notable example of Gothic Revival architecture, though in need of restoration.
• Providence Stadium: The main sports stadium, primarily used for cricket.
• Berbice Bridge: A floating bridge crossing the Berbice River.
• Takutu River Bridge: Connects Lethem, Guyana, to Bonfim, Brazil.

The National Trust of Guyana has designated nine historic sites as national monuments.