Argentina

3.1. Pre-Columbian era

The earliest traces of human life in the area now known as Argentina date back to the Paleolithic period, approximately 13,000 years Before Present, with further evidence from the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Until European colonization, Argentina was relatively sparsely populated by a wide array of diverse indigenous cultures with different social organizations. These cultures can be broadly divided into three main groups.

The first group consisted of basic hunters and food gatherers who had not developed pottery, such as the Selk'nam and Yaghan in the extreme south (Tierra del Fuego). The second group comprised more advanced hunters and food gatherers, including the Puelche, Querandí, and Serranos in the centre-east, and the Tehuelche in the south. Many of these groups, particularly the Tehuelche, were later conquered or significantly influenced by the Mapuche people spreading from Chile. In the north, the Kom (Toba) and Wichi peoples also belonged to this category of advanced hunters and gatherers.

The third group included farmers who practiced pottery. Among these were the Charrúa, Minuane, and Guaraní in the northeast, who engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture and had a semi-sedentary existence. The Diaguita people in the northwest represented an advanced sedentary trading culture, which was eventually conquered and incorporated into the Inca Empire around 1480. Other agricultural groups included the Toconoté and Hênîa and Kâmîare in the country's centre, and the Huarpe in the centre-west, a culture that raised llamas and was strongly influenced by the Incas. The Inca Empire's expansion into the northwest of present-day Argentina brought parts of the region into its administrative province of Collasuyu. These indigenous societies possessed varied social structures, belief systems, and levels of technological development, all of which were profoundly impacted by the subsequent European arrival.

3.2. Colonial era

European presence in the region began with the 1502 voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Spanish navigators Juan Díaz de Solís and Sebastian Cabot visited the territory that is now Argentina in 1516 and 1526, respectively. In 1536, Pedro de Mendoza founded the small settlement of Buenos Aires, but it was abandoned in 1541 due to conflicts with indigenous populations and lack of resources.

Further colonization efforts originated from Paraguay (establishing the Governorate of the Río de la Plata), Peru, and Chile. Francisco de Aguirre founded Santiago del Estero in 1553, which is considered Argentina's oldest continuously inhabited city. Other settlements followed: Londres (1558), Mendoza (1561), San Juan (1562), and San Miguel de Tucumán (1565). Juan de Garay founded Santa Fe in 1573, and in the same year, Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera established Córdoba. Garay re-founded Buenos Aires in 1580, establishing it as a permanent port. San Luis was established in 1596.

The Spanish Empire initially subordinated the economic potential of the Argentine territory to the immediate wealth derived from the silver and gold mines in Bolivia (then Upper Peru) and Peru. Consequently, the region became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1776, the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was created with Buenos Aires as its capital. This administrative reorganization aimed to better defend the region from Portuguese and British ambitions and to control the burgeoning (and often illicit) trade through Buenos Aires. Colonial society was hierarchical, with Spanish-born peninsulares at the top, followed by Criollos (people of Spanish descent born in the Americas), mestizos (mixed European and indigenous), indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans. The indigenous populations suffered significantly from disease, forced labor (such as the mita and encomienda systems), and loss of land, leading to demographic decline and cultural disruption. The socio-economic structure was largely based on agriculture, livestock raising (particularly cattle and horses which thrived on the Pampas), and trade, though manufacturing was limited.

In 1806 and 1807, Buenos Aires successfully repelled two British invasions. These victories, achieved largely by local militias without significant aid from Spain, fostered a sense of local pride and capability, fueling ideas of self-governance. The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the example of the American Revolution and French Revolution generated criticism of the absolutist monarchy that ruled the country. The overthrow of King Ferdinand VII by Napoleon during the Peninsular War created a power vacuum and great concern throughout Spanish America, setting the stage for independence movements.

3.3. Independence and civil wars

The quest for independence in Argentina began in earnest with the May Revolution of 1810 in Buenos Aires. This event, triggered by the news of Spain's weakening control due to the Napoleonic Wars, led to the ousting of the Spanish viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and the establishment of the Primera Junta, the first autonomous government formed by local Criollos. This marked the beginning of the Argentine War of Independence (1810-1825).

The early years were marked by military campaigns to secure the territory of the former Viceroyalty. While the Junta successfully crushed a royalist counter-revolution in Córdoba, its forces faced difficulties in Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia), Paraguay, and the Banda Oriental (modern-day Uruguay), regions that would eventually become independent states. Figures like Manuel Belgrano played crucial roles in these early military and political efforts.

A formal Declaration of Independence was made on July 9, 1816, at the Congress of Tucumán, proclaiming the sovereignty of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (later renamed Argentina). General José de San Martín emerged as the foremost military leader of the independence movement. Recognizing that Argentine independence would not be secure as long as Spanish royalists held power in neighboring regions, San Martín conceived a daring plan to cross the Andes Mountains. In 1817, he led his Army of the Andes into Chile, securing its independence with victories at Chacabuco and Maipú, in cooperation with Chilean patriot Bernardo O'Higgins. San Martín then launched a naval expedition to Peru, the main Spanish stronghold in South America, proclaiming its independence in 1821.

Internally, the newly independent territory was plagued by conflict between two main political factions: the Unitarians (Centralists) and the Federalists. Unitarians, based primarily in Buenos Aires, advocated for a strong central government. Federalists, representing the interests of the provinces, favored greater regional autonomy. This ideological divide led to a series of protracted and bloody Argentine Civil Wars that lasted for much of the 19th century, until 1880.

The period saw a succession of governments and attempts at constitutional organization. A centralist constitution enacted in 1819 was soon abrogated by federalist forces. In 1826, another centralist constitution was adopted, and Bernardino Rivadavia became the first president of Argentina. However, provincial resistance forced his resignation and the discarding of the constitution. The civil wars resumed, with caudillos (regional strongmen) playing significant roles. From 1831, the Argentine Confederation was formed, largely dominated by the powerful governor of Buenos Aires Province, Juan Manuel de Rosas. Rosas, a Federalist, ruled as a virtual dictator until 1852, maintaining a semblance of order through authoritarian means but also fostering a sense of Argentine nationalism. His regime faced internal opposition and foreign blockades (French, and later Anglo-French) but managed to prevent further territorial loss. However, his trade restriction policies angered interior provinces and other caudillos. In 1852, Justo José de Urquiza, governor of Entre Ríos, allied with other disgruntled elements and Brazil, defeated Rosas at the Battle of Caseros. Urquiza then convened a constitutional assembly that enacted the federal Constitution of 1853, which, with amendments, remains Argentina's constitution today. Buenos Aires, however, seceded from the Confederation, leading to further conflict until it was defeated and forcibly rejoined in 1859.

3.4. Rise of the modern nation

The latter half of the 19th century marked Argentina's consolidation as a modern nation-state. After the Battle of Pavón in 1861, where Bartolomé Mitre of Buenos Aires defeated Urquiza, Buenos Aires's predominance was secured, and Mitre was elected the first president of a reunified Argentina in 1862. His presidency, along with those of Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1868-1874) and Nicolás Avellaneda (1874-1880), laid the foundations of the modern Argentine state. This period saw the establishment of national institutions, expansion of education, and initial efforts towards infrastructure development. Sarmiento, in particular, championed public education, believing it crucial for national progress.

Starting with Julio Argentino Roca's first presidency (1880-1886), a period known as the Conservative Republic began, dominated by the National Autonomist Party (PAN). This era, lasting until 1916, was characterized by liberal economic policies, political control by a landed oligarchy, and significant social and economic transformation. A massive wave of European immigration, primarily from Italy and Spain, but also from other parts of Europe, reshaped Argentine society and demography. Between 1870 and 1910, Argentina's population grew fivefold, and its economy expanded fifteen-fold, driven by agricultural exports (wheat, beef) facilitated by the expansion of railways and new technologies like refrigerated shipping. By 1908, Argentina was considered one of the world's wealthiest nations per capita. This economic boom, however, was largely based on an export-oriented agricultural model dependent on foreign capital (mainly British) and markets, and industrialization, while occurring, lagged behind agricultural development.

This era also witnessed the brutal Conquest of the Desert (1878-1884), a military campaign led by General Roca aimed at subduing indigenous peoples in the Pampas and Patagonia and incorporating their lands into the national territory. This campaign resulted in the deaths of thousands of indigenous people, the displacement of many others, and the distribution of vast tracts of land to large landowners and military officers. This conquest effectively ended indigenous resistance in these regions and opened them up for agricultural exploitation, but at a devastating human cost to indigenous communities, who were often viewed as obstacles to "civilization" and progress. The government considered indigenous peoples as inferior, denying them the same rights as Criollos and Europeans. Similar campaigns, known as the Conquest of Chaco, extended into the late 19th century to incorporate the northern territories.

Social changes were profound. The influx of immigrants created a more diverse and urbanized society. Buenos Aires grew into a major cosmopolitan city, often called the "Paris of South America." However, this period also saw the rise of social tensions, including the emergence of a working class, often composed of immigrants, who began to organize and demand better conditions and rights. Anarchist and socialist ideas gained traction among workers.

Politically, the oligarchic rule of the PAN faced increasing challenges. The Radical Civic Union (UCR), founded in 1891, emerged as a major opposition force, advocating for political reform and an end to electoral fraud. In 1912, President Roque Sáenz Peña enacted the Sáenz Peña Law, which established universal, secret, and compulsory male suffrage. This landmark reform paved the way for the UCR's Hipólito Yrigoyen to win the 1916 presidential election, marking the end of the Conservative Republic and the beginning of a new political era. Yrigoyen's first presidency (1916-1922) saw social and economic reforms, including support for small farms and businesses. Argentina remained neutral during World War I. However, Yrigoyen's second administration (1928-1930) faced an economic crisis precipitated by the Great Depression, leading to his overthrow by a military coup in 1930. This coup marked the beginning of a period known as the "Infamous Decade" and ushered in an era of political instability and recurrent military interventions in Argentine politics.

3.5. Peronist years

The period from the mid-1940s to the mid-1950s, and its enduring legacy, is defined by the rise and influence of Juan Perón and Peronism. Following the military coup of 1930 and the "Infamous Decade" of conservative rule marked by electoral fraud and economic hardship for many, another military coup in 1943 (the Revolution of '43) brought a group of nationalist officers to power. Among them was Colonel Juan Perón, who, as Secretary of Labor and Welfare, cultivated strong support among the working class by enacting pro-labor reforms.

Perón's growing popularity and power led to his brief arrest in 1945, but massive demonstrations by workers secured his release. He went on to win the 1946 presidential election by a landslide, campaigning on a platform of social justice, economic independence, and national sovereignty. His ideology, Peronism (or Justicialismo), combined elements of nationalism, corporatism, and social welfare.

During his first two presidencies (1946-1952, 1952-1955), Perón implemented significant changes. His government nationalized strategic industries and services (including railways, telecommunications, and the central bank), expanded social security benefits, improved wages and working conditions, and strengthened labor unions, which became a key pillar of his support. Women's suffrage was enacted in 1947, largely due to the efforts of his influential wife, Eva Perón ("Evita"). Evita played a critical role in mobilizing support for Perón, especially among the poor (the descamisados, or "shirtless ones") and women, through her charitable Eva Perón Foundation and her powerful oratory. Her early death from cancer in 1952 was a significant blow to the regime and a moment of national mourning.

Perón's policies aimed to reduce foreign economic influence and promote industrialization through import substitution. While these policies initially led to economic growth and improved living standards for many, by the early 1950s, the economy began to face difficulties, including inflation and declining export revenues, partly due to government expenditures and protectionist measures.

The Peronist years also involved significant political polarization and suppression of dissent. The government exerted control over the media, universities, and the judiciary. Opposition figures and critics faced harassment, imprisonment, or exile. Perón fired over 2,000 university professors and faculty members perceived as disloyal. He sought to bring most trade unions under his control, sometimes resorting to violence against dissenting labor leaders like Cipriano Reyes.

Increasing economic problems, authoritarian tendencies, and conflict with the Catholic Church eroded some of Perón's support. In June 1955, the Navy bombed the Plaza de Mayo in an attempted coup, resulting in hundreds of civilian casualties. Perón survived, but in September 1955, a military uprising known as the Revolución Libertadora ("Liberating Revolution") successfully ousted him. He went into exile in Spain, but Peronism remained a potent political force in Argentina, and its legacy, including the emphasis on labor rights, social welfare, and national industry, continued to shape Argentine society and politics for decades to come, even during periods when the Peronist party was banned.

3.6. Revolución Libertadora and military interventions

Following Juan Perón's ousting in September 1955 by the military coup known as the Revolución Libertadora, Argentina entered a prolonged period of political instability characterized by weak civilian governments, military interventions, and the proscription of Peronism. The "Revolución Libertadora" itself was led by figures like General Pedro Eugenio Aramburu, who took over the presidency and implemented policies aimed at "de-Peronizing" the country, banning the Peronist party and symbols, and reversing many of Perón's social and economic measures. This period deepened political divisions and often involved repression against Peronist supporters.

In the 1958 general election, held with Peronism banned, Arturo Frondizi of the Intransigent Radical Civic Union (UCRI) won the presidency. Frondizi attempted to foster economic development through foreign investment, particularly in the oil and industrial sectors. He also sought a rapprochement with Peronists, lifting the ban on their party, which proved controversial with the military and conservative sectors. His efforts to navigate between Peronist demands and military pressures ultimately failed, and he was overthrown by another military coup in 1962.

Amidst the ensuing political turmoil, Senate leader José María Guido assumed the presidency, effectively a puppet of the military. Elections were annulled, and Peronism was once again proscribed. In the 1963 election, Arturo Illia of the People's Radical Civic Union (UCRP) was elected. Illia's government pursued moderate nationalist economic policies and respected democratic norms, leading to a period of relative prosperity and social peace. However, his administration was viewed as slow and indecisive by powerful economic interests and the military, who were also wary of growing Peronist influence in labor unions and provincial elections.

In June 1966, General Juan Carlos Onganía led another military coup, terming it the Argentine Revolution. This was a different kind of military intervention; Onganía envisioned a long-term authoritarian state, suspending political activities, dissolving Congress, and intervening in universities. His regime aimed to modernize the economy and impose social order, but it faced growing opposition, including student protests (like the infamous "Night of the Long Batons") and labor unrest, such as the Cordobazo uprising in 1969. These events highlighted the deep-seated social conflicts and the impossibility of governing Argentina without addressing the Peronist question. The Onganía regime and subsequent military governments under Generals Roberto M. Levingston and Alejandro Agustín Lanusse struggled with internal divisions, economic problems, and escalating political violence from both left-wing and right-wing extremist groups. This period of military interventions significantly undermined democratic institutions and set the stage for further political upheaval.

3.7. Perón's return and death

By the early 1970s, Argentina was in a state of profound political and social turmoil. The military government, then led by General Alejandro Agustín Lanusse, faced increasing pressure for a return to democracy and an inability to quell escalating political violence from various guerrilla groups, most notably the Peronist Montoneros and the Marxist People's Revolutionary Army (ERP). In an attempt to find a political solution, Lanusse allowed for elections in March 1973.

Juan Perón, still in exile in Spain, was barred from running himself, but his designated candidate, Héctor José Cámpora, a left-leaning Peronist, won a decisive victory under the slogan "Cámpora to government, Perón to power." Cámpora took office on May 25, 1973. One of his first actions was to grant amnesty to political prisoners, including many guerrilla members. This, along with a surge in social conflicts, strikes, and factory occupations, characterized his brief tenure.

Perón made his triumphant return to Argentina on June 20, 1973. His arrival was marred by the Ezeiza Massacre, a violent confrontation at the airport between right-wing and left-wing Peronist factions awaiting him, which resulted in numerous deaths and injuries and signaled the deep divisions within the Peronist movement.

Amidst this escalating crisis, Cámpora and Vice President Vicente Solano Lima resigned in July 1973, paving the way for new elections. This time, Juan Perón was the Justicialist Party nominee, with his third wife, Isabel Perón (María Estela Martínez de Perón), as his running mate. Perón won the September 1973 election overwhelmingly.

Perón's third term was marked by an attempt to restore order and navigate the intense conflicts within his own movement and in the country at large. He increasingly sided with the conservative and right-wing elements of Peronism, distancing himself from and eventually expelling the Montoneros from the party. Political violence continued to escalate, with actions by left-wing guerrillas and the emergence of the right-wing death squad, the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A), which operated with state backing to target leftists and dissidents.

However, Perón's health was failing. After a series of heart attacks and signs of pneumonia, Juan Perón died on July 1, 1974, at the age of 78. His death plunged Argentina into further uncertainty and grief. As per the constitution, he was succeeded by his wife and vice president, Isabel Perón. Her presidency was fraught with immense challenges, including a deteriorating economy, rampant inflation, escalating political violence, and a lack of strong political leadership. Her government proved unable to control the situation, leading to a constitutional crisis and paving the way for the military coup of 1976.

3.8. National Reorganization Process (Military Dictatorship)

The period from 1976 to 1983 in Argentina is known as the National Reorganization Process (Proceso de Reorganización Nacional), a military dictatorship established after a coup d'état on March 24, 1976, overthrew President Isabel Perón. This era was characterized by systematic state terrorism and egregious human rights violations, infamously known as the Dirty War (Guerra Sucia).

The coup was led by a military junta comprising the heads of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, with Army General Jorge Rafael Videla initially assuming the presidency. The junta dissolved Congress, banned political parties and trade unions, imposed strict censorship, and suspended constitutional rights. The regime's stated aims were to combat left-wing subversion, restore order, and restructure the economy.

The "Dirty War" involved the widespread persecution, abduction, torture, and murder of anyone perceived as a political opponent or "subversive." This included left-wing activists, militants, guerrilla members (like the Montoneros and ERP), trade unionists, students, journalists, intellectuals, artists, priests, and even their families or associates. Thousands of people became desaparecidos (the disappeared) - secretly arrested, detained in clandestine detention centers, tortured, and ultimately killed, their bodies often disposed of in unmarked graves or dropped into the sea. Estimates of the number of disappeared range from 15,000 to 30,000 people. The regime also engaged in the systematic theft of babies born to captive mothers, who were then given to families associated with the military or police.

This campaign of terror was part of the broader Operation Condor, a coordinated effort by right-wing dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America (including Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Brazil) to eliminate political opponents across borders, often with the knowledge and support of the United States. Argentina received technical support and military aid from the U.S. government during several administrations.

The dictatorship implemented neoliberal economic policies, leading to deindustrialization, increased foreign debt, and growing social inequality, although inflation was initially brought under control. These policies, championed by Economy Minister José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, benefited financial speculators and agro-exporters but harmed local industries and the working class.

Despite the brutal repression, resistance emerged. The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo and Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo began their courageous public protests, demanding to know the whereabouts of their disappeared children and grandchildren, becoming powerful symbols of defiance and the fight for human rights.

The regime's power began to wane due to economic problems, international condemnation of its human rights record, and internal divisions within the military. In a desperate attempt to rally nationalist sentiment and divert attention from domestic issues, the junta, then led by General Leopoldo Galtieri, launched an invasion of the British-held Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) on April 2, 1982. The ensuing Falklands War resulted in a swift and humiliating defeat for Argentina by June 1982. This defeat discredited the military, led to Galtieri's downfall, and accelerated the transition back to democracy. Street riots in Buenos Aires followed, and the military leadership, under General Reynaldo Bignone, began to organize the return to civilian rule, although not before passing a self-amnesty law, which was later repealed. The period of the National Reorganization Process left a deep scar on Argentine society, with lasting consequences for its political culture, social fabric, and the ongoing struggle for justice and remembrance for the victims of state terrorism.

3.9. Return to democracy and contemporary era

Argentina's return to democracy began with the 1983 elections, won by Raúl Alfonsín of the Radical Civic Union (UCR). Alfonsín's presidency (1983-1989) was marked by efforts to consolidate democratic institutions and address the human rights violations of the preceding military dictatorship. The landmark Trial of the Juntas in 1985 convicted several top military leaders for their roles in the Dirty War. However, under intense military pressure, Alfonsín's government later passed the Full Stop Law (1986) and the Due Obedience Law (1987), which effectively halted further prosecutions of lower-ranking officers. His administration also faced severe economic challenges, including hyperinflation and a large foreign debt, leading to social unrest and his early resignation in 1989.

Carlos Menem of the Justicialist Party (Peronist) won the 1989 election and served two terms (1989-1999) after a constitutional amendment in 1994 allowed for re-election. Menem implemented sweeping neoliberal economic reforms, including privatization of state-owned companies, deregulation, and a fixed exchange rate pegging the Argentine peso to the US dollar (the Convertibility Plan). These policies initially curbed hyperinflation and spurred economic growth in the early 1990s. Menem also pardoned the military officers convicted during Alfonsín's term, a controversial move aimed at national reconciliation but criticized by human rights groups. However, by the mid-1990s, the economic model began to show strains, with rising unemployment, increasing foreign debt, and growing social inequality.

Fernando de la Rúa of the UCR-led Alianza coalition won the 1999 elections. His government inherited a worsening economic situation and maintained Menem's fixed exchange rate policy, which became increasingly unsustainable. A severe recession, coupled with massive capital flight, led to restrictive measures on bank withdrawals (the corralito). This triggered widespread social unrest and the December 2001 riots, forcing De la Rúa to resign. Argentina experienced a period of acute political instability, with five presidents in two weeks. Congress eventually appointed Eduardo Duhalde as interim president. Duhalde's government abandoned the currency convertibility plan, leading to a sharp devaluation of the peso and a severe banking crisis, which wiped out the savings of many Argentines. By late 2002, the economy began a slow recovery.

In the 2003 election, Néstor Kirchner, a left-leaning Peronist, became president. Kirchner's presidency (2003-2007) marked a shift away from neoliberal policies. His administration oversaw a period of strong economic growth, renegotiated Argentina's defaulted foreign debt with a significant discount, paid off the country's debt to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and pursued a more assertive foreign policy. Crucially, Kirchner prioritized human rights, annulling the Full Stop and Due Obedience laws, which were subsequently declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. This reopened prosecutions against those responsible for crimes committed during the dictatorship.

Néstor Kirchner chose not to seek re-election, and his wife, Senator Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, won the 2007 presidential election, becoming the first woman elected president of Argentina. She was re-elected in 2011. Her presidencies (2007-2015) continued many of her husband's policies, including social programs, state intervention in the economy (such as the nationalization of the oil company YPF and private pension funds), and a focus on human rights trials. Her tenure also saw increased polarization, conflicts with agricultural sectors and media groups, and, in later years, economic challenges including high inflation and stagnating growth. Despite these challenges, efforts towards justice for past human rights abuses continued, and social movements, particularly around gender equality and LGBTQ+ rights, gained prominence.

In the 2015 election, Mauricio Macri, candidate of the center-right Cambiemos coalition, defeated the Peronist candidate, ending twelve years of Kirchnerismo. Macri's presidency (2015-2019) implemented market-oriented reforms, settled disputes with holdout creditors, and sought to reintegrate Argentina into global financial markets. However, his administration struggled with persistent inflation, recession, and rising foreign debt, leading to a significant loan package from the IMF in 2018. Social discontent grew due to austerity measures and economic hardship.

Alberto Fernández, representing a united Peronist front (Frente de Todos) with Cristina Fernández de Kirchner as his vice-presidential candidate, won the 2019 presidential election. His term (2019-2023) was immediately confronted by the COVID-19 pandemic and its severe economic consequences, exacerbating existing problems of debt, inflation, and poverty. His government renegotiated debt with private creditors and the IMF, and implemented social assistance programs, but faced ongoing economic instability and political divisions. In the 2021 midterm legislative elections, the ruling coalition lost its majority in Congress.

The 2023 general election saw a dramatic shift with the victory of Javier Milei, a libertarian economist and political outsider representing the La Libertad Avanza coalition. Milei campaigned on a platform of radical economic liberalization, including dollarization, drastic cuts in public spending, and the closure of the central bank. His presidency, beginning in December 2023, signaled a significant departure from previous political and economic paradigms, promising profound changes to Argentine society. The contemporary era continues to be shaped by efforts to achieve sustainable economic development, strengthen democratic institutions, address social inequalities, and reconcile with a complex past, particularly concerning human rights and justice.

4.1. Topography and regions

Argentina's topography is highly diverse, featuring vast plains, high mountains, and extensive plateaus, which define its distinct geographical regions and influence resource distribution and social development.

The Andes Mountains: This formidable mountain range forms the western backbone of Argentina, stretching along its border with Chile. It is home to Aconcagua, the highest peak outside of Asia. The Andean region is characterized by rugged terrain, high plateaus (like the Puna de Atacama), and intermontane valleys. This region is rich in mineral resources, including copper, gold, silver, and lithium. Historically, indigenous cultures like the Diaguita thrived here before Inca and Spanish colonization. The availability of water from snowmelt supports agriculture, particularly viticulture in regions like Mendoza and San Juan, making Argentina a major wine producer. However, the mountainous terrain also presents challenges for transportation and communication, and some Andean communities remain relatively isolated.

The Pampas: Located in the central-eastern part of the country, the Pampas are vast, fertile plains that constitute Argentina's agricultural heartland. This region is divided into the Humid Pampa (to the east, with higher rainfall) and the Dry Pampa (to the west, more arid). The deep, rich soils (mollisols) make the Humid Pampa exceptionally productive for crops like wheat, maize (corn), soybeans, and sunflowers, as well as for cattle ranching, which is central to Argentina's culinary identity and export economy. The Pampas are heavily populated and host major cities, including Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba. The concentration of economic activity and population in this region has historically led to disparities with other parts of the country. Intensive agriculture has also led to environmental concerns such as soil degradation.

Patagonia: Occupying the southern third of Argentina, Patagonia is a vast, sparsely populated region characterized by arid plateaus, strong winds, and a cooler climate. It stretches from the Colorado River in the north to Tierra del Fuego in the south. The Patagonian Steppe dominates much of the interior, supporting extensive sheep farming. The Andean foothills in western Patagonia feature forests, lakes (like Nahuel Huapi Lake), and glaciers, making it a significant area for tourism. The region is rich in energy resources, including petroleum and natural gas, particularly in provinces like Neuquén and Chubut. The Valdes Peninsula is a notable UNESCO World Heritage Site for marine wildlife. Resource extraction has social implications, including debates about environmental impact and benefits for local communities.

Gran Chaco: Located in the north, the Gran Chaco is a hot, semi-arid lowland region shared with Paraguay, Bolivia, and Brazil. It is characterized by scrub forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Traditionally, it has been an area of subsistence agriculture, forestry (especially for tannin from the quebracho tree), and cattle ranching. The region faces challenges such as deforestation, poverty, and limited access to infrastructure and services for its inhabitants, including indigenous communities like the Wichi and Qom.

Mesopotamia: Situated between the Paraná and Uruguay rivers in the northeast, this region (comprising the provinces of Misiones, Corrientes, and Entre Ríos) has a subtropical climate with abundant rainfall. It features rolling hills, forests, and wetlands like the Iberá Wetlands. Key economic activities include agriculture (citrus fruits, rice, yerba mate, tea), forestry, and cattle ranching. The magnificent Iguazu Falls, a major tourist attraction and World Heritage Site, are located in Misiones Province.

Cuyo: Located in west-central Argentina, at the foothills of the Andes, the Cuyo region (comprising Mendoza, San Juan, and San Luis) is characterized by an arid to semi-arid climate. Irrigation from Andean rivers has transformed parts of this region into fertile oases, making it the primary wine-producing area of Argentina. Olive oil production and fruit cultivation are also important. Mining is another significant economic activity.

The distribution of natural resources across these regions has historically shaped Argentina's economic development patterns and, at times, contributed to regional inequalities and political tensions.

4.2. Hydrography

Argentina's hydrography is characterized by several major river systems, extensive lakes, and significant wetland areas, all of which play crucial roles in the country's environment, economy, and population distribution.

The most important river system is the Río de la Plata Basin, which drains a vast area of southeastern South America. Its main tributaries within or bordering Argentina are:

• The Paraná River: This is Argentina's longest and most significant river, forming part of its borders with Paraguay and Brazil before flowing south through the country. It is a major waterway for navigation and supports significant hydroelectric power generation (e.g., the Yacyretá Dam, shared with Paraguay). The Paraná Delta, near its confluence with the Uruguay River, is an extensive wetland ecosystem.
• The Uruguay River: This river forms Argentina's eastern border with Brazil and Uruguay. It is also important for navigation and hydroelectricity (e.g., the Salto Grande Dam, shared with Uruguay). The Paraná and Uruguay rivers join to form the Río de la Plata, a vast estuary that opens into the Atlantic Ocean and on whose shores lies Buenos Aires. The Río de la Plata is vital for shipping and is a densely populated area.
• The Paraguay River: A major tributary of the Paraná, it forms part of Argentina's border with Paraguay.
• The Pilcomayo River and Bermejo River: These are important tributaries flowing from the Andes into the Paraguay River system, often carrying significant sediment loads.

Other significant rivers include:

• The Salado River (Buenos Aires Province) (Río Salado del Sur): Flows through the Pampas and into the Río de la Plata estuary. Another Salado River (Río Salado del Norte or Juramento) flows from the Andes into the Paraná.
• The Colorado River and the Río Negro: These are the most important rivers in northern Patagonia, originating in the Andes and flowing east to the Atlantic. They are crucial for irrigation in their arid to semi-arid basins.
• The Santa Cruz River: Located in southern Patagonia, it flows from Lake Argentino to the Atlantic.

Argentina possesses numerous lakes, particularly in the Patagonian Andes. These glacial lakes are known for their scenic beauty and include:

• Lake Argentino and Viedma Lake: The largest lakes in Argentina, located in Santa Cruz Province, fed by glaciers like the Perito Moreno Glacier.
• Nahuel Huapi Lake: Located in the northern Patagonian Andes near Bariloche.
• Lake Buenos Aires (shared with Chile, where it's called General Carrera Lake) and Lake San Martín (shared with Chile as O'Higgins Lake).
• Mar Chiquita: A large endorheic salt lake in Córdoba Province.

Wetlands are also a significant feature, with the Iberá Wetlands in Corrientes Province being one of the largest freshwater wetland ecosystems in the world, supporting rich biodiversity.
The country's water resources are vital for agriculture (irrigation), hydroelectric power, industrial and domestic water supply, and transportation. However, challenges such as water pollution in urban and industrial areas, and the impact of climate change on water availability (particularly from Andean snowmelt) are growing concerns. The distribution of water resources also influences population patterns, with major settlements often located along rivers or in irrigated areas.

4.3. Biodiversity

Argentina is recognized as one of the most megadiverse countries, hosting a vast array of ecosystems and a rich variety of flora and fauna due to its extensive latitudinal range, diverse topography, and varied climates. The country encompasses 15 continental zones, 2 marine zones, and the Antarctic region within its territory.

Ecosystems:

• Pampas grasslands:** Originally vast temperate grasslands, much of which has been converted to agriculture. Remnant areas support native grasses and associated wildlife.
• Andean region:** Ranges from high-altitude deserts (Puna) with specialized flora and fauna (like vicuñas and condors) to temperate forests on the lower slopes, particularly in Patagonia (Nothofagus or southern beech forests).
• Patagonian Steppe:** Arid and semi-arid shrublands and grasslands adapted to harsh, windy conditions.
• Gran Chaco:** A mix of dry forests, savannas, and wetlands with unique species like the Chacoan peccary.
• Mesopotamian wetlands and grasslands:** Includes the extensive Iberá Wetlands, a haven for capybaras, caimans, and numerous bird species.
• Subtropical rainforests:** Found in the northeast (Misiones Province, e.g., Iguazu National Park) with high biodiversity, including jaguars, toucans, and monkeys.
• Monte desert:** An arid region in the west, characterized by xerophytic shrubs.
• Marine ecosystems:** The Argentine Sea, part of the South Atlantic, is highly productive, supporting important fisheries and marine mammals like southern right whales, sea lions, and penguins. The Valdes Peninsula is a key breeding ground for marine wildlife.

Flora: Argentina has over 9,300 catalogued species of vascular plants. Notable native trees include the ombú (a tree-like herb iconic to the Pampas), various species of Nothofagus in Patagonian forests, the quebracho tree (important for tannin) in the Chaco, and diverse subtropical species in the northeast. Cacti are prominent in arid and semi-arid regions.

Fauna: The country is home to approximately 375 mammal species, over 1,000 bird species, 338 reptilian species, and 162 amphibian species.

• Mammals: Jaguar, puma, Andean mountain cat, guanaco, vicuña, huemul, capybara, giant anteater, various species of armadillo, maned wolf, and marine mammals like the southern right whale and orcas.
• Birds: Andean condor (one of the largest flying birds), Rufous hornero (national bird), rheas (ñandú), Magellanic penguin, flamingos, toucans, and numerous passerines and waterfowl.
• Reptiles and Amphibians: Various snakes (including boa constrictors and vipers), lizards (like the tegu), caimans, turtles, and a diverse range of frogs and toads.

Conservation and National Parks: Argentina has a network of national parks and protected areas covering a significant portion of its territory, aimed at conserving its biodiversity and natural landscapes. The National Parks Administration (Administración de Parques Nacionales) manages these areas. Some of the most well-known national parks include Iguazu National Park, Los Glaciares National Park (home to the Perito Moreno Glacier), Nahuel Huapi National Park, and Tierra del Fuego National Park. Argentina had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.21/10, ranking it 47th globally out of 172 countries.

Impact of Human Activity: Human activities, particularly agriculture, deforestation, urbanization, and resource extraction, have put considerable pressure on Argentina's biodiversity. Habitat loss and fragmentation, pollution, and the introduction of invasive species are significant threats. Climate change is also expected to further impact ecosystems and species distribution. Conservation efforts focus on expanding protected areas, sustainable resource management, and raising public awareness, though challenges remain in balancing economic development with environmental protection. The historical expansion of agriculture in the Pampas, for example, led to the decimation of much of the original grassland ecosystem.

4.4. Climate

Argentina's vast territory encompasses an exceptional diversity of climates, ranging from subtropical in the north to subantarctic and polar in the far south, and from humid conditions in the east to arid and semi-arid in the west and Patagonia. The primary determinants of its climate are its wide latitudinal span, the influence of the Andes Mountains, and its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean. Generally, four main climate types can be identified: warm humid subtropical, moderate humid subtropical, arid (desert and steppe), and cold.

• North (Subtropical): The northeastern part of Argentina, including Mesopotamia and parts of the Gran Chaco, experiences a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa, Cwa). Summers are hot and humid, with abundant rainfall, while winters are mild and relatively dry. Misiones Province, with its rainforests, has high year-round precipitation. The northwestern Andean foothills also have subtropical highland climates with a pronounced dry season in winter.

• Central (Temperate): The Pampas region, including Buenos Aires and Córdoba, generally has a temperate climate. The eastern Pampas have a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with hot, humid summers and mild winters. Rainfall is generally well-distributed throughout the year, though summer thunderstorms are common. The western Pampas transition to a semi-arid climate (BSk) with less rainfall.

• West (Arid and Semi-Arid): The Cuyo region (Mendoza, San Juan) and large parts of the Andean northwest have arid (desert climate, BWk) or semi-arid (steppe, BSk) climates. These areas are characterized by low rainfall, high solar radiation, and significant diurnal temperature variations. Irrigation from Andean rivers is crucial for agriculture in these regions. The Puna high plateau in the northwest has a cold desert or cold steppe climate due to its altitude.

• South (Patagonia - Arid and Cold): Most of Patagonia experiences a cold desert climate (BWk) or cold semi-arid climate (BSk). It is generally dry due to the rain shadow effect of the Andes, and is characterized by strong westerly winds. Summers are mild to warm, while winters can be cold with snowfall, especially in the west and at higher elevations. Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego have a subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc) or even a tundra climate (ET) in the southernmost tips and higher Andes, with cool summers and cold, snowy winters. The Southern Patagonian Ice Field is a testament to the cold conditions in this region.

Significant Meteorological Phenomena:

• Pampero winds: Cool, dry winds blowing from the southwest across the Pampas and Patagonia, often following a cold front and bringing a sharp drop in temperature and sometimes dust storms.
• Sudestada winds: Persistent southeasterly winds, common in late autumn and winter along the central coast and in the Río de la Plata estuary. They usually moderate cold temperatures but bring heavy rains, rough seas, and coastal flooding.
• Zonda wind: A hot, dry foehn wind that affects Cuyo and the central Pampas, descending from the Andes. It can cause rapid temperature increases, low humidity, and strong gusts, sometimes fueling wildfires.

Mean annual temperatures range from 41 °F ^{(5 °C)} in the far south to 77 °F ^{(25 °C)} in the north. Average annual precipitation varies from less than 5.9 in ^{(150 mm)} in the driest parts of Patagonia to over 0.1 K in ^{(2.00 K mm)} in the westernmost parts of Patagonia and the northeastern rainforests.

Climate change is an increasing concern, with predictions of significant effects on precipitation patterns, temperatures, and the frequency of extreme weather events, impacting agriculture, water resources, and biodiversity. The highest increases in precipitation (from 1960-2010) have occurred in the eastern parts of the country, leading to more variability and a higher risk of prolonged droughts in some northern regions.

4.5. Environmental issues

Argentina faces several significant environmental challenges stemming from its economic activities, land use patterns, and the impacts of climate change. These issues affect its diverse ecosystems, natural resources, and the well-being of its population.

Deforestation: This is a major concern, particularly in the Gran Chaco region and the subtropical rainforests of the northeast. The primary drivers of deforestation are the expansion of the agricultural frontier for soybean cultivation and cattle ranching, as well as unsustainable logging. Deforestation leads to loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, disruption of hydrological cycles, and contributes to climate change. Indigenous communities and small farmers are often disproportionately affected by land clearing.

Soil Degradation and Desertification: Intensive agricultural practices, overgrazing, and deforestation have led to soil degradation in many parts of the country, especially in the Pampas and semi-arid regions. Soil erosion by wind and water, loss of organic matter, and salinization reduce agricultural productivity and can lead to desertification, particularly in vulnerable areas like Patagonia and parts of the Cuyo and Northwest regions.

Water Pollution: Rivers and water bodies near urban centers and industrial areas suffer from pollution due to untreated domestic sewage, industrial effluents, and agricultural runoff (pesticides and fertilizers). The Matanza-Riachuelo River in Buenos Aires is one of the most polluted rivers in the world, posing serious health risks to nearby populations. Mining activities, particularly in the Andean region, can also lead to water contamination from heavy metals and chemicals if not properly managed.

Air Pollution: Urban areas, especially Greater Buenos Aires, experience air pollution primarily from vehicle emissions and industrial activities. This contributes to respiratory problems and other health issues.

Waste Management: Inadequate waste management, particularly in rapidly growing urban areas, is a significant problem. Many municipalities lack proper sanitary landfills, leading to open dumpsites that contaminate soil and water and pose public health risks. Efforts to promote recycling and sustainable waste management are underway but face challenges.

Impacts of Climate Change: Argentina is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including changes in precipitation patterns (more intense rainfall in some areas, prolonged droughts in others), rising temperatures, glacial retreat in the Andes (affecting water supply), and increased frequency of extreme weather events. These changes threaten agriculture, water resources, biodiversity, and human settlements.

Loss of Biodiversity: Habitat destruction and fragmentation due to agricultural expansion, deforestation, and urbanization, as well as pollution and overexploitation of resources, are leading to a loss of biodiversity. Several native species are threatened or endangered.

National and Local Responses: Argentina has environmental laws and institutions at both national and provincial levels. The country is a signatory to various international environmental agreements. Efforts to address these issues include the creation of protected areas, programs for sustainable agriculture and forestry, initiatives to control pollution, and policies to promote renewable energy. However, enforcement of environmental regulations can be challenging, and balancing economic development with environmental protection remains a constant tension. Social movements and non-governmental organizations play an active role in advocating for environmental conservation and justice. The debate around large-scale mining projects, particularly concerning water use and potential contamination, often highlights these conflicts.

5.1. Government

Argentina is a federal constitutional republic and a representative democracy. The government operates under a system of separation of powers with checks and balances defined by the Constitution of Argentina, the country's supreme legal document, which was first adopted in 1853 and significantly amended in 1994. The seat of government is the city of Buenos Aires, designated by the National Congress. Suffrage is universal, equal, secret, and mandatory for citizens aged 18 to 70 (optional for those aged 16-17 and over 70).

The federal government is composed of three branches:

Executive Branch:
The President is both the head of state and head of government. The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, can veto legislative bills (subject to Congressional override), and appoints Cabinet ministers and other federal officials. The President and Vice President are elected by direct popular vote for a four-year term and may be re-elected for one consecutive term.

Legislative Branch:
The National Congress (Congreso Nacional) is bicameral, consisting of:

• The Senate (Senado): Composed of 72 members, with three senators representing each of the 23 provinces and three for the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. Senators are elected by direct popular vote for six-year terms, with one-third of the Senate renewed every two years.
• The Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados): Composed of 257 members, elected by direct popular vote using a system of proportional representation for four-year terms. Half of the Chamber is renewed every two years. Seats are apportioned among the provinces according to their population.

The Congress makes federal laws, declares war, approves treaties, and has the power of the purse and of impeachment. At least one-third of the candidates on party lists for congressional elections must be women, promoting gender representation.

Judicial Branch:
The Judicial branch includes the Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación) and lower federal courts. The judiciary interprets laws and can overturn those it finds unconstitutional through judicial review. It is independent of the executive and legislative branches. The Supreme Court has five members (though the number has varied historically) appointed by the President with the Senate's approval, who serve for life during good behavior. Lower federal court judges are proposed by the Council of Magistracy (an independent body composed of representatives from various legal and political sectors) and appointed by the President with Senate approval.

Argentina's political system has historically been characterized by strong presidentialism and the significant influence of political parties, most notably the Justicialist Party (Peronist) and the Radical Civic Union (UCR). The country has a multi-party system, though Peronism has often been the dominant force. Recent decades have seen the emergence of new political coalitions and figures, reflecting evolving social and economic concerns. Democratic participation is generally high, but the system has faced challenges related to political polarization, corruption, and economic instability.

5.2. Human rights

The state of human rights in Argentina is deeply intertwined with its history, particularly the legacy of the last military dictatorship (1976-1983) and the subsequent efforts to achieve justice, truth, and memory. Contemporary challenges also persist, including issues related to police brutality, prison conditions, and the rights of minorities and vulnerable groups.

Legacy of the Dictatorship (Dirty War): The "Dirty War" saw systematic state-sponsored terrorism, including the forced disappearance of an estimated 15,000 to 30,000 people, torture, extrajudicial killings, and the theft of babies born in captivity. The return to democracy in 1983 brought efforts to prosecute those responsible. The Trial of the Juntas in 1985 was a landmark event, convicting top military leaders. However, subsequent laws (Full Stop and Due Obedience) halted further prosecutions until they were annulled in the 2000s under President Néstor Kirchner and later declared unconstitutional. This allowed for the resumption of trials, and hundreds of former officials have since been convicted for crimes against humanity. Human rights organizations like the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo and Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo have been instrumental in the fight for justice and in locating disappeared individuals and stolen grandchildren. The struggle for memory and against impunity remains a central theme in Argentine society.

Contemporary Challenges:

• Police Brutality and Prison Conditions:** Reports of police brutality, excessive use of force, and torture in detention persist. Overcrowding, poor sanitation, and violence are significant problems in many Argentine prisons.
• Judicial System:** While independent, the judiciary has faced criticism for delays, inefficiency, and occasional political influence, which can impede access to justice.
• Freedom of Expression and Press:** Generally respected, but there have been periods of tension between the government and certain media outlets, leading to concerns about media concentration and potential pressure on journalists.
• Corruption:** Corruption remains a significant problem, affecting public trust in institutions and diverting resources.
• Violence Against Women:** Femicide and gender-based violence are serious issues, prompting large-scale social movements like Ni una menos ("Not one [woman] less") demanding state action and cultural change.
• Rights of Indigenous Peoples:** Indigenous communities continue to face challenges related to land rights, access to basic services (health, education), discrimination, and consultation regarding development projects affecting their territories. While legal frameworks exist to protect indigenous rights, implementation often falls short.
• LGBTQ+ Rights:** Argentina has made significant progress in LGBTQ+ rights. It was the first country in Latin America to legalize same-sex marriage (in 2010) and has comprehensive gender identity laws allowing transgender individuals to change their legal gender without requiring surgery or judicial approval. However, discrimination and violence against LGBTQ+ individuals, particularly transgender people, still occur.
• Migrants and Refugees:** Argentina has a history of immigration and generally maintains an open policy, but migrants and refugees can face discrimination and difficulties accessing services.
• Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights:** Poverty and inequality remain significant challenges, impacting access to adequate housing, healthcare, and education for a substantial portion of the population, particularly affecting children and marginalized groups.

The Argentine state has various institutions dedicated to human rights, and civil society organizations are very active in monitoring, advocating, and providing legal assistance. The emphasis on human rights is a strong component of Argentina's democratic identity, shaped by the traumatic experiences of the past.

5.3. Administrative divisions

Argentina is a federation composed of twenty-three provinces (provincias) and one autonomous city (Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), which serves as the federal capital. This federal structure is enshrined in the Constitution of Argentina.

Each province has its own constitution, which must align with the national constitution, and enjoys a significant degree of autonomy. Provinces have their own executive, legislative, and judicial branches. They elect their own governors and provincial legislatures. Provincial governments are responsible for local matters such as education (shared with the federal government), healthcare, local policing, and managing their natural resources.

The provinces are:
# Buenos Aires Province (capital: La Plata)
# Catamarca (capital: San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca)
# Chaco (capital: Resistencia)
# Chubut (capital: Rawson)
# Córdoba (capital: Córdoba)
# Corrientes (capital: Corrientes)
# Entre Ríos (capital: Paraná)
# Formosa (capital: Formosa)
# Jujuy (capital: San Salvador de Jujuy)
# La Pampa (capital: Santa Rosa)
# La Rioja (capital: La Rioja)
# Mendoza (capital: Mendoza)
# Misiones (capital: Posadas)
# Neuquén (capital: Neuquén)
# Río Negro (capital: Viedma)
# Salta (capital: Salta)
# San Juan (capital: San Juan)
# San Luis (capital: San Luis)
# Santa Cruz (capital: Río Gallegos)
# Santa Fe (capital: Santa Fe)
# Santiago del Estero (capital: Santiago del Estero)
# Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands (capital: Ushuaia) - This province nominally includes Argentine Antarctica and the disputed Falkland Islands (Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.
# Tucumán (capital: San Miguel de Tucumán)

The Autonomous City of Buenos Aires is a special federal district. While it functions like a province with its own elected Head of Government (Mayor) and legislature, it is distinct as the nation's capital.

Provinces are further divided for administrative purposes. Most provinces are subdivided into departments (departamentos), which are then typically divided into municipalities (municipios) or communes. An exception is Buenos Aires Province, which is divided into partidos, which function similarly to departments or counties and are themselves municipalities. The City of Buenos Aires is divided into communes (comunas).

The relationship between the federal government and the provinces can sometimes be a source of political tension, particularly concerning revenue sharing and resource control.

5.4. Foreign relations

Argentina's foreign policy is managed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship and is directed by the President. Historically, Argentina has strived to maintain an independent foreign policy, balancing relationships with global powers while prioritizing regional integration in Latin America. It holds the status of a middle power and is a regional power in the Southern Cone.

Key aspects of Argentina's foreign relations include:

• Regional Integration:** Argentina is a founding member of Mercosur (Southern Common Market), along with Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay (Venezuela's membership is currently suspended). Mercosur is a primary focus of its foreign policy, aiming to promote free trade, economic cooperation, and political coordination among its members. Argentina also actively participates in other regional organizations such as the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) and the Organization of American States (OAS).
• Relations with Neighboring Countries:** Relations with Brazil are crucial, as they are the two largest economies in South America and key partners in Mercosur. Historically, there was rivalry, but cooperation has deepened significantly. Relations with Chile have improved markedly since the resolution of border disputes, particularly the Beagle Channel dispute mediated by the Vatican in 1984.
• Falkland Islands (Malvinas) Dispute:** Argentina maintains its sovereignty claim over the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), as well as South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and the surrounding maritime areas, which are administered by the United Kingdom as Overseas Territories. This dispute led to the Falklands War in 1982. Argentina continues to pursue its claim through diplomatic means in international forums like the United Nations.
• Antarctic Claims:** Argentina claims a sector of Antarctica (known as Argentine Antarctica), which overlaps with claims by Chile and the United Kingdom. These claims are subject to the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, of which Argentina is an original signatory. The Antarctic Treaty freezes territorial claims and promotes scientific cooperation. Argentina maintains several permanent bases in Antarctica, with the Orcadas Base being the oldest continuously inhabited station in Antarctica (since 1904).
• Relations with Global Powers:** Argentina has historically had strong ties with European countries, particularly Spain and Italy, due to immigration and cultural links. Relations with the United States have varied, ranging from close alignment (e.g., being designated a Major non-NATO ally in 1998) to periods of tension, often related to economic policies or differing stances on international issues. In recent years, Argentina has also sought to strengthen ties with other global players, including China, which has become a major trading partner and source of investment.
• International Organizations:** Argentina is a founding member of the United Nations and participates actively in its various agencies and peacekeeping operations. It is a member of the G-15 and the G20. Argentina is also a member of the World Bank, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI). It has been an OECD candidate country since January 2022.
• Human Rights in Foreign Policy:** Argentina often emphasizes human rights in its foreign policy, influenced by its own history. It is a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and has supported international efforts to combat impunity for crimes against humanity.

Argentina's foreign policy aims to promote its national interests, foster regional stability and development, and contribute to a multilateral global order. Economic considerations, including trade, investment, and debt negotiations, often play a significant role in shaping its international relationships.

5.5. Armed forces

The Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic (Fuerzas Armadas de la República Argentina) are under the civilian control of the President of Argentina, who is the commander-in-chief, and the Ministry of Defense. A strict legal framework separates national defense from internal security systems. The National Defence System is an exclusive responsibility of the federal government.

The Argentine Armed Forces consist of three main branches:

• Argentine Army** (Ejército Argentino)
• Argentine Navy** (Armada de la República Argentina)
• Argentine Air Force** (Fuerza Aérea Argentina)

The primary role of the armed forces is to guarantee the sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity of Argentina, and to protect the lives and liberty of its inhabitants against external military aggression. Secondary missions include participation in multinational peacekeeping operations under the United Nations framework, internal support missions (e.g., disaster relief), assisting friendly countries, and contributing to sub-regional defense systems.

Historically, the Argentine military played a significant and often disruptive role in politics, staging numerous coups d'état throughout the 20th century. Following the return to democracy in 1983 and the trials for human rights abuses committed during the last dictatorship, significant efforts were made to subordinate the military to civilian authority. This included budget cuts, restructuring, and a redefinition of their role to focus on external defense rather than internal security or political intervention. Conscription was abolished in 1994, and the armed forces are now an all-volunteer force. Enlistment age is between 18 and 24 years old.

Argentina's defense industry once had significant capabilities, including research facilities, shipyards, and aircraft factories. However, real military expenditures declined steadily after the defeat in the Falklands War in 1982. The defense budget has remained relatively low as a percentage of GDP compared to regional averages, leading to an erosion of military capabilities due to underfunding for training, maintenance, and modernization of equipment. The accidental loss of the submarine ARA San Juan in 2017 highlighted some of these challenges.

Despite these limitations, Argentina has participated in numerous UN peacekeeping missions, including in Haiti, Cyprus, Western Sahara, and the Middle East. It was the only South American country to send warships and cargo planes to the Gulf War in 1991 under a UN mandate.

The Interior Security System is distinct from the national defense system and is jointly administered by federal and provincial governments. Federal security forces include the Federal Police, the Naval Prefecture (coast guard duties), the National Gendarmerie (border guard and rural security tasks), and the Airport Security Police. Provincial police forces are responsible for law enforcement within their respective jurisdictions. The historical role of the armed forces in internal repression during dictatorships has led to a strong societal and legal emphasis on keeping military and internal security functions separate under democratic rule.

6.1. Main industries

Argentina's economy is characterized by a diverse range of industries, with agriculture and livestock historically forming its backbone, complemented by significant manufacturing and mining sectors. Labor conditions and environmental impacts vary across these sectors and remain important areas of social concern.

Agriculture and Livestock: This sector is a cornerstone of the Argentine economy and a major source of export revenue.

• Crops:** The fertile Pampas region is ideal for grain and oilseed production. Argentina is a leading global producer and exporter of soybeans and soy products (oil, meal), maize (corn), wheat, sunflower seeds and oil, and barley. It is also a significant producer of sorghum, lemons, pears, and grapes (primarily for wine). Yerba mate cultivation is extensive, with Argentina being the world's largest producer due to high domestic consumption.
• Livestock:** Cattle ranching is iconic, and Argentine beef is renowned worldwide for its quality. Argentina is a major beef producer and exporter. Sheep farming is prevalent in Patagonia, primarily for wool and meat. The country is also among the world's top producers of honey.
• Labor Conditions:** Agricultural labor, particularly for seasonal and migrant workers, can involve precarious conditions, low wages, and informal employment. Efforts to improve labor rights and formalize employment exist but face ongoing challenges.
• Environmental Impact:** The expansion of agriculture, especially soy cultivation, has led to deforestation (particularly in the Gran Chaco), soil degradation, and increased use of agrochemicals, raising concerns about biodiversity loss and water pollution.

Manufacturing: Manufacturing accounted for 20.3% of GDP in 2012, making it the largest single sector. It is well-integrated with the agricultural sector, with about half of industrial exports having rural origins.

• Food Processing:** This is a major sub-sector, including meatpacking, dairy production, flour milling, beverage production, and fruit and vegetable processing.
• Automotive:** Argentina has a significant automotive industry, producing vehicles and auto parts, with major international companies operating plants in the country, primarily in Córdoba and Greater Buenos Aires.
• Textiles and Leather:** Historically important, this sector produces clothing, footwear, and leather goods.
• Chemicals and Petrochemicals:** Includes the production of basic chemicals, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and biodiesel (leveraging its soy production).
• Metallurgy and Machinery:** Production of steel, aluminium, iron, industrial machinery, and agricultural equipment.
• Other Industries:** Home appliances, furniture, plastics, tires, glass, cement, and print media.
• Wine Industry:** Argentina is one of the top five wine-producing countries globally, famous for Malbec and Torrontés varieties.
• Labor Conditions:** Manufacturing jobs are often unionized, providing better wages and benefits than in some other sectors, but the industry is susceptible to economic downturns affecting employment.
• Environmental Impact:** Industrial activities can contribute to air and water pollution if not properly regulated. Energy consumption by industry is also a factor.

Mining: The mining industry has been growing in importance.

• Minerals:** Argentina is a significant producer of lithium (ranking among the top global producers, with vast reserves in the "Lithium Triangle" in the Andes), gold, silver, copper, and boron.
• Petroleum and Natural Gas:** The country has substantial oil and gas reserves, particularly in Patagonia (Neuquén Basin, Golfo San Jorge Basin) and the Cuyo region. The Vaca Muerta formation in Neuquén is one of the world's largest shale oil and gas reserves, though its full development faces technical, financial, and environmental challenges. YPF is the state-controlled energy company.
• Labor Conditions:** Mining can provide well-paid jobs but also involves hazardous working conditions.
• Environmental Impact:** Mining projects, especially large-scale open-pit mining, raise significant environmental concerns regarding water use in arid regions, potential contamination from chemicals (like cyanide in gold extraction), and impact on local ecosystems and communities. This often leads to social conflicts and demands for stricter environmental regulations and community consultation.

High inflation has been a persistent challenge for the Argentine economy. As of 2023, inflation reached 102.5%, among the highest rates in the world, and approximately 43% of the population lived below the poverty line. By January 2024, the poverty rate reached 57.4%, the highest since 2004. However, by November 2024, Argentina's monthly inflation rate slowed to 2.4%, the lowest in over four years, with annual inflation expected to end 2024 closer to 100%. Favorable results and normalization in Argentina's economy are expected to continue in 2025, with annual inflation projected to be below 30% and economic activity recovering, with an expected expansion of over 4% in 2025.

6.2. Tourism

Tourism is a significant and growing sector of the Argentine economy, contributing to foreign exchange earnings and employment. The country's vast and diverse geography, rich cultural heritage, and vibrant cities attract visitors from around the world. In 2013, Argentina received 5.57 million international visitors, ranking it as the top destination in South America and second in Latin America after Mexico. Revenues from international tourists reached 4.41 B USD in that year.

Main Tourist Attractions:

• Buenos Aires:** The capital city is the primary gateway and most visited city in South America. It is renowned for its European-style architecture, historic neighborhoods like San Telmo and La Boca, vibrant cultural scene (tango shows, theaters, museums like MALBA), gastronomy, and nightlife. Key landmarks include the Plaza de Mayo, Casa Rosada, Recoleta Cemetery, and the Obelisco.
• Iguazu Falls:** Located in the northeastern province of Misiones, on the border with Brazil, these magnificent waterfalls are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the New7Wonders of Nature. Iguazu National Park protects the surrounding subtropical rainforest.
• Patagonia:** This vast southern region offers dramatic landscapes and outdoor activities.
  • Los Glaciares National Park:** Another World Heritage Site, home to impressive glaciers like the Perito Moreno Glacier, Upsala Glacier, and Mount Fitz Roy. El Calafate and El Chaltén are key tourist hubs.
  • Bariloche and the Lake District:** Located in northern Patagonia, known for its stunning alpine scenery, lakes (e.g., Nahuel Huapi Lake), skiing, and chocolate.
  • Valdes Peninsula:** A World Heritage Site renowned for marine wildlife viewing, including southern right whales, orcas, sea lions, elephant seals, and Magellanic penguins. Puerto Madryn is a nearby base.
  • Ushuaia and Tierra del Fuego:** Ushuaia is considered the southernmost city in the world and serves as a gateway for Antarctic cruises and exploring the rugged landscapes of Tierra del Fuego.
• Mendoza and the Wine Regions:** Located at the foothills of the Andes, Mendoza is the heart of Argentina's wine country, famous for its Malbec wines. Wine tourism, including vineyard tours and tastings, is very popular. The region also offers Andean scenery and activities like mountaineering on Aconcagua.
• Northwest Argentina (Salta, Jujuy, Tucumán):** This region boasts stunning Andean landscapes, colorful rock formations (e.g., Quebrada de Humahuaca, a World Heritage Site), colonial architecture, and rich indigenous cultures. The Tren a las Nubes (Train to the Clouds) is a famous tourist railway.
• Córdoba and the Sierras:** Argentina's second-largest city offers historical sites, while the nearby Sierras de Córdoba provide opportunities for hiking, horseback riding, and exploring Jesuit estancias (also a World Heritage Site).

Current State of the Tourism Industry:
The tourism industry experienced significant growth in the 2000s, aided by a favorable exchange rate for international visitors following the 2001 economic crisis. It has become an important source of employment and regional development. The government actively promotes tourism through the National Institute of Tourism Promotion (INPROTUR). Infrastructure, including hotels, airports, and transportation, has been developed to support the sector, though challenges remain in some remote areas.
Domestic tourism is also very strong, with Argentines frequently traveling within their own country, especially during summer holidays and long weekends.

Economic and Social Impact:
Tourism generates significant revenue and employment, both directly (hotels, restaurants, tour operators) and indirectly (handicrafts, transportation). It can contribute to the preservation of cultural heritage and natural environments if managed sustainably. However, over-tourism in certain popular destinations can lead to environmental degradation, strain on local resources, and gentrification. The COVID-19 pandemic severely impacted the tourism sector globally, including in Argentina, leading to efforts to revive the industry through domestic and international promotion once travel restrictions eased. The industry's recovery is crucial for many local economies that depend heavily on tourism.

6.3. Transport and infrastructure

Argentina possesses a relatively developed transportation network and infrastructure, though it faces challenges related to maintenance, modernization, and regional disparities in access.

Roads:
As of 2004, Argentina had a total road network of 144 K mile ^{(231.37 K km)}, of which 43 K mile ^{(69.41 K km)} were paved. This network connects Buenos Aires, all provincial capitals (except Ushuaia, which is on an island), and all medium-sized towns. In 2021, the country had approximately 1.7 K mile ^{(2.80 K km)} of dual carriageways (expressways), mostly radiating from Buenos Aires to major cities like Rosario, Córdoba, Santa Fe, Mar del Plata, and to border crossings like Paso de los Libres (with Brazil). There are also expressways connecting Mendoza to the capital and between Córdoba and Santa Fe. Despite these developments, the road infrastructure is often considered inadequate to handle the growing demand, partly due to the deterioration of the railway system. Long-distance bus services are extensive and a primary mode of intercity travel for many Argentines.

Railways:
Argentina has the largest railway system in Latin America, with 23 K mile ^{(36.97 K km)} of operating lines as of 2008, out of a full network of almost 30 K mile ^{(48.00 K km)}. The system historically linked all 23 provinces and Buenos Aires City and connected with all neighboring countries. However, the railway system has been in decline since the 1940s, suffering from underinvestment, fragmentation due to privatization in the 1990s (much of which was later re-nationalized), and the use of four incompatible track gauges, which forces most interregional freight through Buenos Aires. By 1991, it was transporting significantly less freight than in 1973. In recent years, there has been increased state investment in both commuter rail lines (especially around Buenos Aires) and some long-distance services, including renewing rolling stock and infrastructure. In 2015, Ferrocarriles Argentinos was re-created to manage the state-owned railway assets.

Air Transport:
As of 2013, Argentina had 161 airports with paved runways out of more than a thousand airfields. Ezeiza International Airport (officially Ministro Pistarini International Airport), located about 22 mile ^{(35 km)} from downtown Buenos Aires, is the country's largest international airport. Other important international airports include Aeroparque Jorge Newbery in Buenos Aires (primarily domestic and regional flights), Cataratas del Iguazú in Misiones, and El Plumerillo in Mendoza. Aerolíneas Argentinas is the national flag carrier.

Ports and Waterways:
Argentina has about 6.8 K mile ^{(11.00 K km)} of waterways as of 2012, primarily comprising the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay rivers. Major fluvial ports include Buenos Aires, Zárate, Campana, Rosario, San Lorenzo, Santa Fe, Barranqueras, and San Nicolás de los Arroyos. Buenos Aires has historically been the most important port, but since the 1990s, the Up-River port region (along 42 mile ^{(67 km)} of the Paraná river in Santa Fe province, encompassing 17 ports) has become dominant for agricultural exports. Major sea ports include La Plata-Ensenada, Bahía Blanca, Mar del Plata, Quequén-Necochea, Comodoro Rivadavia, Puerto Deseado, Puerto Madryn, Ushuaia, and San Antonio Oeste.

Infrastructure Challenges and Regional Disparities:
Despite its extent, Argentina's infrastructure faces challenges related to aging, lack of sufficient investment in maintenance and modernization, and regional disparities. Remote areas, particularly in Patagonia and the Gran Chaco, often have less developed infrastructure and limited access to transportation networks compared to the more densely populated Pampas region. Investment in infrastructure is crucial for economic development, regional integration, and improving the quality of life for citizens, but it often competes with other pressing fiscal demands.

6.4. Energy

Argentina has diverse energy resources and a complex energy matrix, with ongoing efforts to diversify its sources and improve energy security, while also considering socio-environmental impacts.

Energy Resources:

• Fossil Fuels:** Argentina possesses significant reserves of petroleum and natural gas. The main producing basins are Neuquén, Golfo San Jorge, Austral, Noroeste, and Cuyo. The Vaca Muerta formation in the Neuquén Basin is one of the world's largest unconventional (shale) oil and gas reserves, holding substantial potential for future production, though its development involves significant investment and environmental considerations. Coal resources are less significant and primarily located in Río Turbio in Patagonia.
• Hydropower:** The country has considerable hydroelectric potential, particularly in the Andean region and along major rivers like the Paraná and Uruguay. Several large hydroelectric dams (e.g., Yacyretá, Salto Grande Dam) contribute significantly to electricity generation.
• Nuclear Energy:** Argentina has a well-established nuclear energy program. It was the first country in Latin America to operate a commercial nuclear power plant, Atucha I (operational since 1974). It also operates the Embalse and Atucha II nuclear power plants. Argentina has developed indigenous capabilities in nuclear technology, including fuel fabrication and research reactor design.
• Renewable Energy (Non-hydro):** There is significant potential for renewable energy, particularly wind (especially in Patagonia, which has some of the best wind resources globally) and solar (in the Cuyo and Northwest regions). Development in this sector has been growing, supported by government policies and incentives aimed at diversifying the energy matrix and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Biomass and geothermal resources also exist.

Production and Consumption:
In 2020, over 60% of Argentina's electricity came from non-renewable sources, primarily natural gas, followed by oil and coal. Hydropower accounted for about 27%, wind and solar energy for 7.3%, and nuclear energy for 4.4%. The country has historically relied heavily on natural gas for electricity generation and heating.
At the end of 2021, Argentina ranked 21st globally in installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW), 26th in installed wind energy (3.2 GW), and 43rd in installed solar energy (1.0 GW).
Argentina produces an average of 500,000 barrels/day of petroleum. Despite large reserves, particularly in Vaca Muerta, extraction has faced technical and financial limitations.

Energy Policy and Challenges:
Argentina's energy policy has fluctuated over time, influenced by economic conditions and political priorities. Key challenges include:

• Energy Security:** Ensuring a stable and sufficient energy supply to meet growing demand. In the past, declining domestic production of oil and gas led to increased reliance on imports. The development of Vaca Muerta is seen as crucial for achieving energy self-sufficiency.
• Infrastructure:** The electricity grid and gas pipeline network require modernization and expansion to accommodate new energy sources (especially renewables from remote areas like Patagonia) and improve reliability.
• Subsidies and Pricing:** Energy prices have often been heavily subsidized, leading to fiscal burdens and disincentives for investment and energy efficiency. Reforms to rationalize subsidies have been attempted but are often politically sensitive.
• Renewable Energy Development:** While there is strong potential, the integration of renewables faces challenges related to grid capacity, financing, and regulatory frameworks. However, there has been a push to increase the share of renewables in the energy mix.
• Socio-environmental Considerations:** Energy projects, particularly large-scale fossil fuel extraction (shale gas), hydropower dams, and mining, can have significant environmental and social impacts, leading to debates about sustainable development, community consultation, and benefit sharing.

YPF is the state-controlled energy company and plays a major role in the oil and gas sector. The government aims to attract investment to develop its energy resources, particularly Vaca Muerta, while also promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency.

6.5. Science and technology

Argentina has a notable history of scientific and technological development, with significant achievements in various fields and three Nobel laureates in the sciences. However, development has often been hampered by economic instability and inconsistent funding.

Nobel Laureates and Key Achievements:

• Bernardo Houssay: Received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 for discovering the role of pituitary hormones in regulating glucose, becoming the first Latin American Nobel laureate in the sciences.
• Luis Federico Leloir: Awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1970 for discovering the metabolic pathways of carbohydrates (how organisms store energy by converting glucose into glycogen).
• César Milstein: Shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1984 for his research on antibodies and the development of monoclonal antibodies.
• Argentine research has also led to important developments in treatments for heart diseases (e.g., René Favaloro pioneered coronary bypass surgery) and various forms of cancer. Domingo Liotta designed and developed the first artificial heart successfully implanted in a human in 1969.

Key Institutions and Research Areas:

• CONICET (National Scientific and Technical Research Council):** The main government agency directing and coordinating most scientific and technical research in universities and institutes.
• Universities:** Public universities like the University of Buenos Aires, National University of Córdoba, and National University of La Plata are major centers for research.
• Nuclear Technology:** Argentina has a highly successful and largely indigenous nuclear program, managed by the civilian National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA) and the state-owned company INVAP. It designed and built research reactors (like RA-1 Enrico Fermi) and power reactors (Atucha and Embalse series). INVAP has exported nuclear reactors and technology to several countries (Peru, Algeria, Australia, Egypt). Argentina is committed to the peaceful use of nuclear energy and nuclear non-proliferation.
• Space Technology:** CONAE (National Space Activities Commission) is the Argentine space agency, established in 1991. It has developed and launched several satellites (e.g., the SAC series, SAOCOM observation satellites). Argentina has its own satellite program and collaborates with international agencies like NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA), hosting an ESA deep space antenna at the Pierre Auger Observatory.
• Biotechnology and Medicine:** Strong research areas, building on historical strengths.
• Nanotechnology, Physics, Computer Science, Ecology:** Argentine scientists are active in these and other cutting-edge fields. Juan Maldacena, an Argentine-American physicist, is a leading figure in string theory.
• Agricultural Technology:** Given the importance of agriculture, research in this area is also significant.

Challenges and Access to Technology:
Despite its achievements, Argentine science and technology face challenges:

• Funding:** Research funding is often subject to economic fluctuations and can be insufficient, leading to a "brain drain" of scientists seeking better opportunities abroad.
• Infrastructure:** While some world-class facilities exist (like the Pierre Auger Observatory), maintaining and upgrading research infrastructure can be difficult.
• Industry Linkages:** Connecting research and development (R&D) with industrial innovation and commercialization can be improved.
• Access to Technology:** While internet and mobile phone penetration is relatively high, disparities in access to advanced technology and digital literacy exist, particularly in poorer or more remote regions.

Argentina was ranked 76th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. Successive governments have recognized the importance of science and technology for national development, but consistent long-term investment and policy stability are crucial for realizing its full potential.

7.1. Population

According to the 2022 census conducted by the INDEC, Argentina had a population of 46,044,703 inhabitants. This was an increase from 40,117,096 recorded in the 2010 census. Argentina ranks third in South America in total population (after Brazil and Colombia) and fourth in Latin America.

The population density is approximately 15 persons per square kilometer of land area, which is well below the world average. However, the population is unequally distributed: about 60% of Argentines live in the Pampas region (which constitutes 21% of the total area), including a high concentration in Greater Buenos Aires. Tucumán Province is the most densely populated province. In contrast, southern provinces like Santa Cruz are very sparsely populated.

The population growth rate in 2010 was estimated at 1.03% annually. The birth rate was 17.7 live births per 1,000 inhabitants, and the mortality rate was 7.4 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants (as of 2010). The crude net migration rate has varied, sometimes being slightly negative or positive, up to four immigrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year in certain periods.

Argentina is in the midst of a demographic transition. The proportion of people under 15 years of age is 25.6% (as of 2010), slightly below the world average. The proportion of people aged 65 and older is relatively high for Latin America at 10.8%, second only to Uruguay in the region. The total fertility rate is around 2.3 children per woman, considerably lower than historical highs but still higher than in many European countries with similar cultural backgrounds like Spain or Italy. The median age is 31.9 years (as of 2015), and life expectancy at birth was 77.14 years (as of 2015). The infant mortality rate is comparatively low for the region.

7.2. Ethnography

Argentina is considered a country of immigrants, and its ethnic composition largely reflects this history. Argentines often refer to their country as a crisol de razas (crucible of races, or melting pot), though European ancestry is predominant.

European Descent: The vast majority of Argentines are of European descent, primarily from Italian and Spanish immigrants who arrived in large waves between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries. It is estimated that over 25 million Argentines (around 60% of the population) have at least some Italian ancestry. Significant numbers also descend from French, German (including Volga Germans), Polish, Russian, Irish, Welsh, Croat, Ukrainian, and other European groups. Jewish immigration, mainly from Eastern Europe (Ashkenazi Jews) and also from Sephardic communities, has resulted in Argentina having one of the largest Jewish populations in the world.

Indigenous Peoples: Indigenous communities constitute a smaller but significant part of the population. According to the 2010 census, around 2.4% of the population identified as indigenous or first-generation descendants of indigenous people. Major indigenous groups include the Mapuche (primarily in Patagonia), Kolla and Diaguita (in the Northwest), Wichi and Qom (Toba) (in the Gran Chaco region), and Guaraní (in the Northeast). Historically, indigenous populations faced violence, displacement, and discrimination, particularly during the "Conquest of the Desert" and "Conquest of Chaco" in the late 19th century. Today, they continue to struggle for land rights, cultural recognition, access to services, and against discrimination. The social integration and rights of indigenous communities are ongoing concerns.

Mestizo Population: There is also a significant Mestizo population (people of mixed European and indigenous ancestry), though self-identification can vary. Genetic studies have indicated a higher degree of indigenous admixture in the general Argentine population than often acknowledged through self-identification. A 2010 study by Argentine geneticist Daniel Corach found the average genetic ancestry of Argentines to be 79% European, 18% indigenous, and 4.3% African, with 63.6% of the tested group having at least one indigenous ancestor.

Afro-Argentines: People of African descent were a more visible component of the population during the colonial era and early 19th century, particularly in Buenos Aires. Their numbers declined due to factors such as heavy participation in wars, epidemics (like the 1871 yellow fever outbreak), and intermarriage. While their presence is less numerically prominent today, their cultural contributions are increasingly being recognized.

Asian Argentines: Argentina is home to a notable Asian population. This includes descendants of West Asians, primarily Syrians and Lebanese (often referred to as turcos due to arriving with Ottoman Empire passports), who immigrated mainly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Most Arab Argentines are Christian. There is also a significant community of East Asians, including Chinese, Korean, and Japanese immigrants and their descendants, many of whom arrived in more recent decades. The Japanese community numbers around 180,000 individuals.

Recent Immigration: Since the late 20th century, immigration has increasingly come from neighboring Latin American countries, particularly Bolivia, Paraguay, and Peru, as well as smaller numbers from countries like the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, and Romania. More recently, after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, over 18,500 Russians arrived in Argentina. Immigrants often face challenges related to documentation, labor conditions, and social integration.

The social integration of various immigrant groups and indigenous communities is an ongoing process, with issues of discrimination and access to rights remaining pertinent.

7.3. Languages

The de facto official language of Argentina is Spanish, spoken by nearly all Argentines. The country is the largest Spanish-speaking society that universally employs voseo - the use of the pronoun vos instead of tú for "you" (singular informal), which also entails distinct verb conjugations.

The most prevalent dialect is Rioplatense Spanish, spoken primarily in the Pampas and Patagonia regions, including the influential urban center of Buenos Aires. This dialect is characterized by its particular intonation, often likened to Neapolitan Italian, and distinct pronunciation features such as yeísmo with sheísmo or zheísmo (where 'll' and 'y' are pronounced like the 's' in "pleasure" or 'sh' in "shoe"). Italian and other European immigrant languages have significantly influenced Lunfardo, a regional slang that originated in Buenos Aires and has permeated the vernacular vocabulary, even extending its influence to other Latin American countries.

While Spanish is dominant, several other languages are spoken by communities within Argentina:

• Indigenous Languages:** Numerous indigenous languages are still spoken, though many are endangered. Some of the most prominent include:
  • Quechua: Spoken by communities in the Northwest, particularly in Santiago del Estero Province. (approx. 65,000 speakers)
  • Guaraní: Spoken in the Northeast, especially in Corrientes and Misiones provinces. It is co-official with Spanish in Corrientes. (approx. 200,000 speakers)
  • Mapuche (Mapudungun): Spoken by Mapuche communities in Patagonia (Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut).
  • Wichí: Spoken in the Gran Chaco region; it is co-official in Chaco Province along with Kom (Toba) and Moqoit. (approx. 53,700 Wichí speakers)
  • Aymara: Spoken by communities in the Northwest, close to the Bolivian border. (approx. 30,000 speakers)
• Immigrant Languages:** Due to large-scale immigration, various European and Asian languages are spoken by distinct communities, though their use often declines in later generations.
  • Italian: Spoken or understood by a significant portion of the population due to massive Italian immigration (approx. 1.5 million speakers). Cocoliche, a pidgin of Italian and Spanish, was common among early Italian immigrants.
  • Standard German: Spoken by around 200,000 people, particularly by descendants of German immigrants. A creole known as Belgranodeutsch (a mix of German and Spanish) exists.
  • English: Taught as a foreign language in schools and widely used in business and tourism. Around 2.8 million people claim some proficiency.
  • Arabic: Particularly the Northern Levantine dialect, spoken by descendants of Arab immigrants (approx. 1 million speakers).
  • Yiddish, Polish, Ukrainian (approx. 27,000 speakers), Portuguese, French, Catalan (approx. 174,000 speakers), Albanian (approx. 40,000 speakers), Japanese (approx. 32,000 speakers), Chinese, Korean.
  • Welsh: A notable Welsh-speaking community exists in Chubut Province (Patagonia), a legacy of Welsh settlement in the 19th century.

  The Argentine government supports the preservation of indigenous languages and cultures, but practical implementation and resources remain challenging. The linguistic diversity reflects the complex history of migration and settlement in the country.

7.4. Religion

The Constitution of Argentina guarantees freedom of religion. While it does not establish an official state religion, it grants Roman Catholicism a preferential status, stating that the federal government "sustains the Roman Catholic Apostolic faith" (Article 2). In practice, this has historically translated into certain state support, such as subsidies for Catholic schools.

According to a 2008 CONICET (National Scientific and Technical Research Council) poll:

• 76.5% of Argentines identified as Roman Catholic.
• 9% identified as Evangelical Protestant.
• 11.3% identified as Agnostic or Atheist (non-religious).
• 1.2% identified as Jehovah's Witnesses.
• 0.9% identified as Mormon (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints).
• 1.2% followed other religions, including Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism.

More recent data from 2017 (Latinobarómetro) indicated a shift, with Catholics comprising 66% of the population, and the non-religious increasing to 21%. This suggests a trend towards secularization and religious diversification, similar to patterns observed in other Western countries.

Catholicism: Roman Catholicism has historically been the dominant religion and a significant cultural influence since the Spanish colonial era. The country is organized into numerous dioceses and archdioceses. On March 13, 2013, Argentine Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio, Archbishop of Buenos Aires, was elected Pope, taking the name Pope Francis. He is the first Pope from the Americas and the Southern Hemisphere. Despite its historical dominance, active participation in religious services among Catholics varies, with many self-identified Catholics not regularly attending mass.

Protestantism: Evangelical and Pentecostal churches have seen significant growth in recent decades, forming the largest religious minority.

Judaism: Argentina has the largest Jewish community in Latin America and the seventh largest in the world. Jewish immigration occurred in several waves, primarily from Eastern Europe and Russia. The community is active and has numerous synagogues, schools, and cultural institutions, mainly concentrated in Buenos Aires.

Islam: Argentina also has one of the largest Muslim communities in Latin America, largely composed of descendants of Arab immigrants (mostly from Syria and Lebanon) who arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Other Religions and Beliefs: Buddhism, Spiritism, and various other beliefs are also present, though with smaller numbers of adherents.

Religious freedom is generally respected, and interfaith dialogue initiatives exist. Argentines tend to show a high degree of individualization in their religious beliefs, even among those who identify with a particular faith. The role of the Catholic Church in public life and debates on social issues (such as abortion, same-sex marriage) has sometimes been a point of contention, reflecting broader societal discussions about secularism and the separation of church and state.

7.5. Education

The Argentine education system is characterized by a historically strong emphasis on public, secular, and free education, though challenges related to quality, equity, and funding persist, particularly for marginalized groups.

The system is structured in four main levels:
1. **Initial Level (Nivel Inicial):** For children from 45 days to 5 years old. The last two years (ages 4 and 5) are compulsory. This level focuses on early childhood development and socialization.
2. **Primary Level (Nivel Primario):** Compulsory, typically lasting 6 or 7 years (duration depends on the province). This corresponds to elementary or lower school.
3. **Secondary Level (Nivel Secundario):** Compulsory, lasting 5 or 6 years (duration depends on the province). This corresponds to high school and offers various orientations (e.g., humanities, sciences, technical).
4. **Higher Level (Nivel Superior):** Divided into tertiary (non-university higher education, e.g., teacher training colleges, technical institutes) and university education (universitario), which includes undergraduate, graduate (post-graduate), and doctoral studies.

Key Features and Statistics:

• Literacy:** Argentina has a high literacy rate. As of 2010, the literacy rate for people aged 10 and over was 98.07%.
• School Completion:** As of 2010, 38.5% of people over age 20 had completed secondary school. 7.1% of people over age 20 had graduated from university.
• Public Education:** The Argentine state guarantees universal, secular, and free-of-charge public education at the initial, primary, secondary, and undergraduate university levels. Post-graduate university education is usually fee-based.
• Administration:** Responsibility for educational supervision is shared between the federal government (which sets national guidelines and policies) and the individual provincial states (which manage schools and adapt curricula).
• Private Sector:** The role of the private sector in education has grown across all levels in recent decades, offering alternatives to public schooling, often with religious affiliations or specialized pedagogical approaches.

Major Educational Institutions:
Argentina has a large network of universities, both public and private.

• Public Universities:** Some of the most important and prestigious public universities include the University of Buenos Aires (UBA), National University of Córdoba (one of the oldest in the Americas, founded in 1613), National University of La Plata, National University of Rosario, and the National Technological University (UTN). As of 2013, there were 47 national public universities across the country.
• Private Universities:** There were 46 private universities in 2013, with institutions like the Pontifical Catholic University of Argentina (UCA) and the Torcuato Di Tella University being prominent.

Current Issues and Challenges:

• Access and Equity:** While education is nominally free and universal, significant disparities in access and quality persist, particularly affecting children from low-income families, rural areas, and indigenous communities. Issues include dropout rates (especially at the secondary level), grade repetition, and unequal distribution of resources and qualified teachers.
• Quality:** Maintaining and improving the quality of education across all levels is an ongoing challenge. Debates often focus on teacher training, curriculum relevance, infrastructure, and assessment methods.
• Funding:** Public education funding has fluctuated with economic cycles. While there have been periods of increased investment, ensuring sustained and adequate funding to meet the system's needs remains a concern.
• Teacher Conditions:** Teachers' salaries and working conditions have often been contentious issues, leading to strikes and affecting the continuity of schooling.
• Inclusion of Marginalized Groups:** Efforts are made to include students with disabilities, indigenous students (including bilingual intercultural education programs), and other marginalized groups, but more comprehensive strategies and resources are often needed.

Despite these challenges, Argentina's commitment to education has contributed to a highly literate population and a strong tradition of academic and intellectual life.

7.6. Health

Healthcare in Argentina is provided through a mixed system involving public, private, and social security (Obras Sociales) sectors, aiming for universal coverage. However, access to care and health outcomes can vary significantly depending on socio-economic status and geographic location.

System Structure:
1. **Public Sector:** This includes a network of public hospitals and primary care clinics run by the federal, provincial, and municipal governments. Care in public facilities is generally free of charge at the point of service for all inhabitants, including undocumented immigrants. The public sector serves a large portion of the population, particularly those without other forms of insurance.
2. **Social Security Sector (Obras Sociales):** These are health insurance schemes typically managed by trade unions and funded by contributions from employers and employees. They cover workers in the formal sector and their families. There are over 300 Obras Sociales, with varying levels of coverage and quality. The national INSSJP (commonly known as PAMI) provides health coverage for nearly all senior citizens (retirees and pensioners). This sector covers about half the population.
3. **Private Sector:** This includes private health insurance plans (prepagas) and private hospitals and clinics. Individuals or employers can purchase private insurance for access to a wider network of providers and potentially shorter waiting times. This sector serves a smaller but significant portion of the population, often those with higher incomes.

Health Indicators and Resources:

• Resources:** Argentina has a relatively high number of healthcare professionals and hospital beds compared to other Latin American countries. As of around 2009-2010, there were over 153,000 hospital beds, 121,000 physicians, and 37,000 dentists, with ratios comparable to some developed nations.
• Life Expectancy and Infant Mortality:** Access to medical care has historically resulted in mortality patterns similar to developed nations. Life expectancy at birth was around 76 years (as of 2009), and the infant mortality rate had fallen to 12.1 per 1,000 live births (as of 2009). While these figures are better than global averages, they sometimes fall short of levels in highly developed nations.
• Causes of Death:** Main causes of death include cardiovascular diseases, cancer, respiratory problems, and digestive maladies, similar to patterns in developed countries.

Access to Care and Health Disparities:
Despite the aim of universal coverage, significant health disparities exist in Argentina:

• Socio-economic Disparities:** Individuals with lower incomes and those in informal employment often rely solely on the public sector, which can face issues of underfunding, long waiting times, and shortages of supplies or equipment in some areas. Those with formal employment or higher incomes typically have access to Obras Sociales or private insurance, which may offer better or quicker access to certain services.
• Geographic Disparities:** Healthcare resources and quality of care are often concentrated in major urban centers like Buenos Aires, Córdoba, and Rosario. Rural and remote areas, particularly in the north and south of the country, may have limited access to specialized medical services and fewer healthcare professionals.
• Fragmentation:** The healthcare system is quite fragmented, with coordination between the public, social security, and private sectors sometimes lacking, which can lead to inefficiencies.
• Public Health Challenges:** Argentina faces public health challenges common to many countries, including non-communicable diseases (heart disease, diabetes, cancer), infectious diseases (though less prevalent than in some other regions), and issues related to mental health, maternal and child health, and access to sexual and reproductive health services.

Efforts to improve the healthcare system focus on strengthening primary care, improving efficiency and coordination, addressing health inequities, and ensuring sustainable financing. The right to health is recognized, and access to essential medicines and treatments is a key policy goal.

7.7. Urbanization

Argentina is a highly urbanized country, with a significant majority of its population residing in cities and metropolitan areas. This pattern of urbanization has profound implications for its social, economic, and environmental landscape.

Rate of Urbanization:
As of recent estimates, approximately 92% of Argentina's population lives in urban areas. This is one of the highest rates of urbanization in Latin America and globally. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for about half of the total population.

Major Cities and Metropolitan Areas:

• Greater Buenos Aires:** This is by far the largest urban agglomeration, centered around the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. Including its surrounding suburbs in Buenos Aires Province, the metropolitan area is home to around 13 million people (some estimates are higher), making it one of the largest urban centers in the world. It is the political, economic, cultural, and transportation hub of the country.
• Greater Córdoba:** Located in the central part of the country, Córdoba is the second-largest metropolitan area, with around 1.3 to 1.5 million inhabitants. It is an important industrial, commercial, and educational center.
• Greater Rosario:** Situated on the Paraná River in Santa Fe Province, Rosario is the third-largest metropolitan area, also with around 1.3 million inhabitants. It is a major port and industrial city.

Historical Development and Patterns:
Urbanization in Argentina accelerated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by European immigration and the development of an export-oriented agricultural economy centered on the Pampas. Immigrants often settled in cities, particularly Buenos Aires, which offered employment opportunities. Internal migration from rural areas to cities also contributed to urban growth throughout the 20th century. The concentration of economic and political power in Buenos Aires has historically led to a highly centralized pattern of urbanization.

Social Challenges in Urban Centers:
Rapid and often unplanned urbanization has led to various social challenges in major cities:

• Housing Shortages and Informal Settlements:** Many cities face a deficit of adequate and affordable housing, leading to the proliferation of informal settlements (villas miserias or shantytowns) on the urban periphery, often lacking basic services like clean water, sanitation, and electricity.
• Infrastructure Strain:** Rapid urban growth places significant strain on infrastructure, including transportation, water supply, sewage systems, and waste management.
• Social Inequality and Segregation:** Urban areas often exhibit high levels of social inequality and spatial segregation, with affluent neighborhoods coexisting alongside impoverished areas.
• Crime and Insecurity:** Crime rates and perceptions of insecurity can be higher in large urban centers.
• Environmental Problems:** Urban areas contribute to environmental issues such as air and water pollution, waste generation, and loss of green spaces.
• Transportation and Congestion:** Traffic congestion is a major problem in large metropolitan areas like Buenos Aires.

Efforts to address these challenges include urban planning initiatives, investments in public transportation and infrastructure, social housing programs, and policies aimed at promoting more balanced regional development to reduce over-concentration in a few major cities. However, the scale of these problems requires sustained and coordinated efforts.

8.1. Literature

Argentine literature has a rich and influential history, with its origins tracing back to the colonial period around 1550. However, it gained significant momentum and its distinct character in the 19th century, following independence.

The 19th century was marked by the foundational works of authors who grappled with themes of national identity, civilization versus barbarism, and the vastness of the Argentine landscape. Esteban Echeverría's El Matadero (The Slaughterhouse), a work of Romanticism, is considered a landmark for its critical portrayal of the Rosas dictatorship and its role in developing Argentine narrative. The ideological divide of the era is reflected in the contrast between the popular, federalist epic poem Martín Fierro by José Hernández, which celebrated the gaucho figure and became a national classic, and the elitist, European-oriented discourse of Domingo Faustino Sarmiento's Facundo, which advocated for "civilization" (European models) against what he saw as the "barbarism" of the rural interior.

The Modernist movement at the turn of the 20th century saw figures like Leopoldo Lugones and poet Alfonsina Storni exploring new literary forms and themes. This was followed by Vanguardism, with Ricardo Güiraldes's novel Don Segundo Sombra offering a nostalgic and stylized depiction of the gaucho, becoming an important reference point.

The most acclaimed Argentine writer, and one of the foremost figures in world literature, is Jorge Luis Borges. Borges's work, characterized by its erudition, philosophical depth, and exploration of themes like labyrinths, mirrors, time, and identity, transcended national borders. His short story collections, such as Ficciones and The Aleph, are masterpieces of 20th-century literature and have profoundly influenced writers globally. He was a close friend and collaborator of Adolfo Bioy Casares, himself a distinguished writer, known for works like the science fiction novel The Invention of Morel.

Julio Cortázar was another towering figure, a leading member of the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s. His innovative narrative techniques, particularly in novels like Hopscotch (Rayuela) and his numerous short stories, had a significant impact on a generation of writers in the Americas and Europe.

Other highly regarded Argentine writers, poets, and essayists who have contributed to the richness and diversity of its literary tradition include Estanislao del Campo, Eugenio Cambaceres, Pedro Bonifacio Palacios (Almafuerte), Hugo Wast, Benito Lynch, Enrique Banchs, Oliverio Girondo, Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Victoria Ocampo (a key cultural figure and editor of the influential literary magazine Sur), Leopoldo Marechal, Silvina Ocampo, Roberto Arlt (known for his gritty urban realism), Eduardo Mallea, Manuel Mujica Láinez, Ernesto Sábato (author of The Tunnel and On Heroes and Tombs), Silvina Bullrich, Rodolfo Walsh (a pioneer of investigative journalism and non-fiction narrative), María Elena Walsh (beloved children's author and poet), Tomás Eloy Martínez, Manuel Puig (author of Kiss of the Spider Woman), Alejandra Pizarnik (a prominent poet known for her dark, surreal works), and Osvaldo Soriano.

Buenos Aires has a vibrant literary scene with numerous bookstores, literary cafes, and publishing houses. The tension between cosmopolitan, European-influenced urban culture and the traditions of the interior has been a recurring theme in Argentine literature.

8.2. Music

The music of Argentina is diverse, encompassing the world-renowned tango, rich traditions of folk music (folklore), a vibrant rock scene, and significant contributions to classical music.

Tango:
Tango is arguably Argentina's most famous cultural export. Originating in the working-class port areas of Buenos Aires and Montevideo (Uruguay) in the late 19th century, tango is a Rioplatense musical genre and dance with European (Italian, Spanish, German influences in instruments like the bandoneon) and African (rhythmic elements) roots. The "Golden Age of Tango" (roughly 1930s to mid-1950s) featured large orchestras led by iconic figures such as Di Sarli, Osvaldo Pugliese, Aníbal Troilo, Francisco Canaro, Julio de Caro, and Juan d'Arienzo. Singers like Carlos Gardel became international superstars. After 1955, the virtuoso bandoneonist and composer Astor Piazzolla revolutionized the genre with Nuevo tango (New Tango), incorporating elements of jazz and classical music, creating a more complex and concert-oriented form. Tango enjoys worldwide popularity today, with contemporary groups like Gotan Project, Bajofondo, and Tanghetto fusing tango with electronic and other modern sounds.

Folk Music (Folklore):
Argentina has a rich tapestry of regional folk music styles. A national Argentine folk style emerged in the 1930s, drawing from these diverse traditions. Key genres include:

• Zamba: A graceful dance and song form, often considered one of the most romantic.
• Chacarera: A lively, rhythmic dance from the Santiago del Estero region.
• Gato: Another popular folk dance.
• Chamame: A genre from the Mesopotamia region with European (polka, mazurka) and Guaraní influences, characterized by the use of accordion and bandoneon.
• Andean Music: Influences from indigenous Andean traditions are strong in the Northwest, featuring instruments like the quena (flute) and charango. Carnavalito is a festive dance from this region.

Prominent figures in Argentine folk music who achieved worldwide acclaim include Atahualpa Yupanqui and Mercedes Sosa, both central to the Nueva Canción (New Song) movement, which often carried social and political messages.

Rock Nacional:
Argentine rock (Rock Nacional) developed as a distinct musical style in the mid-1960s, with Buenos Aires and Rosario as major centers. It is one of the most important non-English language rock scenes in the world. Founding bands like Los Gatos, Almendra, and Manal paved the way. Later influential bands and artists include Sui Generis (featuring Charly García and Nito Mestre), Serú Girán (also with Charly García), Pescado Rabioso (led by Luis Alberto Spinetta), Soda Stereo (a hugely popular band across Latin America, fronted by Gustavo Cerati), and Patricio Rey y sus Redonditos de Ricota. Key solo artists who have shaped the genre include Charly García, Luis Alberto Spinetta, Fito Páez, and Andrés Calamaro. Rock Nacional often incorporates local musical elements and lyrics in Spanish that reflect Argentine social and political realities.

Classical Music:
Argentina has a strong tradition in classical music and dance. Renowned artists include composer Alberto Ginastera (whose works often incorporate Argentine folk themes), violinist Alberto Lysy, pianists Martha Argerich (one of the world's leading contemporary pianists) and Eduardo Delgado, pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim, tenors José Cura and Marcelo Álvarez, and ballet dancers Jorge Donn, José Neglia, Norma Fontenla, Maximiliano Guerra, Paloma Herrera, Marianela Núñez, Iñaki Urlezaga, and Julio Bocca. The Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires is a world-renowned opera house.

Other Genres:
The romantic ballad genre has produced singers of international fame like Sandro de América. Jazz musicians like tenor saxophonist Leandro "Gato" Barbieri and composer/big band conductor Lalo Schifrin (famous for the Mission: Impossible theme) have achieved international success. Cachengue, a subgenre of Argentine cumbia and reggaeton, is popular in Argentina and neighboring countries.

8.3. Cinema and theatre

Argentina has a vibrant and historically significant film industry and a rich theatrical culture, particularly centered in Buenos Aires.

Cinema:
The Argentine film industry has historically been one of the three most developed in Latin American cinema, alongside those of Mexico and Brazil. It began in 1896, and by the early 1930s, it had become Latin America's leading film producer, a position it maintained until the early 1950s. Notably, the world's first animated feature films were made and released in Argentina by cartoonist Quirino Cristiani in 1917 and 1918.

Argentine cinema has achieved significant international recognition:

• Academy Awards:** The country has won two Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film:
  • The Official Story (La historia oficial, 1985), directed by Luis Puenzo, a powerful drama about the legacy of the Dirty War.
  • The Secret in Their Eyes (El secreto de sus ojos, 2009), directed by Juan José Campanella, a crime thriller.

  Argentina has received seven nominations in this category in total.

  • Other Academy Awards:** Argentine composers Luis Enrique Bacalov and Gustavo Santaolalla have won Academy Awards for Best Original Score. Armando Bó and Nicolás Giacobone shared the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for Birdman (2014). French-Argentine actress Bérénice Bejo received a nomination for Best Supporting Actress for The Artist (2011) and won Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival for The Past (2013).
  • Goya Awards:** Argentina has won seventeen Goya Awards for Best Spanish Language Foreign Film, making it the most awarded country in Latin America with twenty-four nominations.
  • International Acclaim:** Many other Argentine films have been acclaimed at international film festivals, including works by directors like Lucrecia Martel, Pablo Trapero, Lisandro Alonso, and Damián Szifron (director of Wild Tales).

  The National Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts (INCAA) plays a crucial role in supporting and promoting Argentine cinema. As of 2013, about 100 full-length motion pictures were being created annually. Themes often explore Argentine history, social issues, identity, and personal relationships.
  
  Theatre:
  Buenos Aires is one of the great theatre capitals of the world, with a bustling scene of international caliber centered on Corrientes Avenue, often referred to as "the street that never sleeps" or the "Broadway of Buenos Aires." The city boasts a vast number of theaters, ranging from grand historic venues to small independent spaces.

  • Teatro Colón:** A global landmark for opera and classical performances. Its acoustics are considered among the world's top five.

Argentine playwrights like Griselda Gambaro, Roberto Cossa, and Osvaldo Dragún have produced significant works that often reflect on the country's social and political realities. The theatrical tradition dates back to the colonial era, with the first theatre, La Ranchería, established in 1783.

8.4. Visual arts and architecture

Argentine visual arts and architecture reflect a blend of European influences and local creativity, evolving through various historical periods and artistic movements.

Visual Arts (Argentine painting):

• 19th Century:** Early painters like Prilidiano Pueyrredón depicted rural life and portraits. Cándido López created detailed panoramic paintings of the Paraguayan War. Ernesto de la Cárcova and Eduardo Sívori were key figures in Realism.
• Early 20th Century:** Fernando Fader was a prominent Impressionist. Post-Impressionism was represented by artists like Pío Collivadino, Atilio Malinverno, and Cesáreo Bernaldo de Quirós. Benito Quinquela Martín became famous for his vibrant paintings of the La Boca port district and its working-class life.
• Modernism and Avant-Garde:** Emilio Pettoruti introduced Cubism to Argentina. Xul Solar developed a unique style incorporating Surrealism, symbolism, and esoteric themes. Antonio Berni was a major figure associated with Social Realism and later Neofigurativism, known for his series on characters like Juanito Laguna and Ramona Montiel, depicting poverty and social issues.
• Abstract and Conceptual Art:** Lucio Fontana, born in Argentina though largely active in Italy, was a pioneer of Spatialism. Tomás Maldonado was a key theorist of the Ulm Model and a proponent of Concrete Art. Gyula Košice was a co-founder of the Madí movement (Geometric Abstraction) in 1946, which had international impact. Eduardo Mac Entyre was known for Generative art. León Ferrari and Marta Minujín are internationally recognized for their Conceptual art and provocative installations. Guillermo Kuitca is a contemporary painter with a significant international reputation.
• Sculpture:** Notable sculptors include Lola Mora, known for works like the Fuente de las Nereidas (Nereids Fountain), Erminio Blotta, and Rogelio Yrurtia, who created many classical monuments.
• Lithography and Illustration:** Adolfo Bellocq's lithographs were influential. Gustavo Cabral (Ciruelo) is known for Fantasy art. Fabián Pérez is associated with Neo-emotionalism.

Architecture:

• Colonial Era:** Spanish colonial architecture, characterized by the Spanish Baroque style, can be seen in simpler Rioplatense forms in buildings like the San Ignacio Miní Jesuit reduction, the Cathedral of Córdoba, and various cabildos (town halls).
• 19th Century:** After independence, Italian and French influences became prominent, leading to strong eclectic styles. Neoclassicism was also popular for public buildings.
• Early 20th Century:** Art Nouveau (e.g., Francisco Gianotti) and Art Deco (e.g., Francisco Salamone's monumental municipal buildings in Buenos Aires Province) left their mark. Beaux-Arts architecture was widely used for grand residences and public buildings in Buenos Aires, contributing to its "Paris of South America" image (e.g., works by Juan Antonio Buschiazzo).
• Modern Architecture:** Le Corbusier's ideas influenced architects like Alberto Prebisch (designer of the Obelisco) and Amancio Williams. Clorindo Testa was a key figure in Brutalist architecture in Argentina.
• Contemporary Architecture:** Argentine architects like César Pelli gained international fame for their futuristic and iconic designs (e.g., Petronas Towers). Patricio Pouchulu is another contemporary architect with international work.

Buenos Aires, in particular, showcases a diverse range of architectural styles, from colonial remnants to grand 19th and early 20th-century edifices and modern skyscrapers. Preservation efforts aim to protect this rich architectural heritage.

8.5. Mass media

The mass media in Argentina is highly developed, with a long history of print journalism, pioneering radio broadcasting, and a large television industry. It plays a significant role in shaping public opinion and democratic discourse.

Print Media:
Argentina has a vibrant print media industry with over two hundred newspapers. Major national newspapers include:

• Clarín**: A centrist newspaper, traditionally one of Latin America's best-sellers and widely circulated.
• La Nación**: A centre-right newspaper, published since 1870, with a long and influential history.
• Página/12**: A leftist newspaper founded in 1987, known for its investigative journalism and critical stance.
• Ámbito Financiero**: A conservative business-focused newspaper.
• Crónica**: A popular, sensationalist newspaper.
• La Voz del Interior**: An important regional newspaper based in Córdoba, founded in 1904.
• Buenos Aires Herald**: Historically an important English-language daily (ceased daily print publication, now online).

There are also numerous magazines covering various interests. The print media landscape has faced challenges from digital media, like elsewhere in the world.

Radio:
Argentina was a pioneer in radio broadcasting. The world's first regular radio broadcast is considered to have taken place in Buenos Aires on August 27, 1920, when a team led by Enrique Telémaco Susini aired Richard Wagner's opera Parsifal from the Teatro Coliseo. As of 2002, there were 260 AM and 1150 FM registered radio stations. Radio remains an important medium, especially for news, music, and sports, reaching even remote areas. AM stations typically focus on news, talk shows, and sports, while FM stations are dominated by music and youth-oriented programming.

Television:
The Argentine television industry is large, diverse, and popular across Latin America, with many of its productions and TV formats exported.

• Broadcast Television:** There are several major national broadcast networks, both public (e.g., TV Pública) and private (e.g., Telefe, El Trece, América TV, Canal 9).
• Cable and Satellite Television:** Argentina has one of the highest rates of cable and satellite television penetration in Latin America. As of 2014, 87.4% of households had access, a rate comparable to the United States and Canada. Numerous cable channels offer diverse content, including news (e.g., Todo Noticias), sports (e.g., TyC Sports, ESPN), and entertainment.

Internet and Digital Media:
Internet access has grown significantly. As of 2011, about 67% of the population had internet access, and the ratio of mobile phone subscriptions to population was 137.2%. Digital news outlets, blogs, and social media play an increasingly important role in information dissemination and public debate.

Media Ownership and Freedom of the Press:
Media ownership in Argentina is relatively concentrated, with large media conglomerates like Grupo Clarín having significant influence. Freedom of the press is constitutionally guaranteed, but there have been periods of tension between governments and media groups, leading to debates about media regulation, objectivity, and the role of media in politics. Issues such as the allocation of government advertising and legal pressures on journalists have sometimes raised concerns. Ensuring a diverse and pluralistic media landscape is an ongoing challenge.

8.6. Cuisine

Argentine cuisine is a distinctive blend of indigenous ingredients, Criollo traditions, and significant European influences, particularly from Italian and Spanish culinary customs due to large-scale immigration.

Meat (Asado):
Argentina is famous for its high consumption of red meat, especially beef. The asado (barbecue) is a national dish and a cherished social ritual. It involves grilling various cuts of beef, often including other meats like chorizo (sausage), morcilla (blood sausage), sweetbreads (mollejas), and chitterlings (chinchulines), typically cooked slowly over an open flame or embers (parrilla). Chimichurri, a green sauce made with parsley, garlic, vinegar, olive oil, and oregano, is a common accompaniment.

Italian Influence:
Italian immigration has profoundly shaped Argentine cuisine. Pasta dishes (pastas) like spaghetti, ravioli, gnocchi (ñoquis - traditionally eaten on the 29th of each month), and lasagna are staples. Pizza (often with a thicker crust, known as pizza de molde) and fainá (a chickpea flour flatbread) are also very popular. Milanesa (a breaded meat cutlet, similar to Italian cotoletta or Wiener schnitzel) is a ubiquitous dish, often served as a sandwich (sánguche de milanesa) or "a caballo" (topped with a fried egg).

Empanadas:
These are small, stuffed pastries, either baked or fried, with various fillings that differ by region. Common fillings include beef, chicken, ham and cheese, humita (corn), and vegetables.

Indigenous and Criollo Dishes:

• Locro: A hearty stew made with corn, beans, various meats (beef, pork, chorizo), bacon, onion, and gourd, traditionally eaten on national holidays like May 25th.
• Humita: A dish made from fresh corn, onions, and spices, wrapped in corn husks and boiled or steamed, common in the Northwest.
• Tamales: Similar to humitas but often with meat fillings, also found in the Northwest.

Sweets and Desserts (Postres):

• Dulce de leche: A thick, sweet milk caramel spread or filling used in countless desserts. It's a national obsession.
• Alfajores: Shortbread-like cookies sandwiched together with dulce de leche, fruit paste, or chocolate, often covered in chocolate or powdered sugar.
• Facturas: A general term for Viennese-style pastries, popular for breakfast or with mate.
• Flan: A caramel custard dessert, often served with dulce de leche or cream.
• Tortas fritas: Fried cakes, popular on rainy days.
• Ice Cream (Helado): Argentine ice cream, heavily influenced by Italian gelato, is renowned for its quality and variety of flavors, especially dulce de leche ice cream.

Drinks:

• Mate: A traditional caffeine-rich infused drink made from the dried leaves of yerba mate. It is a deeply ingrained social custom, often shared among friends and family from a hollow gourd (also called a mate) using a metal straw (bombilla).
• Wine (Vino)': Argentina is one of the world's leading wine producers. Malbec is its flagship red grape variety, particularly from the Mendoza region. Torrontés is a distinctive aromatic white wine. Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Bonarda, and Chardonnay are also widely cultivated.
• Fernet with Coca-Cola (Fernet con Coca): An extremely popular mixed drink, especially in Córdoba. Fernet is a bitter, aromatic spirit of Italian origin.
• Coffee (Café): Coffee culture is strong, with numerous cafes (bares notables) in cities like Buenos Aires.

Regional variations in cuisine are significant, reflecting local ingredients and cultural influences.

8.7. Sport

Sport plays a significant role in Argentine culture and national identity, with association football (soccer) being by far the most popular.

Football (Soccer - Fútbol):
Football is a national passion. The men's national team is one of the most successful in the world, having won the FIFA World Cup three times (in 1978, 1986, and 2022) and been runners-up three times. They have also won the Copa América 16 times (a record shared with Uruguay) and two Olympic gold medals (2004, 2008). Legendary players like Diego Maradona and Lionel Messi are global icons and are widely considered among the greatest footballers of all time. Other prominent Argentine players include Alfredo Di Stéfano, Mario Kempes, Daniel Passarella, Gabriel Batistuta, Juan Román Riquelme, and many others who have starred in top European clubs. The domestic league, Primera División, is highly competitive, with fierce rivalries, most notably the Superclásico between Boca Juniors and River Plate.

Basketball:
Basketball is also very popular. The men's national team achieved remarkable success, including winning the Olympic gold medal in 2004, the FIBA World Championship silver medal in 2002, and numerous FIBA Americas Championships and South American Championships. Several Argentine players have had successful careers in the NBA, including Manu Ginóbili, Luis Scola, Andrés Nocioni, and Fabricio Oberto.

Field Hockey:
The women's field hockey team, known as Las Leonas (The Lionesses), is one of the world's best. They have won multiple World Cups, Champions Trophies, World Leagues, and Olympic medals. Luciana Aymar is considered one of the greatest female players in the history of the sport, having received the FIBA Player of the Year Award eight times.

Rugby Union:
Rugby is another popular sport. The men's national team, Los Pumas, has become a formidable force in international rugby. They achieved a third-place finish at the 2007 Rugby World Cup and have consistently competed at a high level. Since 2012, Argentina has participated in The Rugby Championship against Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The Jaguares, an Argentine professional team, competed in Super Rugby.

Tennis:
Tennis is widely played and followed. Guillermo Vilas was a dominant player in the 1970s and early 1980s, winning multiple Grand Slam titles. Gabriela Sabatini was a top female player in the 1980s and 1990s, winning the US Open. More recently, players like Juan Martín del Potro, David Nalbandian, and Gastón Gaudio have achieved international success. Argentina won the Davis Cup in 2016.

Motorsport:
Argentina has a strong tradition in auto racing. Juan Manuel Fangio was a five-time Formula One world champion in the 1950s and is regarded as one of the greatest drivers of all time. Carlos Reutemann and José Froilán González were other notable Formula One drivers. Turismo Carretera is a popular domestic touring car racing series.

Polo:
Argentina reigns supreme in polo. The national team has won more international championships than any other country and has been dominant since the 1930s. The Argentine Polo Championship is the sport's most prestigious club trophy. The country is home to most of the world's top players, including legends like Adolfo Cambiaso.

Boxing:
Argentina has produced numerous world boxing champions, including Carlos Monzón (middleweight), Pascual Pérez (flyweight), Horacio Accavallo (flyweight), Víctor Galíndez (light heavyweight), and Nicolino Locche ("The Untouchable" for his defensive skills).

National Sport (Pato):
The official national sport of Argentina is pato, an ancient horseback game that originated in the early 1600s and is a predecessor of horseball. While football is overwhelmingly more popular, pato holds symbolic national status.

Argentine athletes have also excelled in other sports, including volleyball, handball, and sailing, and the country has a consistent presence in the Olympic Games and Pan American Games.

8.8. National symbols

Argentina has several national symbols that represent its identity, history, and values. Some are officially established by law, while others are recognized through tradition.

• National Flag:** The flag is a triband, composed of three equal horizontal bands colored light blue, white, and light blue. In the center of the white band is the Sun of May (Sol de Mayo), a golden yellow sun with a human face and 32 rays (16 straight and 16 wavy). The flag was designed by Manuel Belgrano in 1812 during the War of Independence and officially adopted in 1816. The colors are said to represent the blue sky parting to reveal white clouds, or to be derived from the colors of the House of Bourbon.
• Coat of Arms:** Adopted in its current form in 1944, though its elements date back to 1813. It features an elliptical shield divided into blue and white halves. Two shaking hands symbolize the unity of the provinces. A Phrygian cap (gorro frigio) held aloft by a pike represents liberty. Laurels surrounding the shield signify victory and glory. The rising Sun of May at the top symbolizes the rise of the new nation.
• National Anthem:** (Himno Nacional Argentino) The lyrics were written by Vicente López y Planes and the music composed by Blas Parera. It was adopted as the official anthem on May 11, 1813.
• National Cockade:** (Escarapela Nacional) A rosette or ribbon in light blue and white, it was first used during the May Revolution of 1810 and officially adopted in 1812. It is worn on national holidays, particularly during May Revolution Week and Independence Day (July 9th).
• National Flower:** The flower of the Ceibo tree (Erythrina crista-galli), also known as the cockspur coral tree, was declared the national flower in 1942. Its vibrant red blossoms are symbolic.
• National Bird:** The Rufous hornero (Furnarius rufus), known locally as hornero, was declared the national bird in 1928 after a survey in schools. It is admired for its industrious nest-building.
• National Tree:** The Quebracho colorado chaqueño (Red Quebracho) is considered the national forest tree, valued for its hard wood and tannin content. The Ceibo is also considered a national tree.
• National Gemstone:** Rhodochrosite (Rodocrosita), also known as Inca Rose stone, is the national gemstone, recognized for its beautiful pink to red banded patterns.
• National Sport:** Pato, a traditional horseback game, was declared the national sport in 1953.
• National Drink (Infusion):** Mate was declared the "national infusion" in 2013.
• National Wine:** Wine was declared the "national beverage" in 2010 and later "national drink" in 2013.
• National Dishes:** While not all officially decreed, asado (barbecue) and locro (a hearty stew) are widely considered national dishes, deeply embedded in the country's culinary identity.

These symbols are frequently used in official contexts, educational materials, and public celebrations, serving to foster a sense of national unity and pride.