Peru

3.1. Pre-Columbian Era

The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory dates back to approximately 12,500 BCE, found at the Huaca Prieta site. Andean societies were fundamentally based on agriculture, employing sophisticated techniques such as irrigation and terracing. The husbandry of camelids (like llamas and alpacas) and fishing were also vital economic activities. Social organization often relied on principles of reciprocity and redistribution, as these societies generally did not have concepts of market economies or currency in the modern sense.

The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Caral-Supe civilization (also known as Norte Chico), flourished along the Pacific coast between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. Caral is considered one of the cradles of civilization in the Americas, notable for its monumental stone architecture, including pyramids, and complex societal organization, all developed in an arid region.

Following the Caral-Supe period, a series of other cultures emerged and developed, primarily in the coastal and Andean regions. The Cupisnique culture (circa 1000-200 BCE) thrived on the northern Pacific coast, known for its distinctive pottery and early metalwork. The Chavín culture (circa 1500-300 BCE), with its major religious center at Chavín de Huantar, exerted significant cultural and religious influence across a wide area of the Andes, characterized by its intricate stone carvings and iconography featuring feline, avian, and serpentine motifs.

After the decline of Chavín influence around the 1st century CE, various localized cultures rose and fell. On the coast, these included the Paracas culture, renowned for its elaborate textiles and trepanation surgery; the Nazca culture, famous for the enigmatic Nazca Lines geoglyphs and polychrome pottery; the Moche culture (circa 100-800 CE), which built large adobe pyramids (huacas) like the Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna, developed extensive irrigation systems, and produced realistic ceramic portrait vessels and intricate metalwork depicting warriors and scenes of daily life. The Wari culture (circa 500-1000 CE), centered near modern Ayacucho, and the Tiwanaku culture, centered around Lake Titicaca, developed into expansive states in the highlands, building large urban settlements and exerting considerable influence over vast territories. The Chimú culture (circa 1140-1450 CE) emerged on the north coast, with its capital at Chan Chan, a massive adobe city. The Chimú were skilled metallurgists and builders of extensive irrigation networks before being conquered by the Incas. These civilizations laid the groundwork for the subsequent rise of the Inca Empire, contributing technological, artistic, and organizational innovations.

3.2. Inca Empire

In the 15th century, the Incas, originally a small ethnic group known as the Quechuas based in the Cusco valley, rapidly emerged as the dominant power in the Andean region, creating the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, known as Tawantinsuyu (meaning "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces" in Quechua). The expansion of the Inca Empire began in earnest around 1438 under the rule of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, the ninth Sapa Inca (emperor). Pachacuti is credited with transforming the Kingdom of Cusco into a vast empire through a series of military conquests and reforms. He reorganized the state, established a comprehensive legal code, and initiated major construction projects, including the rebuilding of Cusco as the imperial capital.

Under Pachacuti and his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, the empire expanded dramatically, incorporating diverse peoples and territories through conquest and peaceful assimilation. At its zenith, the Inca Empire stretched from southern Colombia in the north, through Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, to northern Chile and northwestern Argentina in the south, encompassing a vast area centered on the Andes mountain ranges and a population estimated between 9 to 16 million.

The Inca Empire was characterized by a highly centralized government with the Sapa Inca, considered a divine descendant of the sun god Inti, at its apex. Cusco served as the political, religious, and administrative heart of the empire. The Incas were master builders, renowned for their sophisticated stonework, exemplified by sites like Machu Picchu, Sacsayhuamán, and Ollantaytambo. They developed an extensive road system (the Qhapaq Ñan) that facilitated communication, transport, and administration across their vast domain. The empire's economy was based on agriculture, with complex systems of terracing and irrigation to cultivate crops like potatoes, maize, and quinoa in diverse Andean environments. Labor was organized through the mita system, a form of mandatory public service. While the Incas imposed Quechua as the official language and promoted the worship of Inti, they often allowed conquered peoples to retain their local customs and deities, integrating them into the imperial religious framework where local sacred sites (huacas) were respected. The Incas did not have a written script in the conventional sense but used quipu (knotted strings) for record-keeping and communication.

The empire's stability was eventually undermined by internal strife. After the death of Emperor Huayna Capac from a disease (possibly introduced by Europeans), a devastating civil war erupted between his sons, Huáscar and Atahualpa, over the succession to the throne. Atahualpa ultimately defeated Huáscar in 1532, but the empire was severely weakened by the conflict. It was in this context of internal division and the aftermath of widespread disease that the Spanish conquistadors, led by Francisco Pizarro, arrived on the Peruvian coast, marking the beginning of the end for the Inca Empire.

3.3. Spanish Colonial Period

The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire began in 1532 when Francisco Pizarro and his small force of conquistadors, aided by indigenous allies who opposed Inca rule (such as the Chankas, Huancas, Cañaris, and Chachapoyas), encountered and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa at the Battle of Cajamarca. Despite Atahualpa paying an enormous ransom in gold and silver, the Spanish executed him in 1533. The capture and execution of the emperor dealt a severe blow to the Inca state, though resistance continued for several decades. Pizarro founded the city of Lima in 1535 on the coast, which became the capital of the new Spanish territories, replacing the highland Inca capital of Cusco in prominence.

In 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru was officially established by Charles V of Spain. Initially, it encompassed most of Spanish-ruled South America. Lima became the administrative, political, and economic center of the viceroyalty. The Spanish colonial economy was primarily based on the extraction of mineral wealth, particularly silver from mines like those at Potosí (in present-day Bolivia) and Huancavelica. Indigenous labor was ruthlessly exploited through systems like the mita (a forced labor draft adapted from Inca practice) and the encomienda (a grant of indigenous labor and tribute to Spanish settlers). This exploitation, combined with the devastating impact of European diseases (such as smallpox and measles) to which the indigenous population had no immunity, led to a catastrophic demographic collapse. The indigenous population declined from an estimated 5-9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 by 1620. African slaves were also imported, primarily to work on coastal plantations and in urban areas.

Spanish colonial society was hierarchical, with peninsular Spaniards (those born in Spain) at the top, followed by Creoles (Spaniards born in the Americas), Mestizos (mixed Spanish and indigenous), indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans. The Catholic Church played a central role in colonial life, undertaking widespread evangelization efforts, often forcefully converting indigenous populations. Churches were built throughout the viceroyalty, sometimes on the sites of Inca temples, such as the Coricancha in Cusco. The Spanish Inquisition was established in Lima to maintain religious orthodoxy. Universities, such as the National University of San Marcos (founded in 1551), were established, primarily for the education of the Creole elite.

Despite Spanish dominance, various forms of indigenous resistance and rebellion occurred throughout the colonial period. The Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, a remote jungle region, held out against the Spanish until 1572, when its last ruler, Túpac Amaru, was captured and executed. In the 18th century, declining silver production and increased imperial control through the Bourbon Reforms (which increased taxes and created new viceroyalties like New Granada and Río de la Plata, reducing Peru's territory and importance) led to heightened social tensions. This culminated in large-scale uprisings, most notably the rebellion led by Túpac Amaru II (José Gabriel Condorcanqui) from 1780 to 1781. Although brutally suppressed, this rebellion had a profound impact, highlighting deep-seated grievances against colonial rule and foreshadowing the independence movements of the early 19th century.

3.4. Independence

In the early 19th century, as independence movements swept across most of Spanish South America, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. The Creole elite in Peru, having enjoyed significant privileges under the colonial system, were hesitant to break with the Spanish monarchy. Consequently, Peru's independence was largely achieved through the military intervention of external forces.

The primary impetus came from two key figures: José de San Martín from the south and Simón Bolívar from the north. San Martín, having liberated Argentina and Chile, landed his expeditionary force on the Peruvian coast in 1820. His strategy initially focused on diplomacy and undermining royalist support. Facing a deteriorating military and political situation, the Spanish Viceroy José de la Serna abandoned Lima. On July 28, 1821, San Martín officially declared the independence of Peru in Lima and was named "Protector of Peru." However, royalist forces still controlled large parts of the highlands.

The complete liberation of Peru required further military campaigns. San Martín, recognizing the need for greater military strength, met with Simón Bolívar at the Guayaquil Conference in 1822. Following this meeting, San Martín resigned and left Peru, allowing Bolívar to take command of the independence struggle. Bolívar, along with his able general Antonio José de Sucre, led the patriot armies to decisive victories against the royalists. The Battle of Junín (August 6, 1824) and, critically, the Battle of Ayacucho (December 9, 1824) shattered Spanish power in Peru. The Battle of Ayacucho is considered the definitive engagement that secured not only Peru's independence but also that of much of South America. The last Spanish viceroy signed a capitulation, though isolated royalist garrisons held out until 1826.

The early years of the Republic of Peru were marked by political instability and struggles for power among military leaders (caudillos). The new nation faced the challenges of defining its borders, establishing a stable government, and rebuilding an economy devastated by years of war. The dream of a unified Latin America, promoted by Bolívar, did not materialize, and attempts to form a Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836-1839) also failed, leading to further conflict. This period was crucial in forging a distinct Peruvian national identity, separate from both its colonial past and its neighboring republics.

3.5. 19th Century

Following its independence, 19th-century Peru was characterized by significant political instability, efforts at nation-building, economic fluctuations tied to resource booms, and a devastating war that reshaped its territory and national psyche. The early decades were dominated by caudillismo, with military leaders frequently seizing power through coups and civil strife hindering the development of stable political institutions.

A period of relative stability and economic prosperity, known as the Guano Era, began in the 1840s under the presidency of Ramón Castilla. The discovery and exploitation of vast deposits of guano (bird droppings rich in nitrates) on Peru's offshore islands created an export boom. Revenue from guano sales financed public works, such as railways and telegraph lines, modernized Lima, and allowed for the abolition of slavery in 1854 and the head tax on indigenous communities. However, this prosperity was often mismanaged, leading to increased foreign debt and not fundamentally altering the country's underlying social inequalities.

In 1864-1866, Peru, along with Chile, Ecuador, and Bolivia, fought against Spain in the Chincha Islands War, after a Spanish expedition occupied the guano-rich Chincha Islands. The Spanish fleet was eventually repelled after the Battle of Callao on May 2, 1866, reaffirming Peruvian sovereignty.

By the 1870s, the guano reserves were depleted, and Peru was heavily indebted. This economic vulnerability contributed to the disaster of the War of the Pacific (1879-1884). The war, fought between Chile and an alliance of Peru and Bolivia, originated from disputes over nitrate-rich territories in the Atacama Desert. Peru was drawn into the conflict due to a secret defensive alliance with Bolivia. The Peruvian navy, despite heroic efforts by figures like Admiral Miguel Grau aboard the monitor Huáscar, was outmatched by the Chilean fleet. After Chilean forces occupied Lima in 1881, a prolonged and bitter guerrilla war ensued in the highlands. The war concluded with the Treaty of Ancón in 1883, under which Peru ceded the department of Tarapacá to Chile. The provinces of Tacna and Arica were also placed under Chilean administration, with a plebiscite to be held later to determine their final status (Tacna was eventually returned to Peru in 1929, but Arica remained with Chile). The War of the Pacific was a traumatic defeat for Peru, resulting in significant loss of territory, economic devastation, and a deep sense of national crisis. Figures like Colonel Francisco Bolognesi became national heroes for their valiant defense.

The post-war period was known as the "National Reconstruction." Efforts focused on rebuilding the economy, restructuring finances, and achieving political stability. The rise of the Civilista Party, representing civilian elites, marked a shift away from military rule towards the end of the century. However, social and economic reforms were slow, and deep-seated issues of inequality and regional disparities persisted. The late 19th century also saw the beginning of new waves of immigration, including Chinese laborers who had arrived earlier and Japanese immigrants.

3.6. 20th Century

The 20th century in Peru was a tumultuous period marked by significant political, social, and economic transformations. It witnessed periods of authoritarian rule, democratic transitions, the rise of influential political movements, military governments, socio-economic reforms, and a devastating internal conflict.

The early decades saw the dominance of an oligarchic civilian rule, which was challenged by the lengthy authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía (1908-1912, 1919-1930). Leguía's "Oncenio" (eleven-year rule) was characterized by modernization efforts, particularly in Lima, financed by extensive foreign loans, but also by increased political repression and centralization of power. The Great Depression led to Leguía's downfall in 1930 and ushered in a period of renewed political turmoil.

This era saw the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA), founded by Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre. APRA, with its populist and reformist platform, became a major force in Peruvian politics, though it was often outlawed and persecuted by the military and conservative elites. The rivalry between APRA and the military-oligarchic coalition defined much of Peruvian politics for the next three decades. Territorial disputes also continued, leading to the Colombia-Peru War (1932-1933) over territory in the Amazon, and the Ecuadorian-Peruvian War of 1941, after which the Rio Protocol of 1942 aimed to settle the border, though disputes with Ecuador would periodically resurface.

Military interventions remained a recurring feature. General Manuel A. Odría seized power in a coup in 1948, ruling until 1956 in a period known as the "Ochenio." His regime combined populist social policies with repression of APRA and civil liberties. A brief return to democracy under Manuel Prado Ugarteche was followed by another military coup in 1962. Fernando Belaúnde Terry won the subsequent 1963 elections but was himself overthrown in 1968 by a military junta led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado.

Velasco's "Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces" (1968-1975) initiated a period of radical, nationalistic, and left-leaning reforms known as the "Peruvian Revolution." This included large-scale agrarian reform, nationalization of key industries (including oil and mining), increased state control over the economy, and efforts to empower indigenous populations, such as recognizing Quechua as an official language. While aiming to reduce inequality and foreign dependence, these reforms faced economic difficulties and internal dissent. Velasco was removed in 1975 by General Francisco Morales Bermúdez, who gradually steered the country back towards civilian rule, with a new constitution adopted in 1979 and elections held in 1980, returning Belaúnde Terry to power.

The 1980s were a decade of profound crisis. Peru faced severe economic problems, including hyperinflation and mounting foreign debt, exacerbated by natural disasters. This period also saw the rise of two violent insurgent groups: the Maoist Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) and the Marxist Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA). The ensuing internal conflict (roughly 1980-2000) resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and widespread human rights abuses by both the insurgents and state security forces. The presidency of Alan García (1985-1990), APRA's first term in power, was plagued by economic collapse and the escalating insurgency.

In 1990, Alberto Fujimori, a political outsider, was elected president. Facing economic chaos and a rampant insurgency, Fujimori implemented drastic neoliberal economic reforms (the "Fujishock") that curbed hyperinflation and stabilized the economy. In 1992, he staged a "self-coup" (autogolpe), dissolving Congress and suspending the constitution with military backing, arguing it was necessary to overcome obstruction to his reforms and fight terrorism. His government achieved significant successes in capturing the leaders of Shining Path (Abimael Guzmán in 1992) and MRTA, greatly diminishing their threat. However, Fujimori's rule (1990-2000) became increasingly authoritarian, marked by human rights violations (such as the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre), forced sterilizations of indigenous women, widespread corruption orchestrated by his intelligence chief Vladimiro Montesinos, and erosion of democratic institutions. Despite these issues, Fujimori was re-elected in 1995 and controversially again in 2000. Mounting evidence of corruption and authoritarianism led to his downfall in late 2000; he fled to Japan and resigned via fax. His legacy, known as Fujimorism, remains a powerful and divisive force in Peruvian politics, characterized by a pragmatic, populist approach, economic liberalism, and a strong hand against crime and terrorism, but often at the expense of democratic norms and human rights.

3.7. 21st Century

The 21st century in Peru began with efforts to restore democratic institutions and address the legacies of the Fujimori regime and the internal conflict. A transitional government under Valentín Paniagua oversaw new elections in 2001, won by Alejandro Toledo, who became Peru's first president of indigenous descent. Toledo's administration (2001-2006) focused on economic growth, poverty reduction, and strengthening democracy, though it was also plagued by corruption scandals. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission published its final report during this period, documenting the atrocities of the internal conflict.

Alan García returned for a second presidential term (2006-2011), during which Peru experienced strong economic growth driven by high commodity prices. However, social conflicts, particularly related to mining and environmental issues, increased, and concerns about corruption persisted. In 2009, former president Alberto Fujimori was extradited from Chile, tried, and convicted for human rights abuses and corruption, receiving a 25-year prison sentence.

Ollanta Humala, a former military officer who had previously run on a more radical platform, won the 2011 presidential election with a more moderate, center-left agenda. His presidency (2011-2016) saw continued economic growth and social programs, but also faced political challenges and slowing economic momentum.

The period from 2016 onwards has been characterized by significant political instability and a series of presidential crises. Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (PPK) won the 2016 election but resigned in 2018 amid corruption allegations and impeachment proceedings, linked to the Odebrecht scandal that implicated numerous Latin American politicians. His first vice president, Martín Vizcarra, assumed the presidency (2018-2020). Vizcarra enjoyed popular support for his anti-corruption efforts, which often put him at odds with a Congress dominated by Fujimorist forces led by Keiko Fujimori (Alberto Fujimori's daughter and a perennial presidential candidate). In 2019, Vizcarra dissolved Congress, and new legislative elections were held in 2020. However, Vizcarra himself was impeached and removed from office by the new Congress in November 2020 on controversial corruption charges.

His removal triggered widespread protests, leading to the resignation of his successor, Manuel Merino, after only five days in office. Francisco Sagasti then served as interim president, guiding the country to the 2021 general elections.

The 2021 elections were highly polarized, with Pedro Castillo, a rural teacher and union leader representing the far-left Free Peru party, narrowly defeating Keiko Fujimori. Castillo's presidency (2021-2022) was marked by extreme political instability, frequent cabinet changes, corruption allegations, and constant clashes with the opposition-controlled Congress, which made multiple impeachment attempts. On December 7, 2022, just hours before a third impeachment vote, Castillo attempted to dissolve Congress and rule by decree in a self-coup. The attempt failed; Congress swiftly impeached and removed him, and he was arrested. His First Vice President, Dina Boluarte, assumed the presidency, becoming Peru's first female president.

Castillo's removal and Boluarte's assumption of power sparked the large-scale protests, particularly in southern and indigenous regions. Protesters demanded Boluarte's resignation, the dissolution of Congress, early elections, and a new constitution. The government's response to the protests was met with severe criticism for excessive force and human rights violations, including dozens of civilian deaths, notably in the Ayacucho massacre and Juliaca massacre. The political crisis has highlighted deep societal divisions, challenges to democratic governance, and persistent issues of inequality and representation in Peru.

4.1. Climate

Peru's climate is remarkably diverse, a result of its tropical latitude combined with the influence of the massive Andes mountain range, the cold Humboldt (Peruvian) Current, and the periodic El Niño phenomenon. This interplay creates distinct climatic zones corresponding to its three main geographical regions:

1. Costa (Coastal Region):

• The central and southern coast generally experiences a subtropical desert climate, characterized by mild temperatures, very low rainfall (Lima, for example, receives very little precipitation), and high humidity, often with persistent coastal fog (garúa), especially during winter (May-October). The Humboldt Current brings cold waters, which cool the air and inhibit rainfall.
• The northern coast is warmer and experiences more seasonal rainfall, particularly during El Niño events, which can bring torrential rains and flooding. Temperatures here are more tropical.

2. Sierra (Highland/Mountain Region):

• Climate in the Andes varies significantly with altitude. Lower elevations in valleys may have temperate climates.
• As altitude increases, temperatures decrease. The rainy season typically occurs from October to April (summer in the Southern Hemisphere), while the dry season is from May to September (winter).
• Higher elevations experience cold, alpine climates, with daily temperatures fluctuating significantly (warm days, very cold nights). The highest peaks are permanently snow-capped and glaciated.

3. Selva (Jungle/Rainforest Region):

• The Amazon rainforest region has a tropical rainforest climate, characterized by high temperatures and heavy rainfall throughout the year, although some areas may have a slightly drier season. Humidity is consistently high.
• The selva alta (high jungle or cloud forest) on the eastern slopes of the Andes is very humid and rainy, with milder temperatures than the lowlands.
• The selva baja (lowland Amazon) is typically hot and humid with abundant rainfall. The southernmost part of the selva can experience occasional cold snaps (friajes) when cold air from the south penetrates the region.

The El Niño phenomenon significantly impacts Peru's climate, particularly on the coast and in the northern sierra. Strong El Niño events can cause unusually warm ocean temperatures, leading to heavy rainfall, flooding, and disruptions to marine ecosystems and fisheries, while other areas might experience drought.

4.2. Natural Environment and Ecosystem

Peru possesses an extraordinary natural environment, shaped primarily by the Andes mountain range and the vast Amazon River system, making it one of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries. This biodiversity is reflected in its wide array of ecosystems, flora, and fauna.

The Andes mountain range is the dominant geographical feature, running the length of the country. It creates a multitude of ecological niches, from high-altitude grasslands (puna) and glacial peaks to deep inter-Andean valleys and cloud forests on its eastern slopes. The puna is characterized by hardy grasses, cushion plants, and camelids like llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, and guanacos. The Andean condor is a symbolic avian species of this region. The highest peak, Huascarán, rises to 22 K ft ^{(6.77 K m)}.

The Amazon River system originates in the Peruvian Andes, with the Marañón and Ucayali rivers being its main headwaters. The Peruvian Amazon, or selva, covers about 60% of the country's territory and is part of the largest tropical rainforest on Earth. This region is characterized by immense biodiversity. The lowland Amazon rainforest (selva baja) is home to an incredible variety of tree species, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds (like macaws and toucans), and mammals (such as jaguars, tapirs, monkeys, and pink river dolphins). The selva alta, or cloud forest, on the eastern Andean slopes, is also exceptionally rich in endemic species, particularly orchids, bromeliads, and birds like the Andean cock-of-the-rock, Peru's national bird.

The Pacific coastal region (costa) is predominantly an arid desert, but it hosts unique ecosystems. The cold, nutrient-rich waters of the Humboldt Current support one of the world's most productive marine ecosystems, vital for Peru's fishing industry (though vulnerable to El Niño events). Coastal deserts are punctuated by fertile river valleys and unique fog-dependent ecosystems called lomas, which bloom with vegetation during the misty winter months. The Paracas National Reserve protects significant portions of this coastal desert and marine ecosystem.

Peru has a rich flora, with an estimated 25,000 species, of which a significant portion are endemic. Notable plants include the Puya raimondii, the world's largest bromeliad, found in the high Andes, and countless species of orchids. The country is also a center of origin for important crops like potatoes (with thousands of varieties), tomatoes, and quinoa. The fauna is equally diverse, with over 1,800 bird species (making it one of the countries with the highest avian diversity), around 500 mammal species, over 300 reptile species, and numerous amphibian and fish species.

Environmental Conservation: Recognizing the importance of its natural heritage, Peru has established a system of national parks and protected areas. Notable among these are Manu National Park, Tambopata National Reserve, and Huascarán National Park, all recognized as UNESCO World Heritage sites or Biosphere Reserves. However, Peru faces significant environmental challenges, including deforestation in the Amazon (due to agriculture, logging, and mining), pollution from mining activities, overfishing, and the impacts of climate change on glaciers and water resources. Conservation efforts aim to balance economic development with the protection of its unique biodiversity and ecosystems.

5.1. Constitution

The current Constitution of Peru was promulgated on December 31, 1993, during the presidency of Alberto Fujimori, following his 1992 "self-coup" and the dissolution of the previous Congress. It replaced the 1979 Constitution. The 1993 Constitution establishes Peru as a democratic, social, independent, and sovereign republic. It outlines the fundamental rights and duties of citizens, the structure and powers of state institutions, and the economic regime of the country. Key principles include the separation of powers, the rule of law, and a social market economy. The constitution guarantees a range of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. It has been subject to various amendments over the years. Controversially, it strengthened presidential powers compared to the 1979 constitution and allowed for presidential re-election (though this was later modified). The process of its creation and some of its articles remain subjects of political debate in Peru.

5.2. Executive Branch

The executive power is vested in the President of the Republic, who is both the head of state and head of government. The President is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and cannot serve consecutive terms. To win the presidency, a candidate must obtain more than 50% of the valid votes; if no candidate achieves this in the first round, a runoff election is held between the top two candidates. The President's powers include directing government policy, commanding the armed forces, appointing and removing the Prime Minister and other ministers, promulgating laws, and conducting foreign relations.

The President is assisted by two Vice Presidents, elected on the same ticket. The Council of Ministers (Cabinet), headed by the President of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister), is responsible for the administration of the country. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and must receive a vote of confidence from Congress. Ministers are appointed by the President upon the Prime Minister's proposal. The Prime Minister can be censured by Congress, which would force the resignation of the entire cabinet.

5.3. Legislative Branch

Legislative power resides in the unicameral Congress of the Republic of Peru (Congreso de la República del Perú). It consists of 130 members (congresistas) elected by popular vote for a five-year term, concurrent with the presidential term. Seats are allocated based on proportional representation in multi-member constituencies corresponding to Peru's regions and the Constitutional Province of Callao, plus Lima Province.

The Congress's main functions include passing laws, amending the constitution, overseeing the executive branch, approving the budget, and ratifying international treaties. Congress can interpellate and censure ministers, and it has the power to impeach and remove the President, Vice Presidents, and other high officials for constitutional infractions or "permanent moral incapacity," a vaguely defined clause that has been a source of political instability. The President, in turn, can dissolve Congress if it censures or denies confidence to two Councils of Ministers.

5.4. Judicial Branch

The judicial power is exercised by the Judiciary, an autonomous branch of government headed by the Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justicia). The Supreme Court is the highest judicial instance in the country. Below it are Superior Courts in each judicial district, specialized courts (civil, criminal, labor, etc.), and courts of peace (juzgados de paz) in local communities.

The Peruvian judicial system is tasked with administering justice, ensuring the rule of law, and protecting citizens' rights. Judicial independence is constitutionally guaranteed. However, the judiciary has historically faced challenges related to corruption, inefficiency, lack of resources, and political interference, which have affected public trust in the system. There is also a Constitutional Tribunal (Tribunal Constitucional), which is the supreme organ for interpreting the constitution and resolving constitutional disputes, including reviewing the constitutionality of laws. Its members are elected by Congress.

5.5. Major Political Parties

Peru has a fragmented multi-party system, with numerous political parties and movements, often characterized by weak institutionalization and personalistic leadership. Ideological lines can be fluid, and alliances are common. Some of the historically or currently significant political forces include:

• Popular Action (Acción Popular, AP)**: A reformist and moderately nationalist party, historically significant, founded by Fernando Belaúnde Terry.
• American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana, APRA)**: One of Peru's oldest and historically most influential parties, with a social democratic and populist tradition, founded by Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre. Its leader Alan García served two terms as president.
• Fujimorism**: A right-wing populist movement centered around the legacy of Alberto Fujimori, whose presidency was marked by economic stabilization and success against insurgencies but also by authoritarianism and human rights abuses. Key parties include Popular Force (Fuerza Popular), led by Keiko Fujimori, and previously parties like Cambio 90 and Nueva Mayoría. It emphasizes a strong state, free-market economics, and a hardline approach to security, often generating controversy regarding its impact on democratic institutions and human rights.
• Possible Peru (Perú Posible)**: A centrist party founded by Alejandro Toledo.
• Free Peru (Perú Libre)**: A Marxist-Leninist party with a left-wing nationalist and socialist platform, which brought Pedro Castillo to power.
• Various centrist, right-wing, and left-wing parties and coalitions** emerge and shift frequently. Recent years have seen the rise of new movements and parties, contributing to political fragmentation. Examples include Avanza País, Popular Renewal (Renovación Popular), and Together for Peru (Juntos por el Perú).

Party loyalty is often weak, and politicians may switch allegiances. This fragmentation makes it difficult to form stable governing majorities in Congress.

5.6. Elections

Peru holds general elections every five years to elect the President, Vice Presidents, and members of Congress. Regional and municipal elections are held separately. Voting is compulsory for citizens aged 18 to 70.

• Presidential Elections**: Conducted using a two-round system. If no candidate wins an absolute majority (more than 50%) in the first round, a runoff is held between the two candidates with the most votes.
• Congressional Elections**: Members of Congress are elected through a system of proportional representation using the D'Hondt method in multi-member constituencies. Voters can cast a preferential vote for candidates within a party list.
• Electoral Bodies**: The electoral process is overseen by three autonomous bodies: the National Jury of Elections (JNE), which administers electoral justice and proclaims results; the National Office of Electoral Processes (ONPE), which organizes and executes elections; and the National Registry of Identification and Civil Status (RENIEC), which maintains the civil registry and electoral roll.

Recent elections have been characterized by high levels of voter fragmentation, polarization, and often close results, reflecting the broader political instability.

5.7. Political Challenges and Controversies

Peruvian politics has been fraught with significant challenges and controversies, impacting democratic development and human rights:

• Corruption**: Widespread and systemic corruption has plagued Peru for decades, affecting all levels of government and political parties. High-profile scandals, such as the Odebrecht case, have implicated numerous presidents, ministers, and officials, leading to public outrage and eroding trust in institutions.
• Political Instability**: Peru has experienced recurrent political crises, including frequent changes in presidents and cabinets, impeachment proceedings, dissolutions of Congress, and periods of intense confrontation between the executive and legislative branches. This instability hampers governance and long-term planning.
• Social Inequality and Regional Disparities**: Despite economic growth, Peru faces significant social inequality, with disparities in wealth, access to services (education, healthcare), and opportunities, particularly between urban and rural areas, and affecting indigenous and Afro-Peruvian populations disproportionately. These inequalities often fuel social conflicts.
• Challenges to Democratic Institutions**: The weakening of political parties, the rise of populism, and the frequent use of controversial constitutional mechanisms (like presidential impeachment for "moral incapacity") have strained democratic institutions. Concerns about the rule of law, judicial independence, and respect for human rights persist.
• Social Conflicts**: Protests and social conflicts are common, often related to extractive industries (mining, oil, and gas), environmental concerns, land rights, labor issues, and demands for better public services. The state's response to these conflicts has sometimes involved excessive force and human rights violations.
• Informal Economy and Labor Rights**: A large informal sector characterizes the Peruvian economy, leading to precarious employment, lack of social protection, and challenges in enforcing labor rights.
• Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime**: Peru remains a major producer of coca leaf and cocaine, and drug trafficking, along with related organized crime and illegal mining, poses significant challenges to security and governance in certain regions.

Addressing these challenges is crucial for Peru's path towards sustainable development, stronger democracy, and improved human rights.

6.1. Major Cities

Peru has several major urban centers that serve as hubs for population, economic activity, and culture.

• Lima: The capital and largest city of Peru, located on the central Pacific coast. It is the political, economic, cultural, and industrial heart of the nation. The Lima metropolitan area has a population of over 10 million people, making it one of the largest cities in the Americas. Its historic center is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
• Arequipa: Peru's second-largest city, situated in the southern highlands at the foot of the Misti volcano. Known for its stunning colonial architecture built from white volcanic sillar stone (earning it the nickname "The White City"), its historic center is also a UNESCO World Heritage site. It is an important commercial and industrial center for southern Peru. Population is over 1 million.
• Trujillo: Located on the northwestern coast, Trujillo is the third-largest city. It is known for its colonial architecture, nearby pre-Columbian archaeological sites like Chan Chan (the ancient Chimú capital) and the Huacas del Sol y de la Luna (Moche pyramids), and its annual Marinera dance festival. Population is close to 1 million.
• Chiclayo: A major commercial city in northwestern Peru, located in the Lambayeque region. It is a hub for agriculture and trade and is near important archaeological sites such as Sipán, known for the tomb of the Lord of Sipán.
• Piura: Situated in the far northwestern coastal region, Piura is one of the oldest Spanish cities in South America. It is an important agricultural and commercial center, known for its warm climate and proximity to beaches.
• Iquitos: The largest city in the Peruvian Amazon, located on the Amazon River. It is a major port and gateway to the Amazon rainforest, accessible primarily by air and river. It experienced a boom during the late 19th and early 20th centuries due to rubber extraction.
• Cusco: The historic capital of the Inca Empire, located in the southeastern Andes. Cusco is a major tourist destination, serving as the gateway to Machu Picchu and the Sacred Valley of the Incas. Its city center, with a blend of Inca and Spanish colonial architecture, is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
• Huancayo: An important commercial and agricultural center in the central highlands of Peru, located in the Mantaro Valley. It is known for its traditional markets and festivals.
• Chimbote: A major port city on the north-central coast, known for its fishing industry and steel production.

These cities represent the diverse geographical and cultural landscape of Peru, each with its own unique characteristics and contributions to the nation.

7.1. Relations with Neighboring Countries

Peru shares borders with five countries: Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, and Chile to the south. Relations with these neighbors have varied throughout history, marked by periods of conflict, cooperation, and integration.

• Ecuador**: Relations with Ecuador were historically dominated by a long-standing territorial dispute, primarily over areas in the Amazon basin, which led to several armed conflicts, most notably in 1941 (resulting in the Rio Protocol), 1981 (Paquisha War), and 1995 (Cenepa War). A comprehensive peace agreement was signed in 1998 (the Brasilia Presidential Act), definitively demarcating the border and ushering in an era of closer cooperation, trade, and joint development projects.
• Colombia**: Peru and Colombia share a border in the Amazon region. Relations have generally been cooperative, particularly in addressing common challenges such as drug trafficking and illegal mining in the border areas. Both are members of the Andean Community. A territorial dispute was settled by the Salomón-Lozano Treaty in 1922, though its implementation led to the Leticia Incident in 1932-1933, which was resolved peacefully.
• Brazil**: Peru and Brazil share Peru's longest land border, predominantly in the Amazon rainforest. Relations have become increasingly important, with a focus on economic integration, infrastructure projects (such as the Interoceanic Highway connecting Brazilian Atlantic ports to Peruvian Pacific ports), and cooperation on environmental and security issues in the Amazon.
• Bolivia**: Peru and Bolivia share deep historical, cultural (particularly Inca and Aymara heritage), and geographical ties, including Lake Titicaca. Relations have generally been close, though punctuated by periods of political tension. Both were part of the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation in the 19th century. They are both members of the Andean Community and cooperate on issues such as trade, infrastructure, and management of shared water resources.
• Chile**: Relations with Chile have been complex and historically strained, largely due to the legacy of the War of the Pacific (1879-1884), in which Peru lost significant territory to Chile. While diplomatic and economic ties have strengthened considerably in recent decades, underlying sensitivities remain. A maritime boundary dispute was resolved by the International Court of Justice in 2014. Both countries are members of the Pacific Alliance and APEC, and economic interdependence is growing.

Cooperative efforts with neighboring countries often focus on border security, combating transnational crime (drug trafficking, illegal logging/mining), trade facilitation, infrastructure development, and environmental protection, particularly within the framework of regional organizations like the Andean Community.

7.2. Relations with Major Global Powers

Peru maintains diplomatic and economic relations with major global powers, seeking to diversify its partnerships and attract investment.

• United States**: The United States is a significant political and economic partner for Peru. Relations cover a broad spectrum, including trade (facilitated by a bilateral Free Trade Agreement), investment, counter-narcotics cooperation, security collaboration, and development aid. The U.S. is a major market for Peruvian exports and a key source of foreign investment. Political relations have generally been close, though sometimes subject to differing views on regional or international issues.
• China**: China has emerged as Peru's largest trading partner and a major investor, particularly in the mining sector. Peru was one of the first Latin American countries to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (1971) and to sign a comprehensive Free Trade Agreement with China (2009). Chinese investment in infrastructure, such as the Chancay deep-water port project, is also significant. Relations are primarily focused on economic and trade cooperation.
• Japan**: Peru has historical ties with Japan, partly due to a significant Japanese Peruvian community (Nikkei), which includes former President Alberto Fujimori. Japan is an important trading partner, a source of investment (especially in mining and energy), and a provider of development assistance. Relations are strong, with cooperation in various fields.
• European Union (EU)**: The EU, as a bloc, is a major trading partner and investor in Peru. A comprehensive trade agreement between Peru (along with Colombia and Ecuador) and the EU entered into force, further strengthening economic ties. European countries, individually, also maintain significant bilateral relations with Peru in areas of trade, investment, cultural exchange, and development cooperation. Spain, as the former colonial power, maintains particularly close historical and cultural links.

Peru also engages with other global and regional actors, seeking to build diverse partnerships to support its economic and foreign policy objectives. It often plays an active role in multilateral forums, advocating for issues such as sustainable development, poverty reduction, and international cooperation.

9.1. Major Sectors

The Peruvian economy is comprised of several key sectors that contribute to its GDP, employment, and export revenues. These include mining, agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, and a rapidly growing tourism industry.

9.1.1. Mining

Mining is a cornerstone of the Peruvian economy and its primary source of export revenue. Peru is one of the world's leading producers of several key minerals.

• Major Minerals**:
  • Copper**: Peru is typically the world's second-largest producer of copper. Large copper mines include Antamina, Cerro Verde, and Las Bambas.
  • Gold**: A significant global gold producer. Major gold mines include Yanacocha (one of the largest in the world) and Pierina.
  • Silver**: Historically a major silver producer, Peru remains among the top global suppliers (often 2nd or 3rd largest).
  • Zinc**: Consistently ranks among the top three global zinc producers.
  • Lead**: A major producer.
  • Tin**: One of the world's largest tin producers, with the San Rafael mine being particularly important.
• Other minerals include iron ore, molybdenum, phosphate rock, and indium. Peru also has reserves of oil and natural gas, with the Camisea gas project being a major energy development.
• Economic Impact**: The mining sector accounts for a substantial portion of Peru's export earnings (often over 50%) and attracts significant foreign investment. It contributes to government revenue through taxes and royalties.
• Socio-Environmental Impact**: Mining activities in Peru have also been a source of significant social and environmental controversy. Issues include land use conflicts with local communities (often indigenous), water pollution, deforestation, and concerns about the distribution of mining revenues and benefits. Protests against mining projects are frequent, highlighting the challenges of balancing economic development with social and environmental protection. The government has implemented regulations and frameworks to address these issues, but enforcement and community consent remain key challenges.

9.1.2. Agriculture

Agriculture is a vital sector for employment and food security in Peru, characterized by its diversity due to varied climates and altitudes.

• Major Agricultural Products**:
  • Export-oriented crops**: Asparagus (Peru is a leading global exporter), avocados, blueberries, grapes (for table consumption and pisco production), mangoes, organic bananas, coffee (especially specialty and organic varieties), and cacao (fine flavor varieties).
  • Domestic consumption crops**: Potatoes (Peru is the center of origin for potatoes, with thousands of native varieties), maize (corn), rice, wheat, sweet potatoes, and various fruits and vegetables.
  • Andean Grains**: Quinoa, amaranth (kiwicha), and cañihua are ancient Andean grains that have gained international popularity for their nutritional value. Peru is a leading producer and exporter of quinoa.
  • Livestock**: Poultry, beef, pork, and dairy. Alpaca and llama herding is important in the Andean highlands for fiber and meat.
• Structural Characteristics**: Peruvian agriculture ranges from large-scale, modern agribusinesses focused on export markets (particularly on the coast) to smallholder farming in the Andes and Amazon, often using traditional methods.
• Labor Conditions and Land Use**: Issues in the agricultural sector include access to land and water, informal labor, working conditions on large plantations, deforestation for agricultural expansion (especially in the Amazon), and the impacts of climate change on crop yields and water availability. Agrarian reforms in the past have significantly altered land tenure patterns.

9.2. Tourism

Tourism is a major and growing sector of the Peruvian economy, driven by the country's rich cultural heritage, diverse natural landscapes, and renowned cuisine.

• Major Tourist Attractions**:
  • Archaeological Sites**: Peru is home to numerous world-famous archaeological sites, most notably Machu Picchu, the "lost city of the Incas." Other key sites include Cusco (the historic Inca capital), the Sacred Valley of the Incas, the Nazca Lines, Chan Chan (Chimú capital), Sipán (Moche royal tombs), Caral (oldest city in the Americas), Kuelap (Chachapoyas fortress), and many others.
  • Natural Attractions**: The Amazon rainforest (offering eco-tourism, wildlife viewing, and river cruises), the Andes (for trekking, mountaineering, and cultural tourism), Lake Titicaca (the world's highest navigable lake, with its Uros floating islands and Taquile Island), Colca Canyon (one of the world's deepest canyons, home to Andean condors), and national parks like Manu National Park and Huascarán National Park.
  • Cultural Tourism**: Experiencing Peru's vibrant indigenous cultures, colonial cities like Lima and Arequipa (both with UNESCO World Heritage historic centers), traditional festivals, and local markets.
  • Gastronomic Tourism**: Peruvian cuisine has gained international acclaim, attracting food enthusiasts.
• Tourist Statistics and Revenue**: Tourism is a significant source of foreign exchange earnings and employment. Peru typically receives several million international tourists annually, although numbers can be affected by global events.
• Economic Importance**: The tourism industry supports a wide range of businesses, including hotels, restaurants, transportation services, tour operators, and handicraft producers. The government actively promotes tourism through agencies like PromPerú. Challenges include infrastructure development in remote areas, sustainable tourism practices to protect cultural and natural heritage, and ensuring benefits reach local communities.

9.3. Trade

Peru has an open economy that relies significantly on international trade.

• Main Export Commodities**:
  • Minerals**: Copper, gold, zinc, lead, tin, silver, and iron ore are the dominant exports by value.
  • Agricultural Products**: Asparagus, avocados, blueberries, grapes, mangoes, coffee, quinoa, cacao.
  • Fishery Products**: Fishmeal, fish oil, canned and frozen fish, squid.
  • Textiles and Apparel**: Garments made from cotton and alpaca fiber.
  • Manufactured Goods**: Various light manufactures.
• Main Import Commodities**:
  • Intermediate Goods**: Raw materials and inputs for industry (e.g., chemicals, refined petroleum products).
  • Capital Goods**: Machinery, equipment, and technology for various sectors.
  • Consumer Goods**: Vehicles, electronics, pharmaceuticals, food products not produced domestically in sufficient quantities.
• Major Trading Partners**:
  • China**: Has become Peru's largest single trading partner, both for exports (mainly minerals) and imports.
  • United States**: A key market for exports and a major supplier of imports, with a bilateral Free Trade Agreement in place.
  • European Union**: A significant trading bloc for Peru.
  • Other Latin American Countries**: Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador.
  • Other Asian Countries**: Japan, South Korea.
• Balance of Trade**: Peru's trade balance can fluctuate depending on global commodity prices and economic conditions. It often runs a trade surplus when mineral prices are high.
• Foreign Trade Policies**: Peru has pursued a policy of trade liberalization, reducing tariffs and non-tariff barriers. It has actively negotiated and implemented numerous Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with key trading partners and blocs, including the US, EU, China, Japan, Canada, the Pacific Alliance, and the CPTPP. These agreements aim to expand market access for Peruvian exports and attract foreign investment. Peru is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

9.4. Infrastructure

Peru's infrastructure has seen significant development in recent decades, but challenges remain, particularly in connecting its diverse and often difficult terrain and ensuring equitable access across regions.

• Transport**:
  • Roads**: The road network is the primary mode of domestic transport. The Pan-American Highway runs along the coast, connecting Peru with Ecuador to the north and Chile to the south. The Interoceanic Highway aims to connect Peru's Pacific ports with Brazil's Atlantic coast, facilitating trade. However, many rural and Amazonian areas have limited road access, and road quality can vary.
  • Railways**: Peru has a limited railway network, primarily used for freight (especially minerals) and some tourist services (e.g., to Machu Picchu). Major lines include the Central Andean Railway (one of the world's highest) and the Southern Railway.
  • Ports**: Peru has several important Pacific ports. Callao, near Lima, is the largest and busiest port. Other key ports include Matarani, Paita, and Ilo. The new deep-water port of Chancay, north of Lima, is a major Chinese-backed project expected to significantly boost Peru's role as a regional trade hub.
  • Airports**: Jorge Chávez International Airport in Lima is the main international gateway and hub. Other international airports serve cities like Cusco, Arequipa, and Iquitos. Domestic air travel is crucial for connecting distant regions.
• Energy**:
  • Electricity**: Peru's electricity generation matrix includes hydropower (a major source from the Andes), natural gas (increasingly important, especially from the Camisea fields), and some thermal (oil/coal) and renewable sources (solar, wind). Electrification has expanded, but access in remote rural areas can still be a challenge.
  • Oil and Gas**: Peru is a producer of oil and natural gas, primarily from the Amazon region and offshore fields. The Camisea gas project is a major source of natural gas for domestic consumption and export (as LNG).
• Telecommunications**:
  • Internet and Mobile**: Access to internet and mobile phone services has grown rapidly, but disparities exist between urban and rural areas (the digital divide). Efforts are ongoing to expand broadband connectivity.
• Development Plans and Challenges**: The government has ongoing plans to upgrade and expand infrastructure, often through public-private partnerships. Challenges include securing financing, overcoming geographical obstacles, addressing social and environmental impacts of large projects, and reducing regional infrastructure gaps. Adequate infrastructure is crucial for economic competitiveness, social inclusion, and national integration.

10.1. Population

Peru has a population of approximately 33 to 34 million people, making it the fourth most populous country in South America.

• Growth Rate**: The annual population growth rate has been declining, currently around 1%.
• Density**: Population density is about 25-26 inhabitants per square kilometer, but this varies greatly by region. The coastal region, particularly Lima, is densely populated, while the Amazon region is sparsely inhabited.
• Urbanization**: Peru is a highly urbanized country, with around 80% of the population living in urban areas. Lima, the capital, is the largest urban agglomeration, home to nearly one-third of the national population.
• Life Expectancy**: Average life expectancy at birth is around 75-77 years.
• Age Structure**: Peru has a relatively young population, though it is gradually aging.
• Migration**: Historically, there has been significant internal migration from rural Andean and Amazonian areas to coastal cities, especially Lima, driven by economic opportunities and, in the past, by the internal conflict. International emigration has also been notable, with large Peruvian communities in countries like the United States, Spain, Argentina, and Chile. In recent years, Peru has also received a significant number of Venezuelan immigrants.

10.2. Ethnic Groups

Peru is a multiethnic and multicultural society. The 2017 National Census was the first to include a question on ethnic self-identification for people aged 12 and over. Based on this self-identification, the approximate ethnic composition is:

• Mestizo**: Around 60.2% of the population self-identified as Mestizo (of mixed Amerindian and European ancestry). This group is predominant in urban areas and along the coast.
• Indigenous Peoples**: Around 25.8% self-identified as belonging to an indigenous group.
  • Quechua**: The largest indigenous group, comprising about 22.3% of the total population. They predominantly inhabit the Andean highlands.
  • Aymara**: The second-largest indigenous group, making up about 2.4% of the population. They are concentrated in the southern Andes, particularly around Lake Titicaca.
  • Amazonian Indigenous Peoples**: Various distinct ethnic groups inhabiting the Amazon rainforest, such as the Asháninka, Aguaruna, and Shipibo-Conibo, collectively represent a smaller percentage but are culturally diverse. There are also some uncontacted or voluntarily isolated indigenous groups in the Amazon.
• European descendants (White)**: Around 5.9% self-identified as white, primarily of Spanish origin, but also including descendants of Italian, German, and other European immigrants.
• Afro-Peruvian**: Around 3.6% self-identified as Afro-Peruvian, descendants of enslaved Africans brought during the colonial era, concentrated mainly on the coast.
• Asian descendants**: A smaller percentage, including those of Chinese (Tusán) and Japanese (Nikkei) origin, who arrived primarily as laborers in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The 2017 census reported about 0.16% identifying as Nikkei or Tusan.
• Other/Did not declare**: A small percentage identified as other ethnicities or did not declare.

Issues of racism and discrimination against indigenous peoples and Afro-Peruvians persist. Efforts to promote social inclusion, intercultural dialogue, and the rights of minority groups are ongoing, though challenges remain in achieving full equality and representation.

10.3. Language

Peru is a multilingual country.

• Official Languages**:
  • Spanish**: The primary official language, spoken as a first language by about 82.6% of the population (as of 2017). It is the language of government, education, media, and commerce. Peruvian Spanish has regional variations.
  • Quechua**: Co-official in areas where it predominates. Spoken by about 13.9% of the population. It is the most widely spoken indigenous language family in the Americas, with several regional dialects in Peru.
  • Aymara**: Co-official in areas where it predominates. Spoken by about 1.7% of the population, mainly in the southern highlands around Lake Titicaca.
• Other Indigenous Languages**: Numerous other indigenous languages are spoken, particularly in the Amazon region (e.g., Asháninka, Aguaruna, Shipibo). Many of these languages are endangered.
• Language Policy**: The Peruvian state recognizes and guarantees the right to use indigenous languages in relevant contexts. There are efforts to promote intercultural bilingual education and revitalize endangered indigenous languages, though these face challenges in terms of resources and implementation.

Linguistic diversity is a key aspect of Peru's cultural richness, but language barriers can also contribute to social exclusion for speakers of indigenous languages, particularly in accessing public services and justice.

10.4. Religion

Religious freedom is constitutionally guaranteed in Peru.

• Roman Catholicism**: The dominant religion. According to the 2017 census, about 76% of the population aged 12 and over identified as Roman Catholic. The Catholic Church has historically played a significant role in Peruvian society and culture since the Spanish colonial era.
• Evangelical Protestantism**: The second-largest religious group, comprising about 14.1% of the population. Evangelical and other Protestant denominations have experienced significant growth in recent decades.
• Other Religions**: Smaller percentages of the population adhere to other faiths, including other Christian denominations, Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and traditional Andean or Amazonian spiritual beliefs.
• Irreligion/No Affiliation**: About 5.1% of the population identified as having no religion or did not specify.

Religious syncretism is common, particularly in the Andes, where Catholic practices and saints' day celebrations are often blended with indigenous Andean cosmology, rituals, and reverence for sacred natural sites (apus or mountain spirits, Pachamama or Earth Mother). Major religious festivals, such as Señor de los Milagros (Lord of Miracles) in Lima, attract vast numbers of devotees.

10.5. Education

The Peruvian education system is overseen by the Ministry of Education.

• Structure**: Education is structured into initial education (preschool), primary education, secondary education, and higher education (university and non-university technical/vocational).
• Compulsory Education**: Primary and secondary education are compulsory. Public education at these levels is free.
• Literacy Rate**: The literacy rate is relatively high, around 94-95% for the adult population, but disparities exist between urban and rural areas, and between men and women in some regions.
• Enrollment Levels**: Enrollment rates in primary education are high. Challenges include improving the quality of education, reducing dropout rates (especially in secondary education in rural areas), and ensuring equitable access to quality education for all, including indigenous children (through intercultural bilingual education programs).
• Higher Education**: Peru has numerous public and private universities. The National University of San Marcos in Lima, founded in 1551, is the oldest continuously operating university in the Americas. Other major universities include the National University of Engineering (UNI), the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru (PUCP), and Cayetano Heredia University. Access to and quality of higher education are ongoing concerns.
• Key Educational Challenges**: Improving educational quality at all levels, reducing disparities in access and outcomes, enhancing teacher training and remuneration, modernizing curricula, and increasing investment in educational infrastructure and resources.

10.6. Health and Healthcare

Peru's healthcare system is mixed, with public and private sector providers.

• Main Health Indicators**:
  • Life expectancy has increased significantly (around 75-77 years).
  • Infant mortality has decreased substantially but remains higher in rural and impoverished areas.
  • Malnutrition, particularly chronic child malnutrition, is a persistent problem, especially in Andean and Amazonian regions.
• Healthcare Services System**:
  • Public Sector**: The Ministry of Health (MINSA) provides services to the uninsured and those covered by the Integral Health Insurance (Seguro Integral de Salud, SIS), which targets vulnerable populations. EsSalud (Social Health Insurance) provides services to formal sector workers and their families. The Armed Forces and National Police also have their own health systems.
  • Private Sector**: Includes private clinics, hospitals, and insurance companies, catering mainly to higher-income segments of the population.
• Public Health Status**: Peru faces a double burden of disease, with both communicable diseases (like tuberculosis, dengue, malaria, especially in tropical areas) and a growing prevalence of non-communicable chronic diseases (such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer).
• Major Health Issues and Access**: Challenges include disparities in access to quality healthcare services between urban and rural areas, and between different socioeconomic groups. Funding for the public health system, availability of medical personnel and equipment in remote areas, and efficiency of service delivery are ongoing concerns. Access for vulnerable populations, including indigenous communities and those in extreme poverty, remains a critical issue. Efforts are being_made to expand health insurance coverage and improve primary healthcare services. The COVID-19 pandemic severely strained the Peruvian healthcare system, highlighting existing weaknesses.

11.1. Cuisine

Peruvian cuisine has gained international acclaim for its diversity, unique flavors, and sophisticated preparation. It reflects the country's varied geography (coast, highlands, jungle) and multicultural heritage.

• Iconic Dishes**:
  • Ceviche: Peru's national dish, made from fresh raw fish marinated in lime juice, spiced with ají (chili peppers), and typically served with onions, sweet potato, and toasted corn (cancha).
  • Lomo Saltado: A stir-fry that blends Peruvian and Chinese (Chifa) culinary traditions, featuring beef, onions, tomatoes, soy sauce, and French fries, served with rice.
  • Anticuchos: Grilled skewers of marinated beef heart, a popular street food.
  • Aji de Gallina: Shredded chicken in a creamy, spicy yellow chili pepper and nut sauce, served with rice and potatoes.
  • Pachamanca: A traditional Andean dish cooked underground using hot stones, typically including various meats (lamb, pork, chicken, guinea pig), potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, and broad beans, seasoned with herbs.
  • Causa limeña: A layered potato casserole, often with chicken, tuna, or avocado filling, seasoned with lime and ají amarillo.
  • Papa a la Huancaína: Sliced boiled potatoes covered in a spicy, creamy cheese sauce.
• Key Ingredients**: Potatoes (thousands of native varieties), corn (maíz), ají chili peppers (various types like ají amarillo, rocoto, ají limo), quinoa, kiwicha, lima beans, seafood (from the Pacific), alpaca, guinea pig (cuy).
• Regional Diversity**:
  • Coastal Cuisine (Comida Criolla)**: Emphasizes fresh seafood, rice dishes, and influences from Spanish, African, and Chinese (Chifa) cooking.
  • Andean Cuisine**: Based on traditional staples like potatoes, corn, quinoa, and meats like alpaca and guinea pig. Hearty soups and stews are common.
  • Jungle Cuisine (Amazonian)**: Utilizes exotic fruits (e.g., camu camu, aguaje), river fish (e.g., paiche), and unique cooking techniques like wrapping food in banana leaves (juanes).
• Beverages**:
  • Pisco Sour: Peru's national cocktail, made with pisco (a grape brandy), lime juice, egg white, syrup, and bitters.
  • Inca Kola: A uniquely Peruvian sweet, yellow, bubblegum-flavored soft drink.
  • Chicha morada: A non-alcoholic drink made from purple corn, pineapple, cinnamon, and cloves.
  • Chicha de jora: A traditional fermented corn beer from the Andes.

  Peruvian gastronomy is a source of national pride and a significant tourist attraction, with Lima being recognized as a major culinary capital.

11.2. Arts

Peruvian art has a long and rich history, evolving through various distinct periods.

• Pre-Columbian Art**: Ancient Peruvian civilizations produced sophisticated art forms.
  • Pottery**: Cultures like Moche, Nazca, and Wari created highly expressive and technically advanced ceramics, ranging from realistic portrait vessels (Moche) to intricate polychrome designs (Nazca).
  • Textiles**: Paracas and Chancay cultures, among others, are renowned for their exceptionally fine and complex textiles, made from cotton and camelid fibers, often featuring elaborate iconography and vibrant colors. Inca textiles were also highly valued.
  • Metalwork**: Moche, Chimú, and Inca artisans were skilled in working with gold, silver, and copper, creating intricate jewelry, masks, and ceremonial objects.
  • Stone Sculpture**: Chavín and Tiwanaku cultures are known for their monumental stone carvings and architecture.
• Colonial Art (Viceroyalty Period)**: Spanish colonization introduced European artistic styles, primarily Baroque, which blended with indigenous techniques and motifs.
  • Cusco School (Escuela Cusqueña)**: A significant artistic tradition that flourished in Cusco during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was characterized by religious paintings (primarily oil on canvas) that combined European Baroque styles with indigenous elements, such as local flora and fauna, and a distinct color palette. Artists were often indigenous or Mestizo. Notable figures include Diego Quispe Tito and Marcos Zapata.
  • Architecture**: Colonial cities like Lima, Cusco, and Arequipa feature impressive churches, convents, and mansions with Baroque and Rococo architectural elements, often adapted to local conditions and materials (e.g., earthquake-resistant construction, use of sillar stone in Arequipa).
• 19th Century Art**: After independence, art often followed European academic trends, with portraiture and historical scenes being prominent.
• 20th Century and Contemporary Art**:
  • Indigenismo**: An early 20th-century movement that sought to valorize indigenous culture and address social issues faced by indigenous populations. Prominent indigenist painters include José Sabogal.
  • Modern and Contemporary Art**: Since the mid-20th century, Peruvian art has become diverse and eclectic, incorporating international trends (abstract art, surrealism, pop art) while also exploring national identity and social commentary. Photography, sculpture, installation art, and new media are all part of the contemporary art scene. Renowned contemporary artists include Fernando de Szyszlo, Tilsa Tsuchiya, and Mario Testino (photographer).

  Traditional crafts, such as weaving, pottery, and wood carving, continue to be practiced in many parts of Peru, often preserving ancestral techniques and designs.

11.3. Literature

Peruvian literature spans from pre-Columbian oral traditions to contemporary works recognized internationally.

• Pre-Columbian Traditions**: Inca and other indigenous cultures had rich oral traditions, including myths, legends, poetry, and historical narratives, often transmitted through songs and performances. Some of these were later recorded by Spanish chroniclers.
• Colonial Literature**: With the arrival of the Spanish, written literature in Spanish emerged.
  • Chronicles**: Early colonial literature is dominated by chronicles written by Spanish conquistadors, officials, and missionaries, as well as by Mestizo and indigenous writers. Notable chroniclers include Pedro Cieza de León, Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala (whose Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno provides a unique indigenous perspective), and Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (whose Comentarios Reales de los Incas is a seminal work on Inca history and culture from a Mestizo viewpoint).
• Religious literature, poetry, and theatre also developed during this period.
• 19th Century Literature**: After independence, literature reflected the search for national identity.
  • Costumbrismo**: A literary movement that focused on depicting local customs, manners, and social types, often with a satirical or critical tone. Ricardo Palma's Tradiciones Peruanas (Peruvian Traditions) is a classic example.
  • Romanticism and Realism**: These European movements also influenced Peruvian writers. Clorinda Matto de Turner's novel Aves sin nido (Birds Without a Nest) is a key work of realism and early indigenismo, denouncing the exploitation of indigenous peoples.
• 20th Century Literature**:
  • Modernismo and Vanguardia**: Poets like José Santos Chocano (modernismo) and César Vallejo (avant-garde) achieved international recognition. Vallejo is considered one of the greatest poets in the Spanish language, known for his innovative style and profound humanism. José Carlos Mariátegui, a key Marxist intellectual, founded the influential journal Amauta, which promoted avant-garde and indigenist thought.
  • Indigenismo**: This literary movement gained prominence, with writers like Ciro Alegría (El mundo es ancho y ajeno - Broad and Alien is the World) and José María Arguedas (Los ríos profundos - Deep Rivers) depicting the lives, struggles, and worldview of indigenous Andeans, often incorporating Quechua language and cultural elements.
  • The Generation of '50**: A group of writers who focused on urban themes, realism, and social critique, including Julio Ramón Ribeyro and Enrique Congrains Martín.
• Contemporary Literature (Latin American Boom and beyond)**:
  • Mario Vargas Llosa: Peru's most internationally renowned author and the 2010 Nobel laureate in Literature. A leading figure of the Latin American Boom, his works (e.g., La ciudad y los perros - The Time of the Hero, La casa verde - The Green House, Conversación en La Catedral - Conversation in The Cathedral) often explore Peruvian society, politics, and history with complex narratives and critical insight.
  • Other important contemporary writers include Alfredo Bryce Echenique, Santiago Roncagliolo, and younger generations exploring diverse themes and styles.

  Peruvian literature continues to be a dynamic field, reflecting the country's social, political, and cultural complexities.

11.4. Music and Dance

Peruvian music and dance are exceptionally diverse, reflecting the country's multicultural heritage, with strong roots in Andean, Spanish, and Afro-Peruvian traditions.

• Andean Music (Música Andina)**:
  • Characterized by melancholic melodies and distinctive instrumentation. Key instruments include the quena (notched-end flute), siku (panpipes), charango (a small lute-like stringed instrument), and various drums like the tinya and bombo.
  • Genres include:
    • Huayno: The most widespread Andean genre, a festive song and dance form with regional variations.
    • Yaraví: A slow, melancholic song form.
    • Huaylarsh: A vigorous, festive dance from the central Andes, often associated with agricultural work and courtship.
    • Panpipe music (e.g., from Puno region).
  • Often performed during festivals and communal gatherings. Internationalized groups like Los Kjarkas (Bolivian, but influential in Andean music generally) helped popularize this style.
• Criolla Music (Música Criolla)**: Developed on the coast, particularly in Lima, blending Spanish, indigenous, and Afro-Peruvian influences.
  • Genres include:
    • Marinera: Peru's national dance, an elegant and flirtatious couple dance characterized by handkerchief play. It has regional variations (e.g., Marinera Norteña, Marinera Limeña).
    • Peruvian Waltz (Vals Criollo): A sentimental and melodic song and dance form, adapted from the European waltz. Chabuca Granda is one of its most famous composers.
    • Polka Peruana: A lively dance.
    • Tondero: A festive dance from the northern coast, with a distinct rhythm and theme of courtship.
• Afro-Peruvian Music**: Developed by descendants of enslaved Africans, primarily on the coast south of Lima (e.g., Chincha).
  • Characterized by complex rhythms and percussion. The cajón (a box-shaped percussion instrument played by slapping its front face) is a central instrument, now used globally in various genres. Other instruments include the cajita (small box) and quijada (jawbone of a donkey).
  • Genres include festejo, landó, and zamacueca.
  • Susana Baca and Eva Ayllón are prominent contemporary performers of Afro-Peruvian music.
• Jungle Music (Amazonian)**: Indigenous communities in the Amazon have their own distinct musical traditions, often linked to rituals and nature, using unique instruments. Modern Amazonian popular music, like cumbia amazónica (also known as chicha), blends local rhythms with cumbia and psychedelic rock influences.
• Traditional Dances**: Beyond those mentioned, Peru has a vast array of traditional dances specific to different regions and communities, often performed during festivals in colorful costumes. Examples include the Diablada Puneña (from Puno, associated with the Candelaria festival), Danza de las Tijeras (Scissors Dance, an acrobatic ritual dance from the south-central Andes).

Modern popular music in Peru also includes rock, pop, salsa, cumbia, and reggaeton, often with local adaptations and fusions.

11.5. Cinema

The Peruvian film industry, while smaller compared to some other Latin American countries, has produced notable films and filmmakers who have gained national and international recognition.

• Early Cinema**: Film production in Peru began in the early 20th century. Early efforts were sporadic, focusing on documentaries and short fictional pieces. The city of Iquitos, during the Amazon rubber boom, saw some early film activity.
• Mid-20th Century**: The mid-20th century saw more consistent, though still limited, film production. Themes often revolved around national identity, social issues, and literary adaptations.
• Late 20th Century and "New Peruvian Cinema"**: From the 1970s and 1980s, a "New Peruvian Cinema" movement emerged, influenced by similar movements in Latin America, often characterized by social realism and a critical perspective on Peruvian society. Filmmakers like Francisco Lombardi gained prominence during this period with films like La ciudad y los perros (1985, based on Vargas Llosa's novel) and La boca del lobo (1988).
• Contemporary Peruvian Cinema (21st Century)**: The 21st century has seen a resurgence and increased international visibility for Peruvian cinema.
  • Claudia Llosa**: One of the most internationally acclaimed Peruvian directors. Her film The Milk of Sorrow (La teta asustada, 2009) won the Golden Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, a first for Peru. Her earlier film Madeinusa (2006) also received international awards. Her films often explore themes of trauma, memory, and indigenous culture.
  • Other Notable Filmmakers and Films**: Recent years have seen a diversification of genres and themes, including historical dramas, social critiques, horror films, and comedies. Directors like Josué Méndez (Días de Santiago), Javier Fuentes-León (Contracorriente - Undertow), and the Vega brothers (Daniel and Diego, El Mudo - The Mute) have contributed to this growth.
  • Animated Films**: Peru has also produced animated films, including Piratas en el Callao (2005), one of Latin America's first 3D animated features.
• Challenges and Support**: The Peruvian film industry faces challenges such as limited funding, distribution difficulties, and competition from foreign films. However, government support through film laws and funds, as well as co-production agreements, has helped foster its development. Film festivals in Lima and other cities also play a role in promoting national cinema.

Peruvian cinema continues to evolve, offering unique perspectives on the country's history, culture, and contemporary issues.

11.6. Sports

Sports play an important role in Peruvian culture and society.

• Football (Soccer)**: By far the most popular sport in Peru. The Peruvian national football team has a passionate following.
  • National Team Achievements**: Peru has participated in the FIFA World Cup five times (1930, 1970, 1978, 1982, and 2018). Their best performances were reaching the quarterfinals in 1970 and the second group stage in 1978. They have won the Copa América twice (in 1939 and 1975).
  • Notable Players**: Historic figures include Teófilo Cubillas (widely regarded as Peru's greatest player), Héctor Chumpitaz, Hugo Sotil, and César Cueto. More recent prominent players include Claudio Pizarro, Paolo Guerrero, and Jefferson Farfán.
  • Domestic League**: The top professional league is the Peruvian Primera División (Liga 1). Major clubs include Alianza Lima, Universitario de Deportes, and Sporting Cristal, all based in Lima.
• Volleyball**: Women's volleyball is very popular and has brought Peru significant international success. The Peruvian women's national volleyball team was a dominant force in the 1980s, winning the silver medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul and finishing as runners-up in the 1982 FIVB World Championship.
• Surfing**: With its long Pacific coastline and excellent waves, Peru is a major surfing destination. Peruvian surfers have achieved international success. Sofía Mulánovich won the World Surfing Championship in 2004.
• Other Sports**:
  • Athletics**: Peru has produced notable long-distance runners. Gladys Tejeda and Inés Melchor are prominent marathon runners.
  • Boxing, Taekwondo, Karate**: These combat sports also have a following, with Peruvian athletes competing internationally.
  • Tennis**: Luis Horna was a successful professional tennis player.
• Traditional sports and games are also practiced in some regions.
• Major Sporting Events Hosted**: Peru has hosted several major international sporting events, including the 2004 Copa América, the 2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship, the 2013 Bolivarian Games, and the 2019 Pan American Games (held in Lima), which involved a significant investment in new and upgraded sports infrastructure. The Estadio Nacional del Perú in Lima is the country's main stadium.

The Peruvian Sports Institute (Instituto Peruano del Deporte, IPD) is the government body responsible for promoting and regulating sports in the country.

11.7. World Heritage Sites

Peru is home to a remarkable number of UNESCO World Heritage sites, reflecting its rich ancient civilizations, colonial history, and diverse natural environments. As of the early 2020s, Peru has 13 World Heritage sites: 9 cultural, 2 natural, and 2 mixed (cultural and natural).

• Cultural Sites:**

1. **City of Cuzco** (1983): The historic capital of the Inca Empire and a key administrative and religious center during the Spanish colonial period. Its architecture blends Inca stonework with Spanish colonial buildings.
2. **Chavín (Archaeological Site)** (1985): An important pre-Inca ceremonial center of the Chavín culture (c. 900-200 BCE), known for its impressive temples and stone carvings.
3. **Chan Chan Archaeological Zone** (1986): The vast adobe capital of the Chimú Kingdom (c. 850-1470 CE), located near Trujillo on the northern coast. It is the largest adobe city in the Americas. (Also on the List of World Heritage in Danger).
4. **Historic Centre of Lima** (1988, extended 1991): Founded by Francisco Pizarro in 1535 as the "City of Kings," Lima was the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Its historic center contains numerous important colonial buildings, including churches, monasteries, and mansions.
5. **Lines and Geoglyphs of Nasca and Palpa** (1994): Enormous geoglyphs etched into the desert floor by the Nazca culture (c. 500 BCE - 500 CE), depicting animals, plants, and geometric shapes, best viewed from the air.
6. **Historical Centre of the City of Arequipa** (2000): Known as the "White City" for its buildings constructed from white volcanic sillar stone, Arequipa's historic center showcases a fusion of European and indigenous architectural styles.
7. **Sacred City of Caral-Supe** (2009): The site of one of the oldest civilizations in the Americas (c. 2600-2000 BCE), featuring monumental pyramids, plazas, and residential complexes.
8. **Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System** (2014): A vast Inca road network spanning six countries, including Peru. This extensive system was crucial for communication, transport, and administration in the Inca Empire. (Transnational site).
9. **Chankillo Archaeoastronomical Complex** (2021): An ancient ceremonial center (c. 250-200 BCE) in the coastal desert, featuring a fortified hilltop structure and thirteen towers that functioned as a solar observatory.

• Natural Sites:**

1. **Huascarán National Park** (1985): Located in the Cordillera Blanca, the world's highest tropical mountain range, the park encompasses diverse Andean ecosystems, glaciers, and Peru's highest peak, Huascarán.
2. **Manú National Park** (1987): An exceptionally biodiverse area in the Amazon basin, protecting a wide range of habitats from high Andean grasslands to lowland tropical rainforest.

• Mixed Sites (Cultural and Natural):**

1. **Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu** (1983): The iconic Inca citadel set in a stunning mountain landscape, renowned for its sophisticated architecture and spiritual significance. It is a masterpiece of Inca engineering and a symbol of Peruvian cultural heritage.
2. **Río Abiseo National Park** (1990): Protects cloud forest ecosystems and numerous endemic species, as well as significant pre-Columbian archaeological sites, primarily from the Chachapoyas culture, such as Gran Pajatén.

These sites underscore Peru's immense contribution to global cultural and natural heritage.

11.8. Festivals and Public Holidays

Peru has a vibrant calendar of festivals (fiestas) and public holidays, blending Catholic traditions, indigenous Andean and Amazonian rituals, and civic commemorations. These events are often colorful, lively, and deeply rooted in local culture.

• Major Traditional Festivals:**
  • Inti Raymi (Festival of the Sun)**: Celebrated primarily in Cusco on June 24th (coinciding with the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere and the Catholic Feast of St. John the Baptist). It is a spectacular reenactment of the most important Inca religious ceremony, honoring the sun god Inti, held at sites like Sacsayhuamán.
  • Señor de los Milagros (Lord of Miracles)**: Held in Lima throughout October, this is one of the largest Catholic processions in the world. Devotees, dressed in purple, parade a revered colonial-era mural of Christ through the streets.
  • Virgen de la Candelaria (Virgin of Candelaria)**: Celebrated in Puno in early February, this festival is a massive display of folk music and dance, particularly the Diablada (Dance of the Devils), blending Catholic and indigenous traditions. It is a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.
  • Carnival**: Celebrated throughout Peru in February or March (before Lent), with regional variations. It typically involves water fights, parades, music, dancing, and colorful costumes. Cajamarca and Ayacucho are known for their particularly vibrant carnivals.
  • Corpus Christi**: Celebrated in Cusco (nine weeks after Easter), this festival involves processions of saints' statues from various churches to the Cathedral, accompanied by music, dancing, and traditional foods.
  • Qoyllur Rit'i (Snow Star Festival)**: A syncretic pilgrimage festival held in late May or early June in the Sinakara Valley (Cusco region), blending indigenous Andean beliefs (honoring mountain spirits or apus) with Catholic traditions. Thousands of pilgrims participate.
  • Fiesta de San Juan (Feast of St. John the Baptist)**: Celebrated on June 24th, especially in the Amazonian regions, with rituals involving water (symbolizing purification), traditional food (like juanes), music, and dancing.
  • Pascua (Easter/Holy Week - Semana Santa)**: Celebrated throughout the country with religious processions, masses, and traditional customs. Ayacucho is particularly famous for its elaborate Holy Week celebrations.
  • Todos Santos y Día de los Difuntos (All Saints' Day and Day of the Dead)**: November 1st and 2nd. Families visit cemeteries to honor deceased relatives, often bringing flowers, food, and drink.
  • Principal National and Public Holidays:**

Many towns and villages also have their own local patron saint festivals and traditional celebrations throughout the year.