Chile

3.1. Early history

Evidence from stone tools indicates that humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as far back as 18,500 years ago. Around 10,000 years ago, migrating Indigenous peoples settled in the fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is now Chile. Important sites of very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodón, and the lava tubes of the Pali-Aike Crater. The Chinchorro culture, which developed in the far north between approximately 5000 and 1700 BCE, is notable for creating the world's first known artificially prepared mummies.

The population of Chile before the arrival of the Spanish grew from a few thousand in the Paleo-Indian period (around the 7th millennium BCE) to an estimated 1,200,000 by the 16th century CE. The territory was inhabited by diverse aboriginal cultures. From the 11th century, the Aymara, Atacama, and Diaguita peoples in the north developed agricultural societies heavily influenced by the Inca Empire from the late 15th century. The Incas extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, dominating the area down to the Maule River. The coastal regions of the north and center were inhabited by the Chango people. South of the Biobío River lived various semi-nomadic Mapuche communities, who constitute the largest indigenous ethnic group in Chile today. Further south, in the canals and islands, were distinct groups such as the Aonikenk, Caucahue, Chono, Kawésqar (Alacaluf), Selk'nam (Ona), and Yaghan (Yámana). On Easter Island, a unique and largely isolated Polynesian culture flourished.

The Mapuche (or Araucanians, as the Spanish called them) successfully resisted numerous attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them, despite lacking a centralized state organization. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Inca Yupanqui and his army. The Battle of the Maule, a bloody three-day confrontation, marked the limit of the Inca conquest of Chilean territories at the Maule River.

3.2. Spanish colonization

In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named the Strait of Magellan, becoming the first European to set foot on what is now Chilean territory. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who arrived from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various indigenous cultures that primarily supported themselves through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting.

The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 under Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarro's lieutenants. Valdivia founded the city of Santiago on February 12, 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Spanish Empire.

The conquest was gradual, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massive Mapuche insurrection led by Lautaro began in 1553, resulting in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections occurred in 1598 and 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was pushed northward. The Arauco War was a long-running conflict. The Parliament of Quilín in 1641 established a formal border along the Biobío River, an area that became known as La Frontera. The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was, in part, a recognition that enslaving the Mapuche only intensified their resistance. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained due to continual colonialist interference and encroachment.

Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized and homogeneous territories in Spanish America. It served as a frontier garrison, tasked with forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, particularly the English and the Dutch. Buccaneers and pirates menaced the colony; Sir Francis Drake's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port, exemplified this threat. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized Spanish possessions and a significant drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Its economy primarily supplied raw materials like hides, tallow, and wheat to the Viceroyalty.

The first general census, conducted under Governor Agustín de Jáuregui between 1777 and 1778, indicated a population of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% of European descent, 7.9% Mestizos, 8.6% indigenous peoples, and 9.8% Blacks. Francisco Hurtado, Governor of Chiloé, conducted a census in 1784, finding 26,703 inhabitants, of whom 64.4% were whites and 33.5% were natives. The Diocese of Concepción conducted a census south of the Maule River in 1812 (excluding indigenous people and Chiloé inhabitants), estimating 210,567 people: 86.1% Spanish or of European descent, 10% indigenous, and 3.7% mestizos, blacks, and mulattoes.

A 2021 study by Baten and Llorca-Jaña showed that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms of numeracy, even if the overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related to externalities, as the surrounding population adopted similar behaviors and new schools were created.

3.3. Independence and nation building

In 1808, Napoleon's enthronement of his brother Joseph Bonaparte as the Spanish King precipitated Chile's drive for independence from Spain. A national junta, acting in the name of Ferdinand VII - heir to the deposed king - was formed on September 18, 1810. This Government Junta proclaimed Chile an autonomous republic within the Spanish monarchy, an event commemorated annually as Chile's National Day. This marked the beginning of the Patria Vieja (Old Fatherland) period.

A movement for total independence, under the command of José Miguel Carrera and his brothers, soon gained wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during the Reconquista led to prolonged struggle, including infighting where Bernardo O'Higgins challenged Carrera's leadership. The Battle of Rancagua in 1814 saw royalist forces re-establish control.

Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera imprisoned in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort José de San Martín, a hero of the Argentine War of Independence, led the Army of the Andes across the Andes into Chile, defeating the royalists at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12, 1817. On February 12, 1818, the Chilean Declaration of Independence proclaimed Chile an independent republic. The political revolt, however, brought little social change, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, heavily influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful. Slavery was officially abolished in 1823 under a new constitution, making Chile the first Latin American country to do so. Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating the Philippines from Spain and incorporating the islands, tasking Lord Thomas Cochrane with this, but O'Higgins' exile prevented the plan.

Chile gradually began to expand its influence and establish its borders. The Treaty of Tantauco incorporated the archipelago of Chiloé in 1826. The economy boomed due to silver ore discoveries in Chañarcillo and growing trade from Valparaíso, leading to conflict with Peru over maritime supremacy. Efforts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile by intensifying the penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848. The founding of Fuerte Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under John Williams Wilson in 1843 began Chilean control over the Magallanes Region. The Antofagasta Region, then disputed with Bolivia, started to be populated.

After the Chilean Civil War of 1829-1830, won by conservatives, the Chilean Constitution of 1833 was enacted under President Joaquín Prieto, heavily influenced by minister Diego Portales. This period, known as the Conservative Republic, saw relative stability. Two other civil wars occurred in 1851 and 1859.

Towards the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south through the Occupation of Araucanía, effectively ending Mapuche autonomy. The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also led Chile to renounce claims to most of Eastern Patagonia after a dispute that began in 1842. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879-1883), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third. This expansion eliminated Bolivia's access to the Pacific and brought valuable nitrate deposits under Chilean control, leading to an era of national affluence. By 1870, Chile had become one of the high-income countries in South America.

On September 9, 1888, Chile took possession of Easter Island through a mutual agreement with the local king, Atamu Tekena, facilitated by Bishop José María Verdier of Tahiti. Naval officer Policarpo Toro represented the Chilean government. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty without renouncing their chiefly titles, land ownership, or cultural traditions, integrating on equal terms.

The 1891 Chilean Civil War resulted from conflict between President José Manuel Balmaceda and the National Congress. The Congress emerged victorious, establishing a parliamentary-style democracy. The war had also been a contest between advocates for local industry development and powerful Chilean banking interests, notably the House of Edwards, which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, Chile engaged in a costly naval arms race with Argentina, nearly leading to war, partly due to the Puna de Atacama dispute. After the War of the Pacific, Chile became a significant naval power in the Americas, even protesting the United States intervention in Panama. The Baltimore Crisis with the U.S. nearly led to war, as Chile was seen as a potential threat to U.S. hegemonic intentions in the Western Hemisphere.

3.4. 20th century

The 20th century in Chile was a period of significant political, social, and economic transformations, characterized by democratization efforts, social conflicts, economic fluctuations tied to global markets, and eventually, profound political upheaval.

3.4.1. Parliamentary republic and political changes

In 1902, Chile and Argentina accepted the arbitral award regarding the Andes border dispute, resolved by the British Crown. The Puna de Atacama dispute was settled in 1903, and in 1904, Chile and Bolivia signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, clarifying their border.

The Chilean economy during the Parliamentary Republic (1891-1925) often protected the interests of a ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes gained enough power to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri. However, his reform program was frequently frustrated by a conservative congress. During this period, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose. Social conflicts intensified, leading to events like the Santa María School massacre in 1907, where striking nitrate miners were killed by the army, highlighting the severe social inequalities and labor struggles of the era.

A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 initiated a period of political instability that lasted until 1932. Among the ten governments during this period, the longest-lasting was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, who held power briefly in 1925 and then again from 1927 to 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship, though not as harsh or corrupt as military dictatorships elsewhere in Latin America. The Great Depression severely impacted Chile, as demand for its primary export, nitrates, plummeted. This economic crisis led to Ibáñez's resignation in 1931 and further political turmoil, including the short-lived Socialist Republic of Chile in 1932.

When constitutional rule was restored in 1932 with Alessandri's return to the presidency, the Radical Party, a strong middle-class party, emerged as a key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years (1932-1952). During this period of Radical Party dominance, the state increased its role in the economy, promoting industrialization through entities like CORFO (Production Development Corporation), established after the devastating 1939 Chillán earthquake. Pedro Aguirre Cerda (1938-1941) initiated many of these changes. His successor, Juan Antonio Ríos (1942-1946), navigated Chile through World War II, eventually declaring war on the Axis powers in 1945 under U.S. pressure. Gabriel González Videla (1946-1952), initially supported by communists, later outlawed the Communist Party of Chile under the "Law for the Permanent Defense of Democracy" amid Cold War pressures.

In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri, son of Arturo, succeeded him in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back to power democratically. His government faced challenges like the 1960 Valdivia earthquake, the most powerful earthquake ever recorded.

The 1964 presidential election saw Eduardo Frei Montalva of the Christian Democratic Party win by an absolute majority. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty," the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including the unionization of rural agricultural workers and the "Chileanization" of copper (increasing state ownership). However, by 1967, Frei faced increasing opposition from leftists who found his reforms inadequate and from conservatives who deemed them excessive.

3.4.2. Popular Unity government and military coup

In the 1970 election, Senator Salvador Allende of the Socialist Party of Chile (then part of the "Popular Unity" coalition, which included Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action) achieved a plurality of votes in a three-way contest. Allende received 36.6% of the vote, followed by conservative former president Jorge Alessandri (35.3%) and Christian Democrat Radomiro Tomic (28.1%). Since no candidate won an absolute majority, the Chilean Congress had to decide between the top two candidates. Keeping with tradition, and after Allende agreed to a "Statute of Constitutional Guarantees," Congress chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei had refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, arguing the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not align with the right wing.

Allende's government pursued socialist policies, including the nationalization of key industries, particularly copper (completed with unanimous congressional approval), banking, and other large enterprises, under a program called "La vía chilena al socialismo" (The Chilean Path to Socialism). His administration also implemented land reforms, expanded social programs, and aimed to redistribute wealth and power. Initial results included increased industrial output and reduced unemployment.

However, the Allende government faced significant domestic and international opposition. An economic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. The United States, under President Richard Nixon and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger, actively worked to destabilize Allende's government. This included financial pressure, restricting international economic credit, and supporting opposition groups and media to foster political and economic instability. Kissinger famously stated, "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people." Economic problems were also worsened by Allende's public spending, financed largely by printing money, leading to high inflation. By early 1973, inflation was out of control, and the country experienced severe shortages and widespread social unrest, including major strikes by truck owners and other sectors. Political polarization intensified. On May 26, 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende's "disruption of the legality of the nation."

On September 11, 1973, the Chilean military, led by General Augusto Pinochet, launched a coup d'état that overthrew Allende's government. The presidential palace, La Moneda, was bombarded. Salvador Allende died during the coup, with the official verdict being suicide. The coup marked a traumatic turning point in Chilean history, ending a long tradition of democratic rule and ushering in a period of brutal authoritarianism.

3.4.3. Military dictatorship (1973-1990)

Following the coup, a military junta led by General Augusto Pinochet took control of Chile. The Pinochet regime (1973-1990) was marked by severe human rights violations. Political opposition was suppressed, Congress was dissolved, and all political activity was banned. The regime established a secret police force, the DINA (later CNI), responsible for widespread repression. Thousands of people were arrested, tortured, killed, or forcibly disappeared. Notable atrocities included the actions of the Caravan of Death. According to the Rettig Report and Valech Report, at least 2,115 people were killed for political reasons, and at least 27,265 were victims of torture, including children. Subsequent investigations in 2011 recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing the total of those killed, tortured, or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018. Internationally renowned poet-singer Víctor Jara was among those tortured and killed at the National Stadium, which was used as a detention and torture center. Chile actively participated in Operation Condor, a coordinated campaign by right-wing dictatorships in South America to eliminate political opponents. Many Chileans went into exile.

The regime implemented radical neoliberal economic reforms, influenced by the "Chicago Boys," economists trained at the University of Chicago. These reforms included privatization of state-owned enterprises, deregulation, and opening the economy to foreign investment. While these policies, sometimes referred to as the "Miracle of Chile," eventually led to economic growth in the mid-1980s, they initially caused high unemployment and increased social inequality. The copper industry, however, remained largely state-owned.

In 1980, a new Constitution drafted by the Ortúzar Commission with Jaime Guzmán was approved in a controversial plebiscite widely regarded as irregular. This constitution formalized Pinochet's rule, making him President for an eight-year term. During the late 1970s, Chile nearly went to war with Argentina over the Beagle Channel dispute, which was eventually resolved through papal mediation.

The 1982 economic collapse led to increased social unrest and mass civil resistance throughout the mid-1980s. In response, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, including trade union and political activity. As stipulated by the 1980 Constitution, a plebiscite was held on October 5, 1988, to determine if Pinochet would rule for another eight years. The "No" vote won with 56%, against 44% for "Yes," signaling the beginning of the end for the dictatorship.

3.4.4. Transition to democracy

Following Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, presidential and congressional elections were held on December 14, 1989. Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of the Concertación (Coalition of Parties for Democracy), a center-left coalition of 17 political parties, won with an absolute majority of 55%. Aylwin's presidency (1990-1994) marked a transition period, focusing on restoring democratic institutions, fostering national reconciliation, and addressing past human rights violations. The Rettig Report (National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation) was established to investigate human rights abuses committed during the dictatorship. Economic policies largely continued the market-oriented approach, but with increased social spending aimed at reducing poverty.

In December 1993, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, son of former president Eduardo Frei Montalva and also a Christian Democrat, led the Concertación coalition to victory with 58% of the vote. His presidency (1994-2000) saw continued economic growth and further integration of Chile into the global economy. However, it also faced challenges like the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s. During his term, in 1998, Augusto Pinochet was arrested in London on an international warrant for human rights violations, sparking intense political debate in Chile and internationally. Pinochet eventually returned to Chile but faced numerous legal challenges until his death in 2006, though he was never convicted.

The efforts towards transitional justice continued, with subsequent governments establishing further commissions like the Valech Commission to investigate torture and political imprisonment. These efforts aimed to provide reparations to victims and bring perpetrators to justice, although the process has been complex and, for many victims, unsatisfying.

3.5. 21st century

The 21st century in Chile has been characterized by continued democratic governance, economic development, significant social changes, natural disasters, and renewed calls for deeper structural reforms.

Socialist Ricardo Lagos succeeded Frei Ruiz-Tagle in 2000, winning a tight runoff election. His presidency (2000-2006) focused on strengthening social programs and infrastructure, and Chile signed important free trade agreements with the European Union, the United States, and China. In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria of the Socialist Party, extending the Concertación's rule. Bachelet's first term (2006-2010) emphasized social protection policies, including pension reform and improvements in early childhood education.

On February 27, 2010, Chile was struck by a devastating magnitude 8.8 earthquake and subsequent tsunami, causing widespread destruction and over 500 deaths. The country's resilience and recovery efforts were internationally noted. Later that year, the successful rescue of 33 trapped miners captured global attention. In the January 2010 election, Sebastián Piñera, a conservative billionaire, became the first right-leaning president in 20 years, ending two decades of Concertación rule. His first term (2010-2014) focused on reconstruction after the earthquake and economic growth.

Michelle Bachelet returned to office for a second term (2014-2018), during which she pursued ambitious reforms in education, taxation, and the electoral system, and began a process to change the Pinochet-era constitution. Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again, winning the 2017 presidential election for his second term (2018-2022).

In October 2019, Chile experienced massive social protests (estallido social) triggered by a subway fare hike but fueled by deeper discontent over high cost of living, economic inequality, privatization of essential services (like pensions, health, and education), and the Pinochet-era constitution. The protests led to a political agreement to hold a national referendum on drafting a new constitution. In October 2020, nearly 80% of voters approved writing a new constitution. An election for members of a Constitutional Convention was held in May 2021.

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted Chile, leading to health crises and economic downturns, though the country implemented one of the world's fastest vaccination campaigns.

In December 2021, Gabriel Boric, a 35-year-old leftist former student protest leader, won the presidential election, becoming Chile's youngest-ever president. He was sworn in on March 11, 2022. His cabinet is notable for having a female majority. Boric's presidency faces the challenges of addressing social demands, managing the economy, and overseeing the final stages of the constitutional process.
On September 4, 2022, voters overwhelmingly rejected the draft constitution proposed by the left-leaning Constitutional Convention. Following this, a new process was initiated with an expert commission and a new, more conservative-led Constitutional Council. However, the second proposed constitution, drafted by this council, was also rejected by voters in a referendum on December 17, 2023. The Pinochet-era constitution, with its numerous amendments, therefore remains in force.

4.1. Topography and geology

Chile's topography is dominated by the Andes Mountains to the east and the Chilean Coast Range (Cordillera de la Costa) to the west, which together make up about 80% of the territory. Between these two mountain ranges lies the central depression (Intermediate Depression or Longitudinal Valley), which crosses the country longitudinally.

The Andes in Chile reach their highest peak at Ojos del Salado (23 K ft ^{(6.89 K m)}), which is also the world's highest active volcano, located in the Atacama Region. The Coastal Range is generally lower, with its highest point at Cerro Vicuña Mackenna (10 K ft ^{(3.11 K m)}) in the Antofagasta Region. Between the Coastal Range and the Pacific Ocean are coastal plains of varying width, where many coastal towns and major ports are situated. Some areas of Chilean territory include plains east of the Andes, such as the Patagonian steppes and Magellanic plains, or high plateaus like the Altiplano (Puna de Atacama) surrounded by high mountain ranges.

The country's location along the Pacific Ring of Fire is due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate beneath the South American Plate. This tectonic activity makes Chile highly seismic and volcanic. In the late Paleozoic era (around 251 million years ago), the land that is now Chile was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. It was a depression accumulating marine sediments, which began to rise at the end of the Mesozoic era (around 66 million years ago) due to the collision between the Nazca and South American plates, forming the Andes. The territory was shaped over millions of years by the folding of rocks.

• The Far North (Norte Grande), from the northern border to parallel 26°S, is characterized by the Atacama Desert, the world's driest. The desert is fragmented by streams originating in the Pampa del Tamarugal. The Andes here are split, with high altitude and volcanic activity, leading to the formation of the Andean Altiplano and salt flats like Salar de Atacama.
• The Near North (Norte Chico), extending to the Aconcagua River, sees the Andes decrease in altitude and move closer to the coast. The two mountain ranges often intersect, nearly eliminating the intermediate depression. Rivers flowing through this area create transverse valleys where agriculture has developed. Coastal plains begin to expand.
• The Central Zone is the most populated region. Coastal plains are wide, allowing for cities and ports. The Andes maintain altitudes above 20 K ft ^{(6.00 K m)} but gradually descend. The intermediate depression reappears as a fertile valley, ideal for agriculture and settlement. To the south, the Coastal Range reappears as the Nahuelbuta Range, and glacial sediments have formed a series of lakes.
• Patagonia (Southern Zone), from the Reloncaví Sound (parallel 41°S) southward, was heavily eroded by ice during the last glaciation. The intermediate depression sinks into the sea, and the Coastal Range becomes a series of archipelagos like Chiloé and the Chonos Archipelago, disappearing at the Taitao Peninsula (parallel 47°S). The Andes lose height, and glacial erosion has created deep fjords. East of the Andes, on the mainland and on Tierra del Fuego, are relatively flat plains. The Andes eventually break up into islands and islets, sinking and reappearing in the Southern Antilles arc and then the Antarctic Peninsula, where it is called the Antartandes, in the Chilean Antarctic Territory.

In the mid-Pacific, Chile has sovereignty over several islands of volcanic origin, collectively known as Insular Chile. The Juan Fernández Islands and Easter Island are located on the East Pacific Rise, a fracture zone between the Nazca and Pacific plates.

4.2. Climate

The climate of Chile is remarkably diverse due to its extreme length, ranging over 38 degrees of latitude, and the influence of the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Chile hosts at least eighteen major climatic subtypes.

• The North (Atacama Desert) has a desert (BWk, BWh), being the driest place on Earth. Some areas have recorded no rainfall for centuries. Coastal areas experience fog (Camanchaca) due to the cold Humboldt Current. The interior has high diurnal temperature ranges and clear skies, ideal for astronomical observatories. The high Andes in this region have a alpine tundra (ET) and ice caps (EF).
• The Central region, including Santiago, has a Mediterranean climate (Csb), characterized by warm, dry summers (December to February) and mild, wet winters (June to August).
• The South features an oceanic climate (Cfb), with abundant rainfall throughout the year, especially south of the Biobío River. This supports dense temperate rainforests.
• Patagonia in the far south experiences a subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc) and tundra (ET), with cool summers and cold, wet winters, often with snow. Strong westerly winds are common.
• Easter Island has a tropical (Af) or humid subtropical (Cfa) climate, warm and humid year-round.
• The Andes Mountains themselves have alpine climates (ET, EF) at high altitudes throughout the country.

There are generally four seasons in most of the country: summer (December to February), autumn (March to May), winter (June to August), and spring (September to November). Climate change is expected to alter the frequency and severity of natural hazards in Chile, including wildfires, floods, landslides, droughts, and rising sea levels, impacting sectors like agriculture, fisheries, and water security.

4.3. Hydrography

Due to its topography and arid northern climate, Chile is crossed by numerous rivers that are generally short in length and have relatively low flow rates. They commonly extend from the Andes Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, flowing from east to west.

In the Norte Grande, the Atacama Desert's aridity means there are only short, endorheic streams, with the exception of the Loa River, the longest in the country at 273 mile ^{(440 km)}. In the high Andean valleys, wetlands generate lakes like Chungará Lake (15 K ft ^{(4.50 K m)} above sea level), which, along with the Lauca River and Lluta River, is shared with Bolivia.

In the center-north of the country (Norte Chico and Zona Central), the number of rivers forming agriculturally important valleys increases. Notable rivers include the Elqui River (47 mile ^{(75 km)}), Aconcagua River (88 mile ^{(142 km)}), Maipo River (155 mile ^{(250 km)}) and its tributary the Mapocho River (68 mile ^{(110 km)}), and the Maule River (149 mile ^{(240 km)}). Their waters primarily flow from Andean snowmelt in the summer and winter rains. Major lakes in this area are often artificial, like Rapel Lake, or of glacial/volcanic origin, such as Colbún Lake, Laguna del Maule, and Laguna de la Laja.

Further south, the Biobío River (236 mile ^{(380 km)}) is one of Chile's most significant rivers, supporting hydroelectric power. Other important rivers include the Imperial River (34 mile ^{(55 km)}) and the Toltén River (144 mile ^{(231 km)}), which drains Lake Villarrica. The southern regions are characterized by numerous large lakes of glacial origin, such as Ranco Lake, Puyehue Lake, Rupanco Lake, Todos los Santos Lake, and Llanquihue Lake (the second largest in Chile).

In Patagonia, rivers are shorter but can have strong flows, like the Futaleufú River, Palena River (149 mile ^{(240 km)}), Baker River (230 mile ^{(370 km)}), and Pascua River (39 mile ^{(62 km)}). Large lakes often straddle the border with Argentina, including General Carrera Lake (the largest in Chile, known as Lake Buenos Aires in Argentina), Cochrane Lake, O'Higgins/San Martín Lake, and Fagnano Lake on Tierra del Fuego. The southern Patagonian ice fields are significant freshwater reserves.

4.4. Biodiversity

Chile's flora and fauna are characterized by a high degree of endemism due to its particular geography. The Atacama Desert in the north and the Andes Mountains to the east act as significant barriers, isolating plant and animal life. The country's extreme length results in a wide range of climates and environments, divisible into general zones: the northern desert provinces, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.

The native flora of Chile has relatively fewer species compared to other South American countries. The northernmost coastal and central region is largely barren, approaching an absolute desert. On the Andean slopes, scattered tola desert brush and grasses are found. The Chilean Central Valley is characterized by species like cacti, the hardy espinos (Acacia caven), the Chilean pine (Araucaria araucana), various southern beeches, and the copihue (Lapageria rosea), a red bell-shaped flower that is Chile's national flower.

In southern Chile, south of the Biobío River, heavy precipitation supports dense forests of laurels, magnolias, and various species of conifers and beeches, which become smaller and more stunted further south. The cold temperatures and winds of the extreme south limit heavy forestation. Grasslands are found in eastern Magallanes Province and northern Tierra del Fuego (Patagonia). Much of Chilean flora is distinct from that of neighboring Argentina, indicating the Andean barrier's existence during its formation. Some of Chile's flora has Antarctic origins due to land bridges formed during Cretaceous ice ages. Chile had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.37/10, ranking it 43rd globally out of 172 countries. Over 3,000 species of fungi are recorded in Chile, though the true number is likely much higher, with an estimated 1,995 species potentially endemic.

Chile's geographical isolation has also restricted the immigration of faunal life. Among the larger mammals are the cougar (puma), the llama-like guanaco, and the fox-like chilla. In the forest region, several types of marsupials and a small deer known as the pudú are found. Many small bird species exist, but most larger common Latin American types are absent. Few freshwater fish are native, but North American trout have been successfully introduced into Andean lakes. The Humboldt Current supports abundant marine life, including a rich variety of waterfowl like several penguin species. Whales are abundant, and some six species of seals are found in the area. The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) is the national bird and a prominent symbol.

Major protected areas include numerous national parks like Torres del Paine National Park, Conguillío National Park, and Lauca National Park. Environmental challenges include deforestation, habitat loss due to agriculture and urban expansion, water scarcity in the north, and pollution from mining and industrial activities. The social and environmental impacts of resource exploitation, particularly mining and forestry, are significant concerns, often affecting indigenous communities and fragile ecosystems. Conservation efforts aim to protect Chile's unique biodiversity and promote sustainable development.

5.1. Constitution and government structure

The current Constitution of Chile was drafted during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet by a commission led by Jaime Guzmán and approved via a controversial national plebiscite in September 1980. It entered into force in March 1981. This constitution established a strong presidential system and initially included several authoritarian "enclaves," such as appointed senators, senators for life (for former presidents), and a significant role for the National Security Council, which limited civilian authority over the military.

After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite and the subsequent transition to democracy, the constitution underwent numerous amendments to democratize its provisions. Key reforms were enacted in 1989 before the return to civilian rule, and more substantially in 2005 under President Ricardo Lagos. The 2005 reforms eliminated the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, restored the President's authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, reduced the presidential term from six to four years, and modified the powers of the Constitutional Tribunal. These changes were significant steps in consolidating democratic governance and reducing the military's political influence.

Despite these amendments, dissatisfaction with the constitution's origins and its perceived role in perpetuating social and economic inequalities led to widespread demands for a new constitution, particularly during the social protests of 2019-2022. A referendum in October 2020 approved the drafting of a new constitution by a popularly elected Constitutional Convention. However, the draft produced by this convention was rejected in a referendum in September 2022. A subsequent attempt with a new, more conservative-led Constitutional Council also resulted in a draft constitution that was rejected by voters in a referendum in December 2023. Consequently, the 1980 Constitution, with its numerous amendments, remains in effect.

The government structure comprises:

• Executive Branch: Headed by the President of Chile, who is both head of state and head of government. The President appoints Cabinet Ministers.
• Legislative Branch: The National Congress of Chile is bicameral, consisting of:
  • The Senate (Cámara Alta or Senado): 50 members elected by popular vote to serve eight-year terms, with approximately one-half of the seats renewed every four years.
  • The Chamber of Deputies (Cámara Baja or Cámara de Diputadas y Diputados): 155 members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.

  The Congress is located in Valparaíso.

  • Judicial Branch: An independent branch headed by the Supreme Court of Chile. It includes courts of appeal, a system of military courts, and lower courts. Chile completed a nationwide overhaul of its criminal justice system in June 2005, replacing an inquisitorial system with an adversarial one.
  • Constitutional Tribunal: An autonomous body responsible for judicial review of the constitutionality of laws.

  The impact of constitutional reforms on democratic development has been substantial, gradually dismantling authoritarian elements and strengthening democratic institutions, although the process of constitutional change itself remains a significant political issue.

5.2. Political parties and electoral system

Chile has a multi-party system, which has evolved significantly since the transition to democracy. For many years, the political landscape was dominated by two major coalitions: the center-left Concertación (later Nueva Mayoría) and the center-right Alliance for Chile (later Chile Vamos).

Key political parties include:

• Center-Left/Left:
  • Socialist Party of Chile (PS)
  • Party for Democracy (PPD)
  • Christian Democratic Party (PDC) - historically a major force, now more independent or part of broader alliances.
  • Radical Party (PR)
  • Communist Party of Chile (PCCh)
  • Broad Front (Frente Amplio, FA): A newer coalition of various left-wing parties and movements, including Social Convergence (CS) (President Gabriel Boric's party) and Democratic Revolution.
  • The current governing coalition is Apruebo Dignidad, which includes the Broad Front and Chile Digno (PCCh and others), often working with parties from the former Concertación grouped under Democratic Socialism (PS, PPD, PR, PL).
  • Center-Right/Right:
    • National Renewal (RN)
    • Independent Democratic Union (UDI)
    • Evópoli
    • These parties form the main opposition coalition, Chile Vamos.
    • Republican Party: A far-right party that has gained prominence in recent years.

    The electoral system for parliamentary elections was the unique binominal system from 1989 until 2013. This system tended to over-represent the second-largest coalition and made it difficult for smaller parties to gain seats, thus reinforcing the two-bloc dominance. In 2015, a reform replaced the binominal system with a moderate form of proportional representation (using the D'Hondt method), which has been in effect since the 2017 parliamentary elections. This change has allowed for greater representation of smaller parties and the emergence of new political forces and coalitions, leading to a more fragmented but potentially more representative Congress. Presidential elections use a two-round system; if no candidate wins an absolute majority in the first round, a runoff is held between the top two candidates. Voting was voluntary for many years but became mandatory again with automatic registration starting in 2022 for referendums and currently under discussion for other elections.

5.3. Administrative divisions

Chile is administratively divided into 16 regions (regiones_regions^Spanish). Each region is headed by an Intendant (Intendente_Intendant^Spanish), appointed by the President. Since 2021, Regional Governors (Gobernador Regional_{Regional Governor}^Spanish) are directly elected by popular vote, marking a significant step towards decentralization. Regions are the first-level administrative divisions.

The regions are further subdivided into 56 provinces (provincias_provinces^Spanish). Each province is headed by a Provincial Presidential Delegate (Delegado Presidencial Provincial_{Provincial Presidential Delegate}^Spanish), also appointed by the President. Provinces serve as an intermediate level of administration.

Provinces, in turn, are divided into 348 communes (comunas_communes^Spanish). Each commune is administered by a municipality (municipalidad_municipality^Spanish), headed by a Mayor (alcalde_mayor^Spanish) and a communal council (concejo municipal_{communal council}^Spanish), both of whom are elected by popular vote for four-year terms. Communes are the basic local administrative unit responsible for local services and governance.

Historically, regions were designated by a Roman numeral assigned from north to south (e.g., I Región de Tarapacá, XII Región de Magallanes). The Santiago Metropolitan Region was an exception, designated "RM". The creation of new regions in 2007 (Arica y Parinacota - XV, and Los Ríos - XIV) and 2018 (Ñuble - XVI) disrupted this original numerical order. While the Roman numerals were officially deprecated in 2018, they are still sometimes used informally.

The role of each administrative unit is:

• Regions: Responsible for regional development planning, coordination of public services, and, with the elected governor, greater autonomy in managing regional affairs and budgets.
• Provinces: Primarily concerned with public order and security, and coordinating central government policies at a more localized level than the region.
• Communes: The most local level of government, responsible for direct services to citizens, including local roads, sanitation, primary health care, primary education, and urban planning.

5.4. National symbols

Chile's main national symbols represent its geography, history, and cultural values.

• The National Flag (La Estrella Solitaria - The Lone Star): It consists of two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red. On the hoist side of the white band is a blue square of the same height as the white band, bearing a white five-pointed star in the center. The blue square symbolizes the sky and the Pacific Ocean, the white represents the snow-covered Andes Mountains, and the red stands for the blood spilled to achieve independence. The single star represents a guide to progress and honor, and also the unitary state.
• The Coat of Arms (Escudo de Armas): It features a shield divided into two equal parts, blue above and red below, with a silver five-pointed star in the center. The shield is supported by two national animals: a huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), an endangered deer native to the southern Andes, on the right, and an Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), a large bird of the Andes, on the left. Both animals wear naval crowns of gold. The shield is topped by a crest of three feathers in the national colors (blue, white, and red). Below the shield is a scroll with the motto: Por la Razón o la Fuerza_{By Reason or by Force}^Spanish.
• The National Anthem (Himno Nacional de Chile): The current version features music composed by Ramón Carnicer in 1828 and lyrics written by Eusebio Lillo in 1847, with a chorus by Bernardo de Vera y Pintado from an earlier version.
• The Copihue (Lapageria rosea): This is the national flower of Chile, a climbing plant with distinctive red (or sometimes white or pink) bell-shaped flowers. It grows in the temperate rainforests of southern Chile and symbolizes the beauty of the Chilean landscape and the resilience of its people. It was officially declared the national flower in 1977.

These symbols are widely recognized and used in official capacities and popular expressions of national identity.

6.1. Composition and role

The Chilean Armed Forces consist of three main branches: the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. The Carabineros de Chile (national police) were historically linked to the Ministry of Defense but are now primarily under the Ministry of the Interior and Public Security for operational purposes, though they retain a military character.

• Army (Ejército de Chile):
  • Composition: It is organized into six divisions deployed throughout the national territory, an Army headquarters in Santiago, an Aviation Brigade, and a Special Operations Command. As of recent estimates, it has around 45,000 active personnel.
  • Role: The primary role is to defend the country's sovereignty and territorial integrity on land. It also participates in internal security operations when required by law, contributes to national development, and engages in international peacekeeping missions. Key equipment includes Leopard 2 main battle tanks, Marder infantry fighting vehicles, and various artillery systems.
  • Navy (Armada de Chile):
    • Composition: Commanded by an Admiral, the Navy has around 25,000 personnel, including approximately 2,500 Marines. Its fleet includes modern frigates (such as former Adelaide-class and Type 23s), submarines (including Scorpène-class), patrol vessels, and support ships. The main naval base is in Valparaíso, with other important bases in Talcahuano (home to the submarine force and shipyards) and Punta Arenas. The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport, patrol, and anti-submarine warfare.
    • Role: To protect Chile's extensive coastline (over 4.0 K mile ^{(6.40 K km)}), its maritime interests including the Exclusive Economic Zone, and its island territories. It also conducts search and rescue operations, hydrographic surveys, and supports scientific research in Antarctica.
    • Air Force (Fuerza Aérea de Chile, FACh):
      • Composition: Headed by an Air Force General, it has approximately 12,500 personnel. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades. The FACh operates modern aircraft, including F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter jets (various blocks, including MLU and new Block 50), transport aircraft, helicopters, and training aircraft. It also maintains an airbase on King George Island in Antarctica.
      • Role: To defend Chile's airspace, provide air support to other branches, conduct strategic airlift, and participate in disaster relief and search and rescue operations.
      • Carabineros de Chile (National Police):
        • Composition: While primarily a law enforcement agency, the Carabineros have a military structure and training. The force consists of approximately 40,000 personnel.
        • Role: Responsible for public order, law enforcement, traffic management, border control (in some areas), and counter-terrorism throughout Chile. They were incorporated into the Defense Ministry after the 1973 coup but returned to operational control under the Interior Ministry with the transition to democracy, though they remain under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry for some administrative and disciplinary matters. They are a key institution for maintaining internal security and public safety.

        Chile's defense policy focuses on maintaining a credible deterrent capability, modernizing its forces, and participating in regional security cooperation and international peacekeeping efforts.

7.1. Participation in international organizations

Chile is a founding member of the United Nations (UN) and has actively participated in its various agencies and peacekeeping operations. It has served multiple terms as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council (most recently in 2014-2015) and has been elected to the UN Human Rights Council.

Regionally, Chile is a prominent member of the Organization of American States (OAS). Chilean national José Miguel Insulza served as Secretary General of the OAS from 2005 to 2015. Chile is also a founding member of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) and the Pacific Alliance, a trade bloc formed with Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, aimed at promoting free trade and economic integration with the Asia-Pacific region.

Chile joined the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2010, becoming the first South American country to do so, which reflects its commitment to economic reforms and good governance. It is an active participant in Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), having hosted the APEC summit in 2004 and again (virtually) in 2019. Chile is an associate member of Mercosur. The country has also hosted significant international gatherings such as the Defense Ministerial of the Americas, the Community of Democracies ministerial, and the Ibero-American Summit.

7.2. Relations with neighboring and key countries

• Neighboring Countries:
  • Argentina: Relations have historically been complex, with several border disputes, notably the Beagle conflict in the late 1970s, which was resolved through papal mediation. Since the 1990s, relations have significantly improved, with close cooperation on various fronts, including economic integration and infrastructure projects.
  • Bolivia: Relations have been strained since the War of the Pacific, which left Bolivia landlocked. Bolivia continues to demand sovereign access to the Pacific Ocean, a claim Chile disputes. Diplomatic relations were severed in 1978 and have not been fully restored, although consular relations exist. The International Court of Justice ruled in 2018 that Chile is not obligated to negotiate sovereign access for Bolivia. Disputes over the Silala waters have also been a point of contention, recently adjudicated by the ICJ in 2022, largely recognizing shared use.
  • Peru: Relations have also been shaped by the War of the Pacific. While diplomatic and economic ties are generally robust, historical grievances and a maritime border dispute (resolved by the ICJ in 2014) have occasionally caused tension. Both countries are members of the Pacific Alliance.
  • Key Countries:
    • United States: The U.S. is a major trading partner, and the two countries have a Free Trade Agreement in effect since 2004. Relations were strained during the Pinochet dictatorship due to U.S. involvement in the 1973 coup and subsequent human rights concerns. Since Chile's return to democracy, cooperation has expanded in areas like trade, security, and science.
    • European Union: The EU is another significant trading partner, and Chile has a comprehensive Association Agreement with the bloc, which includes political dialogue, cooperation, and free trade provisions. Relations are strong with individual EU member states as well.
    • Asian Countries (China, Japan, South Korea): Chile has actively pursued closer ties with Asia, particularly through APEC and FTAs. China has become Chile's largest trading partner, primarily due to copper exports. Japan and South Korea are also important economic partners, with FTAs in place.

    Chile's foreign policy emphasizes open regionalism, free trade, and a principled stance on international issues, often seeking to act as a bridge between Latin America and other regions, particularly the Asia-Pacific.

8.1. Economic status and policies

Chile's economic model has been largely shaped by neoliberal policies implemented during the military dictatorship in the 1970s and 1980s, which were continued, albeit with increased social spending, by subsequent democratic governments. These policies included privatization, deregulation, trade liberalization, and fiscal discipline. This model has contributed to periods of strong economic growth, significant poverty reduction, and macroeconomic stability. Chile's GDP per capita is among the highest in Latin America.

However, this economic model has also led to persistent and high levels of income inequality, which remains a major social and political challenge. This inequality was a key driver of the widespread social protests in 2019-2022, which called for reforms in areas such as pensions, healthcare, education, and a new constitution to address structural disparities.

Recent economic trends have been influenced by fluctuations in global commodity prices (especially copper), domestic social unrest, and the COVID-19 pandemic. The government has often used counter-cyclical fiscal policies, supported by a sovereign wealth fund built from copper revenues, to mitigate economic shocks. The Central Bank of Chile operates independently, targeting inflation.

From a center-left/social liberalism perspective, while acknowledging the economic growth achieved, there is a strong emphasis on the need to address social equity. This includes advocating for a more progressive tax system, strengthening social safety nets, improving public services, and ensuring that economic development is inclusive and sustainable, benefiting all segments of society, particularly vulnerable groups. The debate over the role of the state versus the market in providing essential services and reducing inequality remains central to Chilean politics.

8.2. Main sectors

The Chilean economy is diversified, though still significantly influenced by its natural resource wealth. Key sectors include mineral resources, agriculture, forestry, fishing, and tourism, alongside a developed services sector.

8.2.1. Mineral resources

Chile is exceptionally rich in mineral resources. It is the world's largest producer of copper, which accounts for a substantial portion of its export revenues and GDP. The state-owned company Codelco is one of the largest copper mining companies globally, operating alongside major private and multinational corporations. Escondida is the largest copper mine in the world. Chile also possesses some of the world's largest reserves of lithium, a critical component for batteries in electric vehicles and electronics, making it a key player in the green energy transition. The Atacama Desert is the primary source of lithium, extracted from brine pools. Other significant mineral resources include molybdenum (often a byproduct of copper mining), gold, silver, iron ore, and nitrates (historically important, though less so now). In 2019, Chile was the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, and the second largest of lithium and molybdenum.

The exploitation of these resources has significant economic benefits but also raises serious environmental, labor rights, and social equity concerns. Environmental impacts include water depletion (especially in arid mining regions like Atacama), pollution, and habitat disruption. There have been ongoing conflicts with indigenous communities over land rights and the environmental consequences of mining projects on their ancestral territories. Labor rights in the mining sector, while generally more formalized than in some other industries, continue to be an area of focus for unions and advocacy groups, particularly concerning safety and working conditions. From a social equity perspective, there are debates about how the wealth generated from mineral resources is distributed, the extent to which local communities benefit, and the need for sustainable development practices that do not disproportionately harm vulnerable populations or the environment.

8.2.2. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Agriculture: Chile's diverse geography allows for a wide range of agricultural products. The Chilean Central Valley is a major agricultural hub. Key exports include fresh fruits (grapes, apples, blueberries, cherries, avocados), wine (Chile is a major global wine exporter), and vegetables. The country's location in the Southern Hemisphere allows it to supply Northern Hemisphere markets during their off-season.

• Environmental and Social Impacts: Intensive agriculture has led to concerns about water use, pesticide application, and soil degradation. Land concentration and the conditions of agricultural workers, many of whom are seasonal or migrant laborers, are ongoing social issues.

Forestry: Chile has significant forest resources, both native forests and extensive plantations of species like pine and eucalyptus. Timber, wood pulp, and other wood products are important exports.

• Environmental and Social Impacts: The expansion of monoculture plantations has been criticized for its impact on biodiversity, water resources, and the displacement of native forests. Conflicts with Mapuche communities in the south are often linked to land disputes involving forestry companies operating on ancestral lands.

Fishing and Aquaculture: With its long coastline, Chile has a major fishing industry, catching species like jack mackerel, anchoveta, and hake. It is also the world's second-largest producer of farmed salmon, after Norway.

• Environmental and Social Impacts: Overfishing has been a concern for some wild fish stocks. The salmon farming industry, concentrated in the southern fjords, has faced criticism for environmental issues such as pollution, disease outbreaks, excessive use of antibiotics, and impacts on marine ecosystems and local livelihoods. Labor conditions in some parts of the fishing and aquaculture sector also draw scrutiny.

Efforts are underway to promote more sustainable practices in these sectors, but balancing economic development with environmental protection and social equity remains a challenge.

8.2.3. Tourism

Tourism is a significant and growing sector in the Chilean economy, leveraging the country's diverse natural landscapes, rich cultural heritage, and adventure travel opportunities.

• Main Tourist Attractions:
  • Natural Landscapes:
    • North: The Atacama Desert attracts visitors with its unique desert landscapes, stargazing opportunities (due to clear skies), geysers (El Tatio), salt flats (Salar de Atacama), and high-altitude lakes. Towns like San Pedro de Atacama serve as popular bases.
    • Central Region: This area offers wine regions for enotourism, ski resorts in the Andes near Santiago (e.g., Valle Nevado, Portillo), and coastal cities like Valparaíso and Viña del Mar.
    • South (Lakes and Volcanoes District): Known for its stunning lakes, active volcanoes, national parks (e.g., Vicente Pérez Rosales, Conguillío National Park), and outdoor activities like hiking, kayaking, and fishing. Towns like Pucón and Puerto Varas are key destinations.
    • Patagonia (Far South): Famous for its dramatic scenery, including Torres del Paine National Park (with its iconic granite peaks), glaciers, fjords, and opportunities for trekking and wildlife viewing. The Carretera Austral is a renowned scenic route.
  • Cultural Sites:
    • Valparaíso: A UNESCO World Heritage Site known for its colorful hillside houses, historic funiculars, street art, and bohemian atmosphere.
    • Easter Island (Rapa Nui): A UNESCO World Heritage Site famous for its giant stone statues called Moai, a unique Polynesian culture, and mysterious history.

    

    • Churches of Chiloé: UNESCO World Heritage-listed wooden churches on the Chiloé Archipelago, representing a unique architectural tradition.
    • Sewell and Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works: UNESCO World Heritage industrial sites offering insights into Chile's mining history.

Current State of the Tourism Industry:

Chile has been actively promoting itself as a tourist destination, emphasizing adventure tourism, ecotourism, and cultural tourism. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, tourist arrivals were steadily increasing, primarily from other Latin American countries (especially Argentina and Brazil), North America, and Europe, with growing interest from Asia. The pandemic severely impacted the industry, but recovery efforts are ongoing.

• Economic Contribution:

Tourism contributes significantly to Chile's GDP and employment, particularly in regional economies. It generates foreign exchange earnings and supports a wide range of businesses, from hotels and restaurants to tour operators and artisan craft producers. The government has invested in tourism infrastructure and marketing campaigns like "Chile: All Ways Surprising."
Challenges for the tourism sector include seasonality, the need for sustainable tourism practices to protect natural and cultural heritage, and ensuring that economic benefits are distributed equitably, especially to local communities.

8.3. Trade and investment

Chile is a highly open economy, heavily reliant on international trade and foreign investment. Its trade policy is characterized by a broad network of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and a general commitment to reducing trade barriers.

• Free Trade Agreements (FTAs): Chile has one of the most extensive networks of FTAs in the world, covering economies that represent a large majority of global GDP. Key FTAs include agreements with:
  • United States (implemented in 2004)
  • European Union (Association Agreement)
  • China (Chile's largest single trading partner)
  • Japan
  • South Korea
  • Canada
  • Mexico
  • Pacific Alliance members (Colombia, Mexico, Peru)
  • Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP)

  Chile is also an associate member of Mercosur.

  • Major Trading Partners:
    • Exports: China, United States, Japan, South Korea, Brazil.
    • Imports: China, United States, Brazil, Argentina, Germany.
    • Structure of Exports and Imports:
      • Exports: Dominated by mineral products, primarily copper (refined and concentrates), which accounts for a significant portion of total exports. Other important exports include lithium, fruits (grapes, apples, blueberries, cherries), wine, fish and seafood (especially salmon), forestry products (wood pulp, timber), and agricultural products.
      • Imports: Chile imports a wide range of goods, including machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, mineral fuels (oil and gas, as Chile is not self-sufficient in energy), chemicals, and food products.
      • Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Chile has historically been an attractive destination for FDI due to its stable macroeconomic environment, clear legal framework (codified in its Foreign Investment Law, though recently updated), and access to resources. FDI inflows have been significant in sectors like mining, energy, finance, retail, and telecommunications. The government actively promotes FDI, though debates continue regarding the social and environmental impacts of large-scale foreign investments, particularly in resource-extractive industries. Efforts have been made to attract FDI into new sectors like renewable energy and technology.

      Chile's trade and investment policies have been crucial for its economic growth, but they also expose the country to global economic volatility and commodity price fluctuations.

8.4. Energy

Chile's energy matrix has historically relied on imported fossil fuels and domestic hydropower, but the country is undergoing a significant transition towards renewable energy sources, particularly solar and wind power.

• Energy Resources and Policies:
  • Fossil Fuels: Chile has limited domestic reserves of oil, natural gas, and coal, making it heavily reliant on imports for these resources. This reliance has historically exposed the economy to price volatility and supply security concerns. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) import terminals have helped diversify gas supply. There is an ongoing policy to phase out coal-fired power generation.
  • Hydropower: Large-scale hydropower has traditionally been a significant component of Chile's electricity generation, primarily from rivers in the southern-central regions. However, its development potential is increasingly constrained by environmental concerns and social opposition, as well as vulnerability to droughts.
  • Renewable Energy: Chile has emerged as a global leader in renewable energy development, driven by ambitious government targets and favorable natural conditions.
    • Solar Power: The Atacama Desert in northern Chile has some of the highest solar irradiation levels in the world, making it ideal for photovoltaic and concentrated solar power projects. Solar energy capacity has grown exponentially in recent years, becoming a major contributor to the national grid.
    • Wind Power: Chile also has significant wind resources, particularly in coastal areas and Patagonia. Wind farms are increasingly common.
    • Other Renewables: Geothermal energy (with the first plant in South America, Cerro Pabellón), biomass, and ocean energy are also part of the renewable energy mix, though at smaller scales.
  • Energy Policies: The government has implemented policies to promote renewable energy, including auctions for power purchase agreements, transmission infrastructure upgrades, and targets for clean energy generation (aiming for a high percentage of renewables in the electricity matrix). There is also a focus on energy efficiency and, more recently, the development of a green hydrogen industry, leveraging Chile's abundant solar and wind resources.

  The transition to a cleaner energy matrix is seen as crucial for Chile's energy security, environmental commitments (including Paris Agreement targets), and economic competitiveness. Challenges include integrating intermittent renewable sources into the grid, developing necessary infrastructure (like transmission lines), and ensuring a just transition for communities affected by the shift away from fossil fuels.

9.1. Road transport

Road transport is the dominant mode for both passenger and freight movement within Chile.

• Highways and Road Network: Chile has an extensive road network. The backbone is the Pan-American Highway (Chile Route 5), which runs longitudinally through much of the country, from the Peruvian border in the north to Puerto Montt in the south. Significant portions of Route 5 and other major highways have been upgraded to dual carriageways through concession systems. In 2020, Chile had approximately 53 K mile ^{(85.98 K km)} of highways, with about 13 K mile ^{(21.29 K km)} paved. The network of dual carriageways was around 2.1 K mile ^{(3.35 K km)} in the same year. The Carretera Austral (Southern Highway, Route 7) is a scenic but often challenging route that provides road access to parts of Patagonia.
• Vehicle Ownership: Vehicle ownership rates have been increasing, leading to traffic congestion in major cities like Santiago.
• Bus Transport: Long-distance bus services are widely used and connect virtually all cities and towns. They offer a cost-effective means of travel. Urban public transport in Santiago includes an extensive bus system (Red Metropolitana de Movilidad) integrated with the metro.

9.2. Rail transport

Chile's railway system, once extensive, declined significantly in the latter half of the 20th century, but efforts are underway for its revitalization, particularly for passenger and freight services in certain corridors.

• Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado (EFE) is the state-owned railway company.
• Major Lines and Services:
  • Passenger services are primarily concentrated in the central and southern-central regions, including commuter rail services like Metrotrén (Santiago and its southern suburbs) and regional services connecting Santiago to cities like Chillán.
  • Santiago Metro (Metro de Santiago) is a modern and extensive subway system, one of the largest in Latin America, serving the capital.
  • Valparaíso Metro (Metro Valparaíso or Merval) is a light rail system connecting Valparaíso with Viña del Mar and other coastal cities.
  • Biotrén serves the Greater Concepción area.
  • Freight rail is important for transporting mining products (especially in the north) and forestry products.

  There are plans to expand and modernize the rail network, including new commuter lines and upgrading existing intercity routes.

9.3. Air transport

Air transport is crucial for connecting Chile's distant regions, particularly the far north, far south (Patagonia), and island territories like Easter Island.

• Major Airports:
  • Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport (SCL) in Santiago is the main international gateway and domestic hub.
  • Other important airports include those serving Iquique (Diego Aracena International Airport), Antofagasta (Andrés Sabella Gálvez International Airport), Concepción (Carriel Sur International Airport), Puerto Montt (El Tepual International Airport), Punta Arenas (Presidente Carlos Ibáñez del Campo International Airport), and Easter Island (Mataveri International Airport, one of the most remote airports in the world).
• Airlines: LATAM Airlines Chile is the country's flag carrier and largest airline, operating an extensive domestic and international network. Several low-cost carriers also operate domestically and regionally.
• Status of Air Transport: Chile has a well-developed air transport infrastructure with 372 runways (62 paved) as of earlier estimates. Air travel is essential for tourism and business, especially given the country's length.

9.4. Maritime transport

With its long coastline and reliance on international trade, maritime transport is vital to the Chilean economy.

• Major Ports:
  • Valparaíso and San Antonio are the principal ports in the central region, handling a large volume of containerized cargo and general freight.
  • Northern ports like Iquique, Antofagasta, and Mejillones are crucial for mineral exports.
  • Southern ports serve the fishing, forestry, and aquaculture industries.
• Maritime Transport Network: Chile has a network of coastal shipping routes, and ferry services are essential for connecting remote islands and communities in the south, particularly in the Chiloé Archipelago and the fjords of Patagonia.
• Importance: Maritime transport handles the vast majority of Chile's foreign trade by volume. The Chilean Navy also plays a role in maritime security and control.

10.1. Major science and technology fields

Chile has notable strengths and initiatives in several scientific and technological fields:

• Astronomy: Chile is a global hub for astronomical observation due to the exceptionally clear, dark, and dry atmospheric conditions in the Atacama Desert and other parts of northern Chile. The country hosts some of the world's most advanced observatories, often through international collaborations.
  • Major observatories include:
    • Very Large Telescope (VLT) at Paranal Observatory (ESO)
    • Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), an international partnership
    • La Silla Observatory (ESO)
    • Las Campanas Observatory (Carnegie Institution for Science), home to the Magellan Telescopes and the future Giant Magellan Telescope
    • Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO)
    • The future Vera C. Rubin Observatory (formerly LSST) is also under construction in Chile.

    These facilities contribute significantly to global astronomical research.

    • Geology and Seismology: Given its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, Chile has strong research programs in geology, seismology, and volcanology. Understanding and mitigating earthquake and volcanic risks are national priorities.
    • Antarctic Research: Chile maintains several research bases in Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) and conducts scientific research in fields like glaciology, climate change, and Antarctic biodiversity.
    • Oceanography and Marine Biology: With its long coastline and diverse marine ecosystems, Chile has growing research capabilities in oceanography, marine biology, and fisheries science.
    • Biotechnology and Agriculture: Research in these areas focuses on improving crop yields, aquaculture, and developing new technologies for the food industry.
    • Renewable Energy Technology: Driven by its renewable energy boom, Chile is fostering research and development in solar, wind, and green hydrogen technologies.
    • Information Technology and Startups: Programs like Start-Up Chile have aimed to position Chile as a hub for innovation and entrepreneurship in Latin America, attracting tech startups from around the world.

    Funding for science and technology comes from government agencies (like ANID - National Agency for Research and Development), universities, and international collaborations. However, overall R&D spending as a percentage of GDP has traditionally been lower than in many OECD countries.

10.2. Telecommunications

Chile has one of the most advanced telecommunications infrastructures in South America.

• Internet Penetration: Internet penetration rates have grown significantly. As of 2012, 61.42% of the population used the internet, which was the highest in South America at the time. More recent data shows continued growth, with widespread access in urban areas and increasing efforts to expand connectivity in rural and remote regions.
• Mobile Communication: Mobile phone penetration is very high, exceeding 100% (meaning many individuals have more than one SIM card). Smartphone adoption is widespread, driving mobile internet usage. 4G LTE coverage is extensive, and 5G deployment is underway.
• Fixed Broadband: Fiber optic networks are expanding, particularly in urban centers, offering high-speed internet access. However, digital divide issues persist, with disparities in access and quality between urban and rural areas, and across different socioeconomic groups.
• ICT Development: Chile ranks well in Latin America in various ICT development indices. The telecommunications market was privatized in the 1980s and is competitive. The country's internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) is .cl.
• Cybersecurity: In 2017, the Chilean government launched its first national cybersecurity strategy, with ongoing efforts to strengthen cyber defenses and digital security.

The government has promoted policies to enhance digital literacy, expand broadband access (e.g., through projects like Fibra Óptica Austral to connect southern Patagonia), and foster the digital economy.

11.1. Population

Chile's 2017 census reported a population of 17,574,003. The United Nations estimated the population in 2023 to be around 19.6 million. The rate of population growth has been decreasing since 1990, primarily due to a declining birth rate. Life expectancy in Chile is among the highest in Latin America, at approximately 80 years (around 77.5 for males and 82.5 for females, as of recent estimates). The total fertility rate is below replacement level. These trends are contributing to an aging population, with a growing proportion of elderly citizens and a shrinking proportion of young people, posing challenges for social security and healthcare systems. The population is projected to reach approximately 20.2 million by 2050.

11.2. Ancestry and ethnicity

Chilean society is a mix of various ancestral origins. While the government does not officially collect data on race or ethnicity in a way that categorizes people as "white" or "mestizo" in censuses, studies and self-identification surveys provide some insights.

• A study by Mexican professor Francisco Lizcano estimated that 52.7% of Chileans were white, 39.3% were mestizo (mixed European and Amerindian ancestry), and 8% were Amerindian. Encyclopædia Britannica (2002) suggested 22% white and 72% mestizo.
• Genetic studies have indicated varying degrees of European, Amerindian, and, to a lesser extent, African admixture. A 1984 study from Revista de Pediatría de Chile determined ancestry as 67.9% European and 32.1% Native American. A 1994 biological study found a composition of 64% European and 35% Amerindian. The Candela Project found genetic composition to be 52% European, 44% Native American, and 4% African. A 2008 University of Brasília study showed 51.6% European, 42.1% Amerindian, and 6.3% African contributions. A 2015 study found 57% European, 38% Native American, and 2.5% African genetic ancestry.
• Self-identification often differs from genetic studies. The 2011 Latinobarómetro survey found that 59% of Chileans self-identified as "White," 25% as "Mestizo," and 8% as "indigenous." A 2002 national poll revealed that a majority of Chileans believed they possessed some (43.4%) or much (8.3%) "indigenous blood," while 40.3% responded they had none.

The earliest European immigrants were Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. The Amerindian population of central Chile was largely absorbed into the Spanish settler population, forming the mestizo group. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Basques immigrated and integrated into the existing elites. Chile also received immigrants from other European countries such as Germany, Croatia, Italy, France, and Great Britain, though not on the scale of Argentina or Brazil. There is a significant population of Palestinian descent, one of the largest Palestinian diaspora communities outside the Middle East, as well as other Arab descents.

11.3. Urbanization

Chile is a highly urbanized country. Approximately 85-90% of the population lives in urban areas.

• Major Cities:
  • Greater Santiago: The capital city is by far the largest urban agglomeration, home to over 7 million people, representing more than a third of the country's total population. It is the political, economic, cultural, and transportation hub of Chile.
  • Greater Valparaíso: Comprising Valparaíso (a major port and UNESCO World Heritage city) and Viña del Mar (a popular tourist resort), this conurbation has a population of around 1 million.
  • Greater Concepción: An important industrial and university center in the south-central part of the country, with a population of nearly 1 million.
  • Other significant cities include Antofagasta and Iquique (mining and port cities in the north), La Serena-Coquimbo (tourism and services), Temuco (regional center in Araucanía), and Puerto Montt (gateway to Patagonia).
• Current State of Urbanization:

The trend towards urbanization has been ongoing for decades, driven by migration from rural areas in search of economic opportunities and better access to services. This has led to the rapid growth of major cities and the development of extensive suburban areas.

• Disparities between Urban and Rural Areas:

Significant disparities exist between urban and rural areas in terms of access to services (healthcare, education, sanitation), infrastructure, and economic opportunities. Rural areas often face higher rates of poverty and limited development. Even within urban areas, there are stark socioeconomic divides, with significant differences in living conditions and access to resources between affluent neighborhoods and marginalized communities or informal settlements (campamentos). Addressing these territorial inequalities and promoting balanced regional development are ongoing challenges for public policy. Urban planning also faces challenges related to housing shortages, transportation congestion, and environmental sustainability in large cities.

11.4. Religion

Historically, Roman Catholicism has been the dominant religion in Chile since the Spanish colonial era. However, the religious landscape has become increasingly diverse, with a notable growth in Evangelical Protestantism and a significant increase in the number of people identifying as having no religion (agnostic or atheist).

• Catholicism: While still the largest single denomination, the percentage of Chileans identifying as Catholic has declined steadily over recent decades. According to the 2012 census, 66.7% of the population over 15 identified as Catholic, a decrease from 70% in the 2002 census. More recent surveys (e.g., Cadem 2021) show this figure closer to 42-45%. The Catholic Church in Chile has faced challenges, including secularization trends and a series of sexual abuse scandals that have damaged its public image and trust.
• Protestantism: Evangelical Protestant churches, particularly Pentecostalism, have experienced significant growth. In the 2012 census, 16.4% identified as Evangelical/Protestant. Other Protestant denominations include Lutheran, Anglican, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist churches.
• Irreligion: The proportion of the population identifying with no religion, or as atheist or agnostic, has risen substantially. In the 2012 census, this group was 11.5%. More recent surveys indicate this figure has grown to around 35-40%, making it the second-largest group after Catholics.
• Other Religions: Smaller religious communities in Chile include Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, Orthodox Christians, and the Baháʼí Faith. Chile is home to the continental Baháʼí House of Worship for Latin America, located in Santiago.
• Social Role of Religion: Religion has played a significant role in Chilean history and society. The Catholic Church was historically influential in politics and education. During the military dictatorship, some religious organizations, including parts of the Catholic Church (e.g., the Vicariate of Solidarity), played a crucial role in defending human rights and supporting victims of repression. Today, religious institutions continue to be involved in social services, education, and public debate on moral and ethical issues, though their overall influence in a more secularized society has diminished. The Constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and church and state have been officially separate since 1925.

11.5. Languages

The official language of Chile is Spanish. The dialect spoken in the country is known as Chilean Spanish (castellano chileno_{Chilean Castilian}^Spanish), which has distinct pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary compared to other Spanish dialects. Key characteristics include the aspiration or dropping of the /s/ sound at the end of syllables or words, and the use of unique colloquial expressions and slang (chilenismos). Accent variation is relatively minor from north to south but can be more noticeable based on social class.

Several indigenous languages are also spoken in Chile, though most are endangered:

• Mapudungun (or Mapuzugun): The language of the Mapuche people, it is the most widely spoken indigenous language in Chile, with estimates of speakers ranging from 100,000 to 200,000, primarily in the Araucanía and Biobío regions. There are ongoing efforts to revitalize and promote its use.
• Aymara: Spoken by Aymara communities in the northern Andes, near the borders with Peru and Bolivia. The number of speakers in Chile is estimated to be around 20,000 according to some sources, though Ethnologue in 2009 cited 1,000.
• Rapa Nui: The Polynesian language of Easter Island, spoken by a few thousand people.
• Quechua: Spoken by small communities in the northern Andes, influenced by historical Inca presence and contact with Quechua-speaking regions in neighboring countries. Estimated around 8,000 speakers.
• Kawésqar (or Alacalufe) and Yaghan (or Yámana): These are critically endangered languages of the southern Patagonian fjords, with very few remaining speakers.

Other indigenous languages like Kunza (of the Likan Antai/Atacameño people) and Selk'nam are now extinct.

Immigrant languages such as German (in southern Chile, particularly in areas of historical German colonization), Italian, and Croatian are spoken within their respective communities. English is widely taught as a foreign language in schools, and its use is common in business and tourism sectors. The government has promoted English language learning through programs like "English Opens Doors."

11.6. Health

Chile has made significant progress in public health, reflected in high life expectancy and relatively low infant mortality rates compared to other Latin American countries. However, the healthcare system faces challenges related to equity, access, and efficiency.

• Healthcare System Structure: Chile has a mixed public-private healthcare system.
  • Public Sector: The Fondo Nacional de Salud (FONASA) is the public health insurance fund, covering the majority of the population (around 70-80%). FONASA beneficiaries receive care in public hospitals and clinics, which often face issues of long waiting lists and resource constraints. Contributions to FONASA are typically 7% of an employee's taxable income.
  • Private Sector: About 15-20% of the population, generally those with higher incomes, are covered by private health insurance companies called Instituciones de Salud Previsional (ISAPREs). ISAPRE beneficiaries primarily use private clinics and hospitals, which often offer faster access and more amenities but at a higher cost. The ISAPRE system has been criticized for risk selection, high administrative costs, and contributing to healthcare inequality.
• Key Health Indicators:
  • Life expectancy: Around 80 years.
  • Infant mortality rate: Relatively low, around 6-7 per 1,000 live births.
  • Major health concerns include non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes, which are the leading causes of mortality, reflecting trends in developed countries. Obesity rates are also a significant public health issue. Mental health is an area of growing concern and policy focus.
• Social Security System: Chile's pension system is a privatized, defined-contribution system managed by Administradoras de Fondos de Pensiones (AFPs), established during the military dictatorship. While it has contributed to capital market development, it has been widely criticized for providing low pensions for a large segment of retirees, leading to widespread dissatisfaction and calls for reform. This was a major issue in the 2019-2022 social protests. Healthcare for retirees is often covered by FONASA.
• Policies and Challenges:
  • Recent health policies have aimed to strengthen primary healthcare, reduce waiting lists, improve the quality of public hospitals, and address NCDs.
  • Ensuring equitable access to quality healthcare for all citizens, regardless of income or geographic location, remains a primary challenge. Vulnerable populations, including those in rural areas, indigenous communities, and low-income groups, often face greater barriers to accessing care.
  • The high cost of medications and out-of-pocket health expenses are significant concerns for many families.
  • Reforming the ISAPRE system to improve fairness and efficiency, and strengthening the public healthcare sector, are ongoing areas of political debate and policy development, with a focus on achieving greater solidarity and universal health coverage.

11.7. Education

Chile's education system is structured into preschool, primary, secondary, and higher education levels. While it has achieved high literacy rates and expanded access, it faces significant challenges related to quality, equity, and segregation.

• Structure:
  • Preschool Education (Educación parvularia): For children up to age 5. Access has expanded, but quality and coverage vary.
  • Basic Education (Educación básica): Compulsory, typically for ages 6 to 13 (8 years).
  • Secondary Education (Educación media): For ages 14 to 17 (4 years). Students can choose between scientific-humanistic (academic), technical-professional, or artistic tracks. Completion leads to a Licencia de Enseñanza Media.
  • Higher Education (Educación superior): Includes universities (both public, known as Traditional Universities which receive state funding, and private), professional institutes, and technical training centers. Admission to traditional universities is highly competitive, historically based on the Prueba de Selección Universitaria (PSU), now replaced by the PAES (Prueba de Acceso a la Educación Superior).
• Major Universities:
  • University of Chile (Universidad de Chile) and Pontifical Catholic University of Chile (Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile) are the oldest and most prestigious universities.
  • Other important traditional universities include University of Concepción, Federico Santa María Technical University, and University of Santiago. Numerous private universities have emerged since the 1980s.
• Educational Issues and Reforms:
  • Quality and Equity: A major criticism is the stark difference in quality and resources between public (municipal), subsidized private, and elite private schools. This system tends to reproduce social inequalities, as school quality often correlates with students' socioeconomic backgrounds.
  • Segregation: Chile has one of the most socioeconomically segregated education systems among OECD countries.
  • Cost of Higher Education: Higher education is expensive, and student debt is a significant issue. This led to massive student protests in 2006 (Penguin Revolution) and 2011-2013, demanding free, quality public education and an end to profit-making in education.
  • Reforms: In response to protests and public demand, recent governments have implemented reforms aimed at increasing public funding for education, expanding access to free higher education for students from lower-income families (gratuidad), improving teacher training, and strengthening public education. However, the debate over the structure and funding of the education system continues.

  The quality of education and reducing segregation remain central challenges for achieving greater social equity and long-term development in Chile.

11.8. Social issues

Chile, despite its economic progress and stability relative to other Latin American nations, faces significant social issues that have fueled public discontent and calls for structural reforms. These issues are often interconnected and highlight the tension between a market-oriented economic model and demands for greater social equity and democratic deepening.

• Income Inequality: Chile has one of the highest levels of income inequality among OECD countries. Wealth and opportunities are highly concentrated, with a significant gap between the richest and poorest segments of the population. This disparity is a root cause of social frustration and perceptions of unfairness. The Gini coefficient for Chile, while having shown some improvement, remains high.
• Social Conflicts and Protests:
  • The estallido social (social outburst) of 2019-2022 was a watershed moment, revealing deep-seated frustration over inequality, the high cost of living, inadequate public services (pensions, healthcare, education), and a sense of social injustice. These protests were triggered by a subway fare increase but quickly escalated into a nationwide movement demanding fundamental changes.
  • Underlying Causes of Protests:
    • Pension System: The privatized pension system (AFPs) is widely criticized for providing low pensions for the majority of retirees, leading to poverty among the elderly.
    • Healthcare: A two-tiered system (public FONASA and private ISAPREs) results in unequal access to quality care, with long waiting lists in the public sector and high costs in the private sector.
    • Education: High costs, particularly for higher education, and segregation by socioeconomic status are major concerns.
    • Cost of Living: High prices for essential goods and services, coupled with stagnant wages for many, contribute to economic insecurity.
    • Distrust in Institutions: Low public trust in political parties, Congress, the judiciary, and even the police, exacerbated by corruption scandals and a perception that elites are disconnected from ordinary citizens' concerns.
    • Dignity and Respect: A pervasive feeling among protesters was a lack of dignity (dignidad) and respect in how they were treated by the state and economic system.
• Indigenous Peoples' Rights: The ongoing conflict with Mapuche communities in the south, centered on land rights, political autonomy, and cultural recognition, is a major social and political issue. It involves historical grievances, clashes with forestry companies and state forces, and debates over plurinationality and self-determination. (See also Indigenous peoples section).
• Gender Inequality: Despite progress, gender gaps persist in labor market participation, pay, and political representation. Violence against women is also a significant concern.
• Environmental Justice: Conflicts arise over the environmental impact of extractive industries (mining, forestry, aquaculture) and energy projects, particularly in "sacrifice zones" where communities (often low-income or indigenous) bear a disproportionate burden of pollution and environmental degradation.
• Migration: Increased immigration in recent years has brought economic and cultural contributions but also challenges related to integration, access to services, and occasional xenophobia. (See also Immigration section).

Addressing these social issues requires comprehensive policies that promote inclusive growth, strengthen social safety nets, improve public services, ensure human rights, and foster a more equitable and democratic society. The ongoing debate about a new constitution was, in large part, an attempt to address these structural problems.

12.1. Music and dance

Chilean music and dance reflect the country's diverse cultural influences and regional variations.

• Traditional Music and Dance:
  • Cueca: The national dance of Chile, officially recognized in 1979. It is a handkerchief courtship dance with regional variations in style and music. It is particularly prominent during Fiestas Patrias (National Day celebrations).
  • Tonada: A form of traditional Chilean song, not a dance, characterized by a melodic intermediate section and a prominent melody. It often features themes of rural life and love.
  • Andean Music: In the north, music reflects Andean traditions with instruments like the charango, quena, and sicu (panpipes). Styles like the huayno are common.
  • Mapuche Music: Mapuche music is deeply connected to their spiritual beliefs and social rituals, featuring instruments like the kultrun (drum), trutruca (trumpet), and pifilca (flute).
  • Chiloé Music: The music of the Chiloé Archipelago has unique characteristics, often melancholic and influenced by its maritime culture and myths.
• Nueva Canción Movement: A highly influential folk music movement that emerged in the 1950s and flourished in the 1960s and early 1970s. It combined traditional folk elements with socially and politically conscious lyrics, advocating for social justice and reform.
  • Key Figures: Violeta Parra (a foundational figure, composer, and folklorist), Víctor Jara (singer-songwriter and theater director, brutally murdered after the 1973 coup), Inti-Illimani, and Quilapayún. Many of these artists faced persecution or exile during the military dictatorship.
• Contemporary Popular Music:
  • Rock and Pop: Chile has a vibrant rock and pop music scene. Bands like Los Jaivas (known for fusing rock with Andean folk music), Los Prisioneros (influential rock en español band from the 1980s), La Ley, Los Tres, and Los Bunkers have achieved national and international success. More recent artists span various genres including pop, indie rock, and electronic music.
  • Cumbia Chilena: A popular genre adapted from Colombian cumbia, with its own distinct Chilean style.
  • Hip Hop and Urban Music: These genres have a strong following, often addressing social issues.
• Classical Music: Chile has a tradition of classical music, with notable composers like Pedro Humberto Allende and Enrique Soro, and internationally renowned performers such as pianist Claudio Arrau.
• Musicians and Festivals:
  • The Viña del Mar International Song Festival, held annually in February, is one ofthe most important and long-running music festivals in Latin America, attracting artists from across the Spanish-speaking world and beyond.

  Chilean music often reflects the country's history, social struggles, and diverse cultural landscape, from traditional folk roots to contemporary global sounds.

12.2. Literature

Chile has a rich literary tradition, often referred to as a "country of poets" (país de poetas_{country of poets}^Spanish). It has produced two Nobel laureates in Literature and numerous other influential writers.

• Gabriela Mistral (1889-1957): She was the first Latin American to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, awarded in 1945. Her poetry is known for its emotional depth, exploring themes of love, motherhood, nature, and social justice.
• Pablo Neruda (1904-1973): One of the most celebrated poets of the 20th century, Neruda received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1971. His prolific work spans a wide range of styles and themes, including love poems (e.g., Veinte poemas de amor y una canción desesperada), surrealist works, epic historical poetry (e.g., Canto General), and politically engaged verse. His homes in Isla Negra, Valparaíso, and Santiago (La Chascona) are now popular museums.
• Other Notable Poets:
  • Vicente Huidobro (1893-1948): A key figure in the avant-garde movement, founder of Creationism (Creacionismo).
  • Pablo de Rokha (1894-1968): Known for his powerful, often controversial, and socially critical poetry.
  • Nicanor Parra (1914-2018): Creator of "anti-poetry," a colloquial, ironic, and demystifying style of verse. He received the Cervantes Prize in 2011.
  • Gonzalo Rojas (1916-2011): An influential poet whose work explored themes of love, death, and existence. He received the Cervantes Prize in 2003.
  • Enrique Lihn (1929-1988), Jorge Teillier (1935-1996), and Raúl Zurita (born 1950) are other significant contemporary poets.
• Novelists and Prose Writers:
  • Isabel Allende (born 1942): One of the world's best-selling Spanish-language authors, known for novels like The House of the Spirits (La casa de los espíritus) and Paula, often incorporating magical realism and historical themes.
  • José Donoso (1924-1996): A prominent member of the Latin American Boom generation. His novel The Obscene Bird of Night (El obsceno pájaro de la noche) is considered a masterpiece of contemporary literature.
  • Roberto Bolaño (1953-2003): Gained international acclaim posthumously for novels like The Savage Detectives (Los detectives salvajes) and 2666. His work often explores themes of literature, exile, and violence.
  • Manuel Rojas (1896-1973): Known for his social realist novels depicting the lives of working-class Chileans.
  • Francisco Coloane (1910-2002): Famous for his stories and novels set in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
  • Jorge Edwards (1931-2023): Novelist and diplomat, recipient of the Cervantes Prize in 1999.
  • Luis Sepúlveda (1949-2020): Known for his engaging novels and travel writing.
  • Marcela Paz (1902-1985): Creator of the beloved children's book character Papelucho.

  Chilean literature often reflects the country's unique geography, its turbulent history, social inequalities, and the profound experiences of its people, contributing significantly to both Latin American and world literature.

12.3. Cuisine

Chilean cuisine is a reflection of the country's diverse geography and a blend of indigenous (primarily Mapuche and Inca) traditions with Spanish colonial influences, and later contributions from European immigrants (particularly German, Italian, and French). Seafood is abundant along the extensive coastline, while the fertile Central Valley provides a wealth of fruits, vegetables, and agricultural products.

• Representative Traditional Dishes:
  • Empanadas: Savory pastries, typically baked or fried. The most common filling is pino (a mix of minced beef, onions, olives, hard-boiled eggs, and raisins). Seafood, cheese, and other fillings are also popular.
  • Pastel de choclo: A hearty corn pie, similar to a shepherd's pie, with a ground corn topping (choclo) over a filling of pino, chicken, and olives.
  • Humitas: Similar to tamales, made from fresh ground corn, onions, basil, and spices, wrapped in corn husks and boiled or steamed.
  • Cazuela: A comforting stew typically made with beef, chicken, or lamb, along with potatoes, pumpkin, corn on the cob, rice, and various vegetables.
  • Asado: Chilean barbecue, a social event featuring grilled meats like beef, pork, chicken, and sausages (choripán).
  • Curanto: A traditional dish from Chiloé, prepared by cooking meats, sausages, seafood (especially shellfish), potatoes, and potato-based dumplings (milcaos and chapaleles) in a pit lined with hot stones and covered with nalca (Chilean rhubarb) leaves.
  • Sopaipillas: Fried pumpkin fritters, often served with pebre (a spicy salsa) or drizzled with chancaca (a sweet unrefined sugar syrup).
  • Completo: The Chilean version of a hot dog, typically loaded with toppings like chopped tomatoes, avocado (palta), mayonnaise, sauerkraut (chucrut), and various sauces.
  • Pebre: A ubiquitous Chilean condiment made from chopped tomatoes, onions, aji (chili peppers), cilantro, olive oil, and vinegar.
  • Seafood: Conger eel (congrio), hake (merluza), salmon, sea bass (corvina), and a wide variety of shellfish like clams (almejas), mussels (choritos), and abalone-like locos. Caldillo de congrio (conger eel chowder) is a famous dish.
• Ingredients:
  • Corn (choclo), potatoes (Chile is a center of potato biodiversity), tomatoes, avocados (palta), beans, quinoa, and a wide variety of fruits and vegetables.
  • Merkén: A smoked chili pepper spice blend from the Mapuche tradition.
• Beverages:
  • Wine: Chile is a world-renowned wine producer, with varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon, Carmenere (Chile's signature grape), Merlot, Sauvignon Blanc, and Chardonnay.
  • Pisco: A grape brandy, the base for the popular Pisco Sour cocktail. Chile and Peru both claim pisco as their national drink.
  • Chicha: A traditional fermented beverage, often made from grapes or apples.
  • Mote con huesillo: A popular non-alcoholic summer drink made from husked wheat (mote) and dried peaches (huesillos) cooked in a sweet, clear liquid, often flavored with cinnamon.
  • Beer (Cerveza): Craft beer has become increasingly popular.
• Food Culture: Meals are often family-oriented. Once (pronounced ON-seh) is a traditional late afternoon tea time, similar to British high tea, often replacing a heavy dinner. It typically includes tea or coffee, bread, cheese, cold cuts, avocado, and pastries.

Chilean cuisine emphasizes fresh ingredients and hearty, flavorful dishes that reflect its cultural heritage and geographical bounty.

12.4. Folklore and mythology

Chilean folklore and mythology are rich and varied, drawing from indigenous beliefs (particularly Mapuche and Chilote), Spanish colonial influences, and regional oral traditions.

• Mapuche Mythology and Folklore:
  • Features a complex cosmology with deities like Ngenechen (the supreme creator) and various spirits (ngen) that inhabit nature.
  • Important figures include Pillan (powerful spirits of volcanoes and thunder), and legendary heroes and ancestors.
  • Oral traditions, including epic poems (epew) and sacred songs (ülkantun), transmit knowledge, history, and values.
  • The Machi (shaman) plays a crucial role as a spiritual leader, healer, and mediator with the spirit world.
• Chilote Mythology (from the Chiloé Archipelago):
  • One of the most distinctive and well-known bodies of Chilean folklore.
  • Characterized by a unique cast of mythical creatures and legends, heavily influenced by the archipelago's maritime environment and isolation.
  • Notable beings include:
    • Trauco: A dwarf-like creature said to seduce young women.
    • Fiura: A malevolent female creature associated with the Trauco.
    • Pincoya: A benevolent sea spirit who influences the abundance of fish and shellfish.
    • Caleuche: A ghost ship that appears at night, crewed by drowned sailors.
    • Invunche: A grotesque, deformed creature guarding the lairs of sorcerers (brujos).
    • Chilote Basilisk: A creature that can kill with its gaze.
• Andean Folklore (Northern Chile):
  • Influenced by Inca and other pre-Columbian Andean cultures.
  • Myths related to mountains (apus), the earth (Pachamama), and celestial bodies.
  • Festivals like Fiesta de La Tirana incorporate indigenous and Catholic elements, featuring colorful dances like the Diablada.
• Central Chilean Folklore:
  • Often revolves around rural life, cowboys (huasos), and legends of devils, witches, and hidden treasures.
  • Tales of El Culebrón (a mythical serpent associated with wealth) and the Añañuca (a legendary flower).
• Patagonian Folklore:
  • Reflects the harsh environment and the experiences of pioneers and indigenous groups like the Tehuelche, Selk'nam, and Kawésqar.
  • Legends of giants, mythical animals, and spirits of the mountains and sea.
• Urban Legends: Modern Chilean cities also have their own urban legends and contemporary folklore.

These traditions are kept alive through storytelling, festivals, music, dance, and art, forming an integral part of Chile's cultural identity. Many elements of folklore are region-specific, highlighting the country's diverse cultural tapestry.

12.5. Sports

Sports play a significant role in Chilean culture, with football (soccer) being the most popular.

• Football (Soccer):
  • Overwhelmingly the most followed sport. The Chile national football team has a passionate fanbase.
  • Achievements: Chile hosted the 1962 FIFA World Cup and finished third. They won the Copa América in 2015 (as hosts) and the Copa América Centenario in 2016, defeating Argentina in the final on both occasions. They also achieved a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics.
  • Domestic League: The Chilean Primera División is the top professional league. Major clubs include Colo-Colo, Universidad de Chile, and Universidad Católica. Colo-Colo is the only Chilean club to have won the Copa Libertadores (1991).
  • Notable Players: Chile has produced internationally recognized players like Elías Figueroa, Iván Zamorano, Marcelo Salas, Alexis Sánchez, and Arturo Vidal.
• Tennis:
  • Chile's most successful sport in terms of international individual and team achievements.
  • Achievements: The national team won the World Team Cup in 2003 and 2004 and reached the Davis Cup final in 1976. At the 2004 Summer Olympics, Chile won gold in men's doubles (Nicolás Massú and Fernando González) and gold (Massú) and bronze (González) in men's singles.
  • Notable Players: Marcelo Ríos became the first Latin American man to reach the ATP No. 1 singles ranking (1998). Anita Lizana won the US Championships (now US Open) in 1937. Luis Ayala was a two-time French Championships runner-up.
• Rodeo:
  • Considered the national sport of Chile, officially declared in 1962. It is particularly popular in rural areas of central and southern Chile. It involves a team of two riders (huasos) on horseback trying to pin a calf against cushioned walls of a crescent-shaped arena (medialuna).
• Other Sports:
  • Basketball: Has a following, particularly in southern Chile. Chile hosted the 1959 FIBA World Championship (finishing third) and the 1953 FIBA World Championship for Women (finishing second).
  • Skiing and Snowboarding: Popular in the Andean ski resorts near Santiago (e.g., Valle Nevado, Portillo, La Parva) and in southern centers.
  • Surfing: Practiced along the coast, with towns like Pichilemu known for their excellent waves.
  • Polo: Chile has a strong tradition in polo, having won the World Polo Championship in 2008 and 2015.
  • Athletics, Boxing, Equestrian Sports: Chile has achieved Olympic medals in these disciplines.
  • Palin (or Chueca): A traditional Mapuche sport similar to hockey.
  • Motorsports: The Dakar Rally was hosted in Chile (and other South American countries) for several years.

  Chileans are passionate sports fans, and major national team achievements are widely celebrated. The government and sports federations work to promote both high-performance sports and recreational activities.

12.6. World Heritage Sites

Chile is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, recognized for their outstanding cultural or natural significance:

• Rapa Nui National Park (Inscribed 1995): Located on Easter Island (Rapa Nui) in the Pacific Ocean, this site is famous for its monumental stone statues called Moai, created by the early Rapa Nui people. It represents a unique Polynesian cultural phenomenon.
• Churches of Chiloé (Inscribed 2000): A group of 16 wooden churches on the Chiloé Archipelago, dating from the 17th to 19th centuries. They represent a unique form of ecclesiastical wooden architecture resulting from the fusion of European Jesuit culture and indigenous traditions and skills, adapted to the specific climate and materials of the islands.
• Historic Quarter of the Seaport City of Valparaíso (Inscribed 2003): This site recognizes the unique urban character and architecture of Valparaíso, a major seaport in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It is known for its colorful hillside houses, vernacular building styles, early industrial infrastructure, and a vibrant cultural life, including funicular elevators (ascensores).
• Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works (Inscribed 2005): Located in the Atacama Desert, these two former saltpeter (nitrate) mining towns represent the historical importance of the nitrate industry in Chile during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The site preserves the industrial facilities, company towns, and evidence of the unique culture (pampino) that developed around this industry. (Also on the List of World Heritage in Danger since 2005 due to fragility).
• Sewell (Inscribed 2006): An early 20th-century company town built on the slopes of the Andes to house workers of El Teniente, the world's largest underground copper mine. Its unique architecture, adapted to the mountainous terrain, and its history as a significant mining community contribute to its outstanding universal value.
• Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System (Inscribed 2014): A transnational serial nomination shared with Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. This extensive Inca communication, trade, and defense network of roads covers more than 19 K mile ^{(30.00 K km)}. Chilean sections include important archaeological sites and segments of the ancient road system in the Andes.

These sites highlight Chile's diverse cultural and natural heritage, from ancient Polynesian mysteries and unique colonial religious architecture to industrial-era landscapes and vast pre-Columbian engineering feats. The Cultural Heritage Day (Día del Patrimonio Cultural_{Cultural Heritage Day}^Spanish), established in 1999 and celebrated annually in May, aims to honor and promote awareness of Chile's rich cultural heritage.